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UNIVERSITY OF GHANA
ASSESSMENT OF THE ECOWAS PROTOCOL ON FREE MOVEMENT
OF PERSONS, RIGHT OF RESIDENCE AND ESTABLISHMENT (THE
CASE OF ELUBO BORDER).
BY
NORA NAA KWAKOR MARMON-HALM
(10155150)
A PROJECT WORK SUBMITTED TO THE CENTRE OF MIGRATION,
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF
THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS
DEGREE IN MIGRATION STUDIES
JULY, 2018
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DECLARATION
I do hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research and has not been presented
by anyone for any academic award in this or any other university. All references used in the
work have been fully acknowledged.
……………………………                                                            ……………………..
NORA NAA KWAKOR MARMON-HALM DATE
ID NUMBER 10155150
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CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this long essay was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down
by the University
………………… ………………….
DR. MARY B. SETRANA DATE
(SUPERVISOR)
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DEDICATION
This work is dedicated to God Almighty who is the source of all knowledge and to my two
children Zuta Marmon-Halm and Michael Ian Owura Kwamena Marmon-Halm.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am very grateful to the Almighty God for this achievement. I would want to express my
sincerest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor, Dr. Mary B. Setrana for her timeless
dedication during the supervision of this work.
My special thanks also goes to the following people; my daughter, Zuta Marmon-Halm,
Michael Marmon-Halm – my son, Mr. Simon Asare, Mr. Justice Cudjoe and Dr. Prince
Darah for their contribution in diverse ways to make this study a success.
God richly bless you all.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... i
CERTIFICATION........................................................................................................................................ ii
DEDICATION........................................................................................................................................... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT............................................................................................................................ iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................... v
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................................................... viii
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................... ix
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................ x
CHAPTER ONE .........................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background to the study.........................................................................................................1
1.2 Problem Statement.......................................................................................................................4
1.3 Objectives......................................................................................................................................6
1.3.1 General objective ...................................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Specific objectives..................................................................................................................7
1.4 Research questions .......................................................................................................................7
1.5 Significance of the study ...............................................................................................................7
1.6 Scope of the study ........................................................................................................................8
1.7 Chapter disposition .......................................................................................................................9
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................................10
LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................................................................................10
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................10
2.1 Theories of migration..................................................................................................................10
2.1.1 The Situation Oriented Approach (Push- Pull Hypotheses) .................................................10
2.1.2 The World System Theory....................................................................................................11
2.1.3 The Dual Labour Market Theory ..........................................................................................11
2.2 Migration trends .........................................................................................................................12
2.3 ECOWAS and its Protocol............................................................................................................14
2.4 The development of the ECOWAS ‘free movement’ protocol....................................................18
Sadly, the French speaking West African nations were at first not in help of the thought towards
the arrangement of the ECOWAS state. Step by step it took the joined endeavors of Nigeria and
Togo to change that impression of the francophone nations. Since the initiation of the ECOWAS as
an association, the individual part networks have been endeavoring incredible endeavors to
incorporate plans to improve the combination of West African states (Findley, 2004). The present
endeavors to extend and incorporate the plans incorporates advancement of provincial exchange,
progression of people development among part state, merchandise and ventures, harmonization
of money related and financial approaches, harmonization of business law and numerous others.
Issues that were viewed as exceptionally pertinent in the mission for this coordination activity
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incorporate the pertinence particularly to national monetary enthusiasm of part nations and all
the more critically their effect to a definitive financial association objectives. (Lansana, 2013).In
connection to other local associations on the African mainlands, ECOWAS apparently seems, by all
accounts, to be the most significant association on the landmass, regardless of the way that it is
such a large number of separation far from the accomplishments of its European Union partner.22
2.7 Approval of schemes...................................................................................................................24
2.8 Challenges of implementation of the Protocol...........................................................................28
2.9 Success of implementation of the Protocol................................................................................29
2.10 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER............................................................................................................32
CHAPTER THREE ....................................................................................................................................33
METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................33
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................33
3.1 Research design ..........................................................................................................................33
3.2 Population of the study...............................................................................................................33
3.3 Sampling and sample size ...........................................................................................................33
3.4 Source of data .............................................................................................................................34
3.5 Data collection instrument .........................................................................................................34
3.6 Administration of Research Instrument .....................................................................................35
3.7 Data Analysis ...............................................................................................................................35
3.8 Ethical issues ...............................................................................................................................36
CHAPTER FOUR .....................................................................................................................................37
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................................37
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................37
4.1 Demographic characteristic ........................................................................................................37
4.1.1 Sex of respondents...............................................................................................................37
4.1.2 Age of respondents..............................................................................................................38
4.1.3Country of origin of travellers...................................................................................................39
4.1.4 Ethnicity of respondents ......................................................................................................40
4.1.5 Respondents place of residence ..........................................................................................40
4.1.6 Border crossing at Elubo ......................................................................................................41
4.2 Knowledge of ECOWAS Protocol ............................................................................................42
4.2.2 Usefulness of the ECOWAS Protocol usefulness..................................................................43
4.2.3 Assessing the workability of the Protocol............................................................................44
4.3 Implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons.................................45
4.3.1 Knowledge of respondents about the implementation of the protocol .............................45
4.3.2 Actual implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol ................................................................46
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4.4 Challenges with the implementation of the protocol.................................................................49
4.5 Efforts been made to manage the challenges ............................................................................52
4.6 Cross tabulations.........................................................................................................................53
CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................................57
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .........................................................................57
5.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................57
5.1 Summary .....................................................................................................................................57
5.2 Conclusion...................................................................................................................................58
5.3 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................60
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................................................62
APPENDICES ..........................................................................................................................................65
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 4.1 Sex of respondents 36
Figure 4.2 Country of origin 38
Figure 4.3 Respondents’ knowledge of ECOWAS Protocol 41
Figure 4.4 Respondents’ knowledge about the Protocol’s implementation 44
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1: Age of respondents 37
Table 4.2 Ethnicity of respondents 39
Table 4.3: Place of residence of respondents 39
Table 4.4 Frequency of usage of border 40
Table 4.5 Usefulness of ECOWAS Protocol 42
Table 4.6 Protocol’s workability 43
Table 4.7 Results of implementation of the protocol 45
Table 4.8 Passport possession 46
Table 4.9 Other travel documents 47
Table 4.9 Usage of approved point of entry 48
Table 4.10 Protocol effects on travellers 48
Table 4.11 Are the challenges associated with the protocol? 49
Table 4.12 Views on border crossing procedures 51
Table 4.14: Country of origin * protocol awareness cross tabulation 52
Table 4.15: Sex * age * protocol awareness cross tabulation 52
Table 4.16: Sex * frequency of border use * country of origin cross tabulation 53
Table 4.17: Country of origin * is the protocol working cross tabulation 54
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ABSTRACT
The main aim of the study was to assess the implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol on
free movement of persons, rights of residence and establishment. For this, the mixed method
of data collection was used which formed the basic design for the study. Using the convenient
method, 84 travellers and 30 officers were sampled to respond to structured questionnaires
and semi interview questions respectively. Data was analysed using quantitative and
qualitative methods and the results triangulated.
Results of the study indicated that most respondents do not have any knowledge of the
ECOWAS Protocol whereas a few of the respondents affirmed to their having knowledge in
the Protocol. Those who are familiar with the Protocol indicated that it is useful and that it is
working for its purpose. Similarly, most respondents do not know how the implementation of
the ECOWAS Protocol is done.
According to officers at the borders, one basic challenge facing them as border officials is the
issue of language barrier. The sub-region is made up of Anglophone and Francophone
countries. Ghanaian officials therefore find it difficult to communicate with travellers from
other countries other than English speaking countries. Likewise, other officials like those at
La Cote D’Ivoire have problems communicating with travellers from English speaking
countries.
It was recommended that Officers that will be put at the borders should be those that could
speak other foreign languages especially French and English. Those that will be on duty
should always have at least one person among them who could speak such languages. This
will facilitate effective communication. Authorities of member states should endeavour to
have a common identification document and even common ECOWAS currency which will
facilitate bilateral trade, thereby helping the Protocol achieve its objective of regional
integration and trade.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background to the study
The issue of movement has turned into a typical wonder over the globe. Truth be told it is an
overall ulcer that has made a few discussions particularly crossing the Mediterranean Sea to
Europe. Keeping in mind the end goal to develop and accomplish concentrated financial,
political and socio-social association inside and among state and non-state performing artists,
there has been an expanded in the development of individuals crosswise over outskirts and in
addition an expanded in intra and bury fringe and mainland development of people especially
brokers of the ECOWAS sub districts. All inclusive the measurements propose that around
three percent of the worldwide populace are transients (UN, 2006). Sadly the ECOWAS sub
locale is no rejection in this appalling developing infection. As indicated by the United
Nation's report, out of the one hundred and ninety one transients everywhere throughout the
world, around seven million of these individuals are accepted to have originated from the
West Africa sub area (UN, 2006).
It is no questioning actuality that greater part of the nations over the globe experience
movement and migration in different measurement in such a way, to the point that each state
is characterized in view of the extent of non-natives who enter and leave a nation.
Fundamentally most nations are sorted as travel nations because of the way that they get
numerous non-natives who in the end move to different nations. Beginning from the 1980s,
the point of global movement has increase substantially more fame particularly with respects
relationship between nations significant worldwide affiliation that range from universal
mammoths like the European Union, Southern Africa Development Community, Economic
Community of West African States and what have you to the strong United Nation and its
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impossible to miss offices and organizations for some reasons not overlooking the pickles of
asylums and the consequence of work relocation on generally the economies of creating
nations.
The West Africa sub region comprises of countries of immigration as well as emigration, and
more importantly nation that serve as a transit route for migrants. In the West Africa sub
region the countries with constant urge of migration includes Ivory Coast, Ghana and Nigeria
in the early 1970s has been the major country receiving foreigners as migration was on the
increase in Nigeria as a result of oil booms which was generating a lot of employment in the
various sector of the economy (Aderanti, 2012). Mostly the major countries that export
labour include Guinea, Mali, Togo, Senegal and Burkina Faso. However with regards to
Senegal, the countries experiences a simultaneous situation in the sense that it experiences
both, that is receiving labour and exporting them as well. Consequently, these migration
procedures have seemly taken different dimension recently. Senegal for instance has taken on
more responsibilities acting as a mediator or as a transit nation for foreigners seeking to enter
the European countries. For some time back, Nigeria and Ghana have joined the mantel of
exporting labour mainly due to the continuous wear down of the economy (Adepoju, 1988).
However, quite recently, Ghana has experienced a flow of return migrants as the economic
situation there continues to improve.
In 1979 somewhere around May, few years after the announcement of the agreement most
countries have accepted a Protocol (Aderanti, 2012) in relation to the movement of persons
freely as well as to reside and establish in other countries.
The ECOWAS association was inaugurated in the year 1975 in relation to the rising trends in
business and trade as well as the need to exploit resources for the universal development of
the West Africa sub region. Undeniably most countries in the sub region are confronted with
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so many economic problems and socio cultural issues majority of which aroused after the
gaining of independence and the situation was further coupled with deficit in infrastructural
and weakness in the various economic sectors. There was therefore the need to draw various
policies to arrest the various challenges. Fortunately the new economic procedures that
emerged somewhere around the 1970s was to advocate and send a strong message which
seeks to call for the togetherness of countries in other to tackle and arrest the economic issues
more comprehensively. In that regard the new economic order aroused from the decline in the
prices of petroleum products and more significantly unsustainable debt within the African
States. (ECOWAS, 2008).
Coincidentally the process speeded the formation the various regional and sub-regional
association such as the Economic Community of West African States, Southern Africa
Development Community (SADC) and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa
(COMESA). In actual fact, ECOWAS was formed to boost the growth of the various
economies and more importantly advocate for the security and peace among the various
states. The idea or motive behind the formation of ECOWAS has been the fact that the
challenges that confronted the sub-region could not be surmounted on an individual basis and
it was important for states in the sub-region to come together for the difficult tasks that lay
ahead.
