University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH TOPIC: LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION, PRACTICE AND ATTITUDE IN GHANAIAN CLASSROOMS, A CASE STUDY OF THREE SELECTED SCHOOLS IN THE NINGO PRAMPRAM DISTRICT. CHRISTIANA ATA ANIM 2023 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH TOPIC: LANGUAGE POLICY IN EDUCATION, PRACTISE AND ATTITUDE IN GHANAIAN CLASSROOMS, A CASE STUDY OF THREE SELECTED SCHOOLS IN THE NINGO PRAMPRAM DISTRICT. CHRISTIANA ATA ANIM (10440198) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF AN MPHIL ENGLISH DEGREE JANUARY, 2023 ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis, except the cited references and sources of data, is the result of my original research and that no part of it has been presented for another degree in this university or elsewhere. ……………………………………….. Date: January 24, 2023. Christiana Ata Anim (10440198) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to God Almighty. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to God Almighty for His provision and gift of life. My profound gratitude goes to my supervisors: Prof. John F. Wiredu and Prof. Gladys Nyarko Ansah, for their guidance and direction. Your patience has made this possible. Finally, to my husband, family, and friends whose motivation and support have made me come this far. God richly bless you all. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS MOI………................................................................Medium of Instruction NALAP……………………………………………..National Literacy Acceleration Programme L1……………………………………………………First Language L2……………………………………………………………………………Second Language GL…………………………………………………...Ghanaian Language ONPA………………………………………………..Old Ningo Presby A ONDA……………………………………………….Old Ningo D/A A ONDB………………………………………………..Old Ningo D/A B MTBE………………………………………………...Mother Tongue-Based Education PRP…………………………………………………...Primary Reading Programme. NPE…………………………………………………...National Policy on Education GES……………………………………………………Ghana Education Service PTA……………………………………………………Parents-Teachers Association v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT Page DECLARATION ........................................................................................................................ i CERTIFICATION...................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ..........................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................... x 1.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Problem................................................................................................................. 3 1.2 Research Questions .............................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Significance of the study ...................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Scope of the study ................................................................................................................ 4 1.5 Organisation of the Study..................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER TWO ....................................................................................................................... 6 LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................................... 6 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Implementing Ghana’s language-in- education policy in the multilingual classroom. ....... 6 2.2 Mother Tongue education .................................................................................................. 14 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Bilingual education ............................................................................................................ 22 2.4 Challenges of Bilingual Education..................................................................................... 26 2.5 Language Attitudes ............................................................................................................ 28 2. 6 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 32 2.7 Challenges of translanguaging in the classroom ................................................................ 39 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................. 40 METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................................... 40 3.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 40 3.1 Research Design ................................................................................................................. 40 3.2 Population, Sample size, and Sampling technique............................................................. 41 3.2.1 Sampling Technique........................................................................................................ 41 3.3 Instruments for Data Collection ......................................................................................... 42 3.3.1 Recording of classroom lesson delivery ......................................................................... 42 3.3.2 Interviews ........................................................................................................................ 43 3.4. Data Analysis .................................................................................................................... 43 3.5 Ethical Considerations. ...................................................................................................... 44 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................... 46 DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................ 46 4.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 46 4.1 Demographic Information of the Respondents .................................................................. 47 4.1.1. Demographic information on pupils used in the study .................................................. 48 4.2.1 Demographic information on Parents used in the study; ................................................ 50 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Discussion of Findings ....................................................................................................... 50 4.3. Medium of instruction at the various schools ................................................................... 51 4.5 Students' preference for language instruction. ................................................................... 59 4.6.2. Parents’ preference of English as a medium of instruction ........................................... 64 4.6.3 Parent’s awareness of the relevance of the language policy ........................................... 66 4.7 The Influence of the Parents’ Attitudes on the Pupils’ Choice of Medium of Instruction.68 4.8 Challenges Facing the Language Policy as envisaged in the study ................................... 70 4.9 Effective implementation of the language policy .............................................................. 71 4.10 Chapter Summary............................................................................................................. 72 CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................................... 74 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION ............................................... 74 5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 74 5.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 75 5.3 Recommendation for policymakers and Ghana Education Service .............................. 76 5.4 Suggestion for further studies ....................................................................................... 77 REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 79 APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................... 91 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Language policies in Ghana from colonial days to date…………………..9 Table 4.1: demographic information on pupils used in the study………………….47 Table 4.2: demographic information on parents used in the study…………………49 Table 4.3: Medium of instructions at the schools and pupils’ L1…………………..51 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT In Ghana, most teachers find it difficult to teach at lower primary schools due to the challenge of dealing with diverse linguistic backgrounds of the pupils. This study examines Ghana’s language – in – education policy vis-à-vis the linguistic practices in the classrooms and the attitudes of parents toward these practices. Three schools in the Ningo - Prampram District are selected for the study – Old Ningo Presby ‘A’, Old Ningo D/A ‘A’, and Old Ningo D/A ‘B’. In all, 12 participants are used in the study. They consist of six pupils (2 pupils from each school) and six parents respectively. Teaching in the classrooms is observed and audio recorded. Interviews (semi-structured) are conducted with both parents and pupils. The results show that there is a high level of linguistic diversity among both teachers and pupils in the selected schools. In many instances, some pupils and teachers do not understand the L1 of the locality which is expected to be used as the medium of instruction at that level, according to the language – in – education policy. In view of this, teachers use other languages that are available in their lesson deliveries. As a result of diverse linguistic backgrounds of pupils, English is becoming the major medium of instruction. The findings also reveal that parents are oblivious to the language – in – education policy vis-à-vis the practices in the classrooms. Again, most parents prefer English to be used for lessons in schools more than the dominant language. The research therefore, advocates for the use of translanguaging pedagogical strategies as a solution to augment the language - in - education policy in multilingual classrooms, especially, at the lower primary. Again, teachers posted to the lower primary must have the capacity to use the L1 of the area. Educational policy planners should take a second look at language in education policy to suit and address the multilingual situations in the classrooms. x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 Introduction Multilingualism in African countries poses many challenges for language planners, language policymakers, and educators due to the level of linguistic diversity in these countries. Implementation of a language policy in a heterogeneous society like Ghana is difficult. Ouadraogo (2000, p. 89) asserts that “education and language issues are very complex in Africa because of the multi-ethnic and multi-lingual situation”. It becomes even more serious when the national language of that country is not a local language. In a complex situation like this, there should be a policy guiding the use of language in the country, especially, in the educational institutions. A language policy is an ideal decision to ensure which language to use, when, where, who, and at what stage (age level). Shohamy (2006, 47 –48) describes language policy as the “primary mechanism for manipulating and imposing language behaviours as it relates to decisions about languages and their uses in education and society”. Shohamy (2006) again, states that “through language policy, decisions are made regarding the preferred languages to be used, where, when and by whom”. The language to be used in education is very crucial to the development of a nation. Many researchers advocate the usage of indigenous languages (L1) at the early stage of a child’s lower primary education. Because it is paramount to the success of the child in education and life generally. For instance, UNESCO (1953, 2008, and 2016) encourages mother-tongue education at an early stage because it is believed to enhance pupils’ learning. A country like Ghana has many languages. There is no definite number of local languages in Ghana because different figures are stated by different scholars. Kropp-Dakubu et al. (1988) report forty-four languages while Simons & Fennig (2018) also say, seventy-three. The situation appears to have become a barrier to language planning and policy in Ghana. For instance, the country still battles with which 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh language to adopt as the language of instruction in the schools, especially, at the lower primary. Even though, several policies have been implemented since the colonial period; it appears these policies have not solved the language needs of the Ghanaian populace, precisely in education. Currently, education policy concerning language advocates a system where the local language of the schools should be used as the language of instruction at the lower primary and English (L2) is taught as a subject. Then, the L2 takes over from upper primary as the medium of instruction and the L1 is taught as a subject. This simply means the English Language is expected to take over from primary 4 with the local language being taught as a subject. This policy has brought about the need for some indigenous languages to be used in the school system. Therefore, to give prominence to the local languages, previous governments selected nine (9) out of the numerous indigenous languages to be taught in Ghanaian schools. These comprise: Akan (Asante Twi, Akuapem Twi, Fante), Dagaare, Dagbani, Ga, Gonja, Guruni, Ewe, Kasem, and Nzema. Some of these languages are used for informal functions, but none of these local languages has been able to acquire the prestige that is accorded English Language. The English language serves a lot of purposes in Ghana. It is used in education, nearly, the sole language of the print media, democratic practice, and governance, among others (Adika, 2012). Several scholars advocate for the adoption of local languages as the language of instruction in the school systems because they believe that, learning is more effective when it is done in the child’s L1 or primary language. That is, children learn and understand better when the language of instruction is in their mother tongue, hence, there is a need for a language policy that will allow the use of L1 as the language of instruction at basic schools. Aside from the inconsistency in the language policy - in - education, one should also consider how well the language policy is being implemented in the various schools, what the practices in the classrooms are, and what the attitudes of parents towards what is being practiced are. The attitudes of parents are vital 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh because parents are stakeholders in education and should also be concerned about the language policies being used in schools. It is in this vein that, this study investigates the practiced language policy in three selected schools and the attitudes of parents toward what is practiced. 1.1 Research Problem The language - in – education policy states that indigenous languages should be adopted as the languages of instruction from kindergarten one (KG1) to Basic three (B3), with English being taught as a subject. Ghana Statistical Service (2014), indicates in the 2010 Population and Housing Census that, there is a rapid increase in rural -urban migration to the nation’s capital - Accra as well as the other regional capitals such as Kumasi, Koforidua, etc. This makes most of the classroom multilingual as works by Ansah (2014) and Anyidoho (2018) indicate. Ningo –Prampram is an urban community in the Greater Accra Region. The community may be described as housing a complex multilingual population. The indigenous populations are Dangmes. However, because of its proximity to Accra, Ashaiman, and Tema, it attracts a lot of migrants who are seeking greener pastures from rural Ghana and even outside Ghana. Again, its proximity to Central University College, a privately owned tertiary institution has also drawn a lot of people for example, faculty, students, and staff as well as businesses, to the area. All these people come into the community from diverse linguistic backgrounds. Given the complexity of ethnolinguistic diversity among the populations of Prampram, the thought that the basic classrooms in this community are likely to be highly multilingual may not be questionable. However, how the country’s current language – in – education policy is implemented in this space is a question that needs to be investigated. Consequently, this study tries to find answers to these overarching questions. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Research Questions The study aims to provide answers to the questions below: 1. How is Ghana’s current language – in – education policy implemented in basic classrooms in Ningo-Prampram? 1a. What kind of language policy is being practiced or has been adopted by teachers in teaching pupils in the classroom? 2. What attitudes do parents have towards the language policies currently in operation in the classroom? 1.3 Significance of the study The findings would provide appreciated lessons that seek to help policymakers, educators, and schools to consider the complexities of multilingual classrooms. The findings from the research may also help the Ghana Education Service in posting teachers to schools bearing in mind the kind of local language in that particular school, not forgetting the linguistic repertoire of the teachers (i.e., the language variety that the teachers can understand, speak, read or write) as well their competence to handle that particular local language. Additionally, the findings of this study would serve as reference material for researchers (sociolinguists) who may be interested in investigating language policy, planning, and its implementation. 1.4 Scope of the study The essence of the research focuses on language - in - education policy, practice, and attitude in Ghanaian classrooms. The study focuses on three selected schools in the Ningo Prampram District of the Greater Accra Region. This is because these schools have pupils with diverse linguistic backgrounds. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Organisation of the Study The research is organized into five chapters. The first chapter covers the background of the study, the research problem, the research questions, the significance of the study, and scope of the study, and the organisation of the study. Chapter two deals with the literature review and the conceptual framework. Chapter three focuses on the methodology. Chapter four presents the data, its analysis, and findings and finally, Chapter five provides the summary, conclusion, and recommendations. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter reviews related literature and other researches undertaken on the topic. 2.1 Implementing Ghana’s language-in- education policy in the multilingual classroom. As early as the 15th century, schools were established in the Gold Coast (current Ghana) by European foreigners. These schools did not provide education to the ordinary indigenous people, but rather, the children of wealthy African merchants, some important chiefs, and Mulatto children of European settlers (Ansah, 2014). The language of instruction depended on the Europeans that constituted the ruling class at that time. There was, therefore, no particular policy on the language of instruction; the Dutch taught in Dutch, the Portuguese used Portuguese, the Danes used Danish, and the English used English (Owu-Ewie, 2006). It was not until the 17th century that schools were established along trading posts and the indigenes started to receive English education; however, only a small number of people went to school, and schools were often discontinued, rendering the role of English irrelevant (Huber, 2008). In 1882, the government and the Wesleyan schools used English, the Basel mission used Twi and Bremen used Ewe as the language of instruction in their schools. However, in 1925, the first- ever government language-in-education policy was made under the rule of Sir Gordon Guggisberg. This policy was bilingual and stipulated the use of the mother tongue (Akan, Ewe, Ga, Nzema) from primary one to three in schools and English from primary 4 to 6. In 1951, the Government’s ‘Accelerated Development Plan’ caused a high increase in the establishment of schools throughout the country and changed the three-year mother tongue education policy to a one-year-only policy (primary 1) and English afterward. English was 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh established as the language of government, administration, jurisdiction and education by the colonial masters. From 1957 to 1966, an ‘English-only policy’ was passed, where the mother tongue was completely removed as the language of instruction and was replaced with English in primary schools. The first military government of Ghana (1967-1969) returned to the 1951 one-year mother tongue policy. However, in 1970, the return of Civilian rule brought back the 1925 three-year mother tongue language-in-education policy, where the L1 was used from primary one to three. In 1972, a foreign language - French, was introduced to the basic curriculum. In 1974, even though the three-year mother tongue policy was not changed, some amendments were made. Some languages were selected on the basis that at least one of them was dominant in every locality. These languages included Ga, Dangme, Twi, Fante, Ewe, Kasem, Dagbani, Dagaare, and Gonja. They were called ‘mother tongues/Ghanaian languages’ and “Languages of locality’. In May 2002, the National Patriotic Party (NPP) government brought a total change in Ghana’s language-in-education policy. An English-only policy was passed as the medium of instruction from basic schools to tertiary schools. The policy abolished the use of the Ghanaian language as the medium of instruction in schools. The government defended the 2002 policy, indicating that a lot of teachers abused the previous policy and refrained from using English at all in teaching even after primary six, which was the major cause of a lot of student’s inabilities to be proficient in English at the senior level. This new policy stirred up heated arguments among Ghanaians. Some Ghanaians supported the policy because it will curb the issue of successive failure in academics on the part of students, especially those in rural areas since all exams were conducted in English. