i UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT MAPPING URBAN PLACE AND SPACE: FEAR OF CRIME AND THE RE-CONFIGURATION OF OCCUPATIONAL GEOGRAPHIES IN TAMALE, GHANA BY DANIEL ALEKIBA 10274353 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT DEGREE. OCTOBER, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION I hereby declare that with the exception of references to other works which I have duly acknowledged this piece is the result of my own research and that neither in whole nor in part has this work been presented for the award of another degree elsewhere. Signature: ……………………………….. Date: …………………………………….. Daniel Alekiba 10274353 (Student) Signature: ……………………………….. Date: …………………………………….. Professor Martin Oteng-Ababio (Principal Supervisor) Signature: ……………………………….. Date: …………………………………….. Professor George Owusu (Co-supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ABSTRACT Throughout history, studies have amply revealed that where people choose to settle within the urban space is not new. This has been explained to be an important part of the urbanisation process. Effect of fear of crime on the urban environment especially that which involves the re-location of activities and the restructuring of the built environment as an impact factor response strategy is less acknowledged in urban security scholarship especially in developing countries. Rather, continuous emphases are been placed on prevailing economic conditions as the main precursor of changes in urban land use. This study illustrates using evidence from the field to support the fact that fearful individuals who are living in high crime prone areas tend to relocate to perceived safer and friendly environments. The main objective of this study examines how residents living in Tamale respond to or address their perceived fear of crime. The following questions were addressed in the study: Where are the perceived crime hotspots? What are peoples perceptions about the general safety of the community? What are peoples levels of confidence of the institutional arrangement for crime prevention? The study covered 450 households in three different socio-economic neighbourhoods in Tamale, and 23 key informant interviews including 10 operators of educational facilities, hotels, and retail outlets who have in one way or the other been victims of crime. The analysis was performed using maps, descriptive statistics, diagrams, vignettes to obtain the desired data information. The major finding of the study revealed that crime and disorder were higher in the lower income neighbourhood compared to the higher income neighbourhood. The study deduced evidence to support the fact that many households tend to relocate to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Based on the observation, the study recommends a broader and integrated approach in all policies aimed at ensuring territorial cohesion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv DEDICATION To my late friend Emelia Oteng-Ababio To Samuel Oten Boakye, Prof. Martin Oteng-Ababio and Elizabeth Ama Agoe (mother) who tirelessly fought against my weaknesses, accepted me and made sure that I attain the greatest gift of all EDUCATION! To Prof. George Owusu and all senior members and fellow colleagues on the project (Exploring Crime and Poverty Nexus in Urban Neighbourhoods in Ghana), who in the most trying times in my academics, remained on my side, smiling, laughing and sometimes offering sound advice. To the UK Government Department for International Development (DFID) and the International Development Research Centre (IDRC), Ottawa, Canada. Finally, to my brother (Kwame) and sisters (Linda and Akua) who were on my side on every step of the way. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This study is part of a larger national project titled Exploring crime and poverty nexus in urban Ghana. The project is jointly funded by Canada‘s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and United Kingdom‘s Department for International Development (DFID) as part of a global research programme titled ―Safe and Inclusive Cities‘‘ . In Ghana the research project is implemented by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the Department of Geography and Resource Development, all in the University of Ghana, Legon. I am grateful to IDRC/DFID for offering the scholarship to pursue the Master‘s Program. I would also like to express my deepest appreciation and gratitude to my supervisors, Professors Martin Oteng-Ababio and George Owusu who are among the four principal investigators of the project. Special thanks also go to Dr. Charlotte Wrigley-Asante and Rev. Dr. Adobea Y. Owusu, the two other principal investigators for their constructive comments. I would also want to thank my fellow beneficiaries on the project Ernest Bagson, Rev. Isaac Agyapong, Louis Kusi Frimpong, Sophia Acheampong and Jane Amu for their support. I would like to express my appreciation to the Assemblymen in all the three communities in Tamale—Aboabo, Zogbeli and Russia Bungalow, for their assistants during the data collection processes. I am particularly grateful for the assistance offered by Abdulai Abdul-Rauf, Amidu Shamsudini, Abdulai Yakubu, Mohammed Maruf, Umar Sulemana in the data collection process. Special thanks also go to the BNI officials in Tamale who in the most difficult times accompanied us to the field. Similar thanks go to the Ghana Police Service in Tamale for giving us access to police data. I am grateful to all individuals and institutions who directly or indirectly gave a helping hand in the course of this study. All omission or commission however remains my personal responsibility. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION ii ABSTRACT iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT v TABLE OF CONTENT vi LIST OF FIGURES xi LIST OF TABLES xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xiii CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 The Problem Statement 4 1.3 Research Questions 6 1.4 Research Objectives 6 1.5 Significance of the Study 7 1.6 Organisation of the Study 7 1.7 Summary 8 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 2.2 Social Disorganisation Theory 10 2.2.1 Routine Activity Theory 19 2.3 Fear of Crime 21 2.3.1 Socio-Psychological Factors 23 2.3.2 Socio-Demographic Factors 24 2.3.3 Environmental Factors 26 2.4 Measuring Fear of Crime 26 2.5 Responding to/Addressing Crime and Fear of Crime 28 2.6 Institutional Arrangement for Crime Prevention in Ghana 30 2.7 Conceptual Framework 33 2.8 Summary 36 CHAPTER THREE STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 37 3.2 Study Area 37 3.2.1 Location and Size 37 3.2.2 Relief and Climate 39 3.2.3 Population Trends and Dynamics 39 3.2.4 Social and Cultural Structure 40 3.2.5 Economic and Poverty Profile of Tamale 41 3.2.6 Political and Administrative Structure 42 3.2.7 Education 42 3.3 Research Methodology 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 3.3.1 Research Design 44 3.3.2 Data Requirement and Sources 44 3.3.3 Sample Design 45 3.3.4 Target Population and Sample Size 46 3.3.5 Data Variables for the Research 47 3.3.6 Analytical Strategy 47 3.3.7 Enumerators: Security Protocol and Working in the Field 48 3.4 Limitations of the Study 49 3.5 Summary 49 CHAPTER FOUR EXPLAINING HOUSEHOLD’S PERCEPTION ABOUT NEIGHBOURHOOD CRIME 4.1 Introduction 50 4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents 50 4.3 Crime Trends and Pattern in Tamale 55 4.3.1 Level of Crime in TAMA 58 4.4 Perceived Crime Prone Areas within the Metropolis 59 4.5 Perceptions of Safety within the Metropolis 62 4.5.1 Most Feared Crime 62 4.5.2 Causes of Crime 64 4.5.3 Perpetrators of Crime 67 4.5.4 Victims of Crime 69 4.5.5 Perceptions about Safety in Specific Times of the Day 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 4.5.6 Factors Influencing People‘s Fear of Crime within the Metropolis 73 4.6 Perceptions about Institutional Arrangement for Crime Prevention 79 4.6.1 Effectiveness of State Agencies in Crime Prevention 79 4.6.2 Effectiveness of FBOs and Traditional Leaders in Crime Prevention 80 4.7 Summary 81 CHAPTER FIVE MAPPING FEAR OF CRIME AND RECONFIGURATION OF LANDUSE PATTERN 5.1 Introduction 83 5.2 Relocation base on Fear of Crime 83 5.2.1 Radio Station 84 5.2.2 Retail Shop 86 5.2.3 School 88 5.3 Effects of Crime 90 5.4 Coping Strategies Adopted by Households 94 5.5 Summary 95 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATION, AND CONCLUSION 6.1 Introduction 97 6.2 Summary 97 6.2.1 Perceived Crime Prone Areas 99 6.2.2 Perception of Safety with the Metropolis 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 6.2.3 Institutional Arrangement for Crime Prevention 102 6.2.4 Responding to Fear of Crime 103 6.3 Recommendations and Areas for Further Studies 104 6.4 General Conclusion 106 REFERENCES 107 APPENDIX A SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE 123 APPENDIX B GUIDE FOR INFORMANT INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS 153 APPENDIX C INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY OPERATORS OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES, HOTELS, AND RETAIL SHOPS 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES/MAPS/PICTURES Figure 2.1 Burgess‘s Concentric Model 16 Figure 2.2 Conceptual Framework 35 Figure 3.1 Map of Tamale Metropolitan Assembly 38 Figure 4.1 Report of Four Major Offences in Tamale (2000-2013) 57 Figure 4.2 Level of Crime within the Past Five Years 58 Figure 4.3 Crime Prone Areas in the Metropolis 60 Figure 4.4 Most Feared Crime in the Metropolis 63 Figure 4.5 Sitting Grounds for NDC 67 Figure 4.6 Sitting Grounds for NPP 67 Figure 4.7 Perception of Safety 72 Figure 4.8 Effectiveness of State Agencies in Crime Prevention 80 Figure 5.1 Old Location of Northern Star FM 85 Figure 5.2 New Location of Northern Star FM 85 Figure 5.3 Old Location of Enterprise A 87 Figure 5.4 New location of Enterprise A 87 Figure 5.5 New Location of School 89 Figure 5.6 Emotional Effect 90 Figure 5.7 Psychological Effect 91 Figure 5.8 Mental Effect 92 Figure 5.9 Physical Effect 93 Figure 5.10 Financial Effect 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1 Sex and Age of Respondents 51 Table 4.2 Occupation and Income of Respondents 52 Table 4.3 Marital Status and Educational Background of Respondents 54 Table 4.4 Ethnic and Religion of Respondents 55 Table 4.5 Causes of Crime in the Metropolis 64 Table 4.6 Perpetrators of Crime 69 Table 4.7 Victims of Crime 70 Table 4.8 Perceptions of Safety in the Neighbourhood 73 Table 4.9 Dependent Variable 75 Table 4.10 Model Fitting Information 76 Table 4.11 Factors Influencing Fear of Crime 78 Table 5.1 Crime Preventive Measures 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATION ADR Alternative Dispute Resolution CAP Chicago Area Project CBD Central Business District CCTV Closed Circuit Television CPTED Crime Prevention through Environment Design EA Enumeration Area GSS Ghana Statistical Service NDC National Democratic Congress PSU Primary Sampling Unit RAT Routine Activity Theory RESEC Regional Security Council SCP Situational Crime Prevention SDT Social Disorganisation Theory TAMA Tamale Metropolitan Assembly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction Throughout history studies have amply revealed that where people choose to settle within the urban space is not something that is new (see Childe, 1950; Sjoberg, 1960; Chen et al., 2012). This has been explained to be an important part of the urbanisation process which dates back to cities in earlier civilisations (Childe, 1950; Sjoberg, 