UNIVERSITY OF GHANA  

COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 

(CENTRE FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES) 

 

 

 

DECENTRALISATION AND AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE 

HO WEST DISTRICT OF GHANA 

BY 

THEOPHILIUS KODZO DZAKAKLO 

(10806177) 

 

 

 

 

THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 

LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE 

AWARD OF THE MASTER OF RESEARCH AND PUBLIC POLICY 

DEGREE.  

 

 

 

APRIL 2022 

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DECLARATION 

I hereby declare that this thesis is an original academic work produced by me at the 

Center for Social Policy Studies of the University of Ghana, for the award of the Master 

of Research and Public Policy Degree. All materials and documents used in this study 

have been duly cited and acknowledged.  

 

Name of Student:    THEOPHILIUS KODZO DZAKAKLO 

Student Number:    10806177 

      

Signature:    …………………………………… 

Date:     11TH JULY 2022 

 

Supervisor:    Dr. Austin Dziwornu Ablo 

      

Signature:    ………………………………… 

Date:     11TH JULY 2022 

 

 

 

 

 

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT  

My first and foremost gratitude goes to the Almighty God for his mercies. In addition, 

my appreciation goes to Dr. Austin Dziwornu Ablo for his tremendous supervision and 

the impact he made on me. I also thank my mother, Veronica Quashie, and my daughter, 

Regina Venunye Fofoh; and all those who directly and indirectly supported me in 

carrying out this academic work, particularly my colleagues on the Master of Research 

and Public Policy 2019 batch, especially Amos Quashie Ahiaku. I finally extend my 

appreciation to all the farmers in the Ho West District, the technical staff of the Ho 

West District Department of Agriculture, and the core staff of the Ho West District 

Assembly for their assistance towards the completion of this work.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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DEDICATION 

This thesis is dedicated to my lovely daughter, Regina Venunye; my mother, Veronica 

Quashie; not forgetting Jessica Ahiekpor, Jessica Aforve, Jaspa Aforve, Cletus Ayivie, 

and Blessing Ahiekpor.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Content                                               Page 

DECLARATION........................................................................................................... i 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................... ii 

DEDICATION.............................................................................................................iii 

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................... ix 

LIST OF TABLE ......................................................................................................... x 

ABBREVIATIONS ..................................................................................................... xi 

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... xii 

CHAPTER ONE .......................................................................................................... 1 

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................ 1 

1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................... 1 

1.2 Statement of the Problem ....................................................................................... 3 

1.3 Research Objective ................................................................................................. 5 

1.3.1 Specific Objectives of the Study ........................................................................... 5 

1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................. 6 

1.5 Scope of the study ................................................................................................... 6 

1.6 Significance of the study ........................................................................................ 7 

1.7 The Organisation of the Study .............................................................................. 7 

CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................... 9 

LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................................... 9 

2.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................. 9 

2.1 Overview of Ghana’s Decentralisation ................................................................ 9 

2.2 The Structure of Ghana's Decentralisation System .......................................... 12 

2.3 Local Government Funding in Ghana ................................................................ 13 

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2.4 Forms of Decentralisation .................................................................................... 14 

2.4.1 Political decentralization ...................................................................................... 14 

2.4.2 Administrative decentralisation .......................................................................... 15 

2.4.3 Fiscal decentralization .......................................................................................... 16 

2.5 Empirical Literature Review ............................................................................... 18 

2.6 Challenges to Ghana's Decentralisation ............................................................. 22 

2.7 Decentralisation and Agricultural Development .............................................. 23 

2.8 Agricultural Sector in Ghana ............................................................................... 26 

2.9 Agriculture and Food Security ............................................................................ 28 

2.10 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................ 30 

CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................................... 36 

METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 36 

3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 36 

3.1 Study Area Profile ................................................................................................ 36 

3.1.1 Location, Size and Population of the Study Area ............................................. 36 

3.1.2 Agriculture ............................................................................................................. 37 

3.2 Research Paradigm ............................................................................................... 38 

3.3 Research Approach ............................................................................................... 39 

3.4 Population, Sampling Technique and Sample Size of the Study .................... 40 

3.4.1 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques for the Study ..................................... 41 

3.5 Methods of Data Collection ................................................................................. 43 

3.5.1 Survey ..................................................................................................................... 43 

3.5.2 Interviews ............................................................................................................... 43 

3.6 Data Analysis Methods ........................................................................................ 44 

3.7 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 45 

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3.8 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 45 

CHAPTER FOUR ...................................................................................................... 47 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................................ 47 

4.0  Introduction........................................................................................................... 47 

4.1  Demographic Characteristics ............................................................................. 47 

4.1.1  Sex of Respondents ............................................................................................. 47 

4.1.2 Age of Respondents .............................................................................................. 48 

4.1.3  Educational level of Farmers .............................................................................. 49 

4.1.4 Profile of Research Participants from the Ho West District Assembly and the 

Department of Agriculture. ................................................................................ 50 

4.2 Extent of Agricultural sector decentralisation and its influence on food 

security. ................................................................................................................. 51 

4.2.1 Extent of Political Decentralisation of the Agricultural Sector ...................... 51 

4.2.1.1 Participation in Decision-making Process ....................................................... 52 

4.2.1.2 Strategies for Ensuring Active Participation of Stakeholders in the District

 ............................................................................................................................... 54 

4.2.2 Extent of Administrative Decentralisation of the Agricultural Department . 56 

4.2.3 Extent of Fiscal Decentralisation of the Agriculture Department .................. 59 

4.2.4 The Link between the Department of Agriculture and the District Assembly

 ............................................................................................................................... 63 

4.2.5 Influence of Department of Agriculture Devolution in ensuring Food 

Security ................................................................................................................. 65 

4.3 Funding Mechanisms and Dynamics for the Agriculture Sector in the Ho 

West District. ....................................................................................................... 68 

4.3.1 The District Assemblies Common Fund. ........................................................... 68 

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4.3.2 Modernisation of Agriculture in Ghana Fund ................................................... 69 

4.3.3 Government of Ghana (Goods and Services) .................................................... 70 

4.3.4 Other Funding for Specific Projects ................................................................... 71 

4.3.5 Budgeting System for the Ho West Department of Agriculture. .................... 71 

4.3.6 Challenges of Agriculture Sector Funding in the Ho West District ............... 73 

4.3.6.1 Inadequate Budgetary Allocations .................................................................... 73 

4.3.6.2 Delays in Financial Allocations......................................................................... 73 

4.4 Challenges affecting the Department of Agriculture and its effects on service 

delivery to Farmers. ............................................................................................ 74 

4.4.1 Institutional Challenges ........................................................................................ 74 

4.4.1.1 Political Interference ........................................................................................... 74 

4.4.1.2 Poor Implementation Approach of the PFJ in the district .............................. 76 

4.4.1.3 Smuggling of Government Subsidised Inputs ................................................. 77 

4.4.1.4 Lack of Political Will .......................................................................................... 77 

4.4.2 Resource Challenges .............................................................................................. 78 

4.4.2.1 Human Resource Challenges ............................................................................. 78 

4.4.2.2 Financial Resource Challenges .......................................................................... 80 

4.4.2.3 Logistical Challenges .......................................................................................... 82 

4.4.2.4 Effects of Agriculture Sector Challenges on Service Delivery ..................... 83 

II. Delays in inputs allocation to Farmers ............................................................... 84 

4.9 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 85 

CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................... 86 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................. 86 

5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 86 

5.1 Summary of Findings ................................................................................................ 86 

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5.2 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 87 

5.3 Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 89 

References ................................................................................................................... 92 

QUESTIONNAIRE.................................................................................................... 99 

Appendix 2: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................ 103 

Appendix 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE ........................................................................ 105 

 

 

  

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LIST OF FIGURES  

Figure                      Page  

Figure 2. 1: The Structure of Ghana’s Local Government System.............................. 13 

Figure 3. 1: Map of the Ho West District .................................................................... 38 

Figure 4. 1: Gender Distribution of Respondents ........................................................ 48 

Figure 4. 2: Age Distribution of Respondents ............................................................. 49 

Figure 4. 3: Educational Distribution of Respondents ................................................. 50 

 

  

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LIST OF TABLE  

Table                                               Page 

Table 3. 1: Sampled Farming Communities in the Ho West District .......................... 42 

Table 4. 1: Profile of Respondents for the Interview ................................................... 50 

Table 4. 2: Farmers Assessment on the extents of political decentralisation in the    Ho 

West district. 51 

Table 4. 3: Farmers Assessment on the extents of administrative decentralisation in 

the Ho West District................................................................................... 56 

Table 4. 4: Farmers Assessment on the extents of fiscal decentralisation in the Ho 

West district. .............................................................................................. 59 

Table 4. 5: Food Crop Production figures, Demand and Deficits in Metric Tons in the 

Ho West District. ...................................................................................... 65 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

  

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ABBREVIATIONS 

AEAs   Agricultural Extension Agents 

DA   District Assemblies 

DACF   District Assemblies Common Fund 

DCE   District Chief Executive 

DoA   Department of Agriculture 

FAO   Food and Agriculture Organisation  

GDP   Gross Domestic Product  

IDI   In-Depth Interview 

IGF   Internally Generated Fund 

LI   Legislative Instrument  

MDG   Millennium Development Goals 

MMDAs  Metropolitan, Municipal & District Assemblies 

MMDCEs  Metropolitan, Municipal & District Chief Executives 

MoFA   Ministry of Food and Agriculture  

NDC   National Democratic Congress 

NDPC   National Development Planning Commission  

NPP     New Patriotic Party 

PNDC    Provisional National Defence Council 

RCC   Regional Coordinating Councils  

SDG   Sustainable Development Goals 

SSA   Sub-Saharan Africa 

USAID  United States Agency for International Development  

WB   World Bank 

 

 

 

  

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Abstract 

Most governments across the globe resorted to decentralisation of public services to the 

local government authorities as a solution to central government failures, and as a 

means to ensure popular participation in the development planning of their localities. 