The historical backdrop of financial incorporation as embraced by the establishing fathers of
ECOWAS was inspired by the arrangement of the Southern Africa Custom Union (SACU) in
1910.2The development of ECOWAS was viewed as the main methodology in which the
sub-area could graph a way of monetary advancement. The development of people openly
and also merchandise and servicesas stipulated in Articles 2(2) and 27 give the system to
development over the sub-district. The need to bring legitimate monetary advancement
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development by ECOWAS brought about the proclamation of the Protocol on Free
Movement of Persons, Goods and Services. Article (2) and Article 27 of the Protocol on the
Free Movement of Persons, Goods and Services states entomb alia:
1) The expulsion of custom obligations and different charges of comparable impact in regard
of the import and fare of products as stipulated in Article 2(2).
2) All residents of the part states will be viewed as network subjects and likewise part states
attempt to nullify all deterrents to their opportunity of development and living arrangement
inside the network (Article 27). This study subsequently looks to explore the usage of the
ECOWAS Protocol on free development of people, privileges of home and foundation.
1.2 Problem Statement
In the immediate post-independence era, economic growth similar to that which existed in the
Western industrialized countries was the desire of all the new African countries. Regional
integration and cooperation was one of the strategies considered expedient in reaching this
goal of economic development .On 28 May 1975, sixteen West African counties signed a
treaty in Lagos, Nigeria, establishing the ECOWAS. This treaty was intended to strengthen
cooperation among nation within the sub regions of the West Africa States. The strategy was
to promote intraregional trade and move goods and services as well as capital and persons
freely within the member countries as well the privilege to reside and establish within the
member countries. Few years following the birth of the ECOWAS in1979 a Protocol was
introduced to consolidate the freedom of movement of people. The first phase of the Protocol
which came into effect somewhere in the 1980 assured citizens entering freely into member
countries without visa for ninety days. The second stage of the Protocol which covers the
privilege to reside in member country came into effect somewhere in July 1986 which all
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members accepted in good faith. Despite this effort the right to establishment is yet to be
made effective. (Ghana News Agency, 2011).
With the coming into force of both the 1979 treaty and the revised treaty of 1993, countries
who were members stopped the demand for visa and other travelling documents necessary for
travelling to other countries. The implication of this is that citizens of countries who are
members of ECOWAS and have the necessary documents for travelling and at the same
time have accurate health certificate which merit international standard can live in other West
Africa states up to 90 days (Lamy, 2011). Article 4 is the only legal basis for restricting
movement under the free movement Protocol. Article 4 basically gives member states the
right to deny entry to community citizens if in their estimation, such citizens would create
problems in their host states.
Agyei and Clottey (2007) have cited various reasons that hinder the free movement Protocol.
Some of these reasons include xenophobia, ignorance of the Protocol and extortion at the
various borders. These problems identified by Agyei and Clottey (2007) gives a hint that the
intended objectives of the Protocol have not been met or that the Protocol is facing some
challenges. Article 4 was developed to secure the economies of the national as well as control
migration. Article 4 therefore remains a threshold which members reserved to themselves
under the Protocol. For instance, in countries like that of Togo, Benin, Niger and Burkina
Faso are nations who formally enjoys a total liberty to refuse potential foreigners who
happens to be migrants without reasons or need to explanations.
In Togo, under Law on 87-12 which relates to the policy on migration, entry into the country
could be restricted at the liberty officials in charge of the law. In Niger, under Decree no 87-
076, migrants must present a national travelling document or passport and must as far as
possible be valid by international standard. Regardless of the above migrants can among
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other things be rejected or sacked from or deny the privilege to reside in Niger.  In Burkina
Faso however, per the basis of the ordinance number 84- 049, migrants must possess
standardize and acknowledgeable travelling document which must be valid and up to date as
well as international health certificate and a completion on the necessary application process
(Ayamga, 2014). In Ghana, under the Immigration Act 573 of 2002, migrants are expected to
be in possession of valid travelling documents. People’s restricted permission of entry
comprise individuals facing deportation issues, those having criminal issues and the rest.
(Pavlov &Grečić, 2008).
Quakers (2014) indicated that the ECOWAS Protocol that involve the movement of
individuals and goods and services freely within and among the sub regions was aimed at
eliminating or reducing the bottlenecks associated with movement from one place to another.
However, the inadmissible laws under Article 4 have been interpreted differently by some
countries within the sub-region. There appear to be no clear guideline on the application of
the law by various countries. The law continues to pose serious challenges to the Protocol
that involve the movement of individuals freely as well as goods and services and the liberty
to reside and establish in other countries. This is so because Article 4 is opened to varied
interpretation by member countries and this leaves the implementation of the Protocol at the
discretion of member countries. This study therefore seeks to assess the protocol in terms of
individual’s free movement, their rights to reside and establish in Ghana as a member of the
sub region.
1.3 Objectives
The objectives of the study will be put into two categories namely; the general objective and
the specific objectives. The general objective is the main aim of the study which the
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researcher seeks to achieve at the end of the study. The specific objectives will be the guide
to the specific steps to be followed to achieve the general objective of the study.
1.3.1 General objective
The main aim of the study is to determine how the ECOWAS Protocol on the free movement
of persons, rights of residence and establishment is being implemented.
1.3.2 Specific objectives
Specifically, the following steps will be taken to achieve the general aim of the study.
1. To examine awareness of the ECOWAS Protocol among border officials and
travelers.
2. To find out if the Protocol is been implemented according to how it states.
3. To identify the challenges in the implementation of the protocol.
4. Investigate what efforts are been made to manage the challenges.
1.4 Research questions
The following questions will be answered to achieve the objectives of the study.
1. Are border officials and travelers aware of the ECOWAS Protocol?
2. Is the Protocol been implemented according to how it states?
3. What are the challenges associated with the implementation of the Protocol?
4. What efforts are been put in place to manage these challenges?
1.5 Significance of the study
The information that often arise from the traders and travellers of the West Africa sub region
is often terrible most especially those who travel by road. Most of the narration carry
experiences that are so horrible in comparison with the Mediterranean Sea saga where most
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Africans try to cross to the European countries using the Sahara desert who untimely perish
miserably. In actual fact the differences that exist between the two scenario is the fact whiles
the later travellers pay the result of their journey with their lives, the traders and travellers
within the sub African sub regions pay with their money and time. The outcome of this
research is going to demonstrate that the current bilateral and multilateral economic alliances
will as far as possible strengthen existing economic cooperation as well as open the
opportunity for other good fortunes as far as economic alliances is concern. Identification of
challenges and devising strategies to solve those problems will help increase bilateral
cooperation in the sub region and increase trade activities among ECOWAS countries. It will
also bring about integration which helps member countries develop effectively. It will also
benefit the academia by adding up to the little literature and documentation on the challenges
and frustrations border officials and travellers go through at the borders.
Again, the results from this study will also help the various regional and sub-regional
machinery which aims to assist in searching for effective and efficient sustainable results to
the challenges that are militating against the well-intended policy which aims among other
things to liberate the movement of persons freely as well as the free movement of goods and
services within the ECOWAS and its sub regions. It will also aid existing policies and
procedures to ensure and improve the safety of individuals travelling, the free flow of
interstate buses in the sub regions and its fraternity to assist transporters and passengers.
1.6 Scope of the study
The study seeks to consider the provisions in the ECOWAS Protocol on person’s movement
as members and their rights of residence and establishment. This study will therefore consider
only these variables as it pertains to officers and travelers at the Elubo Border. Even though
there are other borders, it is only at the Elubo border that this study will be conducted. The
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result will therefore be generalized to only officers and users of the border and not all borders
of the country.
1.7 Chapter disposition
This study is organized into five chapters. Under each of these chapters, the issues discussed
will be put under sub headings. The first chapter introduces the study. Under this chapter, the
background to the study is stated, followed by the research problem and then objectives of the
study. In addition, some research questions are asked. The significance of the study and its
scope are also spelt out. The chapter ends with how the study was organized into individual
chapters.
Chapter Two of the study looks at the review of literature on completed works that have been
done on the topic under discussion. The review is divided into theoretical perspective and
review of related literature. Under the theoretical perspective, some theories are used to
explain the constructs and their relatedness to the issues being investigated whereas the
review of related literature considers some existing studies in the area being investigated as
well as the theoretical framework of the study will not be ignored here. Chapter Three spells
out the methodology of the study. The procedure followed in conducting the study will be
clearly explained. This will comprise the research design, population for the study, the size of
the sample as well as the technique to be used in sampling, data sources, data collection
procedures, the instrument, the research setting and the analyses of data will all be indicated
in the study.
Chapter Four of the study captures the data analyses and discussion in relation to literature.
Chapter Five is the last chapter of the study and under this, the study will be summarised and
a conclusion drawn based on the results from the analyses of data and finally, a
recommendation made by the researcher based on the conclusion drawn.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Introduction
This section of the research study considers literature on the topic under discussion. It will be
reviewed under different subheadings to make it more simple and understandable. It will
mostly talk about ECOWAS and the free movement of persons associated with the protocol,
specifically how it is integrated and how it influences the movement of persons across
borders.
2.1 Theories of migration
Under this section, some theories of migration which are relevant to the study were briefly
reviewed. Three theories were considered in this study namely; the situation oriented
approach (push-pull hypothesis), the world system theory and the dual labour market theory.
These have been explained below.
2.1.1 The Situation Oriented Approach (Push- Pull Hypotheses)
The theory was the handy work of Lee (Lee, 1966) which he used to explain how it is
difficult to predict migrants. Accordingly he explained that, the push pull elements are the
most significant and influential factors as far as migration is concern. Explaining further, he
categorised the two factors into two namely negative and positive. In his opinion, the push
elements represents affirmative factors signifying their place of origin whereas the pull
elements being representative of positive elements of the various destination. Adding to this,
the researcher proposes that the resolution to move to other places or migrate and more
importantly the process are motivated by some significant elements originating from the
various places of origin destination as well as fluctuations of the economy and other factors
(UN, 2006). For instance, if the area of origin is associated with instability and factors like
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famine, draught, flooding, earthquakes etc. people are likely to migrate to destinations that
will give them greener pastures. In this situation, the individual has escaped from negative
effect to positive one. This is the situation in most African countries, especially the
subregion. Instability in places like Cote D’Ivoire will push its nationals away to peaceful
places like Ghana.
2.1.2 The World System Theory
Wallerstein (1974) built up the world framework hypothesis where he endeavored to interface
the development procedure of countries and states with worldwide relocations. The
hypothesis keeps up that the main driver of this issue is the nearness of lacking and restricted
improvement to some degree created economies and the different farming countries.
However, the theory postulated that, basically the strong economies mostly where migrants
move to will develop their economies by exploiting the benefits form the struggling
economies. The theory however, made an important revelation and argued that the issues of
migration is most often a global and natural phenomenon used for especially for market
penetration all over the world. (Wallerstein, 1974). The theory further suggested that
globalization and other factors resulted in the promotion of migration. (Joly, 2000).
2.1.3 The Dual Labour Market Theory
This theory is built on a very comprehensive argument which explains the fact that, the
labour market of the developed and well established and industrialized economies have a two
way structure. This duality system as explained comprises of the primary segment which is
made up of professionally skilled labour while the secondary sector is made up workers who
are not professionally skilful. Mostly workers or skilful workers are well remunerated partly
due to the qualification that they bring to the field whiles the remunerations of those in the
secondary sector mostly made up of the unskilled labour receive low remuneration (Aderanti,
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2012). In most cases the various owners of the jobs or the management of the various
businesses do not want to pay huge salaries to the local or the domestic workers to do
unpleasant works due to the fact that they want to hold a payment differences between the
various job segments ( Cobbe, 2004). Due to deficits in workers at the lowest part of the job
hierarchy, most business are forced to employ the unskilled migrant workers who may not
have plans of permanently staying the country but will gladly accept the secondary works
because it pays more than the later (Piore, 1979 and Stalker, 2000).