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Others also believed that it promoted “monolingual ideology in a multilingual classroom” and indicated a lack of “absolute black freedom”. Because of the heated arguments caused by the 2002 policy, the NPP-led government in 2007 went back to the 1925 three-year mother tongue policy. Ministry of Education Science and Sports, teaching syllabus for English Language (CRDD) (2012) posits that: “The medium of instruction in kindergarten and lower primary will be a Ghanaian Language and English, where necessary; English to be the medium of instruction from Primary 4 in the school system. This means that success in education at all levels depends, to a very large extent, on the individual’s proficiency in the language”. One major modification in the 2007 policy was the exclusion of Ghanaian languages as compulsory subjects at the secondary school level and the inclusion of pre-primary school pupils. This made room for children to formally get familiar with their L1 at an early age. There were, however, some issues with the policy. For instance, not all teachers were proficient enough in the Ghanaian language of the locality they were teaching in, and in most cases, especially, in urban areas, the English language was used instead of the Ghanaian Language because of the complex linguistic diversity among urban populations. This made the three-year mother tongue policy just theoretical and impractical. As part of the efforts to ensure the linguistic right of the people, Kay Leherr Education Development Center (2009), The Ministry of Education in collaboration with USAID (started in 2010), introduced the National Literacy and Acceleration Programme (NALAP), which recommended the percentages or ratio of the Ghanaian Language and English to be used at each level in lower primary. It specified that in Kindergartens (KG) 1 and 2, which were the child’s first school experience, 90% of teaching should be mainly done in the Ghanaian Language (GL) - 10% in English. As the child progressed to class 1, the percentage of English then increased a bit by 20%, making the GL 80%. In class 2 and class 3, the two languages of instruction then became even: 50% in English and 50% in Ghanaian Language. This was to help prepare the child for the upper primary 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh English-only medium of instruction. This may also be because changing completely from one language to a new language of instruction would make it difficult for the child to adapt to the method and may cause a fall in his or her performance. It is believed that when the child is taught at these reasonable percentages, it helped that child to transcend to the complete English medium of instruction successfully. The Table below gives a summary of the language policies from 1925 to date. Table 2.1: Language Policies in Ghana from colonial days to date. ERA Primary 1 Primary 2 Primary 3 Primary 4 Reforms and Above 1529-1925 English English English English NONE Castle schools Missionary GL GL GL English NONE Schools 1925-1951 GL GL GL English GL/Mother (British tongue: Akan, Rule) Ewe, Ga and Nzema 1951-1955 GL English English English Increase in schools, (British Primary Rule) leavers made teachers 1956-1966 English English English English (Indep 1957) 1967-1969 GL English English English 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1970-1973 GL GL GL English Introduction +French of French, Another GL to be taught in addition to the child’s L1 1974-2002 GL GL GL English GL increased to 9 and made compulsory courses to Secondary School 2002-2007 English English English English Same 2007-present GL GL GL English No GL in Secondary. School, L1 from KG, NALAP NALAP English/GL English/GL English/GL English/GL KG 20:80 50:50 50:50 50:50 English/GL English: GL (%) 10:90 Source: Owu-Ewie (2006) 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh MP KEY GL. Ghanaian Language NALAP. National Literacy Accelerated Programme Nigeria is another example of a multilingual state, where the language in education policy indicates explicitly that at early childhood (pre-primary) the L1 shall be the medium of instruction and from the fourth year of basic education, the medium of instruction shall be the English language while the language of the immediate environment of the three Nigerian languages (Hausa, Igbo, Yoruba) and French shall be taught as subjects (Olagbaju, 2014). The provision of the National Policy on Education (2004), Section 4, Paragraph 19 (e) and (f) cited as in Ibrahim (2016) “confirms that the multilingual education is in existence: The medium of instruction in the primary school shall be the language of the environment for the first three years. During this period, English shall be taught as a subject from the fourth year, English shall progressively be used as a medium of instruction and the language of the immediate environment and French shall be taught as subjects”. The language in education policy in Ghana is similar to that of Nigeria. However, the latter seems to be more complex in the sense that, the students must learn English as the official language, and one of the three national languages. The question that comes to mind is, are these national languages the mother tongue of every Nigeria child? This is the reason why every country’s language policy has a great impact on the choice and use of that language by the individuals. It is rather heart breaking to learn that, the implementation of the language policy in these countries especially, Ghana has not lived up to expectations. This is because Ghana Education Service is the institution responsible for posting teachers. Most of the time, most teachers (especially at basic schools) are posted to places where they cannot speak the language of the indigenes. To compound the situation, these teachers are given lower primary to handle and as a result, have no option but to use the L2 or any other language that is available as the medium of instruction in the 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh classroom. Ansah (2014) has argued that “the failure in the implementation of the language in education policies is attributable to the constant fluctuations in the language in education policy which in turn may also be as a result of the policy being inadequate in addressing the sociolinguistic realities of a highly multi-ethnic community where people have multilingual identities rather than the ethnolinguistic identities”. Other studies - Owu-Ewie (2006); Anyidoho (2018) and many others have also admitted that there are challenges facing the implementation of the language in education policy. These challenges are characterized by the changes in the language policy, teacher deployment, lack of Ghanaian language materials for teaching, lack of proper planning and implementation, negative attitudes towards the language in education policy (Guerini, 2008), and the multilingual nature of Ghana and its classrooms. In Nigeria, the National Policy on Education (2004), posits that “the use of the child’s mother tongue as a medium of instruction for the first three years of basic education is ideal, however, numerous factors have contributed to the low attainment of the educating goals of basic education in Nigeria”. These include poor policy and implementation Okeke et al (1985) and Aghenta (1984), teacher Quality and Curriculum Materials Ibrahim (2016), and multilingual challenges as indicated by Gbenedio (1990) who discovered that “only about 65 standardized orthographies and only three major languages of Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba have documented efforts of teacher education. In this case, the challenge is the identification, development, and adoption of about five hundred (500) languages for basic education in the country. Any attempt to compress similar languages in a particular region to promote one that would represent the cultural area would meet with opposition and complaint about marginalization from the communities, even when the majority of languages don’t have standard orthographies”. Ogunbiyi (2008) emphasizes that “despite the provisions of the National Policy on Education and the position of the government on the roles assigned to the English language and indigenous languages in education, some schools still downgrade Nigerian languages to the 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh background and promote the teaching of English language, most especially, the private schools”. This corroborates the findings of Aghenta (1984) who states that “for education to achieve all ends, it has to be carefully planned. The plan must take into consideration the needs of the society; the political, socio-cultural, economic, military, scientific, and technological realities of the environment are very important to its survival”. From all these pockets of thought, it is regrettable to say that the implementation of the language in education policy is handicapped, in that; the policy itself has not adequately addressed the multilingual situations in Ghanaian classrooms. For instance, the findings reveal that some teachers and pupils could not comprehend the dominant language as the medium of instruction and therefore, resort to the use of English and other languages during instruction. This poses a challenge to the implementation of language in education policy. A cursory look at works done in line with the language policy and the practises in the classrooms have much to say. Markin-Yankah (1999) cited in Anyidoho (2018) looked at the implementation of the 1971 policy (that is; L1 as the language of instruction at the lower primary) “in the Shama-Ahanta East District of the Western Region of Ghana. Her subjects were 76 Lower Primary and 76 Upper Primary teachers. She found that though 57% of P1 – P3 teachers involved in the study reported native competence in the dominant local language - Fante and 34% also reported average and above average proficiency in Fante, only 32.9% taught their lessons in Fante. The findings showed that some of the teachers do not teach in Fante with the reason that they were implementing the English-medium policy of the Ministry of Education. Meanwhile, the above assertion is contradictory to the edicts of the language policy for lower primary. Others also claimed the students were already eloquent in Fante and therefore, there was no need to ‘waste precious time to study or use it in teaching’. Again, the study also revealed that teachers preferred that the medium of instruction should be changed to 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh English, the official language of the country and which, in their view, was also the language of all school examinations as well as of upward social and economic mobility”. In this finding, it was the parents rather who asserted that their wards were already eloquent in the L1 hence there was no need for the use of the L1 as a medium of instruction rather, English should be used to teach them, unlike the other finding where the teachers are those asserting that English should be used as medium instruction. This study and other works by Owu-Ewie (2006); Anyidoho (2018); Ansah (2014) and, Markin-Yankah (1999) are relevant to the current study because it borders on the language policy and its practicalities in the classrooms. However, not much premium is placed on the study of parents’ attitudes toward what is practiced at the lower primary in Ghanaian classrooms. Therefore, the current study is geared toward language in education policy, practices, and parents’ attitudes to what is practiced at the lower primary. This would bring to light, the problems faced by pupils and teachers in Ghana, especially in the towns and cities. Again, the study will create awareness among policy planners and other stakeholders of education on parents’ preferences for the medium of instruction in the various schools. This will inform the decisions policy makers will take concerning which language to use as a medium of instruction at the basic schools. 2.2 Mother Tongue education Mother's tongue has been defined by many scholars. Skutnabb-Kangas (1984; 2000) cited in Desai (2012) also avers that the definition of mother tongue is based on the criterion used in defining it. If the definition of mother tongue is based on “origin”, then it means “the language one learned first (the language one has established the first using-lasting verbal contacts in)”. Secondly, “when the definition is hinged on “identification”, then it can be defined as in the language one identifies with/as a native speaker by others”. The submission of Skutnabb- 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kangas (2000) is absolutely in line with that of Salazar (2013), who says, “defining mother tongue is not only an academic exercise- it is necessary also for practical purposes such as census, right to services which are given based on mother tongue, assessment of linguistic qualification, jobs, etc. She again notes that the definition of mother tongue she provides may not apply in a multilingual context”. As a result, it will be difficult to define mother tongue using the origin criterion, especially where parents and children do not have the same story. She further explains, “learners are supposed to learn their mother tongue throughout basic education. This is to learn more about how to speak and write in different languages because the mother tongue helps them absorb other languages faster and understand content subjects easier. Besides, there is indeed an overwhelming evidence that children learn best in and through their mother tongues”. Studies from the Rutu Foundation (2020), reveals that “millions of children around the world received education in different languages. This different language is mostly or usually the dominant language of the country they live in. In the case of former colonies, this may not be the language spoken in the community but the language of the former colonial power, for example, English, French, Arabic, Dutch, and Spanish”. To make learning the mother tongue easy and more interesting, it is imperative to engage and encourage children to express themselves in their mother tongue because this is an “effective way to build language experience” (McLaughlin, 1984) and (Cuevas, 1996). A study conducted by the Zambian Ministry of Education when it initiated a language policy - the Zambian Primary Reading Programme (PRP), in 2000, recommends that “if literacy education is given special attention and pedagogical support in the mother tongue (L1) as the language of instruction, competences in reading and writing may rise considerably. This will result from encouraging pupils to read and write initially in their local familiar languages; 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which successfully will help them transfer their reading skills to the English language. This approach proved effective for learning literacy; as reading and writing levels of the children in the first year will improve tremendously”. Hence, there is a need for mother tongue education. Mother tongue in education as avers by Oliver (2009) is like “a foundation of any content subjects and second or third language learning”. Bamberger-Hayim (2018) also identified a unique method of using the mother tongue in teaching English. Thus, learners are made to “examine identical sentences in English and their mother tongue and identify the differences and similarities in sentence structure; for example, the use of plurals, tenses, articles, etc”. This according to her gives the children an in-depth understanding of English grammar as they work out their own rules. As a result, basic communication can take up to two years to develop whereas academic proficiency can take up to seven years. Another insight offered is the celebration of language. According to her, celebrating a language “is a way to encourage tolerance, open-mindedness, and an understanding of different cultures around the world”. This makes students feel respected and valued. In addition to the above, Desai (2012), notes in his findings that, to undertake mother tongue education, teachers must observe the following: first, pupils at schools “are not ready to switch to the English Language as a medium at the beginning of Grade 4. Second, pupils need to develop their cognitive academic language proficiency in their community so that they can use their mother tongue for learning. For this to happen, pupils need to be exposed to academic texts in their mother tongue. Third, pupils need to be exposed to regular engagement in both their mother tongue and English. Reading according to him involves much more than decoding. Fourth, pupils need frequent and regular opportunities to write various kinds of texts to develop their productive skills in both their mother tongue and English”. It is essential to note that mother tongue plays numerous significant roles in the education of children. Rutu foundation 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2020), maintains that, “there are many benefits associated with an education that takes into account children’s mother tongue. These include; children learning better and faster in a language they can understand (preventing delays in learning), they enjoy school more and they feel more at home. In addition, pupils tend to show increased self-esteem, and parents’ participation is increased. Parents can help with homework and can participate in school activities”. The study by the Rutu foundation (2020) further reveals that, “when children take advantage of their multilingualism, they also enjoy the higher socioeconomic status, including higher earnings. On average, the schools perform better, reporting less repetition and this makes students stay in school longer”. UNESCO (1953) also “considers mother tongue as a tool which every human being relies on for learning and self-expression”. It is also the basis of thought (Diaz & Perez, 2015). One of the fundamental principles of education is that learning should proceed from the known to the unknown as learners’ prior knowledge is best expressed through the language they are more at home with. Cook's (2001) studies on cognitive processing show that “even advanced second language learners are less efficient in absorbing information from the second language L2 than from the first language (L1). Hence, a mother tongue remains relevant even when a second language has been learned”. Pinnock & Vijayakumar (2009) opine that “several analyses of mother tongue-based bi/multilingual education programme around the world have shown dramatically increased academic achievements” United Nations (2016), maintains that “teaching through the mother tongue is also said to enhance the cognitive development of critical thinking skills and results in increased learning, access and equity, improved learning outcomes, lower overall costs and reduced chances of repetition and dropping out of school”. Benson, (2004); Njoroge & Gathigia, (2011) also say, “it enables learners to have a strong sense of confidence, self-esteem, motivation, initiative as well as creativity and could facilitate the learning of additional languages”. Ball, (2010) 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh maintains that “these are possible because proficiency in the language of instruction enhances active participation in the learning process. Studying the mother tongue, as a subject, enables students to better learn their native cultural heritage since cultures are preserved and transmitted through the language spoken by each community”. Bamberger-Hayim (2018), in her bid to find out “the importance of mother tongue in education encourages her students to use their cultural experiences and their mother tongue in natural and meaningful contexts. They also look at explorers, constructions, beliefs, celebrations, food, artifacts, and sculptures from their home countries. The findings show that the skills they learn in their mother tongue are transferable; for example, reading, Mathematics, telling the time, and many other skills. English sentence structure is easier to understand when compared to their home language”. Educating one in his/her mother tongue helps in the transfer of knowledge from the mother tongue to the second language. It reduces anxiety and boosts one’s morale to learn. The learner becomes more comfortable knowing that learning will take place in his/her language and this improves the intellectual capacity of the child. Research on Mother Tongue Based Education (MTBE) also affirms this by stating that, “substantial instruction using the child’s primary language (L1) enhances the child’s intellectual and academic resources” (Cummins, 2000; Malone, 2003), and provides a conceptual foundation for long-term growth in the academic achievements. Andoh-Kumi, (1998); Baker (2001) also posits that “the maintenance of the L1 helps the student to communicate with parents and grandparents; this, in turn, increases the active participation of parents in their child’s school-related activities. This buttresses the fact that using the language and cultural knowledge of the pupils affirm their identities and promote their academic achievements”. Kraft (2003, 19) also supports this view by arguing that “when children master the basics of literacy in the Mother Tongue; with trained teachers, age-appropriate books, quality 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh instructional materials and sufficient time, they can transfer easily into a second language. They can more easily become fluent bilingual and bi-literate citizens in every advanced country”. Cook (2001), asserts that “the L1 equips learners with language competence and even though many teachers work hard to keep their students separated from their mother tongue, students still have a mental link between the two languages”. Over the years, studies have proven that a solid foundation in L1 leads to greater achievement in the learning of L2. The views of these scholars are that L1 usage serves as a cognitive tool for L2 development and for overcoming L2 learning challenges. Knowing that the concept in the L1 aids easy transfer of knowledge in the learning of the L2. This brings us to mother tongue education. Rutu Foundation (2020), posits that “mother tongue education refers to any form of schooling that makes use of the language or languages that children are most familiar with. This is the language the children speak at home with their family”. The L1 does not have to be the language spoken by the mother”. For instance, if the mother is a Ga but speaks Dangme with the children, then, Dangme becomes the mother tongue of the children; even though, the mother is a Ga and probably, speaks Ga as her mother tongue. Skutnabb-Kangas & Toukomaa (1976) also intimate that “children with poor skills in their mother tongue are prevented from developing a strong and balanced national and cultural identity, which could lead to psychological, educational and social problems as well as forced cultural assimilation. In the present study, the emphases are on both the pedagogical and sociocultural relevance of the mother tongue in education”. Research by UNESCO, (2008b) concludes that “a child learns best in its mother tongue, especially at the early stage in education, and among linguistic minority groups”. Tembe & Norten, (2008), also, “states that knowledge and skills gained in the mother tongue can be transferred across languages and multilingual children perform well at school when the 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh school teaches the mother tongue effectively”. Even though, UNESCO, (1992) posits that “the mother tongue is seen to be the most vital tool for a person’s identity, the reality shows that children in multilingual countries are confronted with a “foreign” language in primary school”. Therefore, the UN suggests that “States should take appropriate measures so that, wherever possible, persons belonging to the minorities may have adequate opportunities to learn their mother tongue or to have instruction in their mother tongue”. Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) is of the view that, for the mother tongue to be effectively used in classroom learning, a conscious effort must be made to ensure that “education through the mother tongue is recognized as a human right. But to this day, there seems to be a lack of these postulated rights and claims”. Despite all the benefits that come with mother tongue education, some schools still violate the language in education policy by not giving the children the opportunity to learn in their mother tongue at the lower primary before transcending to the upper primary. It should be noted that the type of language policy implemented could remain a threat or success to learning outcomes for many school entrants. No doubt, CREATE (2010) reports among other things that “the primary school language policy is still unclear in its implementation as teacher deployment is not linked to local language capability”. This can also pose a little challenge in multilingual classes as indicate by O’Connor et al (2005) that “children from ethnolinguistic communities start their primary school facing a disadvantaged linguistic situation, which may undermine their later literacy development with lasting-and often permanent consequences such as lack of the linguistic skills necessary for the acquisition of the foundation of literacy - the most critical academic task in primary school”. Again, it is a time-consuming activity and cognitively challenging. This is because simply being exposed to the L2 input does not guarantee that acquisition is taking place. Some challenges that are identified in the use of mother tongue in learning are in the findings of Harris (2012), who said that “these systems failed to educate children effectively because it denied them access to a 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh quality education and to working in life and ultimately wasting precious time as well as countless energy”. Again, research in Africa has revealed that such policies have not been implemented successfully (Owu- Ewie, 2006; Anyidoho, 2018). This is because many parents assume “that mother-tongue policies have been imposed for political reasons rather than sociolinguistic or demographic reasons. Recent studies on the brain by three different researchers Long (1985) and Lightbrown & Spada (1999) reveal that delaying exposure to a language can cause the brain to use a different strategy, with bilateral activation rather than unilateral when processing grammar and it requires social interaction with other target language speakers for detecting the different phonemes, thus learning the different sounds. This according to them, has clear implications for children who need to learn the official language used for instruction, as a bilateral brain activation may cause a harder, slower, and sometimes inefficient way of learning, with the risk of poor performance on grammar tasks. In addition, it will be difficult for the learners to have adequate social interaction with native speakers leading to negative consequences for their phonemic awareness, crucial to identify individual speech sounds in spoken words. Furthermore, Long & Robinson (1998) suggest four major problems the learner must overcome by using his knowledge of the world when dealing with situations, and contextual information. The first is analysis, where the learner must segment acoustic signals and compare them with the information he has from the context. The second is synthesis - sounds and words have to be joined to understand and articulate words in the L2. The third is embedding; those enunciate have to be identified in the situational and linguistic context. The final is matching; the learner compares his linguistic variety with the target language. According to them, this will be easy if a conversational interaction is adopted to facilitate learning in the target language. African countries like Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroun, etc. have their native languages but must also learn 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the official language in addition to their native languages. This will pose a little challenge in the learning of the L2. This, however, calls for bilingual education. 2.3 Bilingual education The term bilingual and multilingual are widely used to refer to individuals who have obtained the ability to use more than one language (Butler, 2012). She maintains that Bilingualism and multilingualism are highly complex social, psychological and linguistic phenomena and need to be understood from multidimensional perspectives. Bilingual education, therefore, refers to a situation where two or more languages are used for instruction in the student’s educational career at some point in time Cummins (2008). Due to the multilingual nature of the classrooms these days, bilingual education is practiced in the school system from – pre-school, primary, and secondary to the tertiary levels. Kormi-Nouri et al (2003) also affirms the view of Cummins ((2008) that bilinguals are people who use one language as their first language at home and another as their second language at school. Most often than not, bilingual education occurs when children speak different languages at home than the language in which they are taught at school. Bilingual or multilingual may vary considerably depending on the goal of the school programme (Rutu Foundation, 2020). Going by the definitions of Cummins and Kormi-Nouri et al, bilingual education will become more beneficial when it is implemented well and vice versa. For instance, Cummins (1976, 1979) posits that the level of L2 competence that a bilingual child attains is partially a function of the type of competence he/ she has developed in L1 at the time when intensive exposure to L2 begins. Furthermore, when the child’s first language is promoted, exposure to the L1 is likely to result in a high level of linguistic competence in the target language (L2), without reducing her/his competence in the L1 (Cummins 1979). He further proposes that there may be threshold levels of linguistic competence that a bilingual child must attain to avoid cognitive deficits and 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh reap cognitive benefits in full. Cummins (1979) believes that there are two threshold levels of bilingual competence: the lower and the higher. Attaining a lower level will suffice to avoid any negative cognitive effects whereas attaining a second, the higher level might be necessary to lead to accelerated cognitive growth. Toukomaa & Skutnabb-Kangas (1977) argue that the basis for the possible attainment of the threshold level of L2 competence might depend on the level of competence attained in the mother tongue. According to Cook (2001), the purpose of language teaching in a sense is to provide optimal samples of language for the learner to profit from – the best, ‘input to the process of language learning”. Cook further maintains that “The uniqueness of the L2 teaching classroom is that, language is involved in two different ways. First of all, the organization and the control of the classroom take place through language; second, language is the actual subject matter that is being taught. For instance, a school subject like physics does not turn the academic subjects back on themselves. Physics is not taught through physics in the same way language is taught through language”. Cook further explains that “this twofold involvement of language creates a unique problem for L2 teaching. The student and teachers are interacting through language in the classroom, using the strategies and movements that form part of their normal classroom behaviour. The teacher has to be able to manage the class through one type of language at the same time getting the student to acquire another type. Language has to fulfil its normal classroom role as well as the content of the class”. Yeung, Mashi & Sulliman (2000) subsequently, also explain that “the child who is competent in a home language and regularly uses that language other than English may over time reap some important educational advantages. The child who does not have proficiency in a home language however, is in a precarious position”. Again, Yeung, Mashi & Sulliman (2000) acknowledge that “if a learner’s first language is not established, there will not be positive effects of home language on second language acquisition”. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The importance of bilingual education cannot be overemphasized. According to the vision of World Languages (2021) “students who learn to communicate interlinguistically and interculturally will gain better insight into themselves, into their communities, and into others. They will also gain new skills and knowledge that will serve them as they learn to function in an increasingly global community, a global workforce, and a global marketplace. As we know, some benefits are communication and job opportunities”. Also, bilingual learners are more proficient academically than their monolingual counterparts. For instance, Lauchlan et al. (2012) and Wallstrum (2009) applied “some tasks to test the bilingual children who had high academic achievement and some area (cognitive and math) developed better. They conducted four tests which were block design, digit span forwards, vocabulary, and arithmetic. The participants were 121 children including 62 bilingual and 59 monolingual children from November 2009 to February 2010. Bilingual children spoke Gaelic and English; monolingual children spoke either English only or Italian only. The condition was no difference between age and sex. Lauchlan et al. (2012) analysed the results and find that bilingual children significantly outperformed monolingual children because bilingual children scored higher than monolingual children. Four tests were combined with different areas, such as math, non-verbal tasks, and cognitive ability. The tests (block design and vocabulary) also called cognitive ability sub-tests means bilingual children’s cognitive ability was higher than that of monolingual children. From the score, it can be seen that bilingual children develop better in Mathematics and cognitive development”. Based on the tests conducted, Lauchlan et al. (2012) argue that “the bilingual children should be proficient in two languages, and then they can finish the four tests with high scores. In contrast, bilingual children did not have equal proficiency in two languages; it will be like monolingual children. Because monolingual children are only proficient in one language”. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nonetheless, numerous studies have shown that bilingual children perform better than monolinguals. One such study is Porter’s (1990) which affirms that “bilingual children have higher academic achievement and higher self-esteem in bilingual schooling. The target students are proficient in Spanish, the school provides English Immersion classes for the students. Porter (1990) finds that the target students learn English very quickly and can use English in other subjects. Balanced in two languages or equally proficient in two languages, is a prerequisite to bringing students into high achievement in school”. In addition to the high academic achievement and better cognitive ability development, Wallstrum (2009) also points out some importance of bilingual education, such as “biliteracy, bilingualism and academic. Bilingual children can talk two languages about same thing/object”. He again posits that “bilingual education program is more successful in elementary schools. Bilingual children's cognitive/biliteracy/academic abilities are higher than monolingual children. Bilingual children's cognitive development is better than monolingual. In general, bilingual children performed better than monolingual children”. Most language scholars advocate for mother tongue education and bilingual education because of the numerous benefits a learner may drive from it. However, the current study reveals that English rather than the learners’ L1 is being employed in teaching at some lower primary schools in Ghana; even though, the language in education policy stipulates a bilingual education. This is because teachers who cannot speak the mother tongue of the locality are more often than not, assigned lower classes to handle. The result is that they resort to the use of the English language as the medium of instruction. This may retard learners’ ability to learn the L2 effectively in the upper classes. Even though the policy says that the mother tongue should be used as a medium of instruction at the lower primary, the use of both the mother tongue and the English language as a medium of instruction will do the learners better than harm, in that, they may rely on both languages in 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their learning. In this case, the English will help the non – Dangme students, and the L1 will also help the Dangme speakers in the teaching and learning process. Therefore, the adoption of a bilingual policy at the lower primary will be best for multilingual classrooms in the schools under study or cosmopolitan areas. 2.4 Challenges of Bilingual Education Though bilingual education has been seen as one of the major building blocks for student development, it is not without inherent challenges. Some of the challenges point out by Byrnes, Kiger & Manning (1997) consist of “funding education in general, hiring of highly qualified teachers, and accountability for student achievement, whereas, other challenges have been linked to dramatic demographic changes. Schools which have had homogeneous student groups have less experience with multicultural educational approaches”. Short & Fitzsimmons (2007) add that “teachers and administrators lack training in bilingual methodology in using appropriate instructional delivery and assessments”. Moreover, the lack of funding for professional development, and primary resources needed to assist in serving culturally and linguistically diverse families is also pointed out as some challenges of bilingual education (Walker, Shafer & Liams, 2004). Again, they posit that parent like “their children to learn more than one language, which is having more opportunities for career progression. In contrast, some parents do not like bilingual education. They think their children should only learn the dominant language (English) because they believe English is the language of doctors and lawyers. In teachers’ opinion, bilingual education is not easy. Teachers are against the bilingual education programme because teachers think students are not able to speak, read and write in English after they finish the programme”. Also, San Jose Mercury News (1997) adds that teachers know the programme is not working because the programme cannot balance two languages in the classroom. In children’s opinion, 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh they understand L1, but they still prefer to speak and use the dominant language. Opinions are diverse as far as bilingual education is concerned”. According to Schwartz, Mor-Sommerfel & Leikin (2010), “one of the biggest challenges for teachers is running the bilingual education programme without professional training. Teachers without professional training rely on their experience to teach children. However, teachers with professional training know how to deal with cross-linguistic transference. As such, their application of theory in the classroom is more effective. For teachers without professional training, everything depends on previous experience and instinct. For instance, some content translates from L1 to a second language, relies on previous experience”. Schwartz (2013) analyses the challenges of the bilingual education programme and concludes that “teachers have a hard time negotiating two languages. Teachers have to maintain L1 in the class as well as teach a second language”. Lindholm (2001) states that “parents had a diversity of ethnicity, education, and language background. Some parents do not have the chance to learn English, they feel like their children have to learn English first in the US. Some low-income parents do not understand the school system as well as the dual language programme. Therefore, some parents do not allow children to enrol in the dual language programme. Also, they do not like to support this kind of programme. Finally, children’s English has not improved. Parents think bilingual education is time- consuming; their children should not enrol in a bilingual education programme. Teachers express that, parents never understand the bilingual education programme setting and language policy in the classroom. This may be the teacher's and parents' lack of communication. Parents misunderstand the bilingual education programme and they have diverse backgrounds”. Patrinos & Velez (2009) say “bilingual education programme cost more than regular school. Bilingual education programme needs more bilingual teachers and material to run. In general, 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teachers’ qualification, parents’ misunderstanding and children preference (dominant language) and funding are key factors to running bilingual education programme”. 2.5 Language Attitudes Language is how human beings communicate. It is a powerful force that binds human activities in all spheres of life – commerce, education, politics, religion, and other social enterprises. In a world where language is used, their attitude is also. “They seem to be complementary goods”. In every society, there is always the likelihood of either positive or negative attitudes towards one language or the other, especially in multilingual settings. Guerini (2008) notes that a “multilingual country like Ghana, which runs a bilingual policy in education, is therefore, a fertile ground for language attitude manifestation”. For example, in Ghana, English is the de facto official language and CRDD (2012) states “it is preferred in education and it is used to determine the academic progression of a student. That is, progression from the Senior High School to the tertiary level and indeed to all other higher levels of education is determined by a credit pass in English”. In our school system, to Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh, (2014) “English has been assigned a higher prestige and is perceived as the only language worth being literate in or even the sole language worth investing into, to the detriment of local languages and vernaculars as a result of what pertains in education in terms of language use; the study of Ghanaian language is often not favoured”. This perception makes the indigenous languages unsuitable for use in official domains. To the extent that, people teaching and learning Ghanaian Languages in our various institutions are mocked by their colleagues. These attitudes further degrade and drag in the mud the value of the indigenous languages. It therefore, important to note that, language attitudes play vital “role in determining levels of success for the learning and acquisition of a second language” (Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh, 2014). It is also essential for language policymakers and planners to factor people’s language attitudes and 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh choices when making policies concerning language to represent the choices and the needs of the people and not for one’s personal, tribal, or political gains. Attitude has been defined by scholars from different perspectives. One such definition given by Massey (1986) as cited in Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh (2014) can be summarised as:  “Attitudes are selectively acquired and integrated through learning and experience  Attitudes are enduring dispositions indicating response consistency  Attitudes can be positive or negative in their effects on a social or psychological object.  