The government of Ghana operationalized the decentralisation of the agriculture 

department as part of the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies in 2012 as 

a way of ensuring participation of the local stakeholders including farmers in its 

development. Against this backdrop, this study was pursued to analyse the extent, and 

the dynamics of the agricultural sector decentralisation and its contributions to food 

security in the Ho West District of Ghana. This research was conducted using a mixed 

research method with an exploratory design. A sample size of 377 consisting of food 

crop farmers, some core staff of the Ho West District Assembly and some technical 

staff of the Department of Agriculture in the Ho West District. The study revealed a 

poor implementation of decentralisation of the agriculture department which resulted 

in the lack of financial autonomy, delays in the allocation of statutory funding, and 

failure of the transfer of the needed resources to accompany the policy. In addition, the 

study showed that, even though decentralisation of the agriculture department in Ho 

West has contributed to the participation of local stakeholders in the decision-making, 

it has not translated into ensuring food security in the District. Additionally, the study 

found an incomplete fiscal decentralisation of the department resulting in lack of the 

fiscal autonomy necessary for effective operations of the department. The study 

recommends a complete fiscal decentralisation, adequate and timely allocation of 

financial resources to the department, and the need for the deployment of qualified and 

adequate number of agricultural extension agents to the District.  

 

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CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION  

1.1 Background of the Study  

During the 1980s, developing countries across the globe had a paradigm shift in their 

governance systems resulting in the decentralisation of central government functions to 

local government authorities (Ayee, 2013; Rosenbaum, 2013; Ahwoi, 2010). The 

reasons for the decentralization of governance and public services vary from continent 

to continent, and from country to country. In Eastern Europe and Asia, decentralisation 

was a political transformation from the centralised government where only very few 

participated in decision-making to a more decentralised system where many were 

involved in the decision-making process for their local development (Crawford, 2008). 

In Sri Lanka and South Africa, decentralisation was a response to both ethnic and 

regional conflicts (Muriisa, 2008).  

Ghana resorted to decentralisation in the late 1980s as part of its Structural Adjustment 

Programme and a response to the economic hardships and irresponsiveness of the 

central government to the local populace (Ayee, 2013). To make decentralisation 

effective in Ghana, colonial local government systems were revitalized to serve as 

administrative authorities at the local level (World Bank, 2013). Metropolitan, 

Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs) were created in Ghana to ensure the 

transfer of power to the grassroots.  Between the periods of 1988-89, there was a sharp 

increase in the creation of MMDAs from 65-110. Additionally, twenty-eight (28) new 

districts were created in 2004, 32 in 2008, 46 in 2012, 38 in 2018, 6 in 2019 and one 

(1) in 2020.  Currently, Ghana has two hundred and sixty-one (261) MMDAs spread 

over the length and breadth of the country (Chachu, 2021; Oxford Policy Management, 

2019). According to Ayee (2012 & 2013), the creation of MMDAs in Ghana was to 

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accelerate the socioeconomic development through local participation in the 

governance of local government territories (Ayee, 2012; Ayee, 2013).  

To ensure the development and sustainability of some relevant sectors at the local level, 

the government of Ghana operationalized the devolution of some departments including 

the Department of Agriculture as part of MMDAs in 2009. As expected, under the L.I 

1961 of the Local Government Instrument of 2009, the Department of Agriculture was 

mandated, among others, to ensure the delivery of better extension services to ensure 

food security and income generation towards the alleviation of poverty among the rural 

folks. The department was also mandated to ensure the formulation of workable policies 

at the local level to ensure the development of the agriculture sector. In addition, the 

department was to liaise with the various MMDAs in all matters of agriculture 

development at the local level (Government of Ghana, 2009).  

The agriculture sector is a major contributor to communities' socioeconomic 

development, including poverty reduction and ensuring food security (Ghana Statistical 

Service, 2020; World Bank, 2019; Ibrahim, 2014). Four agricultural subsectors 

contribute to every locality’s socioeconomic development. These subsectors are the 

crops subsector, the livestock subsector, the cocoa subsector, the fisheries subsector, 

and agro-forestry (Ghana Statistical Service, 2020; Government of Ghana, 2020). The 

crop subsector, which is the focus of this study, is categorised into four groups: 

industrial crops, root and tubers, cereals and legumes, and fruits and vegetables 

(Dzanku et al. 2013). The crops subsector, which is the largest subsector amongst the 

livestock, fisheries, and forestry subsectors of the large agricultural sector of Ghana, 

provides both food and nutrition security and the grounds for agro-industrial activities 

and export (Essegbey & Maccarthy, 2020). 

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The devolution of administration, it has been argued, spurs the provision of public 

services especially at the local level (Muhumed & Minja, 2019). The advocates of 

devolution of the agriculture sector argue that it leads to more familiarity with local 

problems affecting and hindering the progress of the sector by the local government 

officials (Faguet 2014). This has been evident in the study conducted by Gundersen, 

Kuhn, Offutt & Morehart, (2014) in the United States of America on the impact of the 

devolution of the agriculture sector. It was revealed that the devolution of the 

agriculture sector ensures improved service delivery to the farmers at the local level. 

1.2 Statement of the Problem  

Decentralisation is expected to enhance democracy, empower the local populace, and 

contribute towards poverty reduction at the local level (Maschietto, 2016). Obeng 

(2020) affirmed this assertion by stating that decentralisation of governance promotes 

democratic systems that allow the local populace to discern needs and preferences, hold 

duty bearers at the local government level accountable, and actively participate in the 

development planning at the local level (Obeng, 2020).  

Considering the above expectations of decentralization, the Government of Ghana 

through the local government instrument (LI 1961), passed by the Parliament of Ghana 

in 2009, institutionalised in 2012, operationalised sixteen (16) decentralised 

departments under the Metropolitan, thirteen (13) under Municipal and eleven (11) 

under District as part of the MMDA's. This saw the devolution of the agriculture sector 

as a department under the MMDAs. This implies that the district Department of 

Agriculture must rely on the assemblies for funding for projects and programmes rather 

than on the previous financial allocation from the Ministry of Food and Agriculture 

(Government of Ghana 2009). As a comprehensive form of decentralisation, the 

devolution of the agricultural sector entails the optimum transfer of authority, autonomy 

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and accountability to the local government authorities in the management of 

agricultural sector related initiatives. As part of the devolution exercise, section 38 (2) 

of the Local Government Act, Act 936 of 2016, calls for the introduction and 

implementation of a composite budget system for all decentralised departments, 

converting the status of all staff working in the decentralised departments under the 

local government service by placing them under the assembles (Government of Ghana, 

2016). 

 Across the globe, and in some African countries practising the decentralisation 

of the agriculture department, studies have been conducted on the topic with much focus 

on the impact of decentralisation on extension service delivery to farmers. These studies 

found a positive relationship between decentralisation and the delivery of extension 

services to farmers. For example, Oladele (2011) conducted a study in Nigeria on the 

topic and found out that decentralisation of agriculture services to local government 

authorities improved the delivery of advanced technological and extension services to 

farmers. Similar studies were conducted by Nambiro, Omiti and Mugenieri (2005), in 

Nigeria, and by Masango et al., (2017) and Badu (2010), in Kenya, and all found a 

positive relationship between decentralisation and improved extension service delivery.  

 In the Ghanaian context, studies by Tsekpo (2014), Mahama (2017) and Resnick 

(2018) were conducted on the decentralisation of the agriculture department in some 

parts of the country. In the case of Resnick (2018), the study, which was conducted 

extensively in sixty (60) districts across the nation on the seriousness of Ghana in the 

implementation of its decentralisation of the agriculture policy, revealed a poor or 

underperformance of the department. The study found that the poor/underperformance 

of the department was due to financial and human resource constraints that confronted 

the department after its decentralisation. The study further revealed that staff (AEAs) 

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of the department were compelled to finance most of the agriculture-related projects 

and extension services in the districts from their personal pockets. Meanwhile, Ghana's 

agriculture sector is a major contributor to both national and local economies, represents 

a significant proportion of the rural population, engages about 83% of the rural 

population, and is expected to ensure food security. This implies that there is the need 

for the investment of the needed resources at the local level towards developing the 

rural agricultural sector (GLSS, 2014; World Bank, 2018).   