1960). Prominent human habitation in history includes the Nile Valley of Egypt, Mohenjo-Daro and Harrappa in modern day Pakistan, and the Yellow River of China (Chen et al., 2012). Most of these cities developed along the fertile crescent of major rivers where agricultural activities were possible and feasible. However, wherever the location could not meet the basic needs of the settlers be it— war, diseases, famine, dynastic quarrels—the settlers were subjected to relocate their livelihoods to more perceived friendly environments (Pacione, 2009; Chen et al., 2012). Elaborating on the reasons why certain places are selected as a convenient place of human settlement, Carter (1977; 1983) argued that four main reasons could be deduced. He cited hydrological or environmental, economic, social and religious, and military reasons as serving as the main catalyst attracting people to certain places to articulate their daily activities. Previous, studies including (Burgess, 1925; Hoyt, 1939; Harris and Ullman, 1945) made similar assertions. Basically, these studies together, describe situations whereby the prevailing rental patterns, distance, social networks, planning or land use regulations, formal and/or informal played a major role in fashioning-out the location decisions of both individuals and certain groups of people within the city. According to Burgess (1925), the rich living in cities prefer spacious living, convenient access and more friendly environment, whereas the poor are reluctantly forced to choose convenient access over space. Burgess and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 his colleagues from the Chicago School adopted and applied economic principles in the theorisation of land use differentiation and location decision within the urban space, overlooking the issues of security, crime and fear of crime which is equally important in location decision making (see Lee, 1982; Paulsen and Robinson, 2004; Walkate and Mythen, 2008; Landman, 2012). Nevertheless, in recent times, research and scholarship in main stream criminology and urban studies are beginning to recognise the role of crime and fear of crime as a key factor influencing urban liveability and urban land use (Skogan, 1986; Appiahene-Gyamfi, 1998; Adu-Mireku, 2002; Ceccato and Wikstrom, 2012; Landman, 2012). Crime is a deviant behaviour that violates certain prevailing cultural standards that prescribes how humans ought to live and behave in a given society (Lersch, 2007; Landman, 2012). According to (Landman, 2012) societies which are experiencing high levels of uncontrolled urbanisation, growth in population, inadequate planning, and lack of adequate support for the police most often than not have a higher crime levels and disorder which leads to fear. Although crime has a serious consequence that is fear, it was ignored in mainstream criminology up until 1960‘s (Henson, 2011). It is believed that most researchers at the time were certain about the fact that the effects of actual victimisation far outweighed any potential consequences that fear may produce; hence by addressing the likelihood of any victimisation fear would automatically reduce (Henson, 2011). This notwithstanding, the study of fear of crime started to gain attention from scholars and researchers in the 1960‘s based on a commission‘s report that was formed by the United States Government‘s to examine the crime problem which was very high at the time (Katzenback et al., 1967; Hilbink, 2006). According to Hilbink (2006) the report from the commission served as the starting point in the study of fear of crime. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Interestingly, subsequent studies that followed thereafter identified research gaps that were earlier on overlooked in the mainstream criminology research (see DeFronzo, 1979; Baumer, 1978; Clemente and Kleiman, 1977; Balkin, 1979; Garofalo, 1981; Warr, 1984; Skogan, 1986; LaGrange and Ferraro, 1989; Palmer et al., 2005; Ceccato, 2009; Landman, 2012). Results from these studies revealed that all criminal events (irrespective of its seriousness) serve as an initial aversive stimulus that produces fear. For instance, some residents tend to respond to crime by reconfiguring their activity pattern when they perceive the area in which they live to be weak in social control, poor surveillance, and inadequate security (Skogan, 1986; Paulsen and Robinson, 2004). Similarly, fearful residents and strangers also reconfigure their pattern of activities when they perceive certain places within the city as dangerous (Landman, 2012). Palmer et al (2005), makes it quite clear by pointing to the fact that, the increasing anxiety of parents to see to the safety of their children, the presence of security alarms installed in homes and businesses, and the growing popularity of gated communities all bears testimony to a heightened apprehension about people‘s fear of crime and consciousness safety. While issues of fear of crime have received much theoretical and empirical attention from scholars and researchers in the developed countries particularly North America and Europe (Biderman et al., 1967; Baumer, 1978; Maxfied, 1984; Warr, 2000), there are relatively few existing works of this nature in Africa and other developing countries (Appiahene-Gyamfi, 1998; Adu-Mireku, 2002). Ghana is no exception since it is also a country found in the developing world category. Even in Ghana the relatively few existing works on crime have focused largely on Accra and Kumasi to the seemingly neglect of small and medium size cities and towns (Nortey, 1993; Appiahene-Gyamfi, 1998; Adu-Mireku, 2002; Boamah et al., 2012). This study builds upon earlier studies by way of assessing how perceptions of crime University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 and neighbourhood safety can influence location decision making by households within Tamale. The study provides evidence to support the basic fact that whenever an individual or groups of people perceive that they are insecure as a result of the levels of crime and consequently it fears of crime they reshape or relocate their livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. 1.2 The Problem Statement Fear of crime has significant impact on the urban environments which affect individuals and communities in diverse ways (Clemente and Kleiman, 1976; Skogan, 1986; Brantingham and Brantingham, 1995). At the neighbourhood level it reduces communal effort in fighting against crime (Lewis and Maxfield, 1980; Miethe, 1995; Wyant, 2008; Scarborough et al., 2010), whiles also impacting heavily on community viability most especially when it comes to economic activities since people will not be willing to enter perceived danger zones to engage in their daily routine activity (Skogan, 1986; Landman, 2012). In addition to this, the impact of fear of crime has been manifested in the use of burglar proofs, special locks, alarms, dogs, closed circuit television (CCTV) cameras and security guards as extra security measures especially in the high income neighbourhood of big cities (Gates and Rohe, 1987; Newman, 1972; Palmer et al., 2005). Despite this impact of fear of crime, it has also been suggested that these social and spatial responses may rather be the cause of fear of crime (see Shaw and Mckay, 1942; Cohen and Felson, 1979; Sampson et al., 1997). For that reason, Smith (1987) has argued that fear of crime has significant impact on and also impacted by the re-configuration of the urban space. Notwithstanding the impact of fear of crime on the re-configuration of the urban environment, particularly involving the (re)location of activities and the restructuring of the built environment, this impact factor or response strategy is less acknowledged in urban University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 security and urban land use scholarship. Rather, continuous emphasis are been placed on prevailing rental patterns, distance, social networks, planning or land use regulations, formal or informal as the precursor of changes in urban land use and location of activities, especially those ones which are economic in nature (Burgess, 1925; Hoyt, 1939; Harris and Ullman, 1945). This is however hardly fortuitous, when there are other pressing factors which can influence people‘s location decisions. The basis for this is that, these studies continue to move in the direction of earlier studies on urban land use planning by the popular Chicago school with their key emphasis on market principles and with capitalism as their main concentration. Moreover, extant studies on fear of crime have focused largely on the ecological dimension of fear of crime. By the ecology of fear of crime I mean the influence of ecological factors which include the influence of the physical environment (Greenberg and Rohe, 1984; Greenberg et al., 1984) and that of the social environment (Ferraro and LaGrange, 1987; Ferraro, 1995; Schafer et al., 2006). Further, most of these studies on fear of crime are based on the experiences of the developed countries especially those in Europe and North America (see Adu-Mireku, 2002). Even in countries in Africa where fear of crime has received some scholarly attention, the spatial focus has largely been on big cities (Nortey, 1993; Appiahene- Gyamfi, 1998; Adu-Mireku, 2002; Landman, 2012). This however hardly surprising, because these areas large concentration of people and resources and therefore may provide both opportunities and targets for crime perpetrators. By way of addressing the research gap, this study seeks to examine the impact of fear of crime on the re-configuration of the urban space, particular regarding the relocation and reshaping of activities and changes in land use in Tamale Metropolis in Ghana. Whiles this research addresses the issue of context, and in this case the use of a developing country and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 focus on an emerging city, the study also has significant policy implications which may provide a guide for new policies for improved urban safety. 1.3 Research Questions 1. The questions addressed by this study are as follows: 2. Where are the perceived crime hotspots in the community? 3. What is people‘s perception about the general safety of the community? 4. What is people‘s level of confidence of the institutional arrangement for crime prevention? 5. How do people respond to or address their fear of crime? 1.4 Research Objectives The broad objective of this study examines how residents living in Tamale respond to or address their perceived fear of crime. The specific objectives of the research are as follows: 1. To map the perceived crime prone areas within the Metropolis; 2. To analyse people‘s perception of the safety in their neighbourhoods in the Tamale Metropolis; 3. To assess the effectiveness of the institutional arrangements for crime prevention; 4. To provide some recommendation for policy consideration. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1.5 Significance of the Study Tamale is an emerging city which is witnessing an unprecedented urbanisation after the two main cities, Accra and Kumasi in Ghana. The growth in the population of Tamale is as a result of infrastructure development, booming economic activities, and the central location of the city serving as a catalyst attracting foreigners and nationals to the city. The concern however is that, the rapid increase in the population of Tamale coupled with poor planning, uncontrolled sprawling, and without any growth of police logistic capabilities to balance out crime and deviant behaviour can result in serious anarchy which may have serious implication on where people choose to live, work and invest (Songsore, 2011). These can be avoided based on an empirical research which examines how household‘s perception of safety and peoples vulnerability can help in providing ways that can help in preventing crimes and other social problems. This study is important because it examines how fear of crime influence peoples location decision making within the urban space. Since there has not been any study which have examined how fear of crime influence location decision within the urban space in Ghana, this study will be of help in explaining how fear of crime influence location decision making within an increasing urban space. The study will provide guidelines to residents, policy makers, non-governmental organisation (NGO), real estate developers among others on the causes of crime and its impact on people‘s location-decision making and further suggest feedback policies aimed at reducing crime and consequently its fear. 1.6 Organisation of the Study The study has been divided into six chapters. The first chapter presents the background of the study. In this chapter the introduction, problem statement, research questions, research objectives, and significance of the study are presented. The second chapter discusses the pertinent literature relevant for the study. The chapter looks at some ecological theories with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 prime focus of their impact on urban environment and how they have been incorporated in household and commercial land use. The chapter also looks at the concept of fear of crime and how it has been explained, measuring fear of crime, how people respond to/address crime and fear of crime, the perceptions people have with regards to institutional arrangement for crime prevention. The chapter ends with the conceptual arrangements for the study. The third chapter presents the study area and methodology used for the study. The study area is made up of location and size, population trends and dynamics, relief and climate, religion, education, economic characteristics and local government of Tamale Metropolitan Assembly. The research methodology includes research design, data requirements and sources, sample design, target population and sample size, data variables for the research, analytic strategy, enumerators and limitations of the study. The results of the study are presented in Chapters four and five. Chapter four explain household‘s perception about neighbourhood crime. The chapter is made up of socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, crime pattern and trends, perceived crime prone areas within the Metropolis, perception of safety, and perceptions about institutional arrangements for crime prevention. Chapter five maps fear of crime and re-configuration of land use pattern. It includes relocation of facilities base on fear, effects of crime on victims, and coping strategies adopted by households to protect themselves against crime. Chapter Six is the final chapter of the study. It includes the summary of the study, recommendations and areas for further studies, and the general conclusion of the study. 1.7 Summary This chapter has presented the general background of the study. It is made up of the introduction, the problem statement, research questions, research objectives, significance of the study and organisation of the study. It was revealed in this that most studies have applied University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 economic principles in the theorisation of land use differentiation and location decision within the urban space neglecting issues of security which is crucial in location decision making. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This chapter explains the impact of fear of crime on both spatial and social organisation of communities. The chapter discusses urban land use as a result of economic factors influencing people‘s location decision making. Here discussions are centred on social ecological theories with prime focus on their impact on urban environment and how they have been incorporated in household and commercial land use decision making regarding mobility and location. 2.2 Social Disorganisation Theory Emile Durkheim was the first to explain social formation and organisation of communities (Durkheim, 1965). His thesis was centred on the idea on how societies develop and evolve by using two concepts namely Mechanical and Organic to explain the development and evolution of societies. He referred to mechanical societies as relatively small and isolated groups of people who are best described as homogeneous in nature. He argued that members living in a mechanical society share the same religion, values and beliefs; he also described them as sharing the same ―collective conscience‖. Meaning every members living in a Mechanical Society have the same idea with regards to the legal codes that binds the society together. As such, any member who deviates from the legal codes that binds the members together are seen as disrespect to the collective identity of the group, often such members are subjected to harsh punishment. The mechanical society proposed by Durkheim resembles most rural societies found in Ghana. In these rural communities, the members serve as checks and balances to the other, always making sure that help and support are provided to some needy members and at the same time punishing members who deviate from the normal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 standards of the society. With this guiding principle in place crime and deviant behaviours are relatively low. On the other hand, Durkheim referred to societies which are generally large, modern, and technologically advanced as organic societies (Durkheim, 1965). He deduced that members found in organic societies do not share a common identity with their neighbours due to the different backgrounds. In organic societies collective conscience that binds members together are absent, instead people come depend on each other because of the diversity of the society (see Curran and Renzetti, 2001; Vold et al, 2002). Essentially, laws are required in organic societies to check and regulate the behaviour among its members. According to Durkheim (1965) societies that have a higher number of its members not abiding by the rules and regulations of that society then there is the likelihood that crime disorder, fear of crime and other social problems will be higher in that society. It is easy to see how Durkheim‘s analysis of organic societies can be applied to cities and towns. In recent times, large numbers of diverse people move to cities and towns on daily basis in search of jobs, better education, to access health facilities among others (Songsore, 2011). These individuals come along with their own religion, customs, norms, and belief systems new space. With this convergence of different group of people within a stipulated geographic space, it is likely that they will not share the same believes and values (Durkheim, 1965). The end result of this is that crime and disorder will be high with serious implications on where people choose to live, work and invest (Skogan, 1986). Individuals who perceive that they are vulnerable to crime will consider reshaping their activity pattern in order to reduce the vulnerability to crime. Most scholars have derived heavily from the ideas of Emile Durkheim and have added an extra twist, that is, the social ecology, to his concept of development and evolution societies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 (Burgess, 1925; Shaw and Mckay, 1942). The theory of social ecology came about as a result of environmental and social conditions that took place at the turn of the 20th century in Chicago, USA. These prevailing environmental and social conditions included extensive foreign immigration, high rates of juvenile delinquency, and growth in population in the city gave the city of Chicago a new look that is comparable to Durkheim‘s concept of an organic society where social disorganisation is high (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). This can also be said about the city of Tamale which in recent times is also moving along the same path just as the city of Tamale. Social disorganisation was a concept used to explain why these conditions materialised and survived in the city of Chicago (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). According to Sampson and Grooves (1989, p. 777) social disorganisation is the ―inability of a community structure to realize the common values of its residents and maintain effective social control‖. A disorganised society is a society in which institutions of social control namely family, church and schools can no longer carry out their stated functions or better still a society which has lost its collective conscience (Wilson and Kelling, 1982). Therefore, it is likely that crime and deviant behaviour will be high in disorganised communities as a result of the breakdown in social control. The implication of this for the residents living in such communities is that those individuals who perceive themselves to be vulnerable will consider reshaping their activity pattern or relocating to perceived safer space to prevent crime (Skogan, 1986). One of the Chicago School member who been is credited for integrating the ideas of Durkheim and social ecology with the study of the city is Robert Park (see Park and Burgess, 1925). Park incorporated the field of the ecology of crime, which is also a subset of a broader field of ecological studies. He applied a forest model to explain the competition and cooperation that exist between the various groups within a city. Just like the natural areas of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 plants each area of the city had an organic unity of its own where the major ingredients needed to support life is feasible and possible. He deduced that many areas existed where different types of people lived due to specialisation of some spaces. The divisions brought about by this specialisation in the city includes racial and ethnic divisions, income and occupational divisions, industrial and business divisions and physical divisions separated by architectural and natural structures. Later ecological studies focused on ecological spatial patterns of cities such as Burgess‘s (1925) concentric circles, Hoyt‘s (1939) sectors, Harris and Ullman‘s (1945) multiple nuclei, and Shaw and McKay's (1942) work on delinquent areas also went further to elaborate on the social pattern and how they affect mobility. Clifford Shaw and Henry Mckay utilised Park‘s theory as a foundation for studying crime and juvenile delinquency in Chicago in 1942. Shaw and Mckay (1942) believed that juvenile delinquency resulted from the juvenile‘s detachment from conventional groups which are more prevalent in certain areas within the urban space which are in turn perceived to be socially disorganised. In these socially disorganised neighbourhoods, delinquency, criminality and other forms of antisocial behaviour are as a result of the absence of formal and informal social control (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Siegel 2003). According to Wilson and Kelling (1982) the level of crime found within a socially disorganised neighbourhood are closely linked together. Wilson and Kelling (1982) understood this using the ‗broken window‘ analogy to explain how a small aberration of the law can lead to crime. They noted that, for instance, if someone breaks a window and that window is left unrepaired, in no time the other windows will soon be broken or put differently, an unrepaired window means no one cares. Wilson and Kelling (1982, p. 31) described neighbourhood deterioration that may result from a broken window and can lead to crime and consequently its fear: ―A stable neighbourhood of families who care for their homes, mind each other‘s children, and confidently frown on unwanted intruders can change, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 in a few years or even a few months, to an inhospitable and frightening jungle. A piece of property is abandoned, weeds grow up, and a window is smashed. Adults stop scolding rowdy children; the children emboldened, become more rowdy. Families move out, unattached move in. Teenagers gather in front of the corner store. The merchant asks them to move; they refuse. Fights occur. Litter accumulates. People start drinking in front of the grocery; in time, an inebriate slumps to the sidewalk and is allowed to sleep it off. Pedestrians are approached by panhandlers. At this point it is not inevitable that serious crime will flourish or violent attacks on strangers will occur. But many residents will think that crime, especially violent crime, is on the rise, and they will modify their behaviour accordingly. They will use the streets less often, and when on the streets will stay apart from their fellows moving with averted eyes, silent lips, and hurried steps. ‗Don‘t get involved.