2.2 Migration trends
The issues of migration have a very long history in Africa taking the 4th century for instance
(Findley 2004). However researchers hold the view that Emigration among other things had
the most significant influence on all the sample nations whereas other think immigration
played some influential roles. It has been realize that, over the years most foreigners travel to
other countries in such of seasonal jobs mostly of agriculture nature. Migrations of this nature
or trends have become a constant trend of job seeking opportunities over a long period of
time. Others however travel to other countries for very limited time periods sometimes in
responds to emerging economic difficulties, sometimes to acquire experience or to be trained
in specific fields and what have you. In other instances individual people and families can
decide to live in other countries just to make life better. Others also move to the white man’s
land specifically the European countries or the United State or even Asia sometimes for
vacations which are mostly on short periods (Joly, 2000):. However, moving across borders
to do business is a common phenomenon in the Africa sub regions which may not necessary
be regarded as migration due to the time frame involve in staying in that country. Nonetheless
moving across borders is not only within the African vicinity alone but occurs between
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Europe and Africa. Commonly among this are the traders of Senegal in Italy who often return
to restock their products and merchandise (Riccio 2003).
The statistics available in literature suggest that in majority of the countries sampled, the
percentage of foreigners and migrants was found to be less than 3 percent of the total
population of the respective sampled country with the exception of Ghana and Burkina Faso
who recorded 7 percent and 6 percent respectively. However, with regards to the foreigners in
the countries sampled fell from 2.9 percent of the population to 1.7 percent in 2005 (Gyampa,
2014). The pattern therefore indicates a speedy increased in the population of the majority of
the countries sampled for the study with an average increase of 2.6 percent in a year as well
as a reduction of migration as a result of economic issues and conflicts. Some countries like
Uganda were a little fortunate to have experience stability in the country during the 1960s
particularly at the point where the immigrants’ stock matched more than 11 percent of the
population. However, with a regards to challenges arising in the political and economic
atmosphere between the 1970s and the 1980s the nation became an influential source for
emigrants.(Black et al, 2004).During the post independent era somewhere around the 1960s,
Ghana was an influential point for foreigners from close sister countries in the West Africa
sub regions. But consequently immigration declined as a result of the rising challenges in the
economy with a further reduction of a significant margin in the 1980s which was linked to the
shortage of fundamental consumer goods (Anarfi and others 2003). Nigeria had it fair share
of the immigration issues in the middle of 1980 as a result of foreigners’ expulsion, however,
it was until the 1990s where South Africa had it experience with a significant declined in
mining workers. Gradually from 1970 to the 1990s, the tables were turned in Senegal which
made it a nation of emigrants instead of immigrants (Fall 2003).
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Nonetheless, regardless of the misfortunes some countries have suffered at the expense of
migration other countries and states were fortunate to have quite relatively stable atmosphere
in terms of immigrants and its association with population. Immigration is very limited in
some African countries such as the likes of Lesotho and Mali probably due to the nature of
poverty and employment deficiencies in those countries. In some countries like Mauritius, it
has problems with geographically locations which made it to be isolated geographically and
this has resulted in several challenges against immigration (Gyampa, 2014). In places like
Burkina Faso majority of the migrants identified were from sister neighbouring countries
with about 70 percent of these persons being misfortunes of migration. With regards to
Ethiopia, majority of the immigrants about 60 percent were from Eritrea after the war which
separated the two countries with extra 30 percent from poorer countries like Somalia. It was
realized that majority of the identified foreigners to Senegal were rumoured to have come
from Guinea, Mali and Mauritania. Regardless of the challenges facing the Nigerian
economy, the country continues to look appalling to immigrants from other countries from
the West Africa sub regions (Okom & Udoaka, 2012). Among the sampled countries, the
only middle income nation happened to be South Africa as well as the only country land
borders which made it attractive for foreigners looking for work. Averagely the little
immigrants from Africa who resides in Burkina Faso gives an indication of absence of data
on the source of country most immigrants and in countries such as Lesotho the current inflow
of immigrants from China in relation with the textile industries financed by investors from
Taiwanese (Cobbe 2004).
2.3 ECOWAS and its Protocol
Trans-outskirt development happens to be the significant issue of talk among the different
provincial and sub-local associations around the world. It has been stated that human
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development in West Africa alone has been in the investigation and discourse of writing for
quite a while. There is further attestation that propose that exchange, want for greener field,
urbanization, farming, mining, modern generation, innate clashes, instability in the earth, the
expansion corruption of the grounds, dry spell and extreme country destitution are a portion
of the components that increments and energize this movement drift (DFID, 2004). Before
the outstanding scramble for Africa and the notorious subjective limit depiction, tenants in
the West African sub-district kept up elevated structures in the idea of developments over the
different levels including dialect, social, conventions, and traditions.
Reasons that record for the movement of individual and people in and over the west Africa
sub districts, the nature and premise of trades the kept up and beyond what many would
consider possible builds up a typical securities have not been "tempered maybe because of
powerful detachment of friends and relatives into two separate nations nor was the local
dialect messed with" (Adeola and Fayomi, 2012: 1). There accomplishment of opportunity
politically and also increasing political power from expansionism made offensive
interruptions in these zones rather expanding high talks among West African states much
more objective. Amid post-autonomy, the time saw a consistent and quick improvement of
both political and financial connection among the different nations. Over the past few years,
this mentality has reorganized, directed, and encouraged policy formation and procedures
which lay emphasis on political and socio economic development as well as the promotion of
security and the unionization of the citizens.
The inauguration of ECOWAS as a parent association was for the purpose of achieving
global integration without endangering or torching bonds from the historical perspective most
especially those within and among the various sub. The institution was primarily tasked with
the objective of ensuring that the sub-regions are transformed into a society. The basis of this
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is manifested in the various agreements and protocols selected by representatives of the
various communities which makes it possible for the eliminations of all obstacles common to
development and peace (United Nations, 2006). By method for keeping up the nearby
personalities, way and way of getting things done, conventions and the religions of the
different gatherings inside the different sub areas, the ends of impediments to help the free
development of nationals of these states was obviously advanced subsequently the marking
and becoming effective of the Protocol of ECOWAS on the development of people openly,
the privilege to live and also the privilege to build up in part nations some place in 1979
(ECOWAS, 2006; Opanike, Aduloju and Adenipekun, 2015; and Opanike, Olayode and
Aduloju, 2015). It is additionally expressed that, per the necessity of Article 27 of the
ECOWAS Agreement, there is the arrangement for opportunity of development and living
arrangement.
The assention additionally gives the native of part expresses the privilege to dwell and build
up anyplace inside the region (ECOWAS, 1979). Without a doubt, this understanding was
relied upon to upgrade and increment collaboration among the nations and additionally the
whole sub locales with its natives. The assention for example has increment ceaseless
developments of "displaced people, male and female brokers, cultivate workers and cross
outskirt specialists crosswise over fringes." As far as conceivable there is no motivation to
question that this freedom will result in borderless sub district in which there is relied upon to
be free stream of products and enterprises (Agyei and Clottey, 2007). Apparently, there has
different contention especially in the field of the scholarly community and among the overall
population especially on the issues of security suggestion because of ECOWAS Protocol on
the free development of people and right of home and also the foundation of states in West
Africa. In the course of recent years, inquire about has demonstrated that the said convention
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in the West Africa area can't in any capacity on account of the predominant horrendous and
criminal exercises the greater part of which shows up as human trafficking, pirating of
products crosswise over visitor, Small Arms and Light Weapons, (SALW) (Onwuka, 1982;
Agyei and Clottey, 2007; Clark, 2014; Opanike, Aduloju and Adenipekun, 2015; and
Opanike, Olayode and Aduloju, 2015).
In such manner it tends to be understood that, the subjects of the West Africa sub locales are
yet to receive the full reward of the arrangement cherished in this Protocol assention because
of the way that it has been incompletely been actualized inside its limits. Notwithstanding
this situation, it seems some monetary exercises at some fringe post particularly that of
Nigeria-Benin have been appeared to increment in size and volume. The pertinence of this
fringe isn't implanted or protected from the way that they accumulate the biggest inflow of
cash, exchange, individuals, and work however because of the way that the most crowded
nation which happens to be Nigeria in the sub-district happens to be the last goal for products
from different nations inside the sub-locale (Blum, 2014: 3-4). It can in this manner be
contended that it is on this premise, the outskirt of this two nations keep on attracting real
consideration in broad daylight discusses and in the field of scholastic especially on the issues
troubling on ECOWAS and with its equal fringe issues, for example, exchange boundaries,
arrive hindrances, unlawful checkpoints, debasement, blackmail and terrorizing by fringe
authorities (Sossou-Agbo, 2013). There are arrangement of issues liable to involve the
operationalization of the very much planned Protocol on the free development of individuals
crosswise over and along fringes.
Notwithstanding that impact, a few scientists have likewise contended that such exchange
and free development along the outskirt have sex measurements (Central Asia Regional
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Economic Cooperation, 2007; Jawando et. al., 2012; Ghils, 2013; and Gyampa, 2014). The
sexual orientation measurement is no doubt because of the way that, "ladies have all the
earmarks of being effectively take part in fringe exchanging exercises for the most part
through moving merchandise through outskirt crossing focuses. Regardless this seem, by all
accounts, to be one of the few activities ladies can be occupied with practically zero assets"
(Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation, 2007 refered to in Jawando et. al., 2012: 29).
Luckily ladies in the West Africa locale additionally participate in outskirt exchange which
infers that West Africa isn't exempted. Notwithstanding this data, there is each motivation to
question that there has been even little consideration regarding draw the difficulties and
issues looked by ladies brokers at the individual outskirt post of the sub districts and perhaps
how this issues or difficulties has encroached on their rights as accommodated in the
ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement of Persons. In spite of the way that men are not
exempted frame to the issue talked about above, it is reasonable for motivation such that
ladies are the most powerless in the general public who experience the ill effects of the said
challenges and beyond what many would consider possible structures the prime target of this
investigation subsequently the need on their core interest.
2.4 The development of the ECOWAS ‘free movement’ protocol
Around the early part of the 1970s most of the leaders in West Africa realized the need for
integration in the respective sub regions which can be regarded as a step stone to achieve a
global economic integration collectively. In this regard several policies were institutionalized
as steps and frameworks as well as procedures to liberate the common market of Africa, the
economic community and several others frameworks the Lagos plan of Action were some of
the frameworks selected to create the respective sub regional unions to widen the economic
integration in Africa (Gyampa, (2014). There is the need to make require the different
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provincial and sub-local monetary joining in West Africa, which obviously will include all of
Africa to be fortify by the encounters of both created and creating nations (Adepoju, 2002).
The assention which was marked in Lagos on 28 May 1975 building up the Economic
Community of West Africa states (ECOWAS) secured all zones of monetary exercises. In
such manner Article 27 of the settlement underpins a long haul goal of setting up a network
citizenship. This beef up the framework to the agreement which state the primary reasons of
eliminating obstructions to the free movement of  persons, free movement of capital and
goods as well as the privilege to reside and establish in other countries in  May 1979 with
further assurance of stay without visa for not less than 90 days.
Inaugurating the ECOWAS association has to a very large extent created some kind of
pseudo of an identical society which once existed within the various sub regions. In this
regard the movement of persons freely contained in the frame work of the policy of the
protocol happens to be the first of such nature to be ratified and set into operation at the time
in which the free movement of citizens will among other thing be possible again. (Adepoju,
2001). The legal right to enter in a country, residence and its establishment had been
programmed to be progressively set up probably within fifteen years starting from the entry
date into the force of the Protocol. The commissioning of the first stage, over the first five
years, got rid of visa requirement as well as permission to enter any ECOWAS region. The
various citizens in the community who possess a valid travel documents with international
health credentials made it possible for citizens of member countries to enter any member
country in the absence of visa, for a period of 90 days. That in any case, country can anyway
deny passage its region to workers described under its laws as 'unacceptable'. In the examples
of removal especially to the detriment of the settlers themselves, states ensure the security of
the subject concerned, and that of his/her family and his/her property (Lamy, 2011).