 While these studies have been conducted on decentralisation of agriculture 

department in general, research on the extent and dynamics of the decentralisation of 

the agriculture department has not received considerable attention. This has created a 

gap in the literature, which needs to be filled through rigorous academic research. 

Therefore, this study sought to investigate the extent and dynamics of decentralisation 

of the agriculture sector and its contributions to ensuring food security in the Ho West 

District, a district where agriculture constitutes the mainstay of the economy, 

employing about 95% of the district's active work force (GSS, 2019).  

1.3 Research Objective  

The general objective of this study was to analyse the extent and the dynamics of 

agricultural sector decentralisation and its contributions to food security in the Ho West 

District of the Volta Region.  

1.3.1 Specific Objectives of the Study 

The specific objectives were to: 

I. describe the extent of decentralisation of the agricultural sector and its influence 

on food security in the Ho West District,  

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II. analyse the funding mechanisms and dynamics of the Department of 

Agriculture in the Ho West District, and  

III. examine the challenges faced by the Department of Agriculture in the Ho West 

District, and its effect on service delivery to farmers.  

1.4 Research Questions 

The underlisted questions gave focus to the study. 

I. What is the level of the agricultural sector’s political, administrative, and fiscal 

decentralisation and its contribution to ensuring food security in the Ho West 

district? 

II. What are the components and the intricacies of funding for the agriculture 

department in the Ho West district?  

III. How does the challenges faced by the agriculture department affect service 

delivery to farmers in the Ho West district? 

1.5 Scope of the study  

The general scope of this study was to analyse the extent and dynamics of 

decentralisation in the agriculture sector in Ghana focusing particular attention on the 

Ho West District of the Volta Region. This study specifically focused on the crop 

subsector and its contributions to ensuring food security in the Ho West Municipality 

of the Volta Region. Specifically, the study investigated the contributions made due to 

the decentralisation of the agriculture sector as part of the District Assembly system in 

Ghana in 2010, and to establish the effects on food security in the Ho West 

Municipality. The study targeted the food crop subsector of the local agricultural sector 

in the District. The study further investigated how the policy to decentralise the 

agriculture sector at the district level as part of the District Assembly ensured food 

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security. The study included staff of the district Agriculture Department, some key staff 

of the District Assembly, farmers and farmer-based organisations/associations in its 

population.  

1.6 Significance of the study 

This study seeks to serve as a blueprint for policymakers in decentralisation and rural 

development, development experts, the Ministry of Local Government and Rural 

Development, the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the Metropolitan, Municipal and 

District Assemblies in Ghana, advocacy and interest groups, international development 

partners and specifically, and the Ho West District Assembly. In addition, the findings 

of this study would immensely contribute to knowledge, the existing literature and the 

current debate on decentralisation and the rural agricultural sector development in 

Ghana. The study also seeks to expose the challenges hindering the effectiveness of 

decentralisation as a development initiative and its associated challenges with rural 

agricultural sector development in Ghana. When implemented by the government, the 

recommendations of this study would boost the performance of the local agricultural 

sector in the various MMDA's in Ghana. Moreover, this study would serve as a 

reference document for other scholars and writers on development. 

1.7 The Organisation of the Study  

This study is organised into five chapters. Chapter One presents the introduction of the 

study, and captures the background, the problem statement, research objectives, scope 

and significance of the study, and organisation of the work. Chapter Two presents the 

study’s literature review, mapping out the various arguments, and identifying the gaps 

in the literature. It also presents some theoretical and conceptual frameworks on the 

concepts. Chapter Three introduces the methodology of the study. This includes the 

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research design employed in the study, the population of the study, the sample frame 

and size, sampling techniques, data sources and strategies employed in collecting the 

data. Chapter Four submits the data analysis and interpretation of the study. This 

includes the demographic characteristics of the respondents, responses to the research 

questions and discussions, their analysis and interpretations. Lastly, Chapter Five 

presents the conclusion, summary of the findings and recommendations as solutions to 

the problems identified as part of the study.  

 

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CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter draws on the earlier works of development scholars and presents a review 

of the available literature on decentralisation, the theoretical and the regulatory 

frameworks on decentralisation, the relationships between decentralisation and 

development and the agricultural sector, and the agricultural sector and food security.  

2.1 Overview of Ghana’s Decentralisation  

Globally, decentralisation of governance and public services responded to the 

populace's demand for equity, accountability, and efficient service delivery. It was also 

in opposition to the central government system, which was seen as irresponsive to 

providing basic services to the local populace (Muriisa, 2008). In Africa and Ghana, in 

particular, decentralization dates back to the days of the indirect rule system during the 

British colonial regime where power and authority were decentralised from the Queen 

to the chiefs (Ayee, 1994, cited in Yankson, 2008). Ghana, Tanzania, Cote d'Ivoire, and 

Kenya were the pioneering countries in Africa to subscribe to decentralisation as part 

of their public sector reform strategies (Cabral, 2011).  

According to Ahwoi (2010), PNDC Law 207 established a four-tier local government 

structure consisting of regional, district and town/unit committees. The PNDC's 

expectations for the decentralisation were to ensure citizens' popular participation in 

local development and local governance systems. This ensures effectiveness, 

accountability and responsiveness, stability, and economic and social development at 

the local level (Haynes, 1991; Amanor et al. 1999; Ayee et al. 2010).  

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The PNDC government had two policy positions for the implementation of 

decentralisation in Ghana: firstly, the need for participatory democracy to ensure 

effective local rural development, to make governments responsive and accountable to 

the governed; secondly, the empowerment of the citizenry through the establishment of 

local government systems to initiate, coordinate, manage and execute policies in all 

matters within the various localities (Ahwoi, 2010). Smoke (2003) and Ayee (2013) added 

that the implementation of decentralization in Ghana lay on three key objectives: promote 

democratisation and popular participation of the citizenry; to slim down the ineffective central 

government through the shedding of functions, and the transfer of costs to users; and to 

democratise local government units to improve good governance. Amanor et al (1999) contend 

that, even though decentralization was part of the World Bank's liberalization initiative in 

developing countries, its implementation preceded the Structural Adjustment Programme. He 

asserted that the development and implementation of decentralisation came due to the radical 

critique of the failing elitist administration and corruption. The conceptualization of 

decentralization was a radical populist agenda towards achieving democratic dispensation.  

Ghana's decentralisation saw the establishment of Metropolitan, Municipal and District 

Assemblies with vested political, administrative, and fiscal authorities. The assemblies 

are also deemed corporate entities, who can sue, be sued, and engage in contractual 

agreements with other entities to provide certain goods and services not exceeding a 

reasonable financial threshold (Ahwoi, 2010). 

The local government system ensures responsiveness to the local needs through popular 

participation of the poor majority in developing their local communities (Crawford, 

2008). Decentralisation expects to ensure an effective and responsive district assembly 

system to reduce poverty among the local populace through local socio-economic 

development and the empowerment of disadvantaged groups and the vulnerable at the 

local level (Yeboah-Asiamah, 2016).  

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Decentralization of government across Africa created the ground conducive for governments 

and the World Bank group to initiate neoliberal reform policies, including good governance 

practices before initiating parliamentary processes. Muriisa (2008), supports the position of 

Amanor (1999) in asserting that, even though decentralization has been a long-time 

development practice in Africa, the 1980s and 90s saw its pronouncement due to its feature by 

the World Bank as a structural criterion. Decentralisation has been the World Bank's 

recommendation for developing countries to devolve both political and administrative powers 

to the local authorities to ensure effective and efficient service delivery to the populace 

(Muriisa, 2008).  

 According to Böckenförde (2011), decentralisation has two facets including the 

elements of 'self-rule' and 'shared-rule'. The element of 'self-rule' gives power to local 

authorities to regulate and steer certain affairs and functions on their own. The element 

of 'shared-rule' allows local government authorities to participate in national decision-

making (Böckenförde, 2011). In addition, Muriisa (2007), argues that the concept of 

decentralisation presents two significant benefits to the local populace, which are 

"freedom to access" and "freedom to decide". Freedom to access implies that people 

could voice their needs and get the needed resources necessary for local development. 

Freedom to decide implies that people could take autonomous decisions devoid of the 

central government's influence within a decentralized framework (Muriisa, 2007).  

 

Furthermore, decentralisation manifests in both political and development terms 

(Crawford, 2008). According to the World Bank (2013), decentralisation in 

community-driven development is aimed at economic efficiency, public accountability, 

and empowerment at the local level (World Bank, 2013). Earlier scholars in the field of 

development acknowledged and put the general purpose for adopting and implementing 

decentralization into two perspectives: administrative and political. The administrative 

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perspective of decentralization seeks to decongest the central government and distribute 

the workload to subnational agencies in easy-to-manage proportions. The workload 

distribution seeks to promote greater efficiency, effectiveness and effective 

coordination in public service delivery. Politically, decentralisation was adopted to 

promote good governance through pluralism, accountability, popular participation and 

engagement, and transparency (Hussein, 2004; Crook, 1994).  