‘ For some residents, this growing atomization will matter little, because the neighbourhood is not their ‗home‘ but the place where they live.‖ Thus any society experiencing high levels of disorder as a result of absence of formal and informal social control may experience adverse conditions such as heightened levels of crime and fear of crime among individuals. As such, fearful individuals who consider themselves to be vulnerable to crime are more likely to relocate their households and livelihoods to more perceived friendly and safer environments. In recent times, Sampson et al. (1997) have explored the effects of collective efficacy on the level of crime and instability existing within a neighbourhood. According to Sampson et al. (1997, p. 918) collective efficacy is the: ―Social cohesion among neighbours combined with their willingness to intervene on behalf of the common good‖. Collective efficacy is the direct opposite of social disorganisation (Vold et al. 2002). Similar to Durkheim concept of collective conscience, collective efficacy is achieved in neighbourhoods that have a high level of mutual trust among the neighbours. This high level of mutual trust is achieved when members are familiar with each other and can anticipate their activity pattern within the neighbourhood and can also provide support and protection for other members (Choi and Choi, 2012). These effects of mutual trust can also cascade into the development of shared expectations for residents. For instance, since most residents know the legal conduct of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 neighbourhood, any breach of conduct by a resident will prompt a concerned resident(s) to step in and correct the situation. Having such collective efficacy existing in a neighbourhood it is likely that more individuals, mostly the fearful ones from disorganised neighbour will be move into those areas. This accounts for the reason why there are now more gated communities and also the reason why people are now moving from dense neighbourhoods‘ mostly low income to high income neighbourhoods. Does this reflect the true picture on the ground considering that higher income neighbourhoods will be more socially bonded than low income neighbourhoods? Nevertheless, the mere fact that there is a strong social cohesion in a neighbour does not necessarily mean that collective efficacy will exist (Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004; Brownings et al., 2004). According to Brownings et al. (2004), the existence of some strong gangs and other social networks may work together to hinder the smooth achievement of informal social control mechanisms and collective efficacy. An example to this is not far- fetched. Patillo (1998) in his study of a lower middle class African American neighbourhood in the United States deduced that if members of gangs or criminal networks were able to contribute to the neighbourhood in positive ways for example financial assistance, there was an open space that accommodates their nefarious activities. Patillo (1998) noted that even in the midst of strong social network in the neighbourhood it impact on crime will not be significant because of the other social networks. According to Choi and Choi (2012), the strength of collective efficacy in a neighbourhood may also be impacted by a number of factors including population change, residential mobility, and concentration of female headed households. Essentially, there are spatial variations in collective efficacy. There are some areas which have strong collective efficacy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 which guides against deviant behaviours and crime than others. The strong collective efficacy that exists in these areas serves as a catalyst that attracts people (Sampson and Groves, 1989). Shaw and McKay (1942) identified the areas in Chicago that had excessive crime rates and the reasons accounting for that. Using a model of analysis pioneered by Ernest Burgess (1925), they identified that distinct ecological areas had developed in the city of Chicago, comprising a series of five concentric circles, or zones, with stable and significant differences in interzone crime rates (see Figure 2.1). Figure 2.1: Burgess’s Concentric Zone Model Source: Pacione (2009) The areas of the heaviest concentration of crime appeared to be the transitional inner-city zones (Zone B), where large numbers of foreign-borne citizens had recently settled and where there is also a growth in the population (Burgess, 1925). The zones furthest from the city‘s centre are considered to have lower crime rates. Shaw and McKay‘s (1942) statistical analysis confirmed their theoretical suspicions, even though crime rates changed, they still found that the highest rates were always in Zones B and C (Zone of transition and Lower University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 class of residential neighbourhood) (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). This has been captured by Lersch (2007, p. 49): ―The inner zones were marked by a high level of social disorganisation. There was little residential stability in the inner city zones. Renters came and went within the neighbourhoods. New immigrant groups and Southern blacks arrived on a daily basis and, since they tended to be poor and relatively powerless, ultimately settled in the cheaper inner zones. As new people came into the neighbourhood, the stabilizing ties that had been established prior to their arrival were destroyed. Children did not identify with a single over-arching conventional order. The high level of population turnover and community heterogeneity hindered the ability of the family and other primary groups to control the behaviour of the children and local residents.‖ There are quite a number of empirical studies that have supported the views shared by Shaw and Mckay‗s social disorganisation theory. As noted by Vold et al. (2002, p. 133) the SDT is ―A gold mine that continues to enrich criminology today.‖ Notable among these studies that have advanced the SDT include (Byrne and Sampson, 1986; Sampson, 1995; Sampson and Groves, 1989; Sampson et al, 2002; Sampson and Raudenbush, 1999; 2004; Sampson et al, 1997; 2005). Many early applications of the SDT focused on the relationship between crime and poverty (Byrne and Sampson, 1986; Kornhauser, 1978; Lee et al, 2003; McGahey, 1986, Brooks- Gunn et al., 1997; Sampson, 2001; Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004). They explain that crime is the result of the economic status of the community and individual. According to these groups of studies communities with the highest levels of crime also have the highest rates of poverty. Poverty according to them seem to closely coincide with other social problems such as infant mortality and low birth weight, suicide rates, school dropouts, maltreatment and neglect of children, and teenage pregnancies embedded in disadvantage communities (see Brooks-Gunn et al., 1997; Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Another area where the SDT have received considerable attention is using the SDT to examine the relationship between crime and ethnic heterogeneity (Moore and Tonry, 1988; Wilson, 1980; 1987). Findings from these studies have revealed that, areas with higher number of ethnic minority tend to have higher levels of crime (Ortega and Myles, 1987). This relationship has been recognised to be complex since it is difficult to isolate the sole effect of ethnicity on crime (Wilson, 1987). According to Sampson and Raudenbush (2004), they are not quite sure whether or not ethnicity can add anything new to the explanation of crime, most especially when crime and other factors are included in the discussion. Further, there are also some studies that have used the SDT to examine the relationship between crime and population density (Roncek, 1981; Wilson, 1987; Regoeczi, 2003; Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004). Findings from these studies have revealed that the most dangerous places to live are those areas with high population concentration (Razencroft et al., 2002). According to Sampson and Raudenbush, (2004), when more people share the same space, interactions become less frequent and more impersonal. Familiarity becomes less and therefore some members also become reluctant to be their brother‘s keeper. This effect greatly impact on densely populated neighbourhoods, where high concentrations of the poor oftentimes minority residents reside (Songsore, 2011). Reviewing the social disorganisation theory raises some concern. First, the model has constantly been used to explain the origins of crime, showing that low income areas are places with high crime concentration. . This is not surprising because at the time when Shaw and Mckay (1942) were proposing the SDT they used official police and courts data which were mostly bias to people from the low-income communities. A review of William Chambliss study provides evidence to support this claim. Using labelling theory in his classic analysis concerning the case of the Saints and the Roughnecks, two groups of delinquent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 boys who attended the same high school but from different socio-economic neighbourhoods. Chambliss (1996, p. 54) noted: ‗Selective perception and labelling—finding, processing and punishing some kinds of criminality and not others—means that visible, poor, no mobile, outspoken, undiplomatic ―tough‖ kids will be noticed, whether their actions are seriously delinquent or not. Other kids, who have established a reputation for being bright (even though underachieving), disciplined and involved in respectable activities, who are mobile and monied, will be invisible when they deviate from sanctioned activities. They‘ll sow their wild oats—perhaps even wider and thicker than lower- class cohorts—but they won‘t be noticed‘. According to Chambliss lower class youths residing in low-income neighbourhoods are more likely to be arrested and officially processed through the criminal justice system than youths from middle and high income neighbourhoods. Practically, boys who lived in the outer zone may commit just as many crimes compared to their peers from the inner zone, but their actions never showed up in the official statistics that was used by Shaw and Mckay (1942). It is easy to see how the social disorganisation theory (SDT) can be applied to the city Tamale in Ghana. All things been equal, neighbourhoods which show high signs of poverty and structural disadvantage will tend to have higher crime levels that can in turn impact on people‘s safety and activity pattern. It is assumed that due to the high population density of the low income neighbourhoods, crime levels will be higher (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). However since most of the studies that have adopted and applied the SDT concept are works based on experiences from the developed world can it be said that crime will be higher in disorganised neighbourhoods some low income neighbourhoods found within Tamale? 