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The second stage which was postponed was really the privilege of habitation of the
convention started in 1986, after Member States endorsed it, yet up till now the Right of
Establishment has not yet been executed (Adepoju et al, 2007). The start of the convention
especially on people free development coincidently began amid the time of financial retreat
in most piece of West Africa, especially nations flanking Nigeria, which was around then
encountering monetary blasts, particularly designed by the tremendous oil income.
Regardless of that, the circumstance drew the consideration of such a large number of
vagrants, this business opportunity got from the oil fortunes in Nigeria were capture by the
incompetent laborers, lion's share of who relocated from Ghana, Togo, Chad, Mali and
Cameroon to discover fortunes in zones, for example, the development and administrations
parts.
Toward the starting of1983as well as amidst 1985, the administration of Nigeria government
was not so much content with the turnout of occasions and from there on disavowed Articles
4 and 27 of the Protocol, which prompted the sacking of 0.9 and 1.3 million unlawful
vagrants, greater part of which were Ghanaians (Adepoju, 2009). Luckily the sanction of the
second phase of the ECOWAS Protocol which was focused, on Right of Residence, was
actualized in July 1986, harmonized with the dispatching of the auxiliary change program in
Nigeria. So in June 1985, it was accounted for that around 200,000 unlawful outsiders were
again sacked as the financial emergencies keep on worsening.
Progressively a few nations in the sub areas thought about establishing or have authorized
and kept up arrangement of legitimate standards which was required to avoid nonnatives,
together with residents from part nations, from partaking in certain sort of financial exercises.
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The sacking of this nonnatives detrimentally affected the explanations behind the
development of the ECOWAS association and in addition nullifying the entire raison d'être of
the foundation of ECOWAS. Despite this unsettling influence, the 1992 reexamined the
arrangement of the ECOWAS reaffirmed the lawfulness and privileges of natives of the
Community to section, habitation and settlement, and too charged part nations to perceive
rights in their individual regions.
2.5 ECOWAS and its Integration Schemes in West Africa
The Economic Community of West African States was shaped by heads and administration
of West African nations deliberately for financial incorporation. Once more, ECOWAS had
the target of successfully advancing participation and all the more essentially ginger
advancement in financial, social and social exercises especially to enhance the way of life of
the residents of ECOWAS; settle and keep up the economy; keep up and enhance part
connection among part state to enhance the advancement and improvement of West African
State. (Section II Article 3 Revised ECOWAS Treaty).the affiliation is comprised of fifteen
part states: Burkina-Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Niger, Togo, Mali, Benin, Sénégal, Côte D‟Ivoire
(CFA nations), Ghana, Guinea, Nigeria, Liberia, The Gambia, Sierra Leone, Cape Verde and,
Liberia (non-CFA nations), Mauritania was additionally a section, however pulled back in
2000 (Anadi, 2005). ECOWAS speaks to an outflow of Pan-Africanism (Gambari, 1991).
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Sadly, the French speaking West African nations were at first not in help of the thought
towards the arrangement of the ECOWAS state. Step by step it took the joined
endeavors of Nigeria and Togo to change that impression of the francophone nations.
Since the initiation of the ECOWAS as an association, the individual part networks
have been endeavoring incredible endeavors to incorporate plans to improve the
combination of West African states (Findley, 2004). The present endeavors to extend
and incorporate the plans incorporates advancement of provincial exchange,
progression of people development among part state, merchandise and ventures,
harmonization of money related and financial approaches, harmonization of business
law and numerous others. Issues that were viewed as exceptionally pertinent in the
mission for this coordination activity incorporate the pertinence particularly to national
monetary enthusiasm of part nations and all the more critically their effect to a
definitive financial association objectives. (Lansana, 2013).In connection to other local
associations on the African mainlands, ECOWAS apparently seems, by all accounts, to
be the most significant association on the landmass, regardless of the way that it is such
a large number of separation far from the accomplishments of its European Union
partner.
2.6 ECOWAS and it protocol on free movement of persons
The ECOWAS Protocol to the extent the free development is concerns regularly viewed as
exceptionally impending to the general target of the ECOWAS reconciliation arrangements,
because of the way that, there no mix will be honest to goodness enough when one of the
essential financial component which is free development of the network subjects frequently
viewed as operators of coordination is hampered. In such manner, the Protocol is set at the
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focal point of the associations' goal. Before the drafting of the ECOWAS Protocol on free
development, the development of individuals starting with one area then onto the next was
met with practically zero respects for the fake outskirts made by the frontier powers, actually,
clans wind up isolated into two sovereign countries by these counterfeit fringes (Findley,
2004).
Cross outskirt development among these misleadingly isolated people continued to be viewed
not as universal but instead segment of their own internal developments as individuals from
same families are found in two distinct nations. In any case, as the different nations
developed, the was the acknowledgment that cross-outskirt development was winding up
ostensibly troublesome which a great many people proposed it was as the aftereffect of the
necessity of state prerequisites and laws. The contention to change trans-fringe development
was really borne out of the need to support and advance territorial exchange and in addition
induce local combination. There was a further discernment the financial combination is
probably going to expand riches and enhance the way of life of the natives of part state (Fall,
2003). Aside the exchange advancement advantage, the development of work and also
different components of generation was essential to the foundation of ECOWAS to symbolize
what the network was about. The development of people unreservedly in the ECOWAS
locale was both a renunciation of provincial outskirts to the extent they go about as blocks to
the monetary improvement of the new States and thus the insistence of the soul of devotion
and shared help. (Gowon, 1984)
The initiation of the Economic Community of West Africa State additionally multiplied with
a few endeavors melded at beating France without a doubt tremendous impact at the West
African area most particularly its formal provinces. Counting the France organization around
then, the vast majority of the formal French colonized states in West Africa assumed dynamic
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jobs in, which offered an all around educated help to the Biafra with the prime goal of
dissection of Nigeria. Sadly few of them gave official acknowledgment to Biafra as a
legitimate sovereign republic. There was the discernment that securing Nigeria against
outside assault and subversive exercises by its French talking nations, urged by France, was
accepted could be accomplished through the foundation of sub-local association which will
be gone for encouraging local reconciliation and collaboration. It was additionally concurred
that the local solidarity will deliberately product down the French impact over their previous
settlements in West Africa and also their reverence to and overdependence on France. Right
now the establishment of, ECOWAS was set per Nigeria's eagerness to serve it (Fawole,
2003). Making up a sum of 15 part nations, ECOWAS throughout the years worked
adequately with the prime goal of guaranteeing the advancement and the change in the life of
its individuals in a favorable financial and political participation. As indicated by Francis
(2009: 91), the association (ECOWAS) stirred as the most development and complex sub
territorial association in Africa. The scientist again called attention to that, the foundation of
the association symbolizes a progression of destinations; the most applicable is the journey to
accomplish provincial financial improvement. With a basic perception, it tends to be brought
up that the arrangement of ECOWAS was a national and local improvement procedure while
the political world class sees this battle at territorial joining as an "instrument of outside
strategy and an aggregate political haggling alliance" (on the same page: 92).
2.7 Approval of schemes
In the mission to achieve provincial incorporation necessities, member states acknowledged
and consented to specific terms, which included progression of local exchange; the free
development of people and products and ventures the harmonization of financial and money
related approaches; the advancement of laws in the business condition, transport
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improvement, interchanges organizes and also a concentrated consideration of the private
segment in the local combination process (Onwuka,1982; Opanike, Aduloju and Adenipekun,
2015; and Opanike, Olayode and Aduloju, 2015). Kouyate, (2013), trusts that the reason for
the selection of these territorial and national coordination structures was their need to national
monetary interests of nations inside the association and in addition their commitment to a
definitive financial association objectives. Throughout the years ECOWAS has been
constrained by contemporary political occasions to enlarge its impact in other to get extra
obligations in other to get to some troublesome issues in the territories of contentions and
other political emergency which frustrates the peace and political security in the network
(Yabi, 2010: 5). These additional obligations and goals were chosen particularly because of
need and not a redirection of its points.
ECOWAS Protocol on the development of people and also the freedom to live and set up
gives a sign of what is viewed as the most critical of all the association's targets. This is
because of the way that genuine incorporation is designed by natives moving unreservedly in
the network who possibly, comprise the primary specialists of this reason. In actuality this
arrangement makes the convention the spine for the general goals of the association
(Opanike, Aduloju and Adenipekun, 2015: 44). Again four extra conventions have been
drawn up by the association in 1985, 1986, 1989, and 1990. Adepoju, Boulton and Levin
(2007: 2) outlined the separate qualities of the Protocol on the free development of
individuals and right of living arrangement and foundation and in addition the four extra
conventions in an efficient structure in the accompanying request: organize II – right of
foundation as areas of its goals on the free development of people in the sub-locale,
ECOWAS in year 2000 acquainted a solitary international ID with the network residents
(ECOWAS, 1979).
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All things considered the primary phase of this convention makes arrangement for the free
passage of part nations without visa up to a time of ninety days which all the ECOWAS
segment individuals embraced and approved in 1980. The second phase of the convention
which discusses the privilege of living arrangement was given priority wound up successful
in1986 as received and sanctioned by all Member States. In the extra Protocol of 1990, the
prerequisites for the authorization of the third stage which is the privilege of foundation were
sufficiently accommodated. The said convention was embraced in 1990 and came into drive
in 1992 (ECOWAS, 1979; 1981; 1985; 1986; 1990; and 1993). The further extra Protocol on
the usage of the third stage was confirmed by all the fourteen part conditions of the
ECOWAS in 2008 (Opanike, Olayode and Aduloju, 2015). Anyway not at all like the
perspectives of others Boulton (2009: 32) trusts that "the really inadequacy of these
exceptionally positive arrangements in the free development conventions is that they are
either not known or not executed." The specialist trusts that on the hypothetical premise, all
the three phases are finished and the expert gave in the free development conventions are the
law of the area.
Despite this, the truth of the issue is that lone the initial three of the stages has been
exhaustively been executed (on the same page: 32). The purpose behind this isn't outlandish
in that not all the part conditions of the association have joined the arrangements of the
convention in their in the different laws in their nations let alone to actualize them. For the
nonnatives, vagrants, and those looking for work, and additionally sightseers and dealers in
the sub locales in, the difficulties related with development over the West African outskirts
were upheld by narrow minded exercises of fringe authorities who utilize their childish
aspiration in the reclamation of the boundaries that the convention sets to expel. This
unfeeling arrangement of exercises results in extremely upsetting development inside the
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network and nerve racking feeling of understanding. This if far not the same as the European
Union European Agreement on the free development of people (AFMP), an understanding
where nationals of one part nation are allowed express approval and the privilege to work,
exchange, and relocate to other EU nations.
Per the European Union (2010: 4) "this benefit is a standout amongst the most obvious points
of interest of the European Union for singular natives." It is respected that around eleven
million European Union residents have made great utilization of the free development of
people to get home in other EU nations under the plan of Schengen Agreement (in the same
place.). In spite of the way that free development maybe may not be the ideal plan, the
accomplishments so far adjusts it to some measure of believability and have additionally
prescribed some significant measures to construct a more imposing borderless network from
which the ECOWAS can use as a benchmark. The contention on the convention on
development free presented on the natives of the network the benefit or the privilege to enter
and live in the domain of any part nation, with the desire that the individual have a movement
record that are substantial going with worldwide wellbeing authentication. In any case, the
benefit anyway allows part nations the flexibility to dismiss a subject of the network who
were unacceptable under the part express' own household law. The four supplementary
conventions received somewhere in the range of 1985 and 1990 submitted part nations, to
have exceptional legitimate voyaging reports, allow resident of individuals from the network
the benefit of home to seek and doing wage winning business, guarantee fitting treatment for
people being removed, not to oust Community subjects, lessen the justification for singular
ejection grounds to reasons of national security, open request or profound quality, general
wellbeing or non-satisfaction of a basic state of living arrangement.