2.2 The Structure of Ghana's Decentralisation System 

Ghana's decentralisation has a four-tier structure comprising regional coordinating 

council, metropolitan, municipal and districts assemblies. The Regional Coordinating 

Councils (RCC) are both administrative and coordinating bodies located in the county's 

regional capitals of the sixteen (16) administrative regions. The RCCs are expected to 

play an oversight role over all MMDAs within the respective regions. The RCCs are 

composed of a regional minister as the chairperson of the council, regional deputy 

minister(s), presiding members and MMDCEs of the various assemblies, two 

representatives from the regional house of chiefs and the regional heads of departments 

without voting rights (Ahwoi, 2010; Arkorful, Lugu, Hammond & Basiru, 2021).  

The metropolitan, municipal and districts are areas composing towns with a population 

size of 25000, 95000 and 75000 inhabitants. The metropolitan, municipal and district 

assemblies are composed of Metropolitan, Municipal and District Chief Executives, a 

presiding member elected from the assembly members, 30% appointed and 70% elected 

assembly members (Ahwoi, 2010). The sub-districts consists of sub-metropolitan, 

urban, zonal and town councils, made to deepen and promote citizen participation in 

decision-making, planning, execution, monitoring in the delivery of public services 

(Arkorful et al., 2021; Ahwoi, 2010).   

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Figure 2. 1: The Structure of Ghana’s Local Government System 

Source: Ahwoi (2010).  

2.3 Local Government Funding in Ghana  

Ghana’s Fourth Republican Constitution of 1992 provides a strong and comprehensive 

stance for the budgetary and financial base of local government authorities in Ghana. It 

states that local government authorities must have a sound financial base with adequate 

and reliable sources of revenue. The MMDAs in Ghana have three major revenue 

sources: the District Assemblies Common Fund (DACF), the locally/internally 

generated fund (IGF), and the ceded revenue (Ayee, 2012; Ahwoi, 2010).  

The DACF as a major funding for MMDAs is an intergovernmental financial transfer, 

depicting the manifestation and achievement of fiscal decentralisation in Ghana (Ayee, 

Regional 

Coordinating 

Councils 

Municipal 

Assemblies 

Metropolitan 

Assemblies 

District 

Assemblies 

Zonal Councils 

Sub-Metro  

DAs 

Town Councils Urban/Town/Are

a Councils 

Unit Committee 

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2007). Ghana's 1992 Constitution made an explicit provision for a statutory quarterly 

transfer of funds by the central government to the local government authorities. The 

DACF Act, Act 455 of 1993 gave legal backing to these transfers. It is expected that 

5% of the national revenue be allocated to the local government authorities using a 

formula decided by the Parliament of Ghana. This was subsequently changed to 7.5% 

under the John Kuffour-led NPP government (Yeboah-Assiamah, 2016).  

The second source of funding for the local government authorities, internally generated 

funds, are the own-sourced revenue of the local government authorities in Ghana. The 

Local Government Act 462 of 1993 authorises and empowers MMDAs to mobilise 

revenue in rates, fees, fines and licenses from persons and entities liable for local 

development (Puopiel et al., 2015).  

The ceded revenues are those lesser taxes collected by the Ghana Revenue Authority 

for the central government and later transferred to the local government authorities for 

utilisation (Osei-Akoto et al., 2007).  

2.4 Forms of Decentralisation  

2.4.1 Political decentralization 

Political decentralisation refers to how central governments delegate political roles such 

as representation to sub-governmental units and the powers to elect local 

representatives. Political decentralisation presents two elements: transfer of power to 

elect local officials and representatives, i.e., electoral decentralisation; and transfer of 

authority to structure a sub-national level government (Böckenförde, 2011). Political 

decentralisation has been associated with pluralist democracy supporting 

democratisation, and citizens' representatives participating in the decision-making 

processes at the sub-national level (Rondinelli, 1999; Ozmen, 2014).  

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In the views of Hoffman & Metzroth (2010), the purpose of political decentralisation, 

which sought to give the entirety of political powers to the local government authorities 

in forming their own government through election of their representatives is defeated 

by the presidents' appointment and the imposition of MMDCEs and 30% assembly 

members on the various assemblies (Hoffman & Metzroth, 2010).  

2.4.2 Administrative decentralisation  

This refers to the administrative autonomy offered to local government authorities to 

steer the day-to-day affairs of the local authority. Administrative decentralisation seeks 

to give the local government authorities the responsibility to plan, finance and manage 

public functionaries at the local government level. Administrative decentralisation has 

three main forms: deconcentration, delegation, and devolution (Rondinelli, 1999; 

Ozmen, 2014).  

Deconcentration: This form of decentralisation refers to the shift of the central 

government's responsibility to its subsidiary offices to implement certain policies. The 

overall authority and power remain in the central government's hands even though it 

alters the geographic distribution of authority. Deconcentration redistributes the 

balance of power and authority between the central government and the subsidiary 

entities. Central government transfers responsibilities to the subnational government to 

fast track the delivery of public services. They were getting the services closer to the 

local populace and deconcentrating the attention on the centralised delivery system. 

The central government still controls the affairs at the various levels or peripheral 

entities (Hart & Welham, 2016; Khambule, 2021). In the case of Ghana, the passport 

application centre, which was initially in the national capital, was subsequently 

decentralised through deconcentration to regional levels of government. Under their 

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auspices passports are issued, but the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Regional 

Integration controls the operations of these peripheral entities.  

Delegation: this seeks to transfer power and authority to semi-autonomous local 

government authorities without central government control but accountable to it. 

Central government transfers responsibility for decision-making and administration of 

public functions to semi-autonomous entities. These entities are partly controlled by the 

central government. In Ghana, public enterprises, including the Electricity Company of 

Ghana, Ghana Water Company, and the state Transport Cooperation are typical 

government-delegated powers. These entities are expected to exercise discretionary 

powers in their decision-making. They hire their own personnel instead of relying on 

the traditional civil service. They also charge users for the services provided.  

Devolution: refers to the transfer of authority for decision-making to quasi-autonomous 

local government units with corporate status. This provides the greatest form of 

autonomy to the local government authorities as compared to the previous two forms 

of administrative decentralisation (Schneider, 2003). This involves the transfer of 

governance responsibility to a subnational government that is largely outside the direct 

control of the central government. As part of Ghana’s devolution exercise is the creation 

of local government institutions to steer local related affairs. Currently, Ghana is 

divided into sixteen administrative regions. These regions are also subdivided into 

metropolitan, municipal, and districts depending on the area's population density. These 

entities are expected to exercise administrative powers in providing basic public 

services to the populace living within these localities.  

2.4.3 Fiscal decentralization   

Fiscal decentralization refers to the transfer of financial powers to local government 

authorities in mobilizing revenues for local development. It is both the revenue-making 

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powers and the transfer of financial resources from the central government to the local 

government authorities.  For sub-national governments to effectively discharge their 

responsibilities to the local populace, there is a provision for the timely allocation of 

financial resources from the central government to the local government authorities 

(Khambule, 2021). Fiscal decentralisation has three fundamental components: 

responsibility for expenditure, responsibility to mobilise local revenues; and financial 

transfers from the central government transfers (Böckenförde, 2011). Fiscal 

decentralisation is considered to affect public service delivery positively, and to reduce 

poverty due to the easy access to funds raised at the local level. Both the central 

government financial transfers and the internally generated funds are necessary in 

determining the ability and efficiency in delivering developmental outcomes (Hart & 

Welham, 2016; Khambule, 2021).  

The District Assemblies Common Fund was introduced to deepen fiscal decentralisation 

in Ghana. This fund comprises a quarterly allocation of funds to the MMDAs to promote 

development at the local level. In addition, schedules 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 of the Local 

Government Act (Act 936 of 2016) gives powers and authorities to the MMDAs to 

collect rates, fees, fines and licenses. The most important sources of IGF for MMDAs in 

Ghana are property rates, licenses, fees and fines. In 2011, the Government of Ghana 

introduced a new financial allocation to the MMDAs called District Development Fund; 

this is to achieve a balance between the functions of the MMDAs and the financial 

resources available to them (Otoo & Danquah, 2021). 

Fiscal decentralisation, which seeks to delegate financial authority to sub-national 

governments in raising local revenue to support development at the local level is 

challenged in many ways. Most district assembles in Ghana are faced with a series of 

challenges to their efforts at generating internal revenue (IGF). Key amongst them is the 

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limited revenue bases in the various districts and municipalities (Gadenne & Singhal, 

2014). In addition, a study conducted by Sanogo (2019) on Cote D’Ivore’s local 

government revenue generation indicates that there is a higher likelihood of adequate 

revenue generation in developed countries than there is in developing ones; this is 

attributed to capacity issues related to local government authorities in raising local 

revenues (Khambule, 2021).  

2.5 Empirical Literature Review 

Series of studies were conducted across the globe on the impact and contributions made 

by decentralisation to development.  

Owusu et al, (2005), conducted a study and established that the demarcation of 

administrative boundaries in Ghana is due to administrative decentralisation, which 

sought to give deliberative powers to the local populace in the determination and 

implementation of their development policies at the local level. The representative 

participation of the local populace in local policymaking ensures rapid development at 

the grass root.  