2.2.1 Routine Activity Theory Routine activity theory (RAT) by Lawrence Cohen and Marcus Felson (1979) explained the causes of crime from social and environmental perspective. According to Cohen and Felson (1979) crime is the outcome of the intersectionality of three concrete elements must converge University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 in time and space: a motivated offender; suitable targets; and the absence of capable guardians. These essential elements are sometimes referred to as ―the crime triangle‖ (see Lersch, 2007). According to Cohen and Felson (1979), a motivated offender is the one who has the propensity to commit crime(s) or to be used to commit crime(s) as a result of their vulnerability. However, there are instances whereby some individuals who are vulnerable and are at the right place at the right time to commit crime but they do not. This is because there are some prevailing conditions that prevent them to do so. An example is the presence of a capable guardian. According to Cohen and Felson (1979) the absence of capable guardians is the absence of any crime control measure which prevents people from committing crime. Capable guardians are not only limited to the police only but rather they are extended to include ordinary citizens moving through the routine activities of their daily lives, while at the same time keeping an eye out for the safety of others and their property (Lersch, 2007). Suitable targets are any object that are of value to the motivated offender and one that the offender can get easy access to. A suitable target can also be someone who is physically or psychologically vulnerable, unlikely to fight back, and also one that can be intimidated from reporting crime. Therefore, they maintained that the absence of any one of the three elements was adequate enough for crime to occur (Lersch, 2007). It is easy to apply Cohen and Felson‘s (1979) argument to socially disorganised neighbourhoods. Crime, disorder, teenage pregnancies, drug abuse, school dropout, low economic status of individuals, residential instability, absence of formal and informal social control and other social problems tended to be concentrated in socially disorganised neighbourhoods. Individuals who find themselves in these neighbourhoods are more likely to commit crime(s) or to be used to commit crime(s) by influential individuals because of their personal vulnerabilities. The activities of vulnerable individuals who resort to crime in order University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 to survive have serious impact on resident‘s safety. All things being equal the most fearful individuals are more likely to reshape their activity pattern in order to avoid being a victim, or at best they relocate their households and livelihoods to more perceived and safer environment. 2.3 Fear of Crime Crime is a deviant behaviour that violates prevailing cultural standards prescribing how humans ought to behave in a given society (Lersch, 2007). Earlier crime researchers attributed the causes of crime to the genetical make-up of the individual (see Bohm, 1997). They argued that certain individuals were born biologically and/or mentally inferior and because of this they were more vulnerable to commit crime. However, subsequent studies revealed that the biological predisposition of an individual was not of great importance when it comes to the study of crime (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). Instead, they argued that attention should be given to the structural conditions existing in the various neighbourhoods in which a person resides. They believed that the neighbourhood in which a person lives has an influential factor as to whether or not a person will be involved in crime or not. Findings from their empirical studies revealed that crime and other social problems tended are concentrated in socially disorganised neighbourhoods which are marked by very low economic status of residents, ethnic heterogeneity and residential mobility (Shaw and Mckay, 1942). Together, these various influences can impact on an individual‘s safety and can in turn lead to fear. One effect of crime is fear. Yet, prior to 1960‘s, there were no empirical studies which described the extent or consequences of fear of crime. According to Henson (2011) it may be that most crime researchers at the time were certain about the fact that the effects of actual victimisation far outweighed any potential consequences that fear may produce, or fear of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 crime was presumed to be the outcome of direct victimisation, hence by addressing the likelihood of victimisation—fear would reduce. Be that as it may, the topic of fear of crime in the mainstream criminology was absent in crime studies. However, the interest in the study of fear of crime came to light in the 1960‘s at the time when the United States of America was experiencing an unprecedented growth in the levels of crime (Katzenback et al., 1967; Hilbink, 2006). As a way to address the crime problem the US government established a commission to investigate the crime problem. According to Katzenback et al, (1967) the commission‘s report had great impact on crime studies because they utilised methodologies and data collection techniques that had rarely ever been attempted prior to the time the commission were conducting their studies. The report highlighted the importance and consequences of fear of crime research, as stated in the report (Katzenback et al., 1967, p. 3): ―The most damaging of the effects of violent crime is fear, and that fear must not be belittled. Suddenly becoming the object of a stranger‘s violent hostility is as frightening as any class of experience. A citizen who hears rapid footsteps behind him as he walks down a dark and otherwise deserted street cannot be expected to calculate that the chance of those footsteps having a sinister meaning is only one in a hundred or in a thousand or, if he does make such a calculation to be calmed by its results. Any chance at all is frightening.‖ Subsequent studies that followed thereafter identified research gaps that were earlier on overlooked in crime studies (Skogan, 1986; Ferraro, 1995; Landman, 2012; Loukaitou- Sideris, 2012). These studies have deduced that all criminal events serve as the initial aversive stimulus that produces fear. Meaning fear of crime can be a direct experience of the individual. For instance an individual robbing you at gun point or concerning a perception one has with regards to the fact that there may be someone around the corner waiting to commit crime (Henson, 2011). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 Henson (2011) has explained that with the proliferation of studies in this field, there has been little wide-spread consistency in the definition and the measurement of fear of crime. According to Skogan (1993) the differences in explanation concerning the concept fear of crime shows that it is a general concept. And as a general concept it can be explained using socio-psychological factors (e.g. experiences and memories of crime, prior victimisation, stories about crime on the media, admonitions from authorities etc.); socio-demographic factors (e.g. gender, ethnicity, age, income and occupation etc.); and environmental setting (e.g. geographic setting, physical and social incivilities, collective efficacy, and natural surveillance opportunities etc.) (see Loukaitou-Sideris, 2012). 2.3.1 Socio-Psychological Factors One way by which the concept of fear of crime has been explained is by examining the socio- psychological factors of the individual (Gordon and Rigor, 1980; Valentine, 1990; Ferraro, 1995; Koskela and Pain, 2000; Graham, 2008; Loukaitou-Sideris, 2012). According to Koskela and Pain (2000), socio-psychological factors including experiences and memories of crime, prior victimisation, stories about crime on the media, admonitions from authorities may influence people‘s perception about their risk and danger. Many people tend to produce images of feared environments and unsafe places which are based on their previous experiences with crime (Valentine, 1990; Ferraro, 1995). This can also be fuelled by media stories about that environment and experiences of other people (Koskela and Pain, 2000). According to Graham (2008) stories about vulnerability and insecurity are frequently enhanced by media and also exploited by some security industry which impact on people‘s fear. In addition, warnings from authorities, parental admonitions, and crime prevention strategies often received from the police can also lead to fear (Loukaitou-Sideris, 2012). This is true for strangers who from their first visit to certain neighbourhoods or countries are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 inundated with societal warnings about the risk of danger and how to keep safe (Gordon and Rigor, 1980; Pain, 2000). Consider this example whereby the United States embassy in Ghana advices their citizens about crime in Ghana: Security Message for U.S. Citizens: Crime in Tamale The U.S. Embassy recently received reports of armed robberies of Westerners in Tamale. In two incidents within the last month, victims were assaulted and robbed by assailants carrying machetes. The Embassy advises U.S. citizens to be aware of the potential for crime; i.e., to increase their situational awareness and take appropriate personal safety and security precautions, including the use of vehicles to travel in the greater Tamale area between dusk and dawn. Walking on roads, even for a short distance, is heavily discouraged after dark…. If you are going to live in or travel to Ghana, please take the time to tell us about your trip by enrolling in the Smart Traveller Enrolment Program (STEP). If you enrol, we can keep you up to date with important safety and security announcements. It will also help your friends and family get in touch with you in an emergency. You should remember to keep all of your information in STEP up to date. It is important during enrolment or updating of information to include your current phone number and current email address where you can be reached in case of an emergency. The US Embassy is a highly recognised institution and therefore any information they put out in the public domain are considered to be credible. The source of the information in itself is likely to impact on individuals safety as they may fear to enter into certain areas that have been describe to be dangerous. 