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2.8 Challenges of implementation of the Protocol
ECOWAS has experienced a few issues, cardinal among these issues is frail political help
and competition among different dialect gathering (French against English), lacking
subsidizing by part nations and the non-sanction and non-usage of conventions. The
distinctions in monetary standards have additionally made financials privileges extremely
troublesome combined with harmonization of financial arrangements and methodology. The
general piece, objectives and goals, the measure of the populace, the span of the market and
all the more critically the political structures of these are as differing similar to their
participations. Adding to this, the twofold enrolment of nations in monetary groupings that
for all intents and purposes have negating objective decline the difficulties experienced by
these nations in the satisfaction of their budgetary commitment especially as the financial
emergencies increments. The premise of this is a reflection on the failure by part nations to
actualize the conventions (Ojo, 1999). Absence of political will, political weakness and in
addition between nations outskirt clashes and wars, and the faltering of nations to surrender
national power to a sub-territorial organ, render the monetary groupings a toothless lion.
In the ECOWAS sub locales for example, the less populated nations are compare to those
with less populace and land territories; some are poor in asset whiles others are talented with
both human and common assets. The littler and financially dormant nations are all the more
regularly suspicious of the statistic and monetarily feasible nations like Nigeria and Côte
d'Ivoire in the Community (Blum, 2014). Adding to this, suppositions against non-nationals
have risen as of late because of the monetary adversities, expanding the joblessness among
the young, combined with political flimsiness. Truly the convention on foundation and living
arrangement has not by any stretch of the imagination been executed, in spite of the way that
there is a nearby connect to one side of free development, combination of exchange, tax
administrations and advancement of work versatility in the sub-locale. As expressed before
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on, the ECOWAS normal international ID was started by the Heads of States and
Government amid the summit in Abujain 2000. This was modified to supplant national visa
inside a time of five years, and also bit by bit supplant national international IDs available for
use over a day and age of ten years. In spite of these endeavours, just couple of nations
around eleven of them are as of now issuing the international ID. Fit movement and
resettlement Forms have not yet been executed.
2.9 Success of implementation of the Protocol
The movement of persons freely without the usage of visa across the West Africa sub regions
happens to be one of the major accomplishments of ECOWAS. In connection with this
achievement, the association has made countless efforts in the areas of monetary policies as
well as other related matters. As a matter of fact it includes but not limited to the
introduction of ECOWAS travelers’ cheque the aforementioned West African Unit of
Account to harmonize the sub-region’s monetary policy; the proposed adoption of a common
currency to facilitate cross-border trade transaction and with it the consequent adoption of the
renowned ‘brown card’ travel certificate as ECOWAS passport. To achieve its objectives,
ECOWAS has followed a series of approach in which some sets of common objectives are
commonly agreed upon, but component states move at various speed towards their
implementation, some very fast whiles others are very slow. It thus appears that, the smaller
and more identical a community is, the more it can function very cohesively. For instance,
WAEMU members share a them same currency and colonial history and the French language
and thus find it easier to implement joint programmes rather than the larger ECOWAS, which
re-groups former colonial francophone, Anglophone and lusophone countries.
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As a matter of fact the most significant influences that is often mentioned over the years
includes the issues and problems in the development of the various sub regions is the huge
monetary policies in the West Africa region directly related to the CFA franc zone 4 which
occurred some around 1994 with the devaluation of the CFA franc and its equivalent de-
linking from the French franc. The new development undoubtedly prompted the more inward
looking strategy that was considered at the meeting of the heads of states of the West African
Economic and Monetary Union (WAEMU) somewhere in 1996. One of the requirements for
effective integration in the various communities includes the improvement in communication
and transportation network particularly in the areas of the construction of highways and
railroads to connect the various countries in other to facilitate the movement of people and
goods as well.
Adverse situation in the area have limited intra-regional trade particularly affecting the land
locked communities that need to move goods from and to the coastal ports for import and
export. Nevertheless, much of the regional infrastructure has been rehabilitated and expanded
to foster economic integration. Solid proposals have been aligned to push transport and
telecommunication to link member countries, particularly in the establishment of the trans-
coastal, trans-Sahelian and trans-coastal/Sahelian rail links. A place for the circulation of
goods, custom duties to made free, effective from the year 2000.The Lome Protoclon the
mechanism for conflict prevention, management, Resolution, security and Peace keeping
signed in somewhere December 1999and the movement of persons and goods freely across
borders of ECOWAS member countries was programmed to begin by the close of April
2000. Countries like Ghana and Nigeria have taking steps in the build up to the
implementation of this scheme ahead of other countries.
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Initiatives in the private sectors, promotion of trade, strong macro and micro economic
policies as well as support for effective implementation are very relevant for the growth and
development of the economy. (ECOWAS, 2001). The 2000 proposal in Abujafor the
harmonization and updating customs policies, the liberalization of maritime service, with the
zero percent duty on approved industrial products, goods and traditional handcraft were all
designed to ease the effective establishment of a free zone trade while the introduction of
travelers’ cheques was aimed at facilitating cross-border and other transactions.
Adding to this, the 33rd Summit of Head of State and Government organize in Ouagadougou
in January 2008targeted programmes and activities that will emphasize on infrastructural and
regional economic integral development such as the ECOWAS integration Border countries
concept which is directed on capitalizing on cross border dynamics to enhance the
harmonious integration of the sub regional economy to facilitate the free movement of
persons, investment and other socio-economic activities (Opanike, Aduloju, & Adenipekun,
2015).
Given the fact the ECOWAS common investment market has been developed and additional
act on community rules on investment was adopted in 2008. With this scheme, a community
investment code is being processed to harmonize national investment codes in connection
with the requirements of the provisions of ECOWAS Protocol on the right of establishment.
In conclusion, it must be acknowledged that the persisting economic downturn has crippled
the ability of states to pursue consistent macroeconomic policies and has resulted, in part, in
poor funding of cooperation unions (Opanike, Aduloju, & Adenipekun, 2015).
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2.10 SUMMARY OF CHAPTER
Under this section of the study, literature was reviewed under sub headings mainly divided
into two namely; theoretical perspective and empirical review. The theories that were
selected and reviewed in this study were deemed fit and suitable for the study. The empirical
literature which was also reviewed under sub heading made us of related literature.
Generally, the issue of migration was touched on which saw the trends in migration in Africa
been given and other literature that talk about the Protocol. The review captured the salient
points in the study. In general, the review was done relative the topic and research objectives
for effective and easy comprehension.
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CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.0 Introduction
This section of the study spells out the methodology. It considers the steps taken by the
researcher to realise the achievement of the research objectives as stated above.  Specifically,
it considers the research design, the population of the study, the sample size and sampling
techniques, sources of data and data collection procedure, the questionnaire used in data
collection and how the data collected was handled.
3.1 Research design
The design used by the study was quantitative research design in which quantitative data was
collected to help determine how the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons and
right to residence operates. The study therefore made use of both quantitative and qualitative
data in which a triangulation of results was done during the analyses.
3.2 Population of the study
Kumekpor (2002) has noticed that the number of population in a study might be considered
as the quantity of all units of the marvel to be explored that exists in the territory of
examination. This definition was already attested by Nachmias and Nachmias (1996), that
populace is the total of all cases that comply with some assigned arrangement of particulars.
The population for the study was employees of the Ghana Immigration Service and travellers
who use the Elubo border from which the sample was selected for the study.
3.3 Sampling and sample size
Kumar (2005) defines sample as a “segment of the population selected to represent the
population as a whole.” In reality, the sample should be representative and permit the
researcher to formulate precise estimates of the thoughts and behaviours of the larger
population. The key reason for being concerned with sampling is that of validity; the extent to
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which the interpretations of the results of the study followed from the study itself and the
extent to which results may be generalised to other situations with other people (Shavelson,
1988). The sampling procedure which was adopted for this study was the non-probability
sampling.
The non-probability sampling method used in the study was the convenient sampling method
(Fox, Hunn&Mathers, 2009). This allowed the researcher to use only respondents who were
available and ready to participate in the study. Commuters at the Elubo border and officers of
the Ghana Immigration Service who were willing to participate in the study were took part in
an interview session and responded to questionnaire respectively. A sample size of 84
respondents was selected to respond to structured questionnaires. This number is selected
based on Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) table of choosing a sample size which says when the
population is not known, any sample size from 30 and above is ideal.
3.4 Source of data
Based on the type of study and the aim of the study, the study made use of both only primary
sources of data. Primary data was gathered from respondents’ survey questionnaires and semi
structured interview guide. Respondents for the interview were asked to fill in blanks
provided for questions raised by the researcher.
3.5 Data collection instrument
The researcher designed her own questionnaire which was used for the quantitative data. The
reliability was tested before the questionnaire was distributed to respondents. The
questionnaire was made up of both closed and open ended questions. Items on the scale were
measured by providing simple responses. Questionnaire were put into two main categories
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namely; demographic data in which demographic information like sex, age and among others
of respondents were required and the second part had issues on the topic under discussion
raised.  To ensure that the questionnaire is credible, the researcher tested for reliability using
a small sample of the respondents for piloting. The pilot was used to calculate the reliability
of the questionnaire. A Cronbach’s Alpha value of 0.5 to 1 was deemed reliable and the
questionnaire used for the study.
3.6 Administration of Research Instrument
The questionnaires were distributed among travellers who use the Elubo border. The
respondents read the questions, interpreted them personally without conferring with their
colleagues and further responded to the questions themselves. This mechanism was to ensure
that responses by respondents were their own perceptions about the implementation of the
ECOWAS Protocol. The researcher administered the questionnaires through the help of
colleagues who work at the border. This method was used because the researcher could not
go there by herself because of official assignments. It also took time to get the commuters at
the border to respond to the questionnaire since some of them were not willing to.
3.7 Data Analysis
Both quantitative and qualitative techniques were used in analysing the data that was
collected. The goal of data analysis was to ask questions about the data that answer the
research questions on which the study was based. Quantitative data was however analysed
using the statistical software known as statistical package for the social sciences and epi data.
Similarly, data collected were analysed using the triangulation method to cross check
responses from the qualitative and quantitative data to identify differences and similarities.
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3.8 Ethical issues
The first and foremost issue taken into consideration will be informed consent of the
participants in which participants will not be forced to take part in the study, but their
participation will be based on their willingness to respond to the questions, without any
undue inducement, force, deceit, duress or any form of constraint or coercion.
The privacy and confidentiality of respondents will also be considered seriously. Under no
circumstances will any respondent’s response or identity be revealed to any person.
Respondents will be assured of confidentiality and privacy before completing the
questionnaire. Because of this, the questionnaires will be designed in such a way that, no
identity item will be provided for.
Plagiarism is one of the ethical issues that need to be taken notice of in a survey research and
other researches. There will be no theft or misappropriation of intellectual of any form or the
substantial unattributed copying of another’s work. All articles, theories and instruments used
in this study, which are properties of other people will be duly recognized and acknowledged.
In sum, the researcher will be very vigilant about the issues that could bring dispute to the
authenticity of the study and therefore considered seriously the ethical standards that
safeguard the conduct of any study in any discipline.
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CHAPTER FOUR
DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION
4.0 Introduction
This part of the study looks at the analysis of the data collected. It is therefore aimed at
answering the research questions stated in chapter one. For consistency, it will look at the
demographic characteristics of the respondents and then analysis of the items in the
questionnaire.
4.1 Demographic characteristic
Respondents’ demographic characteristics were determined by the researcher. Here, only
demographic characteristics that are needed for the analysis of the data were considered.
4.1.1 Sex of respondents
The first demographic characteristic considered in the study was the sex of respondents. The
result from their responses is as indicated in the diagram below.