Egbenya (2009) conducted a study on the devolution of central government 

departments at the local level and asserted that the representation of central government 

departments: health, education, agriculture and social welfare at the local level ensures 

better service delivery to the local level due to closeness with the populace. He further 

asserted that, even though some of these departments, which existed at the local level, 

are not under the direct supervision of the MMDAs, they performed extremely well.  

Canare (2020), conducted a study on the impact of decentralisation on development at 

the local level and found that good governance, economic growth and delivery of 

efficient and effective public services are benefits of decentralisation. The rapid growth 

of small towns and villages through the development of infrastructure, educational 

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facilities, health and local governance architecture immensely contribute to the 

development of localities.  

In another study by Faguet & Poschl (2015), it is suggested that decentralisation of 

governance to the local level provides the opportunity for better information concerning 

citizens’ needs and wants, ensures greater participation of citizens in the selection of 

their development needs, and creates greater accountability and transparency of in the 

local government systems for citizens.  

These findings are in line with the findings of Hussein, who, in his (2004) study, stated 

that both political and administrative decentralisation seek to promote citizen 

participation in governance and development. Citizens' participation in development 

planning and implementation enables the formulation of workable plans to solve local 

problems (Hussein, 2004). There is wide acceptance among development scholars of 

the relationship between decentralisation and poverty reduction. It is asserted that 

decentralisation plays a very crucial role through citizens' participation in the 

formulation and implementation of policies geared towards reducing poverty. It is 

believed that the local populace has the necessary information and incentives to 

participate in policies that effectively tackle local needs and preferences (Ahwoi, 2010; 

Aryee, 2010). Steiner (2005) alluded to Hussein in his 2004 position on the impact of 

decentralisation on the local populace. He mentioned that there is an informational 

advantage for the local government compared to the central. This, he said, is due to its 

closeness with the local populace and better targeting of the poor.  

Asibuo (2000), Ayee (1997), and Owusu (2005) conducted a study on the essence of 

decentralisation on rural development and revealed that the development of small towns 

and rural areas through decentralisation reduces the migration rate of the youth to urban 

and large cities to search of jobs. Resources allocated by the central to the local 

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government authorities are expected to ensure local development by providing basic 

services and facilities. In Ghana, decentralisation is expected to enhance the 

development of the various district capitals to serve as a hub for potential rural-urban 

migrants. 

Crook and Manor (2000) analyzed the process of political decentralisation in India 

(Karnataka state), Bangladesh, Côte d'Ivoire, and Ghana and discovered that 

decentralisation of governance resulted in increased transparency and decreased 

corruption. They argued that while decentralisation reduced grand theft, it increased 

petty corruption in the short run, both may eventually decrease. Fiszbein (1997) 

concluded from a review of political decentralisation in Colombia that competition for 

political office created opportunities for responsible and innovative leadership, which 

became the impetus for capacity building, improved service delivery, and reduced 

corruption at the local level. 

 Habibi et al. (2001) examined the influence of fiscal decentralisation on social sector 

outcomes in Argentina from 1970 to 1994 and concluded that it improved education 

and health service delivery while it reduced intra-regional inequities. Eskeland and 

Filmer (2002) also discovered that decentralisation of education resulted in an increase 

in school accomplishment scores using cross-section data from Argentine schools.  

Faguet (2001) also discovered that decentralisation aided in the alignment of 

governmental services with local preferences, as well as the quality and accessibility of 

social services in Bolivia. Foster and Rosenzweig (2001) concluded that democratic 

decentralisation of governance improved local service distribution in India. Santos 

(1998) demonstrated the same impact through participatory budgeting in Porto Alegre, 

Brazil. Isham and Kahkonen (1999) documented significant improvements in water 

services in Central Java, Indonesia, because of local community control. In Nicaragua, 

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King and Ozler (1998) noticed that decentralised school management resulted in an 

increase in achievement scores. Estache and Sinha (1995) discovered that 

decentralisation resulted in greater spending on public infrastructure in a cross-section 

of industrialized and developing countries. Huther and Shah (1996) and Enikolopov 

and Zhuravskaya (2003) found that decentralisation enhanced the delivery of public 

goods in a significant number of nations, using cross-section and time series data. 

Ayee (2013) studied the effects of decentralisation on development and asserted that, even 

though decentralisation is still an ongoing process, it aims to address the needs of the 

people at the grassroots level. Due to this, the successes and failures are not easy to 

measure. Decentralisation is measured against its efficiency, economy, effectiveness 

and accountability. Efficiency refers to the use of scarce resources for maximum gain. 

He classified efficiency into allocative and productive efficiency. The former ensures 

accuracy in the provision of public services for local needs. Productive efficiency 

ensures value for money in public services and aims to improve accountability at the 

local level. Economy refers to the use of the cheapest resources for production. In terms 

of the award of contracts for the provision of goods, services or works, the lowest bidder 

with the requisite skills should be selected. Effectiveness refers to achieving the original 

aims of a project without compromising quality.  

Muriisa (2008) conducted a study and found that decentralisation of governance has 

brought accountability of resources utilised by the local government authorities. 

Accountability, in his findings, refers to the timely provision of accounts on all 

resources allocated and spent to the citizenry by the officeholders. He distinguished 

between two categories of accountability: political accountability and administrative 

accountability. Political accountability refers to the situation where elected officials are 

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accountable for their electorate and administrative accountability is the timely 

accomplishment of tasks within budget.  

2.6 Challenges to Ghana's Decentralisation  

Decentralisation is a complex and multifaceted concept plagued with structural and 

institutional implementation challenges and outcomes (Crawford et al. 2008). 

Furthermore, the disconnection between power and capacity, clientelism, 

patrimonialism and informal institutions shaping choices and behaviors are some other 

challenges faced in its implementation (Olowu & Wunsch, 2004). The effectiveness of 

Ghana's decentralization policy has been undermined by the lack of the central 

government's political will and the frequent interferences in the operations of the local 

government authorities despite the lofty goals of the policy (Nyendu, 2012).  

Little fiscal autonomy by MMDAs creates a weak financial base to support 

development initiatives at the local level. Regrettably, about 85% of the funding for 

MMDAs are central government transfers, mostly from the DACF, or from donors 

(Hoffman & Metzroth, 2010; Amanor et al. 1999). The DACF, which is the major 

source of revenue for the MMDAs, is fraught with several challenges, including 

irregularities in its disbursement, lack of transparency, and lack of discretionary powers 

to the MMDAs in its allocation. Lastly, there is the delay in its disbursement. (Ayee et 

al. 2010). In addition, due to the central government's absolute authority in raising all 

the lucrative revenues in the form of income taxes, local government authorities are 

faced with challenges in raising large revenues within their areas to support 

development at the local level (Hoffman & Metzroth, 2010).  

The composite budgeting system introduced at the local level, is ineffectively 

implemented due the unwillingness of the Ghana's Ministry of Finance (Yeboah-

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Assiamah, 2016). Decentralization remains a theoretical ramification with less practice 

(Yeboah-Asiamah, 2016).  

In the context of political decentralisation, MMDAs in Ghana fall short of constituting 

their own government. This is due to the continuous appointment of heads of the various 

local government authorities (MMDCEs) and the 30% assembly members by the 

President. According to Aryee (2010), this defeats the non-partisan nature of the 

MMDAs (Ayee, 2010). Even though stipulated in Ghana's Fourth Republican 

Constitution of 1992, this act renders the relationship between the central and the local 

government authorities a "principal-agent typology". After three decades of 

implementing decentralisation in Ghana, it is further argued that very little of it is 

achieved. Its expectations of leading to effective, responsive and accountable district 

assemblies and ensuring poverty reduction and the empowerment of the disadvantaged 

and vulnerable groups at the local level have remained unfulfilled (Yeboah-Assiamah, 

2016; Hoffman & Metzroth, 2010).  

Stone (1997), and  Antwi-Boasiako (2010) argued that, even though decentralisation is 

a development strategy aimed at transferring power and responsibility to sub-national 

levels of government (regional and district levels), most countries across the African 

continent especially in the sub-Saharan Africa have failed in transferring such power 

and responsibility through delegation and devolution, but adopted the strategy only in 

theory. They contend that little impact of decentralization has been felt after several 

decades of its implementation especially in the case of Ghana (Yeboah-Asiamah, 2016; 

Stone, 1997; Antwi-Boasiako, 2010).  

2.7 Decentralisation and Agricultural Development  

There has been a series of studies to investigate the contributions of decentralisation to 

the development of the agriculture sector. For example, Nambiro, Omiti & Mugunieri 

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(2005) conducted a study and asserted that there is a positive effect of decentralisation on 

agricultural development especially in the areas of extension service provision to farmers. 

Similarly, Hanyani-Mlambo (2000) & Oladele (2011) stated that the delivery of 

extension services under decentralisation is guided by two approaches: supply-driven 

and demand driven services. Decentralisation of agricultural policies improves good 

financing mechanisms at the local level.  Decentralisation ensures pluralism, demand-

driven and decentralised coordination and user participation in extension financing to ensure 

effective agriculture extension service to farmers. Pluralism under decentralisation 

implementation in the agriculture sector affords farmers the access to influencing quality of 

extension services. The institutionalization of District Agriculture Extension Service systems 

ensures effective operationalization of demand-driven services and decentralisation 

coordination (Masangano et al., 2017; Babu, 2010). The World Bank (2007) supported 

the earlier assertions that, decentralisation of administrative responsibilities in the 

delivery of technical agricultural services improves agriculture production.  