2.3.2 Socio-Demographic Factors Fear of crime has also been explained using socio-demographic factors. These socio- demographic characteristics include gender, age, income, ethnicity, occupation, education among others (Garofalo, 1979; Stanko, 1990; Crawford et al., 1990; Ferraro, 1996; Pain, 2000; Pantazis, 2000; Ross, 2000; Day, 2001; Loukaitou-Sideeris, 2009). Among the socio- demographic characteristics, gender has been noted to have a prominent influence on fear (Pain, 2000). Findings from fear of crime studies have shown that women are more fearful University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 than men (Pain, 2000; Day, 2001; Loukaitou-Sideeris, 2009). For instance, Loukaitou- Sideeris (2009) noted that, fear impacts many women‘s travel choices and movement around the city. When income, vehicle ownership and time constraints are controlled, women are expected to walk less than men because of fear of crime (Day, 2001). Similarly, women are more likely than men to avoid walking after dark for reasons of personal safety (Garofalo, 1979; Stanko, 1990; Ferraro, 1996; Ross, 2000; Loukaitou-Sideris, 2009). According to Loukaitou-Sideris (2009) women drive or take taxis rather than walk or use public transport because of fear for their safety. In some instances, women may completely avoid the use of certain public spaces, confine their use of public spaces to certain hours of the day or visit them only if accompanied by others (Ross, 2000). However, according to Pain (2000) it is increasingly clear that men‘s fear may have been seriously understated in the past. Men‘s low reported fear of crime has always seemed strange when, as a group, they experience high rates of violence, particularly from strangers in public places but also from partners and acquaintances (Pain, 2000; Crawford et al., 1990). According to Crawford et al. (1990), men are unlikely to give answers to survey questions on fear that challenge the image of male invulnerability. Another important socio-demographic factor that can modify perceptions of risk and fear of crime is age (Pain, 1999; 2000; Ferraro, 1995). While younger people (particularly males) are statistically more at risk of being victimised than older people, the latter tend to be more fearful (Pain, 1999). Older adults are more influenced by safety and security concerns than other age groups due to their physical vulnerability (Ferraro, 1995). Other factors including socio-economic status, income and education have also been identified to have a small effect on fear of crime. For example, individuals with a lower socio-economic status, income and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 education level report a greater level of fear of crime (Clemente and Kleiman, 1977; Pantazis, 2000). 2.3.3 Environmental Factors Crime researchers have also identified that there are certain environmental factors that can lead to fear of crime (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Ferraro, 1995; Schweitzer et al., 1999; Loukaitou-Sideris and Eck, 2007; Kennedy and Browne, 2007). Kennedy and Browne (2007) have argued that, individuals living in urban settings tend to fear crime more than individuals living in rural locations. Ferraro (1995) noted that individuals living in areas in which social cohesion is low, instability is common, and graffiti, broken windows, burned-out houses and/or cars are visible can lead to a higher reported fear of crime. Researchers have consistently found that neighbourhood incivilities are responsible for generating perceptions of risk and fear, distinguishing incivilities as physical (e.g. deteriorated or abandoned buildings, litter, graffiti) and social (public drunks, beggars, panhandlers, homeless) (Wilson and Kelling, 1982). LaGrange (1992) noted a significant relationship between neighbourhood incivilities and perceptions of risk but did not find one type of incivility more predictive of fear than the other. In contrast, Rohe and Burby (1988) found that social incivilities were more predictive of fear than physical incivilities. Certain environmental factors in a public setting are associated with greater levels of fear; these include darkness, desolation and lack of opportunities for natural surveillance by the general public or occupants of surrounding establishments (Loukaitou-Sideris, 2006). 2.4 Measuring Fear of Crime One problematic issue in fear of crime research, with regards to the measurement, has been the confusion between fear and perceived risk (Ferraro, 1995; Roundtree and Land, 1996; Farral et al., 1997; Adu-Mireku, 2002; Henson, 2011). Fear is an emotional response, whiles University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 risk on the other hand is the probability that something will occur and also the likelihood that one will be a victim of any criminal event (Henson, 2011). It is therefore clear that the two concepts may be different, and therefore may require different variables for measuring them (Farral et al. 1997). Nonetheless, it is very common to find that researchers hardly distinguish between the two and in most cases use one variable to represent both concepts (Henson, 2011). In most surveys the question is normally posed as, ‗how safe do you feel walking alone at night or during the day‘. According to Henson (2011, p. 21): ―Safety measures are actually asking individuals to make cognitive assessment of the level of risk associated with specific situations or action.‖ Therefore such a question evokes risk associated with going out at night. The International Crime Victim Survey (ICVS) also shares different opinion on this matter, with regards to the same question on neighbourhood safety. Adu-Mireku (2002) commenting on this view, asserts that according to the ICVS such a question aims at measuring vulnerability to street crime and may be different from questions that measure perception of risk of victimization and other emotional-based measures of fear of crime. This study conceptualizes fear of crime in terms of vulnerability to crime, as this also bothers on perceived neighbourhood safety. This is in consonance with other studies that have gauged fear of crime by conceptualizing it in terms of vulnerability to crime (Kinsey and Anderson, 1992). In other words, some people become fearful due to their personal, social and environmental conditions make them susceptible of becoming victims of crime. To maintain consistency and provide a basis for cross-comparism, the study adopted the ICVS question on perceived neighbourhood safety as a measure of fear of crime, which has widely been used in victim surveys in quite a number of countries including U.S.A, Britain, Tanzania, South Africa and Ghana (UNODC, 2010). Nonetheless, the study recognizes some problems associated with generalizing fear of crime using feelings of safety as a result of personal and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 neighbourhood conditions, since vulnerability to specific crimes may also evoke fear (Skogan, 1986). In view of this, it is proposed that future research should explore how different kinds of crime may evoke fear among different groups and neighbourhoods. 2.5 Responding to/Addressing Crime and Fear of Crime Fear of crime has serious negative consequences on people‘s activity pattern (Garofalo, 1981; Skogan, 1986). Skogan (1986) argued that individuals who are living in neighbourhoods which are experiencing high crime may have their spatial radius curtailed. When this happen they may not feel free to do what they use to do. This is because they fear that they will become victims (Wilson and Kelling, 1982). This means that such areas are left with uncaring guardians hence making the neighbourhood to become a prime target for criminal activity and disorder (Cohen and Felson, 1979). However, those individuals living in neighbourhoods which are not experiencing crime will feel comfortable and confident to defend their spatial radius in which they feel a sense of attachment. While fear of crime may not be an important issue for all individuals, it still has a substantial effect on the quality of life of some segments of the population. This can influence people to reshape their activity pattern in order to protect themselves from crime as this may also help to reduce their fear (Taylor et al., 1979). An important way by which crime can be reduced is to modify a situation in order to make a target less attractive for potential offenders (Jeffery, 1971; Cohen and Felson, 1979; Taylor et al., 1979; Skogan and Maxfield, 1981: Lersch, 2007). Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) is a popular crime preventive measure which has been used by households, law enforcement agencies and city planners to prevent crime from occurring (Lersch, 2007). CPTED was coined and first used by C. Ray Jeffery as a title for a book in 1971 (Jeffrey, 1971). He deduced that the best way to reduce crime was to initiate direct University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 control over environmental conditions prior to the commission of an offense (Jeffery, 1971). He noted (Jeffery, 1971, p. 20): ―Placing a man on probation or giving him remedial education will not prevent him from breaking the window and stealing jewellery; placing a steel bar over a window will prevent the theft from that window.‖ Meaning through environmental engineering the number of crimes could be reduced. Jeffrey‘s concept of CPTED incorporated a more diverse set of interrelated strategies on the manipulation of the built environment to prevent crime and reduce fear of crime (Clarke, 1992). This interrelated strategy associated with CPTED includes access control, surveillance and territorial reinforcement (Lersch, 2007). Access control seeks to limit the opportunities for a motivated offender to come into contact with a potential target. For instance if the target is perceived as being hard to get to then an offender may feel that any attempt to gain access to the target would involve greater risk of detection and apprehension they will not attempt to commit crime (Eck and Weisburd, 1995). The offender may therefore move on to a different target that is viewed as an easier target. Using guards for example at the entrance of gated communities and mechanical locks can be of help in preventing intruders (Taylor et al., 1979; Taylor et al., 1980; Crowe, 2000; Reisig and Parks, 2004). Territorial reinforcement is the design of the physical environment in a way that enhances feelings of ownership by the legitimate users, while at the same time sending out a warning signal to potential offenders that the space they are entering is off limits to outsiders (Crowe, 2000). Natural surveillance enables observation of intruders, through mechanical lighting, cameras such as CCTV, natural windows and windows closer to streets, police patrols and neighbourhood watchdog (Lersch, 2007). When the three strategies are taken into consideration, legitimate users will be more likely to get involved in the protection of their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 property. At the same time strangers will be monitored and suspicious behaviours will be reported to the appropriate authorities (Cohen and Felson, 1979; Lewis and Salem, 1981; Lab, 2000). This can help in reducing crime and consequently its fear. CPTED have been applied to a variety of setting including schools, parking garages, parks and recreational centres and entire residential and commercial developments (Merry, 1981; Eck, 1993; Barnes, 1995; Crowe, 2000; Brunson and Miller, 2006). Brunson and Miller (2006) noted in their studies that, residents who applied the principles of CPTED to their households felt safer. Despite the successes of CPTED, if the changes to the physical environment do not bring out the desired changes in the behaviours of offenders then the design change may appear to be a failure (Eck, 1993; Barnes, 1995). According to Barnes (1995) a mere manipulation of the built environment to prevent crime in actual fact only displaces crime and may therefore not address them in total. 