Language attitudes cannot be ignored when talking about language planning and language policy formulation”. One’s attitude towards a particular language or language may stern from how favourable or unfavourable that language is to the speaker or the language community. Africa as a continent is highly multilingual and for that matter, Ghana serves as a breeding ground for language attitude manifestations. It is therefore, appropriate to find out the attitudes of the citizens especially, parents towards practiced language policy since parents are the first agent of change for the child. For instance, studies on young learners’ attitudes opine, children usually adopt attitudes of people whom they consider influential or role models. In this case, if parents have positive attitudes towards a certain language, the possibility of their wards being positive towards that particular language will be high. Medved et al (2009), cited in Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh, (2014) explore “the attitudes of parents in Croatia towards early foreign language learning. The results show that: the majority of parents (98%) have positive attitudes toward early foreign language learning. Some of the parents supported their answers with additional comments: young learners have an advantage over older learners because they learn a foreign language through play, which is easier than learning a language from a textbook; Young children can memorise things faster which allows 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh them to learn a foreign language more easily than older learners; learning a foreign language in the early age serves as a preparation for language learning in the future”. It is obvious from the study above that, parents embrace a language policy when they think it is beneficial. In Nigeria, Bamgbose (1991) has also noted that “teachers of indigenous languages are not much sought for, and quite often, students do not consider them as academically proficient”. There have been few studies on language attitudes in Ghana (Amissah, et. al. 2001; Kwofie 2001). For instance, in a study about the implementation of Ghana’s school language policy, Amissah et al. (2001) find that “parents and teachers have positive attitudes towards the use of English as a medium of instruction in schools and negative attitudes towards the use of Ghanaian language as a medium of instruction. The study notes that pupils prefer their teachers to use English to teach so that they will be fluent in English, though, they understand courses taught in the Ghanaian language better than when these courses are taught in English. In the same study, some language teachers who teach languages other than Ghanaian languages have positive attitudes toward the use of English rather than towards the Ghanaian languages. They are of the view that the use of the Ghanaian language as a medium of instruction impedes progress in English and retards academic excellence”. It again brings to light that; students do not want to study their Ghanaian languages because they are of the view that, they would not be gainfully employed if they are not proficient in the English language. In the same study, Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh, (2014) find out that, “the actions and behaviour of non-Ghanaian language teachers discourage students from the study of Ghanaian language. The negative attitude ascribes to the study and use of the Ghanaian language have made administrators of our educational institutions pay little or no attention to it in terms of providing the necessary logistic and human support. In addition, students are sometimes punished for speaking the Ghanaian language in class”. This finding 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is corroborated by earlier work by Prah (2009) “narrating the experience of a colleague, Adams Bodomo (a Ghanaian linguist based in Hong Kong University) for how he was punished several times for speaking Dagaare, his native language, at school” The same negative attitudes towards the indigenous languages are affirmed by the research of Mwinsheikhe (2009) in Tanzanian Secondary School about “the dilemma of using English/Kiswahili as a medium of instruction. The study indicates that teachers used punishment as a coping strategy to maximize the use of English by students. That is, students are punished for speaking Kiswahili in school”. Thereby forcing the speaking of English on the pupils. Owu-Ewie and EduBuandoh, (2014) conducted a study on six SHS in the Central Region and five SHS in the Western Region of Ghana. “It states that comments and actions from parents are negative towards the study of the Ghanaian language. The data shows that some parents detest their children studying Fante because they think it is a language they have already known and used in their daily communication. As a result, they provide materials for other subjects and do otherwise for Fante”. Another interesting issue from the study is that, “most Ghanaian language teachers do not want to pursue a graduate programme in Ghanaian language. They rather preferred pursuing programmes in Teaching English as a Second Language and other Education-related graduate programmes. When asked why they would not want to pursue post- graduate programmes in the language, they indicate that they are tired of the stigma attached to the teaching of the Ghanaian language. In the same way, the majority of the Ghanaian language students used in the study indicate that they do not want to pursue the study of the Ghanaian language in the university or teach the Ghanaian language. The main reason for this is that Ghanaian language teachers and students in the university are not respected. One issue that cropped up in the study was that the negative attitude towards the study of the Ghanaian 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh language in schools has affected enrolment of students offering Ghanaian languages as part of their program in the SHS”. This study also affirms the study above, in that, parents and even students have negative attitudes towards the use of L1 as a medium of instruction. Both parents and students claim that L1 will not help them get better jobs in society. The ironing of the matter is that the students confess that, the lesson is well understood when taught in the L1 than the L2; however, they still prefer tuition in English. Parents, on the other hand, prefer their wards to be taught in English so that, they speak Dangme with their wards at home, and therefore, there is no need to instruct them in the L1. To conclude, the study and use of indigenous African languages in education and other official settings have been greeted with scorn by many people including African scholars. These same negative attitudes are the cankerworm eating through the fabric of our education sector as long as a language–education policy is concerned. These negative attitudes towards the local languages must be at all costs changed through intensive education on all platforms. It behoves on us as Ghanaians to critically analyse the language that serves the populace better and makes it as prestigious as other languages in the world. Then again, the attitudes of all stakeholders concerning the language in education policy must be considered to ensure proper implementation of the language in education policy. 2. 6 Theoretical Framework The study relies on the basic assumptions/tenets of translanguaging in analysing and discussing the field data collected. Garcia (2009) cited in Celtic and Seltzer (2012), posits that the term, “translanguaging was first used in Welsh by Cen Williams to refer to a pedagogical practice where students’ alternate languages for reading and writing or for receptive or productive used”. This is to say that both the students and the teacher can use two or more languages when the need arises during class interaction to enhance better understanding among the students. Owning to this, one can assert 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that, translanguaging is a concept that will be best practiced in a bi/multilingual environment. For instance, in a school where the linguistic make-up of the students (especially in the early grades) varied, adopting this concept will not only enhance teaching and learning but will also cater for the minority speakers in the class. Gracia and Wei (2014), also affirm that “the concept of translanguaging is essentially based on various notions of language use and in a bi/multilingual context”. Baker (2011) also sees it as “the process of making meaning, shaping experiences, gaining understanding and knowledge through the use of two languages”. This concept provides the premise for students to interact with the languages available to them to enhance effective communication among bi/multilingual. Garcia (2009), supports this idea that translanguaging “involves multiple discursive practices used as a “norm” in which bi/multilingual engage, to communicate effectively and make sense of their bilingual words”. To Garcia, translanguaging refers to both “the complex language practices of plurilingual individuals and communities as well as the pedagogical approaches that use those complex practices”. In addition, there is no clear-cut boundaries between the languages of bilinguals rather there is “a language continuum that is accessed. Again, translanguaging is not code switching rather it is “rooted on the principle that bi/multilingual speakers select language features from a repertoire and soft assemble’ their language practices in ways that fit their communications”. Lewis et al (2012) ascertain that the process of translanguaging expands many “cognitive skills in listening and reading”. It is because many bi/multi-linguals adjust and comprehend pieces of information they acquire and carefully choose the language they ingest these information in. According to them, “this same process is required in speaking and writing and therefore, they conclude that translanguaging entails a deeper understanding than other bi/multilingual competences such as translating, as it moves from finding parallel words to processing and relaying meaning and understanding”. This assertion is buttressed by Hesson, Seltzer and Woodley (2014) who indicate that, “translanguaging refers to the language 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh practices of bilingual people where in the home of a bilingual family, many languages are used. Sometimes, the children are speaking one language and the parents another, even to each other. Often, both languages are used to include friends and family members who may not speak one language or the other and to engage all”. They add however that, translanguaging is not code- switching. According to them, “code-switching assumes that the two languages of bilinguals are two separate monolingual codes that could be used without reference to each other. Instead, translanguaging posits that bilingual have one linguistic repertoire from which they select features strategically to communicate effectively”. They further bring to light the relationship between translanguaging and language by saying that “translanguaging takes the position that language is ‘action and practice, and not a simple system of structures and discreet sets of skills. That is why, translanguaging uses an- “ing” form, emphasising the action and practice of language”. This literature review supports the assertion above because translanguaging is a concept that is consciously practiced especially in the classroom situation to help students who are bi/multilingual engage effectively in the teaching and learning process. As a result, “Bilinguals call upon different social features in a seamless complex network of multiple semiotic signs, as they adapt their languages to suit the immediate task” (Garcia and Kano, 2014 p.260-261). It is in line with the above that, two related assumptions were revealed within this Construct. Cummins (2007) opines that the “usage-based linguistic norms of plurilingual interaction are emphasized as opposed to monolingual norms in the two solitudes’ approach to bilingualism” and on the other hand, language “are disinvested and reconstituted” (Makoni and Pennycook 2017) “from discrete system to a range of historically rooted and ideologically laden semiotic, or repertoires” (Hua et al 2015). This concept can be applied to teaching and learning in the classroom. Based on this Gumperz (1982) and Klimpfinger (2007) cited in Tsuchiya (2017), identified four functions of translanguaging; 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “(i) Addressee specification which serves to direct the message to one of several possible addressees. (ii) Assertion - which is giving opinions in a highly aggressive manner, seeking or holding a floor of conversation. (iv) Clarification includes repair, both self-repair and other repairs and (4) Appealing for linguistic assistance”. Jenkins (2014), indicates that “translanguaging is distinguishable from code-switching (CS) since it refers no simply to a shift or shuttle between two languages but to the speakers’ construction and use of original and complex interrelated discursive practices that cannot be easily assigned to one or another traditional definition of a language but that makeup of the speakers’ complete language repertoire”. Furthermore, translanguaging ensures bilingual students acquire requisite knowledge in education even at a time when their English language is not fully developed. It enables Celic and Seltzer (2012), “to organise, understand, analyse, evaluate, synthesise and report on information and ideas using text-based evidence; engage with complex texts not only literary but informational; and write to persuade, explain and convey real or imaginary experience, even as their English language is developing”. The best way to teach rigorous content to bilingual students is the use of translanguaging. According to Celic and Seltzer (2012), “all learners must take up the concepts taught as well as the language used in the school. If students do not understand the language in which they’re taught, they cannot possibly understand the content and learn”. They further explain that translanguaging is a pedagogical approach that enables teaching and learning to be understandable as well as developing academic utilisations of language. This can be achieved by employing group work and multilingual partners, by so doing, it broadens and deepens the 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh thinking of learners. They again, maintain that “the expansion of available multilingual resources for teaching opens up words, experiences and possibilities; the ability to read and write multilingual texts, gain experiences from different perspectives, expand thinking and understanding”. Celic and Seltzer (2012), note, “that putting language practices alongside each other makes possible for students to explicitly notice language features, and awareness needed to develop linguistic abilities”. Celic and Seltzer (2012), state categorically that, “just as translanguaging strategies would be beneficial for all students, translanguaging strategies can be carried out by all educators, although, their use might differ as strategies are adapted to the types of students they teach and their strengths. Both bilingual and monolingual teachers can carry out translanguaging strategies if they consider the bilingualism of their students a resource for teaching and learning. All that is needed is a bit of goodwill, a willingness to let go of total teacher control, and the taking up of the position of a learner, rather than of teacher. The beauty of translanguaging strategies is that they can be carried out by different teachers in many different classroom contexts, monolingual general education classrooms, bilingual classrooms, English as a second language, even foreign language”. Vogel et al (2000), in their study into the role of translanguaging in computational literacies, find out that; “1. students’ translanguaging practices in classrooms learning context blur linguistic, disciplinary and modal boundaries, 2. computational literacies are intertwined with the many other literacies’ students bring in with them, 3. students’ language attitudes and activity context around them play a role in their translanguaging and 4. students translanguaging to engage specific computational practices (like remixing and abstraction)”. The aim of translanguaging according to Cook (2001) “is to allow people to function in the majority language of the country, without necessarily, losing or devaluating their first language. With translanguaging, the minority language speaker still has the right to function in his or her 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh language except when communicating with the majority groups”. Gravett and Geyser (2004) state that “for students for whom the language of instruction is the first language, it is usually easier to understand a spoken text, for example, a formally delivered lecture, than a written text: speaking and listening are more natural than reading and writing, as spoken interaction does not require technology of a symbol system, such as the alphabet, in which the written language is encoded”. They however, note that “all students find it difficult to concentrate for longer periods, but for English second Language students, because of the additional demand of having to construct their knowledge in a language other than their mother tongue, listening to long unbroken stretches of academic discourse are exceptionally demanding”. There are some advantages associated with the use of translanguaging and Baker (2011) emphasises four important aspects. Firstly, “it may promote a deeper and fuller understanding of the subject matter; secondly, it may help the development of the weaker language; thirdly, it may facilitate home-school link cooperation and fourthly, it may help the integration of fluent speakers with early learners”. In addition, Martin (2005) indicates that translanguaging can be successful when there is a conducive environment where students’ identities and cultures are valued, which will help the more reserved students take a more active and involved role in their education”. Cummins (2008), also states that “the native language of the students becomes a positive linguistic resource that will be an asset to them, as a result, it will aid the students to negotiate to mean and communicate in English”. Studies in language learning show that Maybin (1994), “language learning in particular, is not a cognitive activity only, but also a social activity”. Research by Goleman (1996), confirms that “in language learning, affective factors (those related to emotions) influence performance more than was previously believed”. Besides, one must consider the learner’s attitude to the language in the learning of subject content (Gardner 1985; Skehan, 1989). Gravett &Geyser 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2004) note that “teacher’s attitude to the students, reflected in the spoken and written interaction (encoded in language) between the teacher and student, is also an important determinant of the student performance”. Also, Dulay et al, (1982), add that “the quality of the language environment is of paramount importance to success in learning a new language. That is, when students are exposed to a list of words and their translations, together with a few simple readings in the new language, they will perhaps, be able to attain some reading skill language, but listening and speaking skills will remain to follow”. The observation of lessons during the study, affirms the application of translanguaging. The practices in the classrooms coincide with the strategies of the concept under discussion. For instance, in some cases, teachers use English, Dangme and at times, Ga or Twi in their lessons depending on the learners’ linguistic background; and also, the level of learners’ difficulty in understanding the lesson. Thus, if the teacher finds out that, learners do not understand the lesson due to the language barrier of some students, the lesson is explained in the other languages available in the class either by the teacher or by their peers to enhance understanding. Even though, the teachers may be oblivious to the concept of translanguaging; they, all the same, apply it in their lesson deliveries. This presupposes that GES must as a matter of necessity, train teachers on the appropriate use of translanguaging strategies to efficiently and effectively adopt it in their teaching; and also, to address the multilingual situation that the language in education policy has not adequately addressed. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7 Challenges of translanguaging in the classroom Notwithstanding the numerous benefits of translanguaging in the classroom, there are some challenges. Salazar (2010) reveals that “learners’ anxiety at having their language stripped away to be replaced by the language of the classroom will hinder them from participating effectively in the teaching and learning process during translanguaging”. According to Bartolome (1994), “antagonism and disconnection may result when learners feel that they and what they hold dear are being marginalised”. Salazar (2013) also holds the same view by positing that, learners may kick against translanguaging when they feel their cherished language is being alternated with another language. Sometimes, the teacher can be biased by using one language more than the other, hence creating an imbalance in the classroom – an environment that is not conducive for learning. These challenges are most likely to occur, however, if teachers are well equipped with the necessary skills in translanguaging, and treat all languages equally without considering one language is more powerful than others, these challenges will be greatly minimised. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction Any successful research study requires prior preparation to gather enough information for the study. This confirms what Schilling (2013)’ says “a successful project required preplanning to collect appropriate data set for the research”. Because of this, it is important to plan enough for the appropriate and adequate data to answer the purpose and the questions set out for the research study. Therefore, this chapter discusses the data sampling, ethical considerations, collection of data, procedures and data analysis and processing 3.1 Research Design Research design is a method a researcher employs in a research study. It is employed to undertake a study and to carry out the designed strategies (Cooper, 2008). The study focuses on bringing to light, the practicalities in lower primary schools regarding the policy concerning language usage in multilingual classrooms on one hand and parents’ attitudes towards the language practiced policy in the schools on the other hand. Due to this, the qualitative research method is employed for the study with recourse to quantitative approaches where appropriate to make statistical calculations. This method is chosen because it allows for an in-depth explanation of a phenomenon that makes analysis and finding clearer. Besides, the use of the qualitative method ensures that the researcher observes data in their natural environment and adduces meaning in its analysis concerning how the data are seen (Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). Therefore, in the situation given under study, the most suitable research design to employ is the qualitative research method as compared to the quantitative method. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Population, Sample size, and Sampling technique The target population for the research consists of pupils, parents, and teachers from three selected schools in the Ningo Prampram District of the Greater Accra Region. The schools are Old Ningo Presby Basic A (ONPA), Old Ningo D/A Basic A (ONDA), and Old Ningo D/A Basic B (ONDB). The schools are selected based on the cosmopolitan nature of the area. In all, twelve participants are chosen for the study. These comprise six pupils in lower primary sampled from the three selected schools and six parents whose children attend these schools. 3.2.1 Sampling Technique Two sampling techniques are adopted in this study. These are simple random sampling and purposive sampling. The technique - of purposive sampling is employed in the selection of the participating schools and parents. The schools are selected because they habited pupils with different linguistic backgrounds. The researcher through the help of the teachers identify those students with different linguistic backgrounds, hence their parents were used for the study. This technique is used to ensure that the right participants and schools are sampled for the research work. The other technique used in the study is simple random sampling. This technique is adopted in choosing the pupils within each school. In the selection of pupils, simple random sampling is employed. Here, ‘N’ and ‘Y’ are written on pieces of paper. The letter ‘N’ represents the non-participants in the study. Only six papers have the letter `Y`, the rest with the letter `N`. The pupils are allowed to pick the pieces of paper one by one. Based on this exercise, the participants who pick ‘Y’ are selected for the study. This technique is employed to give each pupil the opportunity to be chosen. Having selected the pupils, six parents are also purposively selected for the research. That is, the parent of each pupil is deliberately selected to devise multiple opinions on the subject matter. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Instruments for Data Collection The Instruments for collecting the data for the study are observation and semi-structured interviews. During the observation in the schools, classroom lessons are observed and audio recorded. The observation is employed to answer research question one (1) - What practiced language policies are adopted by teachers in complex multilingual classrooms in Ningo- Prampram? After the observation, pupils and parents are interviewed (semi-structured). This instrument is adopted because it allowed the researcher to seek further answers to questions that are not adequately provided. It also allows respondents to be stimulated for further discussions to gain insight into what they intend to say. The interview is conducted to answer research question two (2): what are the attitudes of parents towards the practiced language policy? And part of research question one (1) - What practiced language policies are adopted by teachers in complex multilingual classrooms in Ningo-Prampram? 3.3.1 Recording of classroom lesson delivery For genuine data to be collected, lessons taught by teachers are recorded. This recording is done during the observation in the schools. The following subjects: Language and Literacy, Natural Science, Our world Our People, Creative Art and Mathematics) are each audio recorded. The Mathematics lesson is on a story problem. Our world Our People - the attributes of God; the Natural Science lesson - personal hygiene. Each lesson is recorded between 15 and 20 minutes. This is done to ascertain the language(s) used in the lessons. This is aimed at answering research question one (1) - What kind of language policy is being practiced by teachers in complex multilingual classrooms in Ningo-Prampram? 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.2 Interviews After the observation, pupils and parents are interviewed to probe into the following issues: their mother tongues, the dominant language, non-Dangme speakers in the classroom, the language of instruction, the support given to the minority language speakers; their satisfaction with their pupils` responses to their lesson delivery approaches and whether they understand the English when it is used as a medium of instruction. The interview with parents and pupils seeks to answer research questions one and two (2). 1. What kind of language policy is being practiced or has been adopted by teachers in teaching pupils in the classroom? 2. What attitudes do parents have towards the language policies currently in operation in the classroom? Copies of the interview instrument have been attached in the appendix. 3.4. Data Analysis Using qualitative data comprises analysing and synthesizing phenomena to meaningful and accurate conclusions. The data collected with the aid of the interviews are audio-recorded and analysed following the approach espoused by Miles & Huberman (1994). Their approach advocates for “the identification of broad themes generated from the transcripts within the context of the study. Generating themes that originate from data lays an empirical foundation for analysis and interpretation of data beyond answers given by interviewees to interview questions”. In line with this, themes are created and assembled using explanations that are linked to the research questions of the study. For instance, interviewees’ responses are subjected to critical examination to pinpoint essential expressions, statements, and illustrations that throw more 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh light on their understanding of the topic. Responses that indicate similarities and differences are also compared. The data labels and categories are subsequently organised into themes and sub-theme to answer the research questions. These are further analysed, elaborated, interpreted, and presented in the form of headings and subheadings. Besides, points that are documented during the data collection stage help to determine themes that need to be examined and interpreted. Due to this, frequent reference is made to field notes and diary entries to ensure the correctness of the data collected. 3.5 Ethical Considerations. Ethical Considerations are very vital in studies that involve human participants and data- collecting instruments such as interviews, observations, and questionnaires. According to Edwards and Mauthner (2002) as cited in Djorbua (2019), “research ethics refers to moral responsibilities and issues taken into consideration throughout the research process”. It is also a way of being confidential about participants’ information and ensuring their safety from the public. Therefore, the following are considered; • A permission letter is obtained before the beginning of gathering the data from the heads of the schools to seek their consent on the exercise. The data collection starts when permission is granted. All teachers and parents involved in the data collection voluntarily accepted to partake in the study and the consent forms are signed. • The Pupils being minors, permission is obtained from both their parents to allow them to participate. • For the sake of anonymity, participants are not identified by their names. Pseudo names have been assigned to them. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • All information collected through observation, audio recordings, interviews, etc. are kept confidential and only available to the researcher and the supervisors. • All COVID-19 Protocols are observed during interviews and recording sections. • The college of Humanities, University of Ghana Ethics Board also gives me clearance to carry out the study. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4.0 Introduction Chapter four discusses the analysis and interpretation of the findings of the research concerning language in education policy on one hand, what is being practiced in the classrooms, and the attitudes of parents towards the practiced language policy on the other hand. This qualitative analysis highlights the significant factors that influence the practiced language choices and the attitudes of parents towards those choices taking into consideration the following research questions: 1. How is Ghana’s current language – in – education policy implemented in basic classrooms in Ningo-Prampram? 1a. What kind of language policy is being practiced or has been adopted by teachers in teaching pupils in the classroom? 2. What attitudes do parents have towards the language policies currently in operation in the classroom? 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1 Demographic Information of the Respondents This focuses on the background information of the respondents. Table 4.1: Demographic information on pupils used in the study PUPILS CODE AGE GENDER CLASS FIRST LANGUAGE A A1 6 M P 1 GA A A2 7 F P 2 EWE B A3 6 M KG 2 DANGME B A4 8 M P 3 TWI C A5 7 F P1 DANGME C A6 6 M KG 1 DANGME Key: • A: Old Ningo Presby A • B: Old Ningo D/A A • C: Old Ningo D/A B • Three of the pupils representing 50% speak Dangme as their mother tongue, one of the pupils representing 16.7% speak Ga as her first language, one of the parents representing 16.7% speak Ewe as her first language, and one of the pupils them representing 16.7% speak Twi. The table shows that the dominant language spoken by the pupils is Dangme, however, there are also minority speakers in the same community. This information is illustrated in the pie chart below; 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.1. Demographic information on pupils used in the study Percentages 16.70% 50% 16.70% 16.70% Key:  Dangme  Ga  Twi  Ewe 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: information on Parents` Demography in the study PARENTS SCHOOL OF WARD AGE GENDER FIRST LANGUAGE B1 A 42 M Ga B2 A 38 F EWE B3 B 33 M DANGME B4 B 40 M TWI B5 C 27 F DANGME B6 C 26 M DANGME Key: • A: Old Ningo Presby A • B: Old Ningo D/A A • C: Old Ningo D/A B Three of the parents representing 50% speak Dangme as their mother tongue, one of the parents representing 16.7% speak Ga as her first language, one of the parents representing 16.7% speak Ewe as her first language, and one of the parents representing 16.7% speak Twi. It is realised that the dominant language spoken is Dangme, however, there are also minority speakers in the same community. This information is represented in the pie chart below; 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.1 Demographic information on Parents used in the study; percentages 16.70% 50% 16.70% 16.70 % Key:  Dangme  Ga  Ewe  Twi 4.5 Discussion of Findings The analysis of the findings of this research is discussed based on the two main research questions set out for the research work. The work seeks to find out what practiced language policies are adopted by teachers in the classrooms and the attitudes of parents towards the practiced language policies in the classrooms. The classroom situations are explored to find out whether what is practiced in the classroom aligns with what the language – in- education policy stipulates. Below is the analysis of the data gathered to answer the research questions posed below: 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Research question 1: What kind of language policies are being practiced or have been adopted by teachers in teaching the pupils? The question above is used to find out what practiced language policies are being used by teachers in teaching the pupils in the classrooms. The question is answered along the following lines: medium of instruction at the various schools and students’ preference for the language instructions. To answer the question, data is gathered on the medium of instruction through observation of lesson deliveries, and pupils are interviewed to find out their first languages in the class. The data from the observation (audio recording) and the interview indicates that there are instances where some of the pupils in the classroom cannot speak Dangme (the dominant Ghanaian language spoken in the locality of the school). It also brings to light that the language of instruction employ in some schools is not following the language in education policy. The language of instruction in the various schools and the first language of pupils are stated in the table below. 4.3. Medium of instruction at the various schools Table 4.3: Medium of instructions at the various schools and pupils’ L1 SCHOOL Medium instruction FIRST LANGUAGE OF RESPONDENT A Dangme GA A English EWE B English and Dangme DANGME B Dangme TWI C English DANGME C English and Twi DANGME 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Key: • A: Old Ningo Presby A • B: Old Ningo D/A A • C: Old Ningo D/A B From the above table, the majority of the respondents speak Dangme and few others speak either Ga, Twi, or Ewe as L1. One will think that Dangme should be the sole medium of instruction in the classes. However, Dangme, Twi, and English are used as a medium of instruction. It is also clear from the table that, English is the language of instruction in many of the lower primary classes. This practise is contrary to the language in education policy which makes it mandatory for the mother tongue (and in this case, Dangme) to be employed as a medium of instruction in the lower primary schools. This situation is a challenge to some pupils who cannot understand the lessons taught in English. Another challenging issue worth noting is that in classes where Dangme is used as the language of instruction, the minority speakers in those classes are left behind. Concerning the problem, one of the students indicates; I don’t understand Dangme but I am learning it. Well, some of the pupils who understand Dangme understand Twi so I do ask them to explain the concept they do understand to me. Because some pupils do not understand the lesson when taught in Dangme, they rely on their peers for better understanding. One can only imagine how well concepts and lessons are explained by their peers and how that ultimately affects outcomes. Every country aims to make education accessible to all children and the right of every child to get quality education. This aim is enshrined in the Millennium Development Goals two (MDGs). Nonetheless, it is sad to say that, the language barrier in the classrooms especially, at cosmopolitan cities will 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hinder the achievement of this goal. It is prudent to take a second look at the policy and restructure it to address the language situation in multilingual schools. In schools where the L1 is used as a medium of instruction, pupils report a better understanding of concepts. One pupil interviewed has this to say; Our teacher teaches in Dangme, so I always understand everything he teaches. He teaches all the subjects in my language. It is evident from the foregoing that pupils understand lessons better when they are taught in their mother tongue than in English. They enjoy the lessons and understanding becomes faster and better. It motivates them (Benson, (2004) and enhances active participation in the learning process (Ball, 2010). For instance, United Nations, (2016) also maintains that “teaching through the mother tongue enhances the cognitive development of critical thinking skills and results in increased learning, access, and equity, improved learning outcomes”. This is also affirmed by the Rutu foundation (2020) that, “children derive many benefits from an education that takes into account children’s mother tongue. These include: learning better and faster in a language they can understand (preventing delays in learning), they enjoy school more and they feel more at home”. It is essential for all stakeholders to know the relevance of language in education policy and insist on the proper implementation of the policy. if the policy is well implemented, the foundation of learners will be solidly built and they can reap all the benefits associated with learning in one L1 at the lower primary. Although, the respondents indicate that they are taught in Dangme; the issue of professionalism also needs to be raised here – whether the teachers are professionals in Dangme or they can merely speak the language is another issue that must be considered. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another revelation is that even though, teachers in some schools used English to teach the pupils because they do not understand the dominant L1 (Dangme), they, however, used the Dangme sometimes to complement the English. But, in most cases, the Dangme is used sparingly because the teachers are now learning it. The situation is rather appalling. For instance, Another respondent indicates: Our teacher teaches in English but explains occasionally in Dangme. He is not good at speaking the Dangme so he encourages us to learn to speak English. This implies that some teachers at the lower primary do not understand and cannot speak the L1 of the locality. Therefore, resort to English as a ‘saviour’ language in the teaching and learning process. The inability of the teacher to instruct pupils in their mother tongue hurts the pupils’ ability to use the L1. In such cases, pupils cannot be actively involved in the lessons. Again, the pupils are left without any option but to adopt and learn another language (English). Ultimately, there is an interference in how pupils acquire and use languages in the classroom. That is why Salazar (2010) says that “learners’ anxiety at having their language stripped away to be replaced by the language of the classroom will hinder them from participating effectively in the teaching and learning process and they may feel disconnected (Bartolome 1994) from the lesson. Notwithstanding the foregoing, some teachers could speak the dominant L1 (Dangme) of their pupils but for them to reach out to the minority speakers in the class, they chose to communicate in English. This is pointed out by one respondent: “My teacher does not teach in Dangme even though he understands the Dangme and can also speak it very well”. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For instance, the study reveals that the L1 which was supposed to be the medium of instruction at the lower primary was rather prohibited. This is because the pupils have been made to believe that learning the L1 will not make them speak the L2 at the lower primary. Meanwhile, it is the L1 that will rather, serve as a foundation for the learning of the L2 later. As Cummins (2008), puts it, “the native language of the students becomes a positive linguistic resource that will be an asset to them and it will aid the students to negotiate meaning and communicate in English”. Prohibiting the L1 in schools will retard learning and weaken their competencies in the L1. They may develop poor skills in their mother tongue which will prevent them from developing a strong and balanced national and cultural identity. Consequently, this will lead to psychological, educational, and social problems as well as forced cultural assimilation (Skutnabb-Kangas & Toukomaa, 1976). One of the respondents indicates that ……. we speak English in school because we are told to speak it. This is a deviation from the dictates of language in education policy in Ghana. Dearden (2014) posits that most private schools practice the use of English as the medium of instruction. However, this study indicates that the same phenomenon is also practiced in public sector schools where the classrooms in most cases are multilingual. It is a situation where pupils in these classrooms do not share a common language. Various linguistic backgrounds are identified in the classrooms and this is a contributory factor for teachers to resort to the use of English to deliver their lessons. Even though, translanguaging tendencies are ensured to enforce multilingual practices, the English language seemed to be dominating as its influence is heavily felt in the classroom. The study again reveals that, instead of one language of instruction at the lower primary, three different languages are being used in the classroom depending on the teacher’s language 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh background; Dangme, Akan, and English to deliver their lessons. This is revealed during the interview session with students. The teachers who speak the L1 use Dangme and English mainly resort to Akan where they can in teaching. Those who cannot speak the L1 rely solely on Twi and English. Translanguaging practices are good for all students in multilingual situations. This is because translanguaging strategies can be carried out by “different teachers in many different classroom contexts - monolingual general education classrooms, bilingual classrooms, English as a second language and even foreign language” (Celic and Seltzer, 2012). In addition, “the minority language speaker still has the right to function in his or her language” (Cook, 2001). However, when not practiced well, it will pose a problem for the effective implementation of the language policy at the lower primary - will weak or marginalise the minor languages (Bartolome, 1994) and learners (minority speakers) may feel their cherished language is being alternated with another language. Again, it should be noted that the effective implementation of the language policy in education is largely depended on the pupils’ ability to understand the dominant language of the indigenes. Given the communities in which pupils are schooled, the most widely spoken language is Dangme. Researches indicate that when students are taught in their L1, they understand lessons better than when they are taught in different languages. This is because educating pupils in their mother tongue is like a strong foundation to learn other languages (Oliver 2009; Cummins 1980). Based on this, learners are supposed to be taught in their mother tongue throughout basic education, especially, at the lower primary levels. It enables them to learn more in different languages because the mother tongue helps them absorb other languages faster and understand