Conyers (1986) argues that the decentralisation of control in the determination of 

agricultural pricing policy to the local government authorities offer motivating 

incentives to local farmers, and this translates into the improvement in the living 

standards of the local farmers and the local populace due to the consensus and 

engagement of the local farmers in the price determination (Conyers, 1986). The FAO 

(2001) has asserted that the decentralisation of the agriculture sector through devolution 

uplifts the economic status of farmers due to the transfer of national resources to the 

local level. Due to the active participation of farmers in the determination of agricultural 

development policies at the local level, there is a boost to the economic at the local 

level. This is due to the ability of the local populace in identifying the remedying 

solutions at the local level than in the case of central government (FAO, 2001). 

Decentralization gives hope for rural programs in terms of eliminating the urban bias 

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that emerges from rural people's geographic dispersion, their inability to organize to 

advocate their interests, and the discrimination against agriculture inherent in many 

countries’ policy frameworks. Decentralization of agricultural extension and research 

strives to improve user participation in technology initiatives and make programs more 

accountable to users (World Bank, 2009). 

 In agricultural development, decentralization initiatives boost user ownership 

and financial support for services, improve program accountability, and build 

constituencies for agricultural extension services. The ability of food crop producers to 

communicate their demands for technical innovation may be the most significant 

benefit of decentralizing agricultural extension operations. 

The demand side of extension systems is strengthened by agricultural sector changes, 

but simply decentralizing extension to local governments does not guarantee that 

beneficiaries will have more authority over decision-making (World Bank, 2000). 

Decentralized agricultural extension administration supports collaborations between 

various participants in the technological system, facilitating the participation of other 

actors in the agricultural value chain in particular. The privatization of some extension 

functions and the introduction of private services can improve cost efficiency. Fee-for-

service and cost-sharing arrangements can be introduced more easily with decentralized 

agricultural extension. In decentralized systems, involving users in the evaluation of 

agricultural extension agents and programs, as well as connecting extension agent 

remuneration to performance, can be effective ways to enforce accountability (FAO, 

2001). 

 A study by Lai & Custilli (2005) on the impact of decentralisation on agriculture sector 

development revealed that  decentralisation contributed towards an integrated package 

of services, including the development and extension of new technologies, the 

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distribution of inputs, equipment, and credit, and the creation of production and 

transportation infrastructure. Because of the lack of developed local enterprise and the 

underdeveloped nature of many marketplaces, state intervention was viewed as the only 

way to quickly provide appropriate services to small farmers for most agricultural 

services. Farmers were frequently offered financial incentives in the form of subsidized 

credit, farm inputs, and equipment, as well as government funding of the costs of 

technological research and transfer, as well as input delivery networks.  

2.8 Agricultural Sector in Ghana  

Agriculture remains the largest employer in the Ghanaian economy, contributing about 

19.7% in 2018, 18.5% in 2019 and 18.24% in 2020 to the country's GDP and accounts 

for approximately 30% of the country’s export earnings (World Bank, 2021). This 

sector recorded a 2.9% growth in 2016, 6.1% in 2017, but a 4.8% decline in 2018. The 

sector recorded a 6.9% growth in 2019 and 7.1% growth in 2020, respectively (Israeli 

Embassy of Ghana, 2020). Currently, most of the country's population lives in rural 

areas where agriculture is a major source of the economy. The sector employs about 

93% of the population of the rural savannah zone, 81.3% of the rural forest zone and 

64.7% of the coastal zone (Ghana Statistical Service, 2020).  In Ghana, the agricultural 

sector consists of several interrelated activities: agriculture research, agriculture 

extension, production and marketing of cash crops, fisheries, animal and food crops, 

forestry, and logging (Ali et al, 2021; GLSS, 2017). Over the years, especially in the 

post-independence era, governments formulated several policies geared towards the 

modernization of the sector with particular attention on upgrading the skills of 

subsistent farmers (Center for Democratic Development, 2011).  

In Ghana, the agricultural land area covers an approximation of 136,000 km2 

accounting for about 57% of the country's land area. With this, about 58000km2 

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representing 24% of the total land area is under cultivation, 11000 hectares of this is 

under irrigation (Ali, Agyekum & Addai, 2021). 

About 80% of Ghana’s agricultural sector consists of smallholder farmers with an 

average farm size of less than 1.2 ha, traditional and reliant on rain (World Bank, 2017; 

Israeli Embassy of Ghana, 2020).  

 Ghana's agriculture growth trend has been attributed to three drivers: 

government policies, rapid urbanization, population pressure, and land expansion. In 

Ghana, successive governments enacted some polices aimed at developing the 

agricultural sector. Food and Agriculture Sector Development Policy (I &II), Medium 

Term Agriculture Sector Implementation, Fertilizer Subsidy Policy, Youth in 

Agriculture Programme, and Agriculture Extension Services.  

 In 2019, Ghana’s Ministry of Agriculture was allocated a total sum of 

GH₵967.845 million, but this was later reviewed after the presentation of the midyear 

budget to GH₵1,186.521million. This review was to accommodate payments for the 

subsidized fertilizer and seeds committed to under the planting for food and jobs 

initiatives by the Government of Ghana. In addition, the Ministry in the year 2020 was 

allocated a total amount of GH₵965,131,569. Out of this amount, Government of 

Ghana contributed GH₵580,491,120, representing about 60% of the total budget and 

the remaining 40% amounting to GH₵384,640,448 representing contributions from 

donors (Government of Ghana, 2020).  

 Even though Ghana's agricultural sector has been assessed to perform 

reasonably well in the past decades, by African standards, in terms of the significance 

of its role in reducing rural poverty, increasing labour productivity and income for 

farmers, it has failed in exploiting its potential to reduce the high dependence on 

imported food (Diao et al. 2019). Ghana's agricultural sector is plagued with series of 

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challenges, including low cash and staple crop yields, the harrowing effect of climate 

variability, low soil fertility, outbreaks of pests and diseases, inadequate financial 

supports to farmers through extension services, low deployment of agricultural 

technologies, and the rapid population growth (World Bank, 2016; Mogomotsi et al. 

2020; Dube et al. 2016). These challenges resulted in Ghana becoming a net importer 

of basic food commodities such as rice and poultry. A total amount of USD 2 billion, 

equivalent to the estimated annual earnings from the exportation of cocoa, is spent 

annually on importing these basic food commodities (World Bank, 2017).  

A vibrant agricultural system is a major contributor towards the overall development 

and growth of the economics of nations (Janvry & Sadoulet, 2010).  The agriculture 

sector plays diverse significant roles in the socio-economic development of society 

today. More importantly, the agriculture sector plays a significant role in improving 

food availability and ensuring food security generally for the populace (Smutka, 2009).  

2.9 Agriculture and Food Security  

The concept of food security emerged some decades ago during the global food crisis 

in the 1970s. As defined by the FAO (2002), food security refers to the ability of people 

to have access at all times to sufficient, safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary 

needs and preferences socially, economically and socially (FAO, 2002). The concept 

of food security as defined globally during the 1970 global food crisis focused on 

ensuring the availability and affordability of basic food due to the extreme volatility of 

agricultural commodity prices at the time (Berry et al., 2015; Peng et al., 2019). Ghana's 

Ministry of Food and Agriculture in its Food and Agriculture Sector Development 

Policy II, defines food security as having good quality nutritious food, which is 

hygienically packaged and attractively presented and available in sufficient quantities at all 

times of the year at locations appropriate and affordable to consumers (Government of 

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Ghana, 2007). The concept of food security has four dimensions: availability of food 

either locally produced or imported; accessibility to the consumer through both 

transport and economic means; utilization, which involves the ability of consumers to 

get the right quantity and quality for a healthy life; and lastly, stability of the consumers 

to withstand food shocks caused either by the natural or manmade phenomenon. Today, 

Africa's food security is threatened by the climate change situation, which has far-

reaching effects on cereal production, especially in sub-Saharan Africa (Peng et al., 

2019; FAO, 2008). 

 Ghana's broad strategy towards attaining food security focusses on the national 

and agro-ecological levels. It seeks to develop five main crops: maize, rice, yam, 

cassava, and cowpea. To ensure food security at the district level, the ministry seeks to 

focus on two crops for development. The choice of crops to develop at the district level 

to ensure food security will be based on the comparative advantage of the district, the 

availability of the market, and the importance of the crop to the people living in the 

locality. The government, through MoFA seeks to support the growth of such crops 

through the provision of irrigation and sustainable management of land, supply of 

improved planting material, and finally, the provision of appropriate mechanisation. In 

addition, Ghana's strategy for food security targets the poor, and aspires to enhance 

their capacity to cope with food insecurity (MoFA, 2007). The government of Ghana, 

over the years, started the implementation of certain policies geared towards tooling 

and supporting local farmers in the country. The government of Ghana in its 2019 

programme based projects estimates, is seen to be committed to ensuring food security. 