2.6 Institutional Arrangement in Crime Prevention in Ghana In every society, there are some built in mechanisms that are established in order to guard against crime (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Greenberg et al., 1982; Goldstein, 1983; Eck, 2001; Tilley, 2012). These institutions can either be formal or informal institutions which either work independently or mutually to ensure that there is order in the society (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Eck, 2001). The formal crime prevention institutions include police and court, whiles the informal crime prevention institutions includes district assembly, local churches and mosques, volunteer organisations, schools and some non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (Eck, 2001; Tilley, 2012). Public confidence in the police as a factor influencing perception of crime is an essential element in the instrumental theory of crime (Wilson and Kelling, 1982; Tyler and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Boeckmann, 1997; Loader and Mulcany, 2003; Loader, 2006; Jackson and Sunshine, 2007; Jackson and Bradford, 2009). According to the theory, fear of crime and concerns of victimization erodes public confidence in the criminal justice system and the police in particular; this therefore can potentiate negative perception of crime (Jackson and Sunshine, 2007; Jackson and Bradford, 2009). This relationship is made much clearer in this statement by Jackson and Bradford (2009, p.8): ―So, fear of crime might be a statistically significant predictor of confidence not because it is causally related, but rather because crime is the real causal factor and crime is related to both fear and confidence. But if fear of crime is associated with confidence net of levels of crime then it really is about perception: in high crime areas, people who report no fear will typically feel that their local police force is doing a good job (despite the incidence of crime); in low-crime areas, people who feel anxious about crime will typically have little confidence in the police (despite the incidence of crime).‖ Additionally, the symbolic meaning attached to the police institution and policing, particularly as it conveys images of order and stability is an important element in informing public perception of crime (Loader and Mulcany, 2003; Loader, 2006). The face to face interaction and engagement between the police and the public in most cases assures people of their safety despite the fact that actual crime might be persistent (Tyler and Boeckmann, 1997). This point is underscored by Wilson and Kelling (1982), who asserted that despite the failure of the foot patrol project in Newark by virtue of the fact that it did not reduce crime rate, most residents felt safer and thought that the presence of the police brought order. Therefore such perception of safety, by virtue of frequent police contact and associated confidence that might be built thereafter has significant impact on public perception of crime (Jackson and Bradford, 2009). In terms of security, there exist both formal an informal arrangement in ensuring community safety and protecting lives and property in the country. Nonetheless, in the context of a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 burgeoning population, especially in urban areas, increasingly complex society with upsurge of commercial and private property, the role of the state, and particularly the police has become indispensable (Antwi-Boasiko, 2001; Atuguba, 2007; Boyuo, 2012). Established under article 190, with a stated organizational structure under article 200 of the 1992 constitution, the Ghana Police Service (GPS) constitute the primary state agency mandated to protecting lives and property and also charged with the responsibility of maintaining law and order. Nonetheless, the police as a state institution have existed for a greater part of the country‘s history, with its modus operandi changing from that of curtailing human rights and oppressing individual seen as a threat to the colonial and military regimes, to an institution that is discharging its role of maintaining law and order under a constitutional and democratic dispensation since 1992 (Atuguba, 2007). The GPS also operates under a unified command, headed by the Inspector General of Police (IGP), who is also the administrative head of the service. In addition to this, other administrative roles have been devolved to other echelons of the GPS including Commissioner of Police, Deputy Commissioner of Police to other ranks of the command (Boyuo, 2012). Further, the GPS also have important units where specialized functions are discharged as well as data for national levels are collated. In all, they are 13 in number, but for the purposes of this study and basing on the fact that their roles are critical for police data collection, four are mentioned. They include Criminal Data Services Bureau (CDSB), Domestic Violence and Victims Support Unit (DOVVSU), Commercial Crime Unit (CCU) and Criminal Intelligence Unit (CIU). To ensure smooth and effective administration, the GPS has been decentralized into various levels including the Regional Command, Regional Division Command, District Command, police station and police post. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 The police station and police post constitute the common physical unit of the GPS and by virtue of the population distribution and concentration of activities, there are more police stations in urban areas than in the rural areas, and in most cases rural settings have more police posts (Boyuo, 2012). In addition to this, it is also the first point of call for crime reporting and primary source of crime data. Pointedly, when it comes to the recording of crime information, entries are made in the Station Diary at every police station and include crime information such as crime occurrence and location, complaints, accidents, information on persons arrested and information on police engagement with community (Boyuo, 2012). This data, particularly on reported crimes are compiled and submitted to the various Commands starting from the District Command right through to the national level. Despite the decentralized administrative structure within the GP, coupled with the bottom up compilation of crime statistics, there are however some challenges with regards to processing of crime statistics in the country. One of this is the inability of the police to provide disaggregated crime statistics to allow for crime mapping at the neighbourhood level. This can be attributed to the lack of expertise to compile crime statistics at neighbourhood level. In addition to this, Ghana like most developing countries continue to face significant challenges with regards to crime and criminal justice statistics including lack of resources committed to collection and analysis of crime statistics, lack of training and insufficient information on how to properly use police statistics (Alvazzi del Frate, 2010). 2.7 Conceptual Framework Fear of crime is explained to be a subjective phenomenon which is thought to arise from a concern about crime, the consequences of victimisation, the probability of being victimised, feelings of vulnerability and wider social and situational influences. This study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 conceptualises fear of crime and (re)configuration in terms vulnerability to crime. This also bothers on perceive neighbourhood safety which stem from the conditions of the neighbourhood. Much of the professed causes of crime including poverty, unemployment, and residential instability, breakdown in formal and informal control are noted to be much prevalent in low income neighbourhood compared to the high income neighbourhoods (see Figure 2.2). This however has implications on the neighbourhoods which can be either positive or negative. Residents who perceive their environment not to be safe as a result of these prevailing conditions of a decayed neighbourhood will consider (re)configuring their residences and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Hence, fearful individuals who perceive that the environment in which they live in (low income neighbourhoods) will move to safer environments (high income neighbourhoods) where those social problems that leads to crime are less prevalent. The implication investments in low income neighbourhoods which could lead to the development of the neighbourhood will be lost when people move out of the neighbourhood in search of safer and friendly neighbourhoods. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Perceptions of Safety and Environmental Setting Figure 2.2: Conceptualising Fear of Crime Causes of Crime  Poverty  Unemployment  Residential instability  Neighbourhood decay  Breakdown in formal and informal control etc. Fear of Crime Low income neighbourhood -High Crime Middle Income neighbourhood -Crime level not low not high High income neighbourhood -Low level of Crime (Re) Configuration of Residences and Livelihood into more perceived safer and friendly environment - Disinvestments -Stigmatisation -Unemployment - Disinvestments -Stigmatisation -Unemployment -Investment -Safer and friendly environment -Employment opportunities Effects Crime Prevention Recommends a broader and integrated approach in all policies jeered toward territorial cohesion Segregated Fear Source: Author‘s Construct (2015) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 2.8 Summary This chapter explained the impact of fear of crime on both spatial and social organisation of communities. The chapter discussed urban land use as a result of economic factors influencing people‘s location decision making. Here discussions were centred on social ecological theories with prime focus on their impact on urban environment and how they have been incorporated in household and commercial land use decision making regarding mobility and location within the urban space. The study conceptualised fear of crime and (re) configuration of occupational geographies in terms of vulnerability to crime as it bothers on perceived neighbourhood safety stemming from the structural conditions of the neighbourhood. With residents relocating their residence and/or their livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 CHAPTER THREE STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the study area and the research methodology. With reference to the study area location and size, relief and climate, population trends, religion, economic and local government are discussed in relation to crime and fear of crime. The second part of this chapter deals with the justification of materials and methods used for the study. In view of this, the reasons and appropriateness regarding procedures and methods have been provided, from the choice of research designs, data sources, sample design and then the analytical strategy adopted. 