Figure 4.1 Sex of respondents
Frequency
46.% 53.6% male
female
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Source: Field Data, 2018
From figure 4.1 above, out of the 84 respondents who participated in the study, 45 of them
representing 53.6% were males and 39 respondents representing 46.4% were males. It
therefore means that there were more males in the study than females. The issue of males and
females in the study was not meant to find out whether there are more males in the service
than females or otherwise, it was only meant to find out the proportion of males to females
that participated in the study. Even though it is common knowledge that there has mainly
been male dominance in the security agencies than females, which could be a reflection of the
results from the study, that was not the main reason for the analysis of sex demographic
characteristic.
4.1.2 Age of respondents
The age of respondents was also examined as a demographic characteristic by the researcher
in the study. The result is as shown in the table below.
Table 4.1: Age of respondents
Age Frequency Percent
18-24 12 14.3
25-30 21 25.0
31-35 23 27.4
36-40 9 10.7
41-45 11 13.1
46-50 3 3.6
56-60 5 6.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From table 4.1 above, analysis of the result shows that majority of the respondents 23
representing 27.4% were within the age range of 31-35 years. A close number of21
respondents making 25%were within the age range of 25-30 years, 12 respondents
representing 14.3% were between 18-24 years. 11 respondents 13.1% were 41-45 years 9
respondents, representing 10.7% were between 36-40 years whiles 5 respondents representing
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6.0% and 3 respondents representing 3.6% were within the age ranges of 56-60 years and 46-
50 years respectively. Generally, it is glaring that most of the respondents were within the
youthful age which means that apart from the fact that the service has a very youthful and
vibrant staff, there is also less possibility of the service losing its employees to retirement,
which reduces the financial burden that comes with hiring new employees.
4.1.3Country of origin of travellers
Country of origin of respondents of the respondents was the next demographic characteristic
considered in the study. The results is as indicated in the pie chart below.
Figure 4.2 Country of origin
Frequency
69%
ghana
31% ecowas
Source: Field Data, 2018
From figure 4.2 above, analysis of the results reveals that majority of respondents were
Ghanaians by origin. Out of the total number of participants in the study, 58 respondents
representing 69% were Ghanaians. The rest 26 respondents 31% were from other ECOWAS
states other than Ghana. This response indicates that most of the ECOWAS nationals that pile
the Elubo border where the study was conducted are Ghanaians. However, the 31% that
happened to be from other countries also gives us the clear picture that the Ghanaian State is
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not hostile to strangers especially those from neighbouring countries. This give credence to
the fact that the ECOWAS Protocol allowing trans-border movement in the sub region,
consistent with DFID (2004).
4.1.4 Ethnicity of respondents
The ethnic affiliation of the respondents was also examined in the study and the result from
their response is as shown below.
Table 4.2 Ethnicity of respondents
Frequency Percent
Ewe 14 16.7
Akan 45 53.6
Ga/Adangbe 9 10.7
Other 16 19.0
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
According to the results on analysis of the ethnic backgrounds of the respondents, it was
realised that 45 respondents, representing 53.6% were Akans, 16 respondents representing
19% belong to other ethnic backgrounds other than those stated in the study, 14 respondents
making 16.7% were Ewes whiles 9 respondents giving 10.7 % were from the Ga/Adangbe
ethnic background. Those that indicated as being from other ethnicity may be some of those
who are not Ghanaians, even though there could also be some Ghanaians who indicated as
being from other ethnic background because their ethnic group was not part of the options
given.
4.1.5 Respondents place of residence
One other thing raised in the study as a demographic characteristic was where respondents
live. Below is a tabular representation of their responses.
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Table 4.3: Place of residence of respondents
Residence Frequency Percent
city 46 54.8
town 35 41.7
village 3 3.6
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
Analysis of the place of residence of the respondents as indicated in table 4.3 above suggests
that majority of the respondents are urban dwellers. From the results, 46 respondents making
54.8 % and 35 respondents making 41.7% live in the city and town respectively, whiles only
3 respondents representing 3.6% lives in the village. Here, the country of origin of
respondents was not considered. Regardless of whether or not the respondent is a Ghanaian,
what was of interest to the researcher was to determine where respondents live.
4.1.6 Border crossing at Elubo
One issue of interest that came up in the study was to investigate the frequency with which
respondents use the border. That could give a fair idea of how busy the border is and how
frequent people enter or leave the country to and fro other countries. Below is a table
summarizing their responses.
Table 4.4 Frequency of usage of border
Number of times Frequency Percent
once a month 17 20.2
twice a month 23 27.4
more than twice a month 8 9.5
every month 11 13.1
others 25 29.8
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From table 4.4, results indicate the number of times respondents make use of border passage.
The result shows that majority of the respondents 25 representing 29.8% use the border other
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than what was defined in the study, meaning the make frequent use of the border. Also, 23
respondents representing 27.4% use it twice every month, 17 respondents being 20.2% use
the border twice every month, 11 respondents giving 13.1%and 8 respondents which
represents 9.5% use the border every month and more than twice every month respectively.
This result on the use of the border corroborates an earlier results which indicated that the
border is busy and that most people enter and leave the country fro and to other neighbouring
countries.
4.2 Knowledge of ECOWAS Protocol
The study is centered more around the ECOWAS protocol, which is mainly on the movement
people and their right to residence. The researcher attempts to find out what travellers know
about the provisions of the protocol. The first issue raised here was to find out if respondents
have heard of or know anything about the ECOWAS protocol. Below is a chart representing
their responses.
Figure 4.3 Respondents’ awareness of ECOWAS Protocol
Frequency
53.6% 46.4%
yes
no
Source: Field Data, 2018
From figure 4.3 above, respondents were quizzed to find out their knowledge about the
existence of ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons. Analysis of the result suggest
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that majority of the respondents are not aware of the existence of the ECOWAS Protocol. For
instance, 45 respondents representing 53.6% said they are not aware of ECOWAS Protocol
on free movement of persons whereas 39 respondents representing 46.4% said they are
aware. The issue of concerns here is that, if these travellers who use the border say they are
not aware of the Protocol, then, the question that comes up is how they are able to freely
move without any hindrances. In an attempt to answer this question, we draw inspiration
from Opanike, Olayode and Aduloju (2015) who indicated that most officials at the border
abide by the provision of the Protocol, hence, allowing citizens of member states to access
effortlessly member countries.
It is further stated that, per the requirement of Article 27 of the ECOWAS Agreement, there
is the provision for freedom of movement and residence. Not only does the Protocol allow for
free movement, but also gives citizens the right of residence and establishment anywhere in
the territory of Member States and indicated by ECOWAS (1979).Analysing further, it could
be argued that the agreement enhances and increases cooperation among member countries
thereby allowing for citizens of the sub-region to move to other member states and even settle
there, hence, the issue of refugees in peaceful countries like Ghana. Even though some argue
that citizens of the sub region are yet to benefit fully from the provisions of the Protocol
(Blum, 2014), it is also obvious that the protocol is a force to reckon with when it comes to
respect for citizens of member states for their fundamental migration rites as provided by the
Protocol.
4.2.2 Usefulness of the ECOWAS Protocol usefulness
Respondents were asked if the Protocol is useful. Below is a summary of their responses in
the table.
Table 4.5 Usefulness of ECOWAS Protocol
Frequency Percent
certainly 27 32.1
no 27 32.1
undecided 30 35.7
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
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From the table above, the analysis of the result suggest that no uniform decision has been
made with regards to responses on the usefulness of the Protocol from the respondents. Out
of the 84 (100%) respondents, 30 (35.7%) respondents could not make a decision as far as the
ECOWAS Protocol usefulness is concerned. Also, 27 (32.1%) respondents each agreed and
disagreed with it that the Protocol is useful. It could be argued that most of the respondents
who were not able to decide fall within the number who earlier indicated that they are not
aware of the Protocol.
4.2.3 Assessing the workability of the Protocol
Respondents were asked if in their opinion they think the Protocol is working the way it
should especially, if it is serving its purpose.
Table 4.6 Protocol’s workability
Response Frequency Percent
very well 7 8.3
somehow 54 64.3
not at all 23 27.4
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
The analysis from table 4.6 shows that the respondents were not convinced about the
effectiveness of how the ECOWAS Protocol works. Out of the total number of participants,
54 respondents representing 64.3% said it is working somehow, 23 respondents, representing
27.4% said it is not working at all whereas 7respondents representing 8.3% said it is working
very well. In line with Ayamga (2014), one fundamental areas that the Protocol has paid
attention to is the free movement of persons, goods and services as part of its integration
agenda, hence, its provision for free movement of its citizens and the right to live, settle and
do business in any part of the sub-region in aid of development. In addition, the progress
made in the area of monetary policy, communication, trade and related matters as asserted by
Aderanti (2009) are all indications of the benefits of the Protocol. Expanding on this, Fischer
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and Vollmer (2010) were of the view that it has brought about the rehabilitation of regional
infrastructure with the proposed establishment of rail links from Lagos to Cotonou, Lome to
Accra and a sahelian route linking Lagos to Niamey and Ouagadougou. The protocol on the
free movement of persons, goods and services has enabled business originating from one
country to have subsidiaries in other countries within the sub-region, thereby bringing
development and increasing employment opportunities for beneficiary countries. These are
all indications of how effective the Protocol is working and the benefits derived from it.
4.3 Implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol on free movement of persons
The opinion of clients was sort on how the protocol is been implemented. A series of
questions were asked about the protocol to find out how clients feel about its
implementations.
4.3.1 Knowledge of respondents about the implementation of the protocol
Respondents who participated in the study were asked if they have any knowledge about the
implementation of the Protocol and below is a pie chart representing their responses.
Figure 4.4 Respondents’ knowledge about the Protocol’s implementation
Frequency
28.6%
71.4% yes
no
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Source: Field Data, 2018
Respondents were asked about their awareness of the implementation of the protocol.
Unfortunately as indicated in figure 4.4, majority of the respondents 60 representing 71.4%
said no while 24 respondents 28.6% said they were aware. It is rather unfortunate that most
respondents do not know about the implementation of the protocol as revealed by the results.
Ayamba (2014) posited that the implementation of the protocol is premised on the zeal to
promote Free Movement of Persons, Goods and Services were adopted, in order to facilitate
trade and physical integration. Meanwhile, those who are direct beneficiaries of the Protocol
and its provisions are not even aware of its implementation, yet the enjoy it. The question that
rises out of it is why they are not aware and how they however enjoy the provisions of the
Protocol. Could it be that officers are doing their work well or the protocol is well
implemented to an extent that one does not have to be aware of it but automatically benefit?
4.3.2 Actual implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol
The respondents were asked about the result of the Protocol’s implementation, that is, they
were to evaluate it based on their discretion. Below is a tabular representation of their
response.
Table 4.7 Results of implementation of the protocol
Frequency Percent
very well 14 16.7
to some extent 37 44.0
not really 33 39.3
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
Respondents were further asked to indicate if they are satisfied with the implementation of
the protocol. Analysis of the result suggests that 37 respondents 44% agreed that they are
satisfied with the results to some extent. 33 respondents 39.3% said they are really not sure
whiles 14 respondents 16.7% said they are very well satisfied with the result. This could be as
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a result of the type of documents that are needed to access other states in the sub region. As
indicated in table 4.8 below.
Table 4.8 Passport possession
Frequency Percent
yes 65 77.4
no 19 22.6
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From the above table it can be seen with regards to those who own passports, 65 respondents
representing 77.4% said they have passports whiles only 19 respondents 22.6% indicate they
do not have passports. Passport as we all know is the basic identification document that is
needed by everyone world over to travel to other countries. However in the sub region, other
documents of identification are accepted as provided by the protocol. Below is a tabular
representation of the other documents apart from passport that could be used by travellers in
the sub-region.