This programme aimed to reduce food and nutrition insecurity through modernized 

agriculture, maintain national strategic stocks for emergencies, and establish an 

effective early warning system. The government of Ghana designed five (5) key sub-

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programmes to achieve the aims of the programme. These include productivity 

improvement through the provision of the needed technological packages to farmers, 

provision of mechanisation, irrigation and effective water management systems for the 

agriculture sector, provision of adequate food storage systems, distribution of improved 

nutritional commodities, diversification of livelihood options, and creation of early 

warning systems and emergency preparedness (Government of Ghana, 2019).  

 Food insecurity, a chronic challenge on the continent, is attributed to the low 

yields recorded by the agriculture sector. The continent faces challenges of feeding its 

growing population; a continent known as a net exporter of agricultural commodities is 

now a net importer of the same commodities (Khan et al., 2014; Pawlak et al. 2020). 

On the contrary, the agricultural sector is expected to ensure food availability. 

Moreover, to ensure food security, attention must be given to investment in agriculture 

infrastructure and extension services (Pawlak et al. 2020).  Sustainable Development 

Goals, which succeeded the MDGs in 2015 focused on agriculture and food. For 

example, SDG 1, which aimed at reducing poverty by 2030, tasked the agriculture and 

the food sector to play a major role in providing quality and the right quantity of food. 

Goal 2 focuses on ending hunger, achieving food security and improving nutrition by 

promoting sustainable agriculture. Agriculture is the major economic activity in the 

rural areas where most of the world's poor live. This calls for the needed investments 

in the agricultural sector, which will translate into the growth of the sector's 

productivity, ensure an increase in food availability, decrease in the price of food on 

the domestic market, and make food available and accessible (Brooks, 2016).  

2.10 Theoretical Framework  

This study is supported by the theory of participatory development, which was based 

on the works of Hickey (2006), Mohan (2007), Stokke & Cleaver (2004), and Chambers 

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(1994). The theory of participatory development depicts an evolutionary trend away 

from the global, aspatial, top-down techniques that dominated early development 

attempts and toward more locally sensitive methodologies. The term "participatory" 

originally appeared in development terms during the 1950s, and gained popularity in 

the 1970s when the United Nations and the World Bank recognised participation as a 

critical way of raising economic and social standards, particularly in rural regions 

(Cummings, 1997). According to Lowe, Ray, Ward, Wood, and Woodward (1998), the 

notion of participation was created due to the failure of the conventional economic 

model to improve the lives of the majority of impoverished people in developing 

nations. As used in the analysis of this study, participatory development refers to the 

active involvement of the citizenry in the policymaking and development planning of a 

locality. In its broader terms, participatory development is considered as citizens’ 

empowerment tool, both an end and a means (Mohan, 2007; Dinbabo, 2003).  

The theory of participatory development assumes that participation is the exercise of 

power by the citizens in decision-making and the control of their efforts in a 

collaborative framework. Dialogue and information sharing among citizens and 

government officials lead to rapid development (Rahman, 1993; Oakley, 1991). In 

addition, the egalitarian redistribution of power and resources, democratising national 

and local political processes encourage and promote the involvement of the citizenry in 

the development of their communities (Forero-Pineda, 2001).  The theory of 

participatory development emphasized that, to achieve rapid development, there is the 

need to encourage the participation/involvement of citizens in the development 

planning, since the local populace is considered experts of their needs. Ghana’s 

decentralisation aimed at shifting from the initial hierarchical top-down approach in 

development planning and implementation to a bottom-up approach where citizens 

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actively participate in development planning (Ayee, 2012). Cummings (1997) asserted 

that citizens’ participation helps in overcoming the shortcomings of the top-down 

approach in development. This emphasizes the fact that the decentralisation of the 

agriculture sector in Ghana encourages a bottom-up policymaking and implementation 

pathway, which ensures the involvement of the local farmers in inputs and commodity 

price determination (Conyers, 1986).  

The crux of Ghana’s decentralisation policy has been to promote popular grassroots 

participation in the planning, implementation, monitoring and delivery of those services 

deemed necessary for improving the livelihood of the local populace. In this study, the 

decentralisation of the agriculture sector, which encourages and promotes the 

participation of stakeholders in the development planning, budgeting of the sector is 

considered an essential element for the sustainable development of the sector. The 

agriculture sector is charged with ensuring food security all year round with 

government support through the provision of timely and adequate resources. The theory 

of participatory development is presented with two major perspectives: the Social 

Movement Perspective and the Institutional Perspective. The former views 

participation as an attempt to eradicate unfair inequalities of knowledge, power, and 

economic distribution. This perspective sees participation as a way of overcoming 

obstacles and shaping the lives of the citizenry (Mefalopulos et al., 2009). However, 

the social movement perspective refers to citizens as primary stakeholders, who are 

primus inter pares: those with a considerable influence in development decisions 

(Mefalopulos et al., 2009). The Institutional Perspective sees participation as reaching 

and involving relevant groups in the design and implementation of a development 

project. The Institutional Perspective utilizes the information and opinions of relevant 

groups or stakeholders in a society to achieve a pre-determined goal (Mefalopulos et 

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al., 2009). In the case of the agriculture sector at the local level, participation of the 

local farmers and stakeholders through information dissemination ensures that 

workable ideas are shared among both local officials and the local farmers. This will 

also ensure the equitable distribution and judicious use of resources.   

The theory of participatory development takes the pathways of traditional economic 

model, ensuring a top-down strategy to addressing poverty-related issues, focusing on 

exogenous development such as physical infrastructure and material resources, 

investments, finance, and other factors to enhance critical sector productivity. The 

presumption is that members of the community lack the competence and knowledge 

necessary to handle technical and production issues (Cummings, 1997). The exogenous 

economic strategy, on the other hand, according to Abbott (1995) and Lowe et al. 

(1998), has resulted in a more efficient kind of new development to assist raise 

community living standards. The government recognizes that human, environmental, 

and cultural elements are underutilized resources that result in exogenous development 

failure in rural communities.  

Changes were made in the 1980s with an emphasis on endogenous development by 

maximizing the utilization of community-based human resources, the environment, 

culture, and assets for rural community development. The economic development 

paradigm creates an atmosphere in which an effective strategy for addressing poverty 

among community members is required (Lowe et al., 1998; Marsden & Oakley, 1991). 

Due to the failure of the top-down approach to development and poverty eradication in 

rural regions, participation has become increasingly important in rural development 

planning (Cummings, 1997; Kelly & Vlaenderen, 1996).  

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The theory of participatory development is relevant for analysing this study due to its 

ability to provide explanations for the extent of stakeholder participation on the 

development of the agriculture sector. Farmers, citizens, chiefs, local government 

officials, and other players on the agriculture value-chain are the main stakeholders, 

whose participation in the development planning and implementation are essential for 

the development of the sector. This is coupled with the timely and adequate deployment 

of resources to farmers by the central government. Ferero-Pineda (2001) asserted that 

participation of farmers and other stakeholders in development planning addresses 

issues of inequality in the distribution of resources at the local level. Marquetti et al. 

(2012), identified participatory budgeting as a public decision-making tool that allows 

stakeholders direct involvement and participation in determining fiscal policies. As a 

form of decentralisation, fiscal decentralisation seeks to ensure the timely transfer of 

the needed financial resources to the local level for development. It also seeks to give 

the power and authority for revenue generating at the local level (Ahwoi 2010). As is 

the case under the new decentralisation system, all departments under the various 

assemblies are expected to participate in the preparation of the composite of the district 

(Government of Ghana, 2012).  

The researcher adopted Arnstein’s (1969) typology of participation and Peng’s (2020) 

hierarchy of participation for this study. According to Peng (2020), the participation of 

farmers and other stakeholders in agriculture sector development at the local level is in 

four categories: information, consultation, collaboration, and empowerment. 

Information, which is the first level of stakeholder participation, seeks to ensure there 

is adequate provision of the information necessary for their consumption on all 

development policies at the local level. Peng’s first level of participation is in line with 

Arstein’s two bottom rungs of participation: manipulation and therapy. Arstein refers 

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to this two bottom rungs as non-participation. He explained that powerholders only 

provide education to participants in the form of information but do not provide the 

opportunity for direct involvement of the stakeholders. Consultation, the second level 

of participation, ensures that policy makers sought public opinions and ideas on policies 

and programmes on agriculture development from farmers and other stakeholders on 

the agriculture value-chain. Arstein referred to the rungs 3 & 4 as tokenism: informing 

and consultation. He explained that these allow have-nots to hear and have a voice. 

These levels provide citizens with opportunities to be heard but fail to empower them 

in ensuring compliance by the power holders. The third level of participation, 

collaboration, is a dialogue-based level of participation. It ensures collaborative 

decision-making and responsibility sharing among stakeholders. This is in line with 

Arstein’s fifth level of participation, placation. He referred to it as a high degree of 

tokenism because the ground rules allow the have-nots to only advice but left the 

entirety of the power to the powerholders to decide. The fourth level, empowerment, is 

a dialogue-based level of the hierarchy of participation. It seeks to transfer a complete 

power of decision-making powers to the public or stakeholders in a development 

project. The 6th, 7th and 8th levels on Artein’s participation ladder, partnership, delegated 

power and citizens control fall in line with Peng’s empowerment level of participation. 