content subjects easier. It is, therefore, important to encourage students to speak in their mother tongue in and outside the classroom at the lower level to help them participate in the teaching and learning process. McLaughlin (1984) posits that “to make the learning of mother tongue easy and more 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interesting, children must be encouraged to express themselves in an effective way to build language experience.” Furthermore, the study shows that several pupils in the classrooms do not speak L1 (minority speakers). This means that they are likely to face the challenge of not comprehending the dominant L1 (Dangme) when used as the language of instruction. To satisfy both the majority and the minority speakers, some teachers decide to teach in English thereby going contrary to the language in education policy at the lower primary. These clearly have shown the practices in Ghanaian classrooms. For instance, One respondent indicates that: “The language I speak is Ga and does not understand the dominant language which is the medium of instruction. Therefore, whenever the teacher explains a concept in the Dangme. I hardly understand”. Another student also says: “Whenever we are taught in Dangme, we can contribute and ask questions. But it does not always happen. I prefer Dangme as the medium of instruction so that I will understand the lessons better. It will also help me ask questions if I do not understand anything. Besides, I am not fluent in speaking English and will, therefore, not be able to answer questions in English”. Another respondent also laments: “Some of our friends do not understand the Dangme and as a result, our teacher sometimes speaks Twi to explain to them”. It is clear from the above submissions that, the classrooms are multilingual and therefore, becomes very difficult to use only the dominant L1 in teaching. Hence, teachers rely on other languages available especially, English to help the non-Dangme speakers also benefit from the lessons. Karvonen (2017), says that “whenever the first language is used in learning, it creates a good foundation for all learning, and whatever children learn is better assimilated if it is delivered and processed in the child’s mother tongue. The mother tongue is acknowledged as 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a necessary linguistic input and serves as a foundation for all learning and also aids in identity development”. He further explains that, “it is important that the student fully develops language in their mother tongue otherwise, you can have a situation where the student is not 100% comfortable in his/her mother tongue and not 100% comfortable in English”. If policy makers are aware of the importance of mother tongue education, then, this situation calls for some adjustment in the school curriculum most importantly in cosmopolitan areas. Take a region like Greater Accra for instance, it is a hub for many people with diverse linguistic backgrounds. These people have their wards in various schools. How then can the policy say that Ga or Dangme being the dominant L1 should be the medium of instruction at the lower primary? What happens to the L1 of other children who are neither Ga nor Dangme? In as much as the language in education policy is essential, one must also look at where and how well the policy is being implemented. In a situation like this, GES must critically consider the linguistic repertoire of teachers before posting or assigning them to any class, most especially, at the lower primary. On the other hand, lower primary teachers must be trained through workshops on translanguaging strategies to help address every learner’s needs in their lessons. As Dulay et al, (1982), posit “the quality of the language environment is of paramount importance to success in learning a new language”. Unfortunately, the language environment is not all that favourable in the classrooms at the lower primary. This is because, it is realised during the interview that, in some of the schools, some teachers in the bid to bridge the gap between the non-Dangme speakers and the Dangme speakers during teaching and learning, speak English to enhance better understanding instead of employing the languages as and when the need arises in the lessons. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The analysis reveals the dominance of the English language as a bridge language on one hand and also the recognition accorded it by the teachers over the Ghanaian languages on the other. It must be made clear that English is used as a “saviour” language for minority language speakers to be able to take part in the teaching and learning process. The teachers who do not understand Dangme also used English in addition to Twi to help them deliver in class effectively. “Attention is, therefore, drawn to the hegemony of English as a result of its pedagogical practices and usefulness” (Phillipson, 1992). In a similar vein, the challenges some respondents grapple with is that they speak Ewe and Twi. As a result, they find it difficult to communicate in Dangme which is the medium of instruction. It is, therefore, clear from the foregoing that, some students do not understand the medium of instruction, a major problem militating against the smooth execution of the language in education policy. Hence, the language in education policy needs to be checked again to consider minority speakers in multilingual classrooms. 4.5 Students' preference for language instruction. During the observation and the interview, the researcher realises that even though the aim of introducing the L1 is to help students grasp the lesson easily but some pupils prefer to be instructed in English than the L1. The interview with pupils has shed light on their preference for English as the language of instruction including those who are even speakers of the Dominant L1. In other words, the appetite for English among pupils is high. For instance: I prefer the use of English. If I speak good English, it will enable me to get a good job in the future. If I am employed, I will not speak Dangme but English to my colleagues. So, it will be better for me to learn how to speak English now. Arguably, the use of English is very germane as far as communications with non-speakers of the Dangme are concerned. Another respondent captures it this way: 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I can already speak the L1 hence, there is no need to use it as a medium of instruction. When I am taught in English it will help me to learn English better It is logically sound to conclude that, even among learners at lower primary levels, the quest to attain fluency in English is greater. What they are rather not aware of is that, it is the L1 that will help and make the learn the L2 smoothly. Cummins (1979); Cook (2001) and Rutu foundation (2020) have stated it clearly that, learners’ L1 is a solid foundation for learning any other language be it L2 or a foreign language. Students must be educated on the need to value and cherish their L1 and also, on the benefits they derive from learning in the L1. Another interesting dimension of the finding is that the mother tongue and English are used at the same time. According to this respondent: ...he codes switches between English and Twi and a little Dangme. This means that, during teaching and learning, pupils who are unable to speak the dominant L1 respond to questions with relative ease when multiple languages are used simultaneously. This becomes more important when a challenging topic is to be explained in a manner for pupils to understand. On their part, pupils are able to respond effectively to all simple questions in English but resort to Dangme whenever they are stuck. Such practices according to Celic and Seltzer (2012, lead to the “expansion of available multilingual resources for teaching which opens up words, experiences, and possibilities; the ability to read and write multilingual texts, gain experiences from different perspectives, expand thinking and understanding”. Question 2. What are the attitudes of parents towards the language policies currently in operation in the classrooms? The study seek to ascertain parents’ attitudes toward the practiced language policies at the lower primary. In line with this, the research question will be answered following the outlined sub-themes: Parents’ preference for English as a medium of instruction, Parent’s awareness 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the relevance of the language policy, and the Influence of the Parents’ attitudes on Pupils’ Choice of Medium of Instruction. First, the study reveals that not all parents of the pupils speak the dominant L1 (Dangme) and this has influenced how parents view the use of the dominant L1 as a language of instruction. The interview with parents on their first languages reveal 17% each, speak Ga, Ewe, and Twi (see table 4.3). Some of these parents who can speak English prefer their wards to be taught in English to enable their wards to improve their English-speaking skills. For instance, one maintains that: We don’t understand Dangme. So, I speak English with my child at home. He should be taught English at school to help him learn better. Another respondent also says: I do not speak Dangme even though; I do not have a problem with my ward learning how to speak. But I want him to learn English. It can be deduced from their responses that; some parents want their children to be taught in English. That way, the children can speak the L2 better. They are, however, unaware of the benefits associated with pupils learning in their mother tongue. They, therefore, have some misgivings about the use of the dominant L1. It is high time parents were made aware of these benefits through mass education, town hall meetings, and Parent Teachers Association (PTA). Regular organisation of such meetings can minimise parents’ negative attitudes towards the L1. The attitude is that English is seen as the language of power and prestige. As Guerini (2008) has said “English has been assigned a higher prestige and is perceived as the only language worth being literate in or even the sole language worth investing into the detriment of local languages and vernaculars. As a result of what pertains in education in terms of language use, 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the study of indigenous language is often not endorsed”. This negative attitude makes some Ghanaian parents prefer English to the local languages making the latter unfavourable for use in a formal setting. Nonetheless, the benefits one derives from learning in his or her mother tongue are enormous. For instance, Rutu Foundation (2020) outlines many benefits that are associated with mother tongue education. These include the building of self-confidence in children, enhances the better understanding, active participation in lessons, and increased parents’ involvement in their child’s education. The same is buttressed by a study conducted by UNESCO (1953) which suggests that “mother tongue is very essential for learning and self-expression”. It is also the fundamentals of thought (Diaz & Perez, 2015), and “one of the basic principles of education are that learning should proceed from the known to the unknown, learners’ fore knowledge is best expressed through their mother tongue”. Cook (2001), corroborates the above and notes that studies on cognitive processing show that even matured L2 learners are less effective in learning from the second language than from the first language (L1). Hence, it remains relevant even when a second language has been learned. Similarly, “mother tongue-based bi/multilingual” education programmes around the world have proven to increase academic achievement (Pinnock & Vijayakumar, 2009). It is also said to have enhanced cognitive development of critical thinking skills, increased learning, improved learning outcomes, and reduced chances of repetition and dropping out of school (United Nations, 2016). It builds a sense of confidence, self-esteem, motivation, initiative, and creativity (Benson, 2004; Njoroge & Gathigia, 2011) and it facilitates the learning of additional languages (Ball, 2010). They explain that “these are possible because proficiency in the language of instruction enhances active participation in the learning process. Studying the mother tongue, as a subject, enables students to better learn their 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh native cultural heritage since cultures are preserved and transmitted through the language spoken by each community”. However, the study reveals that some parents both native speakers and non- native speakers prefer English as a medium of instruction to the dominant L1. The data also reveal that some parents speak English with their wards at home to the detriment of their mother tongue. One respondent says: I speak English with my child at home and therefore, I will like my child to be taught in the English language” Another also opines that: I have been speaking the L1 with my wards at home so there is no need for them to be instructed in L1…… speaking English will afford my wards a privileged place in society……………… It is rather best for the child to learn in his/her L1 first before learning the L2. Yeung, Mashi & Sulliman (2000) explain that “the child who is competent in a home language and regularly uses that language other than English may over time reap some important educational advantages. The child who does not have proficiency in a home language, however, is in a precarious position and again, if a learner’s first language is not established, there will not be positive effects of home language on second language acquisition”. Therefore, it is erroneous to say that, speaking the L1 with the child at home is enough and for that matter, should not be used as the medium of instruction. The merits of instructing in the child’s L1 at the early stages far out weight teaching in the L2. Also, the quality of one’s education places him/her better in society and speaking English. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6.2. Parents’ preference of English as a medium of instruction One major factor that is affecting the smooth implementation of the language policy is the attitude of parents. During the interview, the study brings to light that, most parents do not like the idea of their wards being instructed in the dominant language as ascribed in the language in education policy. Even though, researches have shown the importance of the mother tongue in learning the English language, it appears most parents did not like the dominant L1 as a medium of instruction. They prefer that their wards are instructed in the English language to Dangme. According to one of the respondents: I speak English with my child at home and therefore will like my child to be taught in the English language” Another respondent puts it in a different view but the conclusion is similar to the above: I have been speaking the L1 with my wards at home so there is no need for them to be instructed in L1…… “speaking English will afford my wards a privileged place in society because I do not want them to end up like me. This belief is not different from the findings of Alexander (2000), who says that it is an “indisputable fact that in the postcolonial situation, the building of linguistic hierarchy into the colonial system leads to knowledge of the conqueror's language becoming a vital component of the cultural capital of the neo-colonial elite. It is and remains their knowledge of English and/or French [for example] that sets them apart from the vast majority of their African compatriots and which keeps them and their offspring in the privileged middle and upper classes”. In addition, another interviewee indicates: Teaching my ward in the English language will enable him to perform better in his exams since all the exams are written in English except Dangme.” 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This assertion is in line with the findings of Dako and Quarcoo (2017), who assert that parents believed that when their children are exposed early to English at home, their performance in school will greatly increase. Even the rationale for the JHS syllabus of the Ministry of Education, CRDD (2012) states: “…success in education at all levels depends, to a very large extent, on the individual’s proficiency in the English language”. The English language is preferred in education and it is used to determine the academic progression of a student. That is, progression from Senior High School to the tertiary level and indeed to all other higher levels of education is determined by a credit pass in English Language. This has also positively heightened parents’ attitudes towards the English Language as a language that makes people successful in life. And those who cannot speak English are classified in society as ‘black bottles’ (uneducated). Owu-Ewie and Edu-Buandoh, (2014) lament that “English has been assigned a higher prestige and is perceived as the only language worth being literate in or even the sole language worth investing into the detriment of the local language. This perception makes the indigenous languages unsuitable for use in official domains. To the extent that, people teaching and learning Ghanaian Languages in our various institutions are mocked by their colleagues”. These attitudes further degrade and drag in the mud the value of the indigenous languages. Again, the study shows that parents who cannot speak the English language see it as an honour when their wards speak English. Another interviewee intimates: 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I cannot speak the English language because I did not go to school, so I want my ward to learn how to speak the English language. As far as another interviewee is concerned: I was duped by a fraudster because of my inability to understand the English language, so I want my wards to learn English to interpret things for me in English. Besides, whenever I want to write a letter or send a message to someone, I have to contact someone else. I am not comfortable with this idea. I would have been Ok if my ward is doing that for me. Therefore, I prefer my ward to be taught in English to learn how to speak and write it. It is obvious from the above submissions that, one’s attitude towards a particular language or languages may stern from how favourable or unfavourable that language is to the speaker or the language community. English seems to be favoured more than the Ghanaian language(s). This is partly due to most parents’ lack of understanding of the link between instructing their wards in the L1 and its importance in children’s learning of the English Language. As it is stated early on, intensive education on the language in education policy to parents and the modification of the policy to suit the multilingual situations in the schools will help salvage these negative attitudes. Again, it is vital for language policy makers and planners to consider parents’ language attitudes and choices when making policies to represent the choices and the needs of the people and not for one’s personal or political gains. 4.6.3 Parent’s awareness of the relevance of the language policy Intriguingly, some parents are not aware of the language their wards are instructed in. They are not also aware of the details of the language in education policy. The level of parents’ attitudes 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh towards the relevance of the language policy is largely premised on the level of their knowledge of the language policy. The research reveals during the interview and the observation that, although, the language policy has been in the education system for many years, some parents are not aware of it and to others, the concept means different things. Therefore, whatever language is used as the medium of instruction for their wards in the schools is deemed as being directed by the government. The findings indicate that most parents are not aware of what the language – in - education policy entails and its relevance in the learning of even the English language. As a result, they do not have any interest in seeing their wards being instructed in the L1. According to one interviewee: I do not know that there is a policy of such in the schools”. Again, the findings reveal that most of the parents who are not aware of the policy are not educated. Even those who are aware of the policy do not see the impact of the L1 on the success of their wards’ careers. Therefore, they have a high interest in their wards learning the English language rather than the L1. For instance, one respondent says: We were told at the PTA meeting but considering what I went through, I prefer my ward to be instructed in English to learn the English language at a fast pace.” It is observed that parents who give such reasons, according to the findings of Belhiah & Elhami (2015) believe that “the language acquisition process is hinged on meaningful communication and interaction contexts. That is, when English is used as a medium of instruction rather than the L1, students have the opportunity to apply and use the language on daily basis with their teachers and their colleagues in a wide range of communicative situations and contexts”. These are negative perceptions towards the language in education policy by parents. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the other hand, some parents are aware of the language policy but indicate that they have been speaking English with their wards at home and therefore, the school must also teach their wards in English. According to this interviewee Even though I am aware of the policy, I prefer my ward to be taught in English since that is the official language. Besides, I have been speaking English with my ward at home hence, it will be easy for him to learn in English” This shows that some parents prefer their wards to be taught in English because they speak English with them at home and the same should be done at school. This aligns with Seligson (1997), who is of the view that “when English only is used in the classroom for instruction, it exposes students to the L2. By using English, most or all of the time in class, you give students vital listening practice, and the opportunity to respond naturally to speak English”. Some parents are oblivious to the fact that teaching children using the L1 at an early age is more beneficial than being taught in English. 