Table 4.9 Other travel documents
Frequency Percent
voters ID 60 71.4
NHIS card 6 7.1
Driver’s license 5 6.0
National ID
10 11.9
Card
others 3 3.6
Source: Field Data, 2018
From the diagram above majority of the respondents 60 representing 71.4% make use of the
Voters ID card. 10 respondents 11.9% use national identity card. 6 respondents 7.1% and 5
respondents 6% use NHIS and Driver’s license respectively whiles 3 respondents 3.6% use
other means. This result is in line with Agyei and Clottey (2007) who stated that persons
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under the free movement of persons are a valid passport and a valid international health
certificate whereas those required for free movement of goods are a valid international
driver’s license, insurance covering the goods and evidence of payment of relevant taxes. It is
pertinent to state that persons who are not community citizens will be required to possess
valid visas. Adebusuyi (2012) supported this assertion by indicating that community citizens
travelling along the Ghana-Burkina Faso border need not possess visas except to possess
valid documents such as passports, international drivers licence, ECOWAS Brown card and
international insurance covering the goods been transported. Persons are also required to
provide a valid international health certificate.
Table 4.9 Usage of approved point of entry
Frequency Percent
yes 79 94.0
no 5 6.0
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From the above analysis, 79 respondents 94% said they use approved point of entry whiles 5
respondents 6% said otherwise. The liberal nature of the protocol is glaring as despite the fact
that most travellers only need valid identification materials such as drivers’ licence, health
insurance cards etc. to make use of approved routes to and from Ghana. It was further
confirmed by the revelation by the results as shown in table 4.10 that despite the absence of
some standard traveling documents with visas, they still are able to access the country’s
approved borders and routes without any hindrance. Respondents therefore allotted to the fact
that the implementation of the protocol has a positive effect on commuters to and fro member
countries. This is revealed as in table 4.11 below.
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Table 4.10 Protocol effects on travellers
Frequency Percent
Yes 28 33.3
No 56 66.7
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From the diagram above, travellers were asked to state if the protocol implementation affects
them as travellers. Analysis from the diagram above reveals that 56 respondents 66.7% said
no whiles 28 respondents 33.3% said yes. It is therefore clear that the flexibility of the
protocol is one of travellers’ friend since it has made things easier for them and also
promoted the movement of goods and services and regional integration (Ayamga, 2014)
thereby bringing about development and promoting trade and bilateral relations.
4.4 Challenges with the implementation of the protocol
Every policy has its challenges regardless of how well it was implemented. For this, the
researcher tried to find out from respondents if they have any issues with the implementation
of the protocol. Respondents were first asked if they have identified any issues with the
implementation of the protocol. Below is a tabulated results from their responses.
Table 4.11Are the challenges associated with the protocol?
Frequency Percent
Yes 34 40.5
No 50 59.5
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
The result form the above diagram suggest that majority of the respondents 50 representing
59.5% thinks there are no problems associated with the implementation of the protocol.
However few respondents 34 representing 40.5% thinks there are some problems associated
the implementation of the protocol. Even though majority said no, it does not necessarily
imply there are no issues. In this case, the little that responded in the affirmative have to be
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given attention since the basic premise here is individual difference. The fact that the
majority have not seen anything wrong does not mean a neglect of the rest. Even if it is only
one person that indicated that there is an issue, attention has to be given.
Table 4.12: Views on border crossing procedures
Frequency Percent
Cumbersome 16 19.0
Simple 46 54.8
no idea 22 26.2
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
From the diagram, the analysis of the result suggest that majority of the respondents 46
representing 54.8% thinks the border crossing procedures are simple. 22 respondents 26.2%
could not express any idea with regards to the complexity or simplicity of the border crossing
procedures whiles 16 respondents 19% thinks it is cumbersome. As a follow up question on
the issue of challenges faced by commuters at the border, respondents indicated when asked
in favour of simple border crossing procedure. There are though a few who still think border
crossing procedures are cumbersome. Even though they did not specify what exact
procedures they have to go through. This response is therefore a little in contradiction to the
earlier response that things are easy at the borders for travellers. In any case, there were still
those who think the protocol has some challenges and could be insinuated that those were the
same individuals who think procedures are cumbersome.
This is in line with Adebusuyi (2012), who asserted that the differences in language between
Ghana and Burkina Faso are a serious setback to the implementation of the Free Movement
Protocol at the border. In an interview session and observation during his study, it came to
light that most officers at the Ghana side of the border found it difficult to communicate with
commuters from French speaking countries. Some of the commuters from Burkina Faso also
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found it difficult to communicate in English except French. Officers at the border had to
resort to the use of sign language to communicate with some commuters. The differences in
language often led to a lot of time been spent at the border. Ayamga (2014) gave a reason for
this as officers having to resort to the use of interpreters to better understand the issues at
stake. Some commuters in some instances lost their patience and resorted to shouting to vent
their frustration. Subsequent problems emerge out of this. Typical among them is the issue of
undue delays at the border. Officers at the Burkina Faso side of the border also found it
difficult to communicate in English and this sometimes led to a misunderstanding between
officers and commuters at the border. A close observation revealed that the communication
gap created a lot of suspicion among officers and commuters at the border. In view of this, a
lot of people tend to hire motorbikes to ferry them across the border instead of going through
formalities that took a while to complete.
Frustration was not left out in the problems identified by respondents. In recent times, there
have been media reports on the frustrations that people go through in order to enter other
West African countries. The Daily Graphic of Wednesday 21st May 2014 reports of how
trucks loaded with goods from Ghana to Ivory Coast have been left stranded at the Elubo
border due to the refusal of Ivorian authorities to allow them access  (Adjei&Clottey, 2007).
This occurred in spite of the existence of the ECOWAS Protocol on the free movement of
persons, goods and services. The Ghana-Burkina Faso border is the main route for the
transport of goods, persons and services in the Upper East. The border receives huge volumes
of goods, persons and services on a regular basis. It is therefore imperative that we do an
assessment of how the Protocol on free movement of goods, persons and services is
implemented at the border. The study will bring to the fore how the Protocol is been
implemented at the borders.
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4.5 Efforts been made to manage the challenges
Results from the analysis of the data revealed that efforts and attempts are been made by the
authorities to help reduce the situation. Below is a table indicated their response.
Table 4.13: Attempt by authorities to manage these challenges
Frequency Percent
Yes 13 15.5
No 71 84.5
Total 84 100.0
Source: Field Data, 2018
Respondents were asked if the authorities of the sub regions have made any attempt to
manage these challenges. Analysis of the responses reveals that majority of the respondents
71 representing 84.5% said there has not been any attempt to manage these challenges. Fe
respondents 13 however said there have been attempts to manage the said challenges. Some
respondents mentioned that there is a dialogue by the authorities to ensure that there are
checks and balances. Again respondents think that with strategic management procedures,
most of the challenges will be reduced. Finally, there was the mention of a common
ECOWAS biometric card under way to be issued to all member states so there could be a
common identification process. This they said will reduce the operational challenges like
difference in identification documents among member states.
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4.6 Cross tabulations
The researcher did a cross tabulation of some of the items against some demographic
characteristics to determine who indicated or responded specifically to what question or issue
raised. These are as shown below.
Table 4.14: Country of origin * protocol awareness cross tabulation
Count
Variable Protocol awareness
yes no Total
country of Ghana 24 29 53
origin ECOWAS 10 15 25
others 1 5 6
Total 35 49 84
Table 4.14 is a cross tabulation of country of origin and their awareness of the ECOWAS
protocol. Results as indicated above show that only 24 respondents from Ghana indicated that
they are aware of the protocol whereas 29 said no, 10 respondents who are ECOWAS
member said yes with 15 responding in the negative and only 1 respondent who indicated that
they are other nationals affirmed to that with 5 indicating otherwise.
Table 4.15: Sex * age * protocol awareness cross tabulation
Count
age
protocol awareness 18-24 25-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 51-55 Total
yes Sex male 2 6 3 5 3 19
female 4 4 4 1 3 16
Total 6 10 7 6 6 35
no Sex male 3 5 8 5 6 0 27
female 2 2 9 4 4 1 22
Total 5 7 17 9 10 1 49
With age, sex and awareness of the ECOWAS protocol, 6 males who were 25-30 years said
they are aware, 5 males who were 36-40 years also indicated that they were aware, whereas 4
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each of females within the ages of 25-30 and 31-35 indicated that they were aware of the
protocol. In the same instance, 8, 6 and 5 males in the age ranges of 31-35 years, 41-45 years
and 25-30 years denied knowing about the protocol with 9, and 4 each of females of the age
ranges of 36-40 and 36-40 and 41-45 years respectively said they are not aware. The results
from the cross tabulation did not reveal a very clear cut indication of a particular age range
for either males or females indicating awareness or not of the protocol. The acceptance and
denial of the knowledge of the protocol is spread over here and there indicating that there is
the need for more effort to make people aware of the protocol.
Table 4.16: Sex * frequency of border use  * country of origin cross tabulation
Count
frequency of border use
country of origin more than
once a month twice a month twice a month every month others Total
Ghana sex male 18 9 3 3 1 34
female 5 10 3 1 0 19
Total 23 19 6 4 1 53
ECOWAS sex male 6 0 2 0 8
female 6 8 1 2 17
Total 12 8 3 2 25
Others sex male 1 2 1 4
female 0 2 0 2
Total 1 4 1 6
Source: Field Data, 2018
In addition, the usage of the Elubo border according to sex and country of origin cross
tabulation revealed that males who are from Ghana and use the border once a month were 18,
those who use it twice a month were 9 whereas only 3 said they use it every month. This
implies that not many males use the border frequently. Also, 10 females from Ghana use the
border twice a month, whereas 5 use it monthly. Again, 6 males who are ECOWAS members
use it monthly whereas 8 females use it twice every month and 6 use it once a month. Again,
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in this results, there is no clear cut indication of a good number of people using the border
frequently or not.
Table 4.17: Country of origin * is the protocol working cross tabulation
Count
is the protocol working
very well somehow not at all Total
country of Ghana 9 28 16 53
origin ECOWAS 6 12 7 25
others 1 4 1 6
Total 16 44 24 84
Finally, the last cross tabulation is for how respondents think the ECOWAS protocol is
working or not according to country of origin. From the results, 28 respondents from Ghana
said the protocol is somehow working, 16 respondents said the protocol is somehow working,
9 said it is working very well. As addendum, 12 respondents who indicated that they were
ECOWAS citizens (but not from Ghana) said somehow the protocol is working, 7 and 6
respondents respectively said it is not working at all and it is working very well.
4.7 Conclusion
The ECOWAS protocol is no doubt a very important document on the free movement of
persons, rights of residence and establishment in the sub region. However, some member
citizens are aware of it whereas others are not. This should not be so because, for such a
document to serve its purpose, it needs to be common to people whom it benefits. This will
make it work effectively since its awareness by members will mean its usage by such
members for their rights. That will also help border officials at the Elubo border discharge
effectively their duties through collaborative efforts between officials and travellers, while
reducing possible border delays and corruption (possible collection of bribe for border
crossing).
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In addition, the usefulness of the protocol will only be effective when it serves the purpose
for which it was implemented. This also means that the implementation of the protocol for
member states will only be fully satisfying when it is effective and serves its purpose. This
therefore calls for a conscious effort by governments of member states of the ECOWAS to
ensure that the protocol benefits its members. In sum, knowledge of the ECOWAS protocol
will means its workability and effectiveness in serving its purpose, thereby making border
crossing simple for members and other users of the Elubo border.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Introduction
This section of the study summarises the study as well as the findings from the data analysed,
draws conclusion based on the results from the study and makes recommendations.
5.1 Summary
The main aim of the study was to assess the implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol on
free movement of persons, rights of residence and establishment. For this, the mixed method
of data collection was used which formed the basic design for the study. Four objectives were
stated namely; to find out about the awareness of the ECOWAS Protocol among border
officials and travellers, to investigate if the Protocol is implemented according to how it is
stated at the Elubo border, to examine the challenges associated with the implementation of
the protocol and to understand coping strategies of overcoming the challenges at Elubo
border. Using the convenient method, 84 travellers and 30 officers were sampled to respond
to structured questionnaires and semi interview questions respectively. Data was analysed
using quantitative and qualitative methods and the results triangulated.