Arstein referred to them as increasing decision-making influence by citizens. These 

levels enable citizens to negotiate and engage in trade-offs with powerholders (Arstein, 

1986; Peng, 2020).  

The theory of participatory development is utilised in examining the effects of 

participation of farmers and other stakeholders in the decentralisation of the agriculture 

sector, and its extent in ensuring food security in the Ho West District of Ghana.  

 

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CHAPTER THREE 

METHODOLOGY 

3.0 Introduction  

This chapter presents both the profile of the study area and the description of the 

research methodology and techniques employed in the conduct of the study. First to be 

presented is the profile of the study area. The second part of the chapter describes the 

research design, data collection procedures and techniques, the population of the study, 

the sampling technique and procedures, the sample size determination of the study, and 

the ethical principles guiding the researcher throughout the study.  

3.1 Study Area Profile 

3.1.1 Location, Size and Population of the Study Area 

The Ho West District is one of the eighteen (18) administrative districts of the Volta 

Region. The Legislative Instrument (LI), 2083 of 2012 established the Ho West 

District; it was carved out of the Ho Municipality in 2012. The District is bordered on 

the South by Adaklu District, on the North by Afadjato South District, on the East by 

Ho Municipality and the Republic of Togo and on the West by the South Dayi District. 

The District is located between latitudes 6.33o 32"N and 6.93o 63"N and longitudes 

0.17o45” E and 0.53o39" E, and has a total land area of 1,002.79 km2. According to the 

2020 Population and Housing Census, the District has a total population of 94,600; out 

of this, 45,361 are males representing 48%, and 49,239 are females representing 52% 

of the total population. 89.1% of the population live in rural areas, against 10.9% living 

in urban areas (Ghana Statistical Service, 2020). 

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3.1.2 Agriculture  

Agriculture represents the mainstay of the District's economy employing about 95% of 

the District’s labour force. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2021), 2020 

PHC report, there are 23,875 households in the Ho West District; out of this, 17,559 

households, representing 73.5% are involved in agriculture, 16,723 households, 

representing 95.2% are into crop farming, 124 households representing 0.7% are into 

tree planting, 6,827 households, representing 38.9% are into livestock rearing and 10 

households, representing 0.06% are into fish farming. This implies that the majority of 

the households involved in agriculture are crop farmers, which is of interest to this 

study. The farming activities carried out in the District are on a small-scale basis. The 

major crops cultivated by the farmers in the district are maize, rice, cassava and beans. 

Cultivation of cash crops such as cocoa and palm fruits were gaining ground at the time 

of the census.  

  

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MAP OF HO WEST DISTRICT 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 3. 1: Map of the Ho West District 

Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2010). 

3.2 Research Paradigm  

The research is grounded in the philosophical assumptions of pragmatism. According 

to Hall (2013) and Morgan (2014), pragmatism as an intellectual paradigm presents a 

radical shift from the old philosophical beliefs concerning the nature of reality and the 

possibility of truth. Dewey (2008) refocuses on inquiry as a central form of human 

experience. He states that the attempts at producing knowledge happens within a social 

context. Pragmatism is based on the assumption that research might avoid philosophical 

discussions about the nature of truth and reality in favor of 'practical understandings' of 

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tangible, real-world problems (Patton, 2005). While this approach is compatible with 

qualitatively prevailing interpretivist understandings of socially constructed reality, the 

focus is on questioning the value and meaning of research data through evaluation of 

its practical implications.  

The use of pragmatism is suitable for this research because it allows the researcher to 

move beyond the objectivist conceptualizations that have dominated research and 

instead explore and understand the linkages between knowledge and behavior in 

context. Furthermore, pragmatic inquiry understands that people (including 

organizations) in diverse social circumstances can have different experiences with 

action and change, which encourages them to be flexible in their investigation strategies 

(Onwuegbuzie & Leech, 2005). Furthermore, rather than disputing the validity and 

intrinsic value of certain methods and methodologies, pragmatism encourages 

researchers to choose methods and methodologies based on their relevance "in terms of 

transporting us from the realm of practice to the world of theory and vice versa" 

(Kelemen & Rumens, 2012). 

3.3 Research Approach  

The study employed a mixed-method research approach in the collection and the 

analysis of its data. As the name indicates, the mixed-method research is a purposeful 

integration and combination of both the quantitative and the qualitative research 

techniques in conducting research. It states that researchers gather both the quantitative 

and the qualitative data from the sample population using appropriate instruments 

(Creswell & Plano, 2011). The relevance of this approach to the study is its ability to 

create both the statistical and in-depth views on the phenomenon under study. 

Specifically, the study sought to analyse the extent and the dynamics of agricultural 

sector decentralisation and its contribution to food security in the Ho West District of 

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the Volta Region. Thus, qualitative data were collected with an interview guide from 

the core staff of the Ho West District Assembly, some selected farmers, and the 

technical staff of the Department of Agriculture in the Ho West District. In addition, 

quantitative data were gathered through a semi-structured questionnaire that was 

administered on farmers in the District.  

3.4 Population, Sampling Technique and Sample Size of the Study  

Creswell (2012) defines population of a study as a group of individuals with similar 

characteristics, which is of interest to the researcher. The population of interest for the 

researcher in this study is all food-crop farmers in the Ho West District, the core staff 

of the Ho West Municipal Assembly, and all technical/extension services staff of the 

Department of Agriculture in the Ho West District.  

The farmers were targeted for this study because they constitute direct beneficiaries in 

decisions made by the District Assembly and the central government on agriculture-

related policies. For the purposes of this study, farmers were limited to all those 

involved in the production of food crops in the Ho West District both on large- and 

small-scale. In addition, the Ho West District Assembly was selected as part of the 

population due to their role in the preparation of the composite budget and the 

disbursement of central government financial allocations to the various departments 

under the Assembly including the agriculture department, and the oversight roles 

played in the operations of all decentralised departments in the District. They include 

the Municipal Chief Executive, the District Coordinating Director(s), the District 

Planning Officer(s), the District Budget Officer(s), and the District Finance 

Officer(s)/Director(s). The Ho West District Department of Agriculture was selected 

due to the general agricultural and extension services it rendered to the farmers and 

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other players in the agriculture value chain in the District. They comprise all agriculture 

extension agents in the Ho West District, and include the District Director of 

Agriculture.  

3.4.1 Sample Size and Sampling Techniques for the Study  

Sample refers to a subset of a study population, or a segment of the study population 

selected by the researcher for the purposes of investigation (Bryman, 2012). With a 

study population size of 18000 registered farmers in the District, the researcher 

employed a sample-size determination table, developed by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) 

to arrive at a sample size of 377 with a confidence level of 95% and a confidence 

interval of 5%. This is to ensure a 95% accuracy and allow a +/-5% margin of error.  

To ensure a fair and equal representation of farmers from the various communities, the 

researcher sampled twenty-nine (29) respondents each from thirteen (13) farming 

communities in the Ho West District. These thirteen communities were grouped into 

three general zones: southern, central and northern zones.  The southern zone 

communities comprised Amedzope, Anyirawase, Dededo, and Avenui. The central 

zone communities were Abutia Kissiful, Abutia Kloe, Abutia Kpota, and Abutia Teti. 

In addition, the northern zone consisted of Anfoeta Tsebi, Anfoeta Agorkpo, Ashanti 

Kpoeta, Dzogbefeme, and Avenui.  

The researcher used a purposive sampling technique of the non-probability sampling 

method in selecting 15 participants consisting of 5 core staff of the Ho West District 

Assembly, 4 technical staff from the Department of Agriculture, and 5 farmers for the 

interview. Purposive sampling refers to the judgmental selection of elements of the 

sample by the researcher.  The selection of research participants using purposive 

sampling technique aims at ensuring the inclusion and the accurate selection of those 

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with the requisite knowledge on the subject matter of the research (Palinkas et al., 2015; 

Kelly, 2010). 

Additionally, a simple random sampling technique of the probability sampling method 

was used to select the 377 farmers from the thirteen farming communities in the District 

for the survey (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). Simple random sampling refers to the 

haphazard selection of a subset of a population, which ensures equal and fair chances 

of subjects' selection. 

Table 3. 1: Sampled Farming Communities in the Ho West District 

Zones                  Communities    Number 

Sampled 

Southern zones:   Amedzope, Anyirawase,   116 

     Dededo, & Avenui. 

 

Central zones:    Abutia Kissiful, Abutia Kloe,   116 

     Abutia Kpota & Abutia Teti 

 

Northern zones:   Anfoeta Tsebi, Anfoeta Agorkpo,  145 

     Ashanti Kpoeta, Dzogbefeme & 

     Avenui.  

Total            377 

Source: Field Report, (2021).  

Sampled Agencies for the Study  

Population Groups       Population   Number Sampled  

Ho West District Assembly (Core Staff)  12   5 

Ho West district DoA  (Technical Staff)  8   4  

Total           9 

Source: Field Work (2021).  

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