4.7 The Influence of the Parents’ Attitudes on the Pupils’ Choice of Medium of Instruction. The findings show that parents’ choice of a particular language determines the choice of language of instruction preferred by their wards too. During the interview, those pupils whose parents prefer English as the language of instruction also preferred English and adduced the same reasons their parents gave for their choices and vice versa holds same. For instance, one respondent says: He preferred English to the L1 because the child’s ability to speak good English would enable him or her to secure a good job in the future. The same reason is advanced by his ward when interviewed. This clearly shows that the attitude of parents about the medium of instruction affects the pupils’ choice of the medium of instruction. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I speak Dangme and I would like my ward to understand my language better before learning any other language” Another one also says: My ward does not understand the Dangme because we speak Ewe at home. So, she has no choice but to learn English. I would not be comfortable knowing that my ward is learning in a language that he is not comfortable with. Hungarian researchers make inquiries into the way the family influences learning of the mother tongue in school. The research reveals that “it is the family who decided when and what language a child starts learning with. This provides the possibilities for children to start learning or be surrounded by foreign languages at early ages”. “Parents are major decision-makers, and thus their views and opinions shape the learner in giving directions and also influencing their attitudes towards the languages they learn” (Kormos & Csizér 2005, Bartram 2006). This is in congruence with the assertion of Webb (1992) “speakers of African languages claim that their languages are not taking them anywhere, they even go to an extent of saying that learning them in schools is not important”. They also argue that their languages have no value in public life especially the fact that they will not help them get the jobs they want. It must be noted that such attitudes can affect the confidence of the pupils towards L1 and finally, leads to the degeneration of the L1. Hence, the language policy would be ineffective at the implementation level. Gumede (1996) states that “negative attitudes surrounding the African languages are doing more harm than good to our languages. If learners do not want to learn their languages, the next generation will have no culture to identify themselves with”. This helps the study to emphasize the importance of language as the source of identity and cultural heritage. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Challenges Facing the Language Policy as envisaged in the study It was observed during the study that; the language policy is fraught with some inherent challenges that are militating against the success of its implementation. Poor implementation is one of the first challenges facing language policy. The implementers fail to pay the needed attention to the multilingual nature of Ghanaian classrooms. Secondly, there are not enough trained teachers in the L1 to implement the policy. Another herculean challenge is the parent’s attitude toward the policy. While some parents appreciate the idea of L1 as the medium of instruction, many parents are against the policy. Most parents who can speak English virtually speak English with their wards at home and will not want their wards to learn in any other language. Parents who cannot control what medium of instruction is used in teaching their wards openly confess that they will not hesitate to remove their wards from such schools to different schools. Again, another barrier militating against the policy is that some schools disregard the language policy. In some schools, speaking L1 is prohibited. This has affected the pupils’ participation in class. This is in line with the findings of a study done in some schools in Nigeria, “English is used as a medium of instruction contrary to the language in education policy that states that the national languages – dominant mother tongues – should be used as the medium of instruction for primary education” (Alemu & Abebayehu, 2011). The above revelation is corroborated by Dearden (2014), who posits that “English as a medium of instruction is more frequently used by the private sector of education than the public sector”. However, this research shows that the practice of English only is gradually creeping into the public systems. It is also observed that even those teachers who are speakers of the L1 refused to teach the pupils in the L1 with the excuse of helping the non-Dangme speakers. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Poor supervision by policy formulators has contributed to the poor implementation of the policy; for the period this research has been carried out, no supervisor has been seen ensuring that teachers adhere to the guideline of the language policy. 4.9 Effective implementation of the language policy It is observed in the research that, the language in education policy would not achieve any impact if effective implementing steps are not taken. To this end, there must be a conscious effort to ensure that pupils are rigorously taken through the L1 rudiments that will help them in the learning process. This is summarized in Desai’s (2012) findings that, to undertake mother tongue education successfully, teachers must observe the following: “Firstly, pupils at schools are not ready to switch to the English Language as a medium at the beginning of Grade 4. Secondly, pupils need to develop their cognitive academic language proficiency in their community so that they can use their mother tongue for learning. For this to happen, pupils need to be exposed to academic texts in their mother tongue. Thirdly, pupils need to be exposed to regular engagement in both their mother tongue and English. Reading involves much more than decoding. Fourthly, pupils need frequent and regular opportunities to write various kinds of texts to develop their productive skills in both their mother tongue and English”. Again, it is observed that translanguaging and bilingualism play a significant role during the lesson delivered by teachers. In classes where there are minority speakers, the teachers can mix switches to help those students who cannot speak the L1. Williams (1994) posits that “Trans-languaging pedagogy is an important means of reaching out to language minority pupils, as it helps to develop their linguistic strengths. In this situation, both trans-languaging and bilingualism have much influence on classroom interactions as a medium of instruction and it brings maximum benefits to the learner. The different languages used by the teachers create a liberal linguistic environment in the classroom which helps pupils to access tuition through the language they are more comfortable with”. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10 Chapter Summary This chapter looks at the presentation, analysis, and discussion of the results of the research. Tables and charts are used in the presentation and analysis of the data obtained. The data analysis seeks to answer the language policies adopted by teachers and the attitude of parents towards language policies in operation in the classrooms. First and foremost, the study shows that there is the presence of minority speakers such as Ga, Twi, and Ewe in the classrooms. The study also reveals that the language in education policy is not well implemented in most schools. This is because there is the existence of minority speakers (pupils) in the classroom and therefore, adhering strictly to the policy will disadvantage some pupils in the class. Due to this situation, teachers rely on other languages to ensure everybody benefits from the lesson – the concept of translanguaging – a pedagogical practice where more than one language is used in teaching and learning to enhance better understanding. Aside from this, a study has revealed that even though, the language in education policy has advocated for the use of the dominant L1 in the school for lesson delivery, both categories of teachers – those who understand Dangme and those who do not – use English in their teaching and occasionally, rely on other languages - Dangme, Ga, and Twi to support the minority language speakers. Again, it is clear from the submission that, most parents are not privy to the details of the language in education policy, and the practices in the classrooms. They also do not understand the link between the instruction of their wards in the L1 and the crucial role it plays in the child’s learning of the English Language. However, most parents prefer English as a medium of instruction for their wards with the reason that they will earn better jobs in the future. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To conclude, the language in education policy must be modified to address the linguistic diversity in schools. Secondly, teachers’ language background needs to be looked at before assigning them to lower classes. Lastly, teachers must be equipped with the skills in translanguaging strategies to enhance effective teaching and learning. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATION 5.0 Introduction The study comprises the summary of the entire research, and the conclusion which is drawn from the findings of the study. It concludes a recommendation to policymakers concerning language policy in education, teachers, and suggestion for further studies. 5.1 Summary of the findings The study seeks to focus on language in education policy, practiced language policies in Ghanaian classrooms, and attitudes of parents towards what is practiced at the lower primary schools. Data is collected from three public schools and the analysis of the data brings to light some findings which are prevalent in all the participating schools. These findings include: • Some pupils cannot speak the dominant language of the locality (minority language/dialect speakers). Such minority languages are Ewe, Akan (Twi), Ga, and Hausa.  Some teachers could not speak the dominant L1 (Dangme) – the main specified medium of instruction and therefore resort to English as the medium of instruction in violation of the policy on the medium of instruction of the lower primary.  The study also reveals that some parents prefer the use of English as a medium of instruction to the dominant L1 (Dangme).  Some parents are not aware of the language practices vis - a- vis the language in education policy and what it entails.  There is in some cases the concurrent use of English, Dangme, and another minority language in lesson delivery – the application of the concept of translanguaging. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  The study also reveals that English has become the common ground for both teachers who did not understand the Dangme (L1) and the pupils who do not also understand the L1. Hence some teachers teach using more English than Dangme.  The interview conducted for both pupils and parents indicates a high preference for English rather than the dominant L1 (Dangme). The reason is that, it will guarantee them better employment and be well placed in society. 5.2 Conclusion The findings collated in the three schools point to the fact that the language policy at the implementation level is a fiasco. That is, teachers, go contrary to what is stipulated in the language in education policy. The findings indicate that some teachers use English in their lessons rather that the L1 (Dangme, and sometimes, Ga and Twi.) This is a result of some teachers` inability to speak the L1 and as a matter of fact, they have no choice but to use the languages available to them in their lessons irrespective of the problem it may pose to the learners. Furthermore, in a situation where the teacher can speak the L1 (Dangme) the minority speakers in the classroom are somewhat left out. As the teacher occasionally speaks English to help them understand the lesson but more often than not, it does not help them and vice versa. To this end, Ghana Education Service has to ensure that teachers in the lower primary are implementing the policy to the latter. This could be done through adequate supervision, monitoring, and continuous organisation of language workshops and in-service training. Also, the attitudes of parents towards the practiced language policy are worrying. Most parents are not bothered about the languages their wards are instructed in. Even though, they have their preferences nobody questioned what is going on in the classroom. These attitudes of parents from the findings emanate from their lack of knowledge of the relevance of the language in 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education policy in general hence, the need to provide adequate education to the parents to help them understand the policy thereby supporting its implementation. Again, the concept of translanguaging is gaining ground in schools. It is becoming a common practice in the classroom. Therefore, it would be prudent if teachers are equipped with the requisite skills and knowledge in translanguaging as a pedagogical practice in the lower primaries. Finally, the observation made revealed that teacher deployment is not scrutinized based on the language in education policy hence, making the implementation of the policy difficult. This situation could easily be resolved if teacher deployment is linked to the language background of the teacher. 5.3 Recommendation for policymakers and Ghana Education Service  The study is vital to teachers, GES, and policymakers in education, in that, the findings have shown that what is practiced in the classroom is contrary to what is enshrined in the language in education policy.  The study showed that Ghanaian classrooms are multilingual in nature and language differences and language barriers have posed a lot of challenges in the implementation of the language policy in education. As a result, the researcher recommends that; the L1 of teachers posted to the lower primary must be considered. This will ensure that teachers posted to basic schools can use the dominant L1 in their lesson delivery as specified in the language in education policy.  Furthermore, educational policy planners should take a second look at language in education policy. It should be flexible to address the multilingual situations in the classrooms. That is, teachers at the lower primary should be allowed to rely on more than one language in the lesson delivery. This will enhance proper understanding as 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh every student both the majority and the minority speakers in the classroom are taken care of.  Again, translanguaging as a pedagogical approach should be encouraged in a multilingual classroom, especially, in lower primary schools. Translanguaging is an important educational practice where teachers integrate and alternate languages available in the classrooms for the merits of all students, especially, at the lower primary. With this approach, students can utilize their languages in a manner that serves the repertoire of their linguistic background.  In addition, it is worth recommending that parents must take a keen interest in the practices that go on in the classrooms regarding the medium of instruction in lesson delivery.  Also, the findings identify in the study will create awareness among teachers as implementers of the language policy, GES, parents, and policymakers in education.  Finally, the nine recognised Ghanaian languages should be made compulsory at all colleges of education. 5.4 Suggestion for further studies The study is done in only three selected public schools at Ningo in the Ningo Prampram District of the Greater Accra Region. And considering its small sample size, it cannot be generalized. Hence, the researcher recommends that wider research should be undertaken concerning the language in education policy, what is practiced as well as parents' concerns about the practices in the classrooms. Based on this, I suggest that: 1. A similar study should be done in all sixteen Regions in Ghana to bring out the actual picture on the ground. With this, more authentic generalizations and conclusions can 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh be made concerning the language in education policy, practices, and attitudes of Ghanaian parents. 2. A study should be done on the use of the L1 and the L2 to bring to the fore which language is preferred by pupils as well as the performance of pupils. 3. A study should be done on the attitudes of parents, teachers, and pupils regarding the language policy, and the practices in the classrooms. 4. A study should be conducted on whether the learning of the Ghanaian language is compulsory for colleges of education in Ghana in Cognizance of the language in education policy. 5. The research should be replicated using quantitative research with a larger sample size. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adika, G. (2012). English in Ghana: Growth Tensions, and Trends. International Journal of Language Translation and intercultural communication. DOI: 1012681/Ijitic. 17. Aghenta, J. A. (1984). Towards a systems Approach to the Planning of Secondary Education in Nigeria, in Adesina, Segun and Ogusaju (eds), Secondary Education in Nigeria, Ile-Ife University of Ife Press. Alemu, D. S., Abebayehu, A. (2011). The impact of language policy and practice on children’s learning. Unicef. Ethiopia. Alexander, R. J. (2000). Culture and pedagogy: international comparison in primary education. Oxford: Blackwell. Amissah, P., Andoh-Kumi, K., Asare-Amoah, S., Awedoba, A., Mensah, F., Wilmot, E., & Miske, S. (2001). IEQ2/Ghana Final report: The implementation of Ghana’s school language policy. America Institute for Research. Andoh-Kumi, K. (1998). Medium of instruction at the basic education level: does it matter? Legon Journal of the Humanities, 11, 119-146. Ansah, G. N. (2014). Re-examining the fluctuations in language-in-education policies in post- independence Ghana. Multilingual education, 4(1), 12. Anyidoho, A. (2018). Shifting sands: Language policies in education in Ghana and implementation challenges. Ghana Journal of Linguistics, 7(2), 225-243. Baker, C. (2001). Foundation of bilingual education and Bilingualism: multilingual Matters Ltd. Clevedon. Baker, C. (2011). Foundations of bilingual education and bilingualism. Bristol: Multilingual Matters. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ball, J. (2010). Educational equity for children from diverse language backgrounds: mother tongue-based bilingual or multilingual education in the early years: summary. Bamberger-Hayim, A. (2018). The Importance of Mother Tongue. Global Media Journal, 16(31),1. Bamgbose, A., 1991. Language and the Nation: The language question in Sub-Saharan Africa. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press for the International African Institute Bartram, B. (2006). Attitudes to language learning: a comparative study of peer group influences. Language and learning journal, 33:1, 47-52. DOI:10.1080/9571730685200101. Bartolome, L. I. (1994). Beyond the methods fetish: Toward a humanizing pedagogy, Havard Educational Review, 64(2), 173-194. Belmiah, H., Elhami, M (2015). English as a medium of in the Gulf: when students and teachers speak, Language policy. Vol. 14, ISSN 1568-4555. Benson, C. (2004). The importance of mother tongue-based schooling for educational quality. commissioned study for EFA Global Monitoring Report, 24. Butler, Y. G. (2012). The Hanbook of Bilingualism and Multilingualism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd. 2nd ed. Byrnes, D. A., Kiger, G., & Manning, M. L. (1997). Teachers' attitudes about language diversity. Teaching and teacher education, 13(6), 637-644. Celic, C., Seltzer, K. (2012). Translanguaging: CUNY-NYSIEB, a collaborative project of the Research Institute for the study of language in urban society (RISLUS). Cook, V. (2001). Using the first language in the classroom. Canadian modern language review, 57(3), 402-423. Cooper, D. R. (2008). Business Research Methods. NewYork: McGraw Hill 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CREATE (2010). Complementary education and access to primary schooling in Northern Ghana. Retrieved from http://www.createpc.org/pdf document/Ghana policy Brief 2.pdf Cummins, J. (1976). The Influence of Bilingualism on Cognitive Growth: A Synthesis of Research Findings and Explanatory Hypotheses. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 9. Cummins, J. (1979). Cognitive/Academic Language Proficiency, Linguistic Interdependence, the Optimum Age Question, and Some Other Matters. Working Papers on Bilingualism, No. 19. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic interdependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of educational research, 49(2), 222-251. Cummins, J. (1980). The cross-lingual dimensions of language proficiency: Implications for bilingual education and the optimal age issue. TESOL Quarterly, 175-187. Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Masters. Cummins, J. (2007). Rethinking monolingual instructional strategies in multilingual classrooms. Canadian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 10, 221-240. Cummins, J. (2008). The empirical and theoretical status of the distinction. In Encyclopedia of language and education 2 (2), 71-83. Cuevas J. (1996). Educating limited-English proficient students: A review of the research on school programs and classroom practice s. San Francisco, CA: WestEd. Dako, K., & Quarcoo, M. A. (2017). Attitudes towards English in Ghana. Legon Journal of the Humanities, 28 (1), 20-30. Dearden, J. (2014). English as a medium of instruction– a growing global phenomenon. Oxford. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Denzin, N. K., and Lincoln, Y. S. (2000). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin and Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed., pp. 1-29). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 120 Desai, N. (2012). Challenges in the development of nanoparticle-based therapeutics. The AAPS journal, 14(2), 282-295. Díaz, S., Perez, (2015). The IPBES Conceptual Framework—connecting nature and people. Current opinion in environmental sustainability, 14, 1-16. . Dulay, H., Burt, M. & Krashen, S. (1982). Language two. New York: Open University Press. Djorbua, C. (2019). The role of English as a medium of instruction in lower primary school. Mphil Thesis. Department of English, University of Ghana, Legon. Gardner, R. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning. The attitudes and motivation. London. 205pp. García, O. (2009). Bilingual Education in the 21st Century: A Global Perspective. Malden, MA: Willey-Bllack. García, O., Kano, N. (2014). Translanguaging as process and pedagogy: Developing the English Writing of Japanese students in the US. Channel View Publications Ltd, Bristol/Blue Ridge Summit García, O., & Wei, L. (2014). Translanguaging. The Encyclopedia of Applied Linguistics, 1-7. Gbenedio, B. V. (1990). Problems of Implementing the Nigeria National Language Policy. The case of instruction through the mother tongue at the lower primary classes. Ekladolor Journal of Education. Vol. June p47-58. Ghana Statistical Service (2014). 2010 Population and Housing Census, District analytical report, Accra. Goleman, D. (1996). Emotional Intelligence. Why it can Matter more than IO? Learning, 24, 49 -50. Gravett, S., Geyser, H. (2004). Teaching and learning in higher education. Pretoria: Vav Schaik. 22-31 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gumperz, J. (1982). Discourse strategies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Guerini, F., 2008. Multilingualism and language attitudes in Ghana: A preliminary survey. ETHNOREMA Lingue, Popolie Culture 4.4: 1-27. Gumede, V. (1996). Public sector reforms and policy – making: a case of education in an emerging Developmental South Africa, inKanjee, A., Nkomo, M. and Sayed, Y. (eds), the search for quality education in post-apartheid South Africa. Pretoria: HRSC Press. Harris, G. (2012). Phytoplankton ecology: structure, function, and fluctuation. Springer Science & Business Media. Hessen, S., Seltzer, K. &Woodley, H. H. (2014). Translanguaging in curriculum and instruction: A CUNY-NYSIEB Guide for Educators. Retrieved from www.cuny- nysieb.org. Huber, M. (2008). Ghanaian English: Phonology. In Varieties of English, 4, 67 – 92 Hua, Z., Li, W., Lyons, A (2015). Language, Business and Superdiversity in London: Translanguaging Business. Working papers in Translanguaging and Translation (WP.5) Ibraham, Jalaludeen & Sadiya A. Gwandu (2006). Language Policy on Education in Nigeria: Challenges and Future of the English Language. American Research Journal.Vol.2; pp10. ISSN:2378-9026. Jenkin, R. (2014). Social Identity. Hoboken, Nj: Routledge Karvonen, H. (2017). English as a medium of instruction: benefits and challenges as viewed by Founders of International Schools in Ethiopia. Master’s Thesis. The University of Turku. Kay Leherr Education Development Center (2009). National Literacy Acceleration Program (NALAP) Baseline Assessment. USAID/Ghana. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kormos, J., Csizer, K. (2003). Age-related differences in the motivation of learning English as a foreign language: attitudes, selves and motivated learning behavior. Language learning, 58,327-355. Korm-Nouri, R., Moniri, S., & Nilsson, L-G. (2003). Episodic and semantic memory in bilingual and monolingual children. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 44, 47-54. Kraft, R. J. (2003). Primary Education in Ghana; Strategic Objective Eight (SO8) Improved Quality and Access to Basic Education Some Preliminary Thoughts and Reactions. USAID-Ghana Kropp-Dakubu,, M. E. and Florence Dolphyne. Eds. 1988. Languages of Ghana. London: Kegan Paul International Lauchlan, F. R. A. S. E. R., Fadda, R. O. B. E. R. T. A., Boyle, C., & Topping, K. J. (2012). The “Italian model” of full inclusion: Origins and current directions. What works in inclusion, 31-40. Lewis, C., Perry, R., Friedkin, S., Fisher, L., Disston, J., Foster, D. (2012). Using Japanese curriculum materials to support lesson study outside Japan: Towards coherent curriculum Japanese Journal of Educational Research, 6, 5-9 Lindholm-Leary, K. J. (2001). Dual language education. Multilingual Matters. Long, M. (1985). Input and second language acquisition theory. In S. Gass and C. Madden (Eds) Input in second language acquisition (pp, 377-393). Rowley. MA: Newbury House. Long, M. And Robinson, P. (1998). Focus on form: Theory, research, and practice. In C. Doughty &. Williams (Eds). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition (pp, 15-63). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Lightbrown, P. M. and Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Makoni, S., Pennycook, A. (2007). Translanguaging pedagogies and English as lingual Franca. Cambridge University Press. Malone, D. L. (2003). Developing curriculum materials for endangered language education: Lessons from the field. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 6(5), 332-348. Mclaughlin, B. (1984). Second language acquisition in childhood: Vol.1 Preschool children (2nd Ed.). Boston, MA: Erlbaum. (ERIC Document No. ED154604) Markin-Yankah, Marian. 1999. “Language Policy in Basic Education- An Assessment of its Implementation in the Shama-Ahanta East District.” M.Phil. thesis, Department of Linguistics, University of Ghana, Legon. Martin, J. (2005). The Language of Evaluation: Appraisal in English. Palgrave Macmillan. DOI-10.1057/9780230511910 Maybin, J. (1994). Teaching writing: Process or genre. In: Brindley, Sue ed. Teaching English. London: Routledge, pp. 186-194. Ministry of Education Science and Sports (CRDD). (2012). Teaching syllabuses for the English language (Primary 1-4). http://www.ges.gov.gh/PRIMARYSYLLABUS/ENGLISH%20PRIMARY 2013.pdf. Ministry of education (2000). Zambian Primary Reading Program. Journal of Lexicography and Terminology. Vol. 2, Issue 2. Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative Data Analysis. SAGE Publications Ltd, 6 Bonhill Street, London EC2A PU. United Kingdom. Mwinsheikhe, H. M. (2009). Spare no means: Battling with English/Kiswahili dilemma in Tanzanian secondary school classroom. In B. brock-Utne and I. Skattum (eds). 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Language and education in Africa: a comparative and transdisciplinary analysis (223-235). UK: Symposium. Njoroge, M. C., Gathigia, M. G. (2011). Teacher’s perceptions on the use of African languages in the curriculum: A case study of schools in Kenya, East Africa. Political science. Kenya. O’Connor, O. A. (2005). Clinical experience with intravenous and oral formulations of the novel histone deacetylase inhibitor suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid in heavily pretreated patients with hematological malignancies. In Hematology Meeting Reports (formerly Haematologica Reports) (Vol. 1, No. 8). Ogunbiyi, O. (2008). The Challenges of Languages Teaching in the 21st century. Faculty of Education, Lagos State University, Ojo. Nigeria. Medwell Journals Pakistan Journal of Social Sciences 5(4) 279-299 ISSN: 1683-881. Okeke, B. S., et. al. (1985). A Handbook on Educational Administration. Owerris New African Publishing Co. Ltd. Oliver, M. (2009). Understanding disability: From theory to practice. Macmillan International Higher Education. Owu-Ewie, C. (2006). Selected Proceedings of the 35th Annual Conference on African Linguistics, (ed). John et al., 76-85. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Owu-Ewie, C., Edu-Buandoh, D. F. (2014). Living with Negative Attitudes towards the Study of L1 in Ghanaian Senior High Schools (SHS). Ghana Journal of Linguistics 3.2: 1- 25. Ouedraogo, R. M. (2000). Language planning and language policies in some selected West African countries. Burkina Faso: IICBA. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Patrinos, H. A., & Velez, E. (2009). Costs and benefits of bilingual education in Guatemala: A partial analysis. International Journal of Educational Development, 29(6), 594-598. Pinnock, H., & Vijayakumar, G. (2009). Language and education: the missing link: how the language used in schools threatens the achievement of Education for All. CfBT Education Trust. Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Competitive Intelligence Review, 1(1), 14-14. Phillipson, R. 1992. Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford. Oxford University Press. Prah, K. K., 2009. Mother-tongue education in Africa for emancipation and development: Towards the intellectualization of African languages. In B. Brock-Utne and I. Skattum (eds.), Languages and Education in Africa: A comparative and transdisciplinary analysis (83-104). UK: Symposium Books. Rutu foundation, (2010). Mother Tongue Education. R. J. H. Fortuynstraat 185 1019 Wk Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Salazar, P. S. (2010). In this issue. SAGE Publications: DOI:10.1177//0192636510396030. Salazar, M. D. C., (2013). A Humanizing Pedagogy: Reviewing the Principles and Practises of Education as a Journey Towards Liberation, Review of Research in Education. SAGE San, Jose Mercury News (1997). Schwartz, M., Mor-Sommerfeld, A., & Leikin, M. (2010). Facing bilingual education: Kindergarten teachers’ attitudes, strategies, and challenges. Language Awareness, 19(3), 187-203. Schwartz, S. (2013), Value priorities and behavior: Applying. In The psychology of values: The Ontario symposium (Vol. 8). 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Schilling, Natalie (2013). Sociolinguistic Fieldwork. Cambridge University Press. Pp. xi, 313. Seligson, P. (1997). Helping Students to Speak. Spain: Richmond Publishing. Shohamy, E. (2006). Language policy: hidden agenda and new approaches. London: Routledge. Short, D. J., & Fitzsimmons, S. (2007). Double the work: Challenges and solutions to acquiring language and academic literacy for adolescent English language learners: A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York. Alliance for Excellent Education. Simons, G. F. and C.D. Fennig, eds. (2018). Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Twenty- first edition. Dallas, Texas: SIL International. Online version: http://www.ethnologue.com. Skehan, P. (1989): individual differences in second-language learning. London: Edward Arnold, 168pp Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (2000). Linguistic human rights and teachers of English. In The sociopolitics of English language teaching (pp. 22-44). Multilingual Matters. Skutnabb-Kangas, T., & Toukomaa, P. (1976). Teaching migrant children's mother tongue and learning the language of the host country in the context of the socio-cultural situation of the migrant family (Vol. 15). the University of Tampere, Department of Sociology and Social Psychology. Tembe, J. &Norton, B. (2008). Promoting local languages in Ugandan primary schools: the community as stakeholders. Canadian Modern Language Review, 65(1), 33-60. Tobian, A. A., Serwadda, D., Quinn, T. C., Kigozi, G., Gravitt, P. E., Laeyendecker, O., & Gray, R. H. (2009). Male circumcision for the prevention of HSV-2 and HPV infections and syphilis. New England Journal of Medicine, 360(13), 1298-1309. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Toukomaa, P., & Skutnabb-Kangas, T. (1977). The intensive teaching of the mother tongue to migrant children at pre-school age. Department of sociology, University of Tampere. Tsuchiya, K. (2017). Co-constructing a translanguaging space: analyzing a Japanese group discussion in a CLIL Classrooms at a University: John Benjamins Publishing Company, Yokohama. UNESCO (953). The use of vernacular languages in education. Monographs on Foundations of Education, No. 8. Paris: UNESCO. UNESCO. (1992). Declaration on the rights of persons belonging to National or Ethnic, Religious, and Linguistic Minorities. New York. United Nations. . UNESCO (2008b). Mother Tongue Matters: Local Language as a Key to Effective Learning. Paris: UNESCO. United States Department of Economic and Social Affairs. (2016), Population of Ghana Retrieved from www.un.org/esa/population Vogel, E. A., Rose, J. P., Roberts, L. R., & Eckles, K. (2014). Social Comparison, social media and self-Esteem. Psychology of Popular Media culture, 3, 206 Wallstrum, K. (2009). Benefits of Dual Language Education. Online Submission. Walker, A., Shafer, J., Liams, M. (2004). Not in Classroom: Teacher attitudes towards English Language Learners in the Mainstream Classroom. National Association for Bilingual Education Journal of Research and Practice, 2 (1), 130-160. Webb, V. (1992). Language attitudes in South Africa: Implication for a post-apartheid democracy. In Thirty Years of Linguistic Evolution (p. 429). John Benjamin. Williams, C. (1994). [An evaluation of teaching and learning methods in the context of 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh bilingual secondary education] (Unpublished Ph.D. thesis). Bangor: University of Wales. World Languages. (2021). Massachusetts Curriculum Framework for World Languages. Massachusetts. https:www.doe.mass.edu> Yeung, A. Marsh, H. & Sulliman, R. (2000). Can two tongues live in harmony: Analysis of National Education Longitudinal Study of 19988 (NELS88) longitudinal data on the maintenance of home language. American Education Research Journal, 37(4), 1001- 1026. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES INTERVIEW GUIDE A. TEACHERS 1. What is your mother tongue? 2. What is the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 3. Do you speak the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 4. What is your educational background? 5. What language do you use to teach your pupils? 6. Do you have pupils who do not understand the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 7. How do you support them (the minority language speakers) during lesson delivery? 8. What do you know about the instructional language policy at the lower primary level? 9. Do you go by the policy when teaching your pupils? 10. Do you use English as a medium of instruction at any point in your teaching? 11. Why do you use or not use English? 12. Are you satisfied with your pupils’ performance per the language of instruction that you use? 13. Do you have anything else to tell the researcher? Thank you 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh INTERVIEW GUIDE B. PUPILS 1. What is your mother tongue? 2. What is the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 3. Do you understand the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 4. What language does your teacher use to teach you? 5. What language do you want your teacher to use to teach you? 6. Does your teacher use English to teach you sometimes? 7. Why does he use or not use English? 8. Do you understand him when he uses English? 9. What language do you use to ask questions in class? 10. What language does your teacher use to explain things to you? 11. Do you have any questions for the researcher? Thank you 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PARENTS 1. What is your mother tongue? 2. What is the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 3. Do you speak the dominant L1 spoken in this community? 4. What language do you speak at home with your Ward? 5. What is your educational background? 6. Are you aware or not of the language the teacher use in teaching your ward? 7. What language do you prefer for your ward to be instructed in? 8. Why do you prefer that language (your choice) to be used as a medium of instruction? 9. What will you say about the language policy in education? 10. Do you think your ward's teacher is going by the policy or not? 11. Do you think something should be done about the policy? 12. What do you think should be done? 14. Are you satisfied with your child’s performance per the language of instruction that your Ward’s teacher use? 15. Do you have any suggestions to make? Thank you. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PERMISSION LETTER Box 111 Ada- Foah 10th January, 2020. ………………………………….. ………………………………….. ………………………………….. Dear Sir/Madam, PERMISSION TO COLLECT DATA IN YOUR SCHOOL. I write to seek your permission to undertake a data collection exercise in your school from January 11th, 2021 to 6th February 2021 as part of a research project. I am a Mphil student of English at the University of Ghana. I am researching the topic: Language in education policy, practice, and attitude in Ghanaian classrooms: a case study of three selected schools in the Ningo-Prampram district. I would be grateful if you could permit me to collect my data in the lower primary classrooms. This will involve interviewing some pupils and parents. I would observe and record all classroom lesson delivery. All activities and materials will be kept confidential and no participant will be identified by name in the thesis. I hope my permission would be granted. Thank you. Yours faithfully, ………....……………… Christiana Anim. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CONSENT FORM MPHIL RESEARCH PARTICIPATION This research is to study Language in education policy, practice, and attitude in Ghanaian classrooms. It is designed for a master`s thesis research conducted by Christiana Anim in fulfillment of the requirements for a Master of Philosophy degree in English at the University of Ghana, Legon. I consent that:  I will take part in this academic exercise.  During interviews, I may choose not to answer any question(s) that make(s) me uncomfortable.  I may also choose to withdraw from the study at any time.  Notes and audio recordings will be kept confidential and will be available only to the researcher and the individual participants will not be identified by name in the thesis.  I have carefully read the content of this form, understood it, and personally signed it. Questions or concerns regarding participation in this research should be directed to the researcher at christianatsiri@gmail.com …………………………………. ……………………………………. Signature Date ……………………………………… Name of the participant. Please, return this form unsigned if you are not willing to participate in this study. ----------------------------------- ------------------------------------- Signature Date ……………………………………….. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Researcher. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Official Use Only Protocol number Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH) PROTOCOL CONSENT FORM Section A- BACKGROUND INFORMATION Title of Study: Language in – Education Policy, Practise and Attitude in Ghanaian classrooms: a case study of three selected schools in the Ningo Prampram District. Principal Investigator: Certified Protocol Number 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section B–CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH General Information about Research  To investigate the language policy and the practices in the classrooms and the attitudes of parents to the practiced language policy.  10 minutes will be spent with each participant for an interview and twenty minutes for classroom audio recording. (35 minutes in all)  Participants will be recorded (audio) and interviewed Benefits/Risks of the study  Participants may feel comfortable with the recording because it will be an audio recording. Therefore, participants may not be tense.  Ten cedis airtime will be given to participants to appreciate their time and willingness to participate in the data collection process.  To protect the participants’ identity, they will be recorded in an enclosed environment within the school. Participants who feel uncomfortable with the process will be excluded as a way of protecting his/her right to participate in the process. Confidentiality  None of the names of the participants will be mentioned in the analysis of data. Pseudo- names will be given to the participants.  Recorded data will solely be available to the researcher’s supervisors including other academic communities if so requires. Compensation  Participants will be compensated with airtime, a notepad, erasers, and pencils.  Each participant will be compensated with ten Cedis airtime for their time and willingness to participate in the data collection process. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Each participant will receive the package immediately after he/she is done with the interview session. Withdrawal from Study  No participants will be compelled to part take in data collection if he or she is not interested.  Participants have the free will to discontinue the data collection procedure at any time special when they feel uncomfortable with the process.  After data collection, participants have 3 weeks to withdraw from the study.  If a participant falls sick and he/she is not willing to partake in the study or he/she feels is no longer interested in the study, his/her participation will be terminated If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant in this study you may contact the Administrator of the Ethics Committee for Humanities, ISSER, the University of Ghana at ech@ug.edu.gh or 00233- 303-933-866. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section C-PARTICIPANT AGREEMENT "I have read or have had someone read all of the above, asked questions, received answers regarding participation in this study, and am willing to give consent for me, my child/ward to participate in this study. I will not have waived any of my rights by signing this consent form. Upon signing this consent form, I will receive a copy for my records." ________________________________________________ Name of Participant _________________________________________________ ___________________ Signature or mark of Participant Date If the participant cannot read and or understand the form themselves, a witness must sign here: I was present while the benefits, risks, and procedures were read to the volunteer. All questions were answered and the volunteer has agreed to take part in the research. _________________________________________________ Name of witness ________________________________________________ _______________________ Signature of witness / Mark Date 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I certify that the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research have been explained to the above individual. __________________________________________________ Name of Person who Obtained Consent ___________________________________________ ______________________ Signature of Person Who Obtained Consent Date 100