The study was dominated by males with a sample of 45 respondents, representing 53.6%.
Most of the travellers who use the border were from Ghana, but a few were from other
ECOWAS countries, showing the free movement of persons to and from member countries.
Respondents were also of different ethnicity. Results of the study showed that respondents
use the border at different times and intervals ranging from once a month to every month and
even others. Most respondents said they do not have any knowledge of the ECOWAS
Protocol whereas a few of the respondents affirmed to their having knowledge in the
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Protocol. Those who are familiar with the Protocol indicated that it is useful and that it is
working for its purpose. This made respondents think that the protocol is working effectively.
Similarly, most respondents do not know how the implementation of the ECOWAS Protocol
is done. According to the results from the study, they do not have any knowledge of the
Protocol’s implementation. Once they do not have knowledge of the implementation, they
obviously could not tell about what the results of its implementation is. All they know is that,
traveling does not require automatically one to produce passport with visa. They only need
some identification material like Identification card, drivers’ license, health insurance cards
etc to cross the border. Travellers also indicated that the protocol apparently affects them
positively even though there a few challenges with its implementation.
According to officers at the borders, one basic challenge facing them as border officials is the
issue of language barrier. The sub region is made up of Anglophone and Francophone
countries. Ghanaian officials therefore find it difficult to communicate with travellers from
other countries other than English speaking countries. Likewise, other officials like those at
La Cote D’Ivoire have problems communicating with travellers from English speaking
countries. Attempts are therefore been made by authorities to help reduce this challenge.
They also mentioned the issue of differences in identification documents. Again, they
indicated that there is a dialogue by the authorities to introduce a common identification
document as well as measures been taken to address currency challenges.
5.2 Conclusion
The assertion that trade, desire for greener pasture, urbanization, agriculture, mining,
industrial production, tribal conflicts, insecurity in the environment, the increase degradation
of the lands, drought and intense rural poverty are some of the elements that increases and
encourage migration (DFID, 2004) cannot be overemphasised. Relatedly, Adeola and Fayomi
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(2012: 1) gave reasons that account for the migration of individual and persons in and across
the west Africa sub regions. According to them, the nature and basis of exchanges that
maintained and as far as possible establishes a common bonds have not been “tempered
perhaps as a result of forceful separation of kith and kin into two separate countries nor was
the native language tampered with”. It was therefore found from the results of the study that
travellers use the border at different times and intervals ranging from once a month to every
month and even others. Some of these travellers according to the results from the study
indicated that they do not have any knowledge of the ECOWAS Protocol, a document that
gives them the opportunity to exercise their rights in other member countries, with only a few
having knowledge in the Protocol. The study was however not able to determine what could
be the cause of the inadequacy of knowledge of the protocol.
It is therefore suffice to say that most respondents do not know how the implementation of
the ECOWAS Protocol is done, they also do not have any knowledge of the Protocol’s
implementation and they obviously could therefore not tell about what the results of its
implementation. The question that arises in this situation is “what went wrong where, that
people for whom the protocol was implemented do not know about its implementation? It
therefore possibly means that they did not make any input into its implementation, a situation
that is not the best for the member states. All they know is that, traveling does not require
automatically one to produce passport with visa. They only need some identification material
like Identification card, drivers’ license, health insurance cards etc. to cross the border.  The
protocol apparently affects them positively even though there a few challenges with its
implementation.
As part of the results from the study, it was revealed that basic challenge facing border
officials is the issue of language barrier. It is indicative of the fact that the placement of
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border officials does not consider language issues, a situations whose reason could not be
established by the study. The sub region is made up of Anglophone and Francophone
countries. Ghanaian officials therefore find it difficult to communicate with travellers from
other countries other than English speaking countries. Likewise, other officials like those at
La Cote D’Ivoire have problems communicating with travellers from English speaking
countries. It would therefore be very prudent that border officials are placed alongside at least
two that could speak French especially to ensure that the bride between officials and
travellers due to language barrier is removed. The good thing as revealed by the study is the
attempts been made by authorities to help reduce this challenge. When this will be dealt with
completely however not known. They also mentioned the issue of differences in
identification documents. Again, they indicated that there is a dialogue by the authorities to
introduce a common identification document as well as measures been taken to address
currency challenges.
5.3 Recommendations
Based on the results as revealed by the analysis of the data collected, the following
recommendations are made.
Travellers should be educated on the protocol, its function, how it works and how they can
benefit from it. This will help eliminate possible cheating of travellers by unscrupulous
officials at the borders.
Officers that will be put at the borders should be those that could speak other foreign
languages especially French and English. Even if not all can speak, those that will be on duty
should always have at least one person among them who could speak such languages. This
will facilitate effective communication.
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Authorities of member states should endeavour to have a common identification document
and even common ECOWAS currency which will facilitate bilateral trade, thereby helping
the Protocol achieve its objective of regional integration and trade.
Border officials should be trained for a positive attitude towards travellers regardless of their
origin or what their destination is. There should be a mechanism for travellers to report issues
of rudeness by border officials to the appropriate authorities. Other misconducts by officials
like bribery and corruptions should also have a channel through which it could be reported.
Those found culpable after investigations must face punitive action to serve as a deterrent to
others. This will help improve the effectiveness of the Protocol and give citizens of member
states some hope.
Future research should consider the implementation of the Protocol according to countries of
member states. For instance, difference and or similarities in implementation of the protocol
according to member countries should be explored by future researchers.
Also, future researchers should look at parts played by institutions that are responsible for the
implementation of the protocol to make it effective. For instance, institutions like customs
and immigration should be investigated on the part they play in the implementation of the
protocol.
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REFERENCES
Adeola, G. L. &Fayomi, O. (2012). “The Political and Security Implications of Cross
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Adepoju, A., Boulton, A., & Levin, M. (2010). Promoting integration through mobility: Free
movement under ECOWAS. Refugee Survey Quarterly, 29(3), 120-144.
Adepoju, A., Boulton, A. & Levin, M. (2007). “Promoting integration through mobility: Free
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Paper No 150. Geneva: UNHCR.
Aderanti, A. (2012). Operationalising the ECOWAS Protocol on Free Movement of Persons:
Prospects for Sub-Regional Trade and Development. Network of Migration
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Agyei, J., & Clottey, E. (2007). Operationalizing ECOWAS protocol on free movement of
people among the member states: Issues of convergence, divergence and prospects
for sub-regional integration. International Migration Institute, University of Oxford.
http://www. imi. ox. Ac. uk/publications/operationalizing-ecowas-protocol.
Anarfi, J., Kwankye, S. Ofuso-Mensah A. &Tiemoko, R. (2003).Migration to and from
Ghana. Working Paper C4. Development Research Centre on Migration,
Globalisation and Poverty. University of Sussex.
Ayamga, V. I. C. T. O. R. (2014). An Assessment of Implementation of the ECOWAS
Protocol on Free Movement of Persons, Goods and Services at the Ghana-Burkina
Faso Border (Doctoral dissertation, University of Ghana).
Blum, Constanze (2014). Cross-Border Flows Between Nigeria and Benin: What Are the
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Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC). (2007). Cross-Border Trade within
the Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation. Document Prepared by World
Bank. http://www.carecprogram.org/uploads/ docs/Cross-Border-Trade-CAREC.pdf
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Cobbe, J. (2004). Lesotho: Will the Enclave Empty?  Migration Information Source.
Migration Policy Institute. Washington, D.C.
Deng, L. A. L. (2008). Rethinking African development: Toward a framework for social
integration and ecological harmony. Africa World Press.
ECOWAS (2008). ECOWAS Common Approach on Migration (adopted at the 33rd Ordinary
Session of the Head of State and Government), Ouagadougou, 18 January. Accra:
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ECOWAS. (1979). Protocol Relating to Free Movement of Persons, Residence and
Establishment, Dakar, 29 May, A/P.1/5/79.
Fall, P. D. (2003). Migration internationale et droits des travailleurs au Senegal.
UNESCO. SHS/2003/MC/5.
Findley, S. E. (2004). Mali: Seeking Opportunity Abroad. Migration Information Source.
Migration Policy Institute. Washington, D.C.
Ghana News Agency (2011). ECOWAS Trade Suffering From Failure To Implement
Protocols Posted by admin on Aug 08, 2011.
Gyampa, N. K. A. (2014). Women Cross Border Traders In West Africa Go
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Joly, (2000): “Some structural Effects of Migration on Receiving and Sending
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Opanike, A. Aduloju, A. A. & Adenipekun, L. O. (2015). ECOWAS Protocol on Free
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APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Dear respondent,
I am a student of the above mentioned school conducting a study on “ECOWAS Protocol on
free movement of persons, rights of residence and establishment”. I would therefore
appreciate it if you could respond to the questions below as it pertains to you. You are
assured that information gathered will be used for academic purposes.
SECTION A: Demographic Data
1. Sex A. Male B. Female
2. Age A. 18-24 B. 25-30 C. 31-35 D. 36-40
E. 41-45 F.46-50 G. 51-55 E.
56-60
3. Country of origin A. Ghanaian B. Ivorian
4. Ethnicity A. Ewe B. Akan C. Ga/Adangbe D. Other (specify)………
5. Where do you live now? (City, Town,
Village)………………………………………….
6. How often do you use here? A. Once a month B. Twice a month C. More
than twice a month D. Every month E. Others
(specify)……………………………….
SECTION B: ECOWAS Protocol awareness
7. Have you heard of the ECOWAS Protocol? A. Yes B. No
8. If yes, could you briefly explain what it
is…………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……
9. Do you think the protocol is helpful to citizens of member countries? A. Certainly
B. Never C. Undecided
10. Is the protocol working the way it should? A. Very well B. Somehow
C. Not at all
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Section C: Implementation of the protocol
11. Do you know about the implementation of the Protocol? A. Yes B. No
12. If yes, are you satisfied with the implementation of the protocol? A. Very well
B. To some extent C. Not really
13. Do you have a passport? A. Yes B. No
14. If you don’t have a passport, what document do you use to cross the border? A.
Voters’ ID B. NHIS Card C. Driver’s License D. National ID card
E. Other (specify)………………………………….
15. Do you use the approved point of entry (main border or a beat 9? A. Yes B.
No
16. Do you have a vaccination card (Yellow Card)? A. Yes B. No
17. Do you have any issue with the implementation of the protocol?  A. Sure B. Never
18. Does the protocol affect you as a traveler? A. Yes B. No
19. If yes, how does it affect
you?.................................................................................................……………………
…………………………………………………………………
20. Given an opportunity, is there any part of the protocol you would change?   A. Yes
B. No
21. If yes, which part of the protocol would you
change?...........................................................
22. Do you think the Protocol is necessary? A. Yes B. No
23. Any reason for you response in 18
above?.............................................................................………………………………
…………………………………………………………
SECTION D: Challenges with the implementation of the protocol
24. Are there any challenges associated with the implementation of the protocol?  A. Yes
B. No
25. If yes, What are some of the challenges the protocol has with its
implementation?................……………………………………………………………
………………………………....
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26. What will you say about border crossing procedure in terms of simplicity?
A. Cumbersome B. Simple C. No idea
27. Do you think it is time consuming when crossing the border? A. Yes B.
No
28. Does crossing the border involve paying bribe to border officials? A. Certainly
B. Sometimes C. Not at all
29. What will you say about the human relation of border management officials? A.
Cordial B. Rude C. Undecided
SECTION E: Efforts been made to manage the challenges
30. Do you think these challenges could be managed?   A. Sure B. Not at all C.
Uncertain
31. If yes, has there been any attempt by the authorities of the sub-region to manage these
challenges A. Yes B. No
32. If yes, What are some of the efforts been made to manage the
challenges?.............................…………………………………………………………
……………………………………
33. Has there been any success? A. Yes B. No
34. If yes, to what extent has there been
success?.......................................................................…………………………………
……………………………………………………………
35. Any general comment………………………………………………………………
Thank you very much for your time.
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