3.2 Study Area 3.2.1 Location and Size Tamale Metropolitan Assembly (TAMA) is one of the 26 districts in the Northern Region of Ghana (TAMA, 2010; GSS, 2010; 2013; 2014). TAMA was established by legislative instrument (LI 2068) which changed the then Municipal Assembly into a Metropolis in 2004 (GSS, 2010). Currently, TAMA is among the six Metropolitan Assemblies in Ghana and also the only Metropolis in the three Northern regions namely Upper East, Upper West and Northern Region where the Metropolis is found (GSS, 2014). Tamale Metropolitan assembly has Tamale as the Metropolitan capital city and also doubles as the regional capital of the Northern Region of Ghana (TAMA). The Metropolis is located in the central part of the Northern Region (see Figure 3.1) and shares boundaries with Savelugu to the North, Tolon to the West, Central Gonja to the South West, East Gonja to the South, and Yendi to the East (GSS, 2014). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 Figure 3.1: Tamale Metropolitan Assembly Source: Author‘s Construct (2015) The Metropolis has a total estimated land size of about 647 km sq. and lies about 600 km north of the nation‘s capital, Accra (GSS, 2010; 2014). The Metropolis lies between latitude 9º16 and 9º 34 North and longitudes 0º 36 and 0º 57 West (GSS, 2014). The strategic position of Tamale serves as a catalyst that attracts people, agricultural goods and commerce sectors from other districts in the region (GSS, 2014). By this strategic location Tamale stands to gain from markets within Ghana and other parts of West Africa (TAMA, 2010; GSS, 2014). Presently, there are 115 communities in the Metropolis comprising of rural and urban communities (GSS, 2014). Virtually all the rural communities in the Metropolis have large expanse of land favourable for agricultural activities, and in addition serves as the food basket for the Metropolis (GSS, 2010). Yet, these communities are faced with inadequate basic and economic infrastructure such as security personnel, police logistics, good road networks, thereby hindering crime prevention and the socio-economic development. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 3.2.2 Relief and Climate Tamale is about 180 meters above sea level. The land is generally undulating with a few isolated hills. The Metropolis receives only one rainfall season in a year and this has affected effective farming activities in Tamale (GSS, 2014). According to GSS (2010), daily temperature in Tamale varies from season to season. Moreover, during the rainy season residents experience high humidity, slight sunshine with heavy thunder storms, compared to the dry season which is characterized by dry Harmattan winds from November-February and high sunshine from March-May (GSS, 2010). The climate feature of Tamale has huge potential in the preservation industry, the development of artificial parks and gardens – that could take the advantage of the high sun rays by building swimming pools for relaxation during the excessive sun periods (GSS, 2014). This can generate employment for the youth, thereby keeping most people from the streets. 3.2.3 Population Trends and Dynamics Tamale Metropolitan Assembly is the most populous in Northern Region (TAMA, 2010; GSS, 2010; 2013). The population of Tamale increased from 83,653 in 1970 to 135,952 in 1984 and then to 202,317 in the year 2000 (GSS, 2013). Currently, the population of Tamale is 371,351 which represent 15 per cent of the region‘s population comprising 185,995 males and 185,351 females (GSS, 2010; 2013). The metropolis has a youthful population, with 75.1 per cent of the population between the ages of 1 and 34 years old (GSS, 2013). Mole-Dagbani is the predominant ethnic group constituting 88.1 per cent of the entire population of Tamale (GSS, 2013). The other minority ethnic groups are Akan (2.8%), Guan (2.9%), Grusi (1.6%), Gurma (1.3%), Ewe (1.4%), Ga-Dangme (0.4%) (GSS, 2013). The growth was spurred on because of the large scale agricultural activities in its catchment area which fed into its growth process (Songsore, 2011). More so, the presence of commercial activities, job University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 opportunities, and educational activities attract a lot of people to the metropolis (GSS, 2010; Songsore, 2011). Although the city is growing it has been challenged by unemployment among the youths, poor infrastructure and weak government structures. In fact, the ever growing population of Tamale tend to place unbearable pressure on existing resources (e.g. infrastructure and institutional arrangement for crime control) (TAMA, 2010). This however has implications on safety, security and crime. Further, the increase in the population size of Tamale and it expansion to the peripheral areas have displace many farmers of their agricultural lands. Beside this many farmers also sell their farm lands due to the recent unreliable rainfall. These have serious consequences on those who rely on agriculture to survive. In fact, these people may now have to resort to other means in order to earn a living. Failure to secure a decent employment can make them vulnerable to commit crime in order to survive. Indeed, with the high level of the youthful population requires that more employment must be created, since failure to create employment will force the active but unemployed youth to involve themselves in criminal activities. 3.2.4 Social and Cultural Structure Tamale is a cosmopolitan area with the Dagombas been the main ethnic group (GSS, 2010; 2014). Other ethnic groups includes Gonjas, Mamprusi, Akan, Frafra, Dagaabas and other from all part of the country and other nationals from Africa and other countries outside Africa (GSS, 2014). The area has deep rooted cultural practices which are portrayed in their annual festivals, naming and marriage ceremonies, and their collective conscience that is by caring for each other‘s need (GSS, 2014). The area is dominated by Muslims (60.0%), Christians (21.0%), leaving 0.4 % of the population to be traditionalist and spiritualist (GSS, 2013). There are two types of Muslim groups in Tamale; they include the Tijaniya and the Al- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 Sunnah groups. Most of the indigenes rely on the Muslim leaders for protection from crime and also at times report crime incidence to them. The division between the Muslims groups are based on the different teachings of the Islamic Religion given to their followers and at times their teachings lead to misunderstanding between the two groups. This has serious implication on the city as it can make the city space literally ungovernable. Consider the case where a minister was accused for meddling in religious matters: Misunderstanding of two Muslim sects ends in riot: Some two Muslim sects in the Tamale metropolis have ended in a fierce clash leaving some residents injured. The Al-Sunnah Muslims (Afajirah Mosque) and the Tijaniya Muslims (Central Mosques) were engaged in misunderstandings over scriptural interpretations from the Holy Quran which later ensued in the unrest between these groups. Reports…indicate that, an alleged members of the Tijaniya Muslims went to one of the radio stations in Tamale (Northern Star) condemning the style of prayers performed by the Al-Sunnah Muslims on air. However, members of the Al-Sunnah Muslims were not happy about what was being said about them on air and also went to another radio station (Zaa Radio) to react….Some selected members of the Tijaniya Muslims went to Zaa radio asking for immediate closure of their opponent‘s programme on air and that, finally led to the unfortunate chaos…. 3.2.5 Economic and Poverty Profile of Tamale During the 2010 Population and Housing Census TaMA had the highest level of employment of 63.3 percent and the lowest proportion of economically non-active population of (36.7%) (GSS, 2010; 2014). The employment level for males was 65.5 percent higher than that for females of 61.1 percent (GSS, 2014). Moreover, there is also an increase in one man private economic activities in the Metropolis and about 18 percent of the workingman class are involved in agricultural related activities (GSS, 2014). Majority of the workforce in Tamale of about 33 percent are engaged in sales and services (GSS, 2014). This is as a result of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 increase in marketing, banking and insurance services and the activities of NGOs in the Metropolis. 3.2.6 Political and Administrative Structure The Metropolis has a total of 59 Assembly members comprising of 18 appointed and 41 elected members and also a total of 205 unit committee members (GSS, 2014). The Metropolitan Chief Executive is the political head of the Metropolis, mostly by appointed by government. The Assembly has as active Sub-Committee members and voluntary groups who work to achieve the aims and objectives of the Assembly. These voluntary groups at time work with the police in the Metropolis to reduce and prevent crime by patrolling the neighbourhoods in the night. Beside the Local Government structures, there are traditional chiefs, queen mothers, market queens, Imams, pastors, who are also working together with the Metropolis in promoting peace, stability and development in the area (GSS, 2010; 2014). 3.2.7 Education In Tamale 60.1 per cent of the population both urban and rural are literate, leaving 39.9 per cent of the population not literate both urban and rural (GSS, 2010, GSS, 2013). Majority of the population 70.7 per cent have never attended school, 38.3 per cent have primary education, 33.8 per cent have either completed Junior Secondary/High/Middle School, 23.9 per cent have either completed Senior Secondary/High/Vocational/Technical School, 3.8 percent have bachelor‘s degree, leaving only 0.7 per cent of the population to have obtained a post graduate degree (GSS, 2010). This means that the majority of people living in TAMA do not have formal education. According to the Ghana Education Service (GES, 2012) there are about 742 public and private within the city. These include Kindergartens, Primary, Junior High and Senior High Schools, 3 public Vocational and Technical Institutions, 2 Colleges of Education, 4 Nursing Training Colleges, 1 Polytechnic, and 2 Universities. The implication University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 of education to the present study is that, 70.7 per cent of the entire population are not literate and are therefore not likely to be employed in the formal sector. They are also likely to end up in the informal sector or at worse be unemployed. If this happens they can involve themselves in criminal activities or be used by those have money to commit crime for their personal interest. This illustrate Cohen and Felson‘s (1979) routine activities theory of the presence of potential targets (the wealthy), motivated offenders (the poor), and absence of guardians (police or and crime control measure) combine to increase crime which can in turn generate fear among residents. 3.3 Research Methodology This study is part of a larger national project titled Exploring Crime and Poverty Nexus in Urban Ghana. The project is jointly funded by Canada‘s International Development Research Centre (IDRC) and United Kingdom‘s Department for International Development (DFID) as part of a global research program titled ―Safe and Inclusive Cities‖. In Ghana the research project is implemented by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the Department of Geography and Resource Development, all in the University of Ghana. Tamale is a medium-sized city and regional capital, and the largest urban centre in northern Ghana (GSS, 2010). Three neighbourhoods with varying socio-economic characteristics, namely low-class, middle-class and high-class residential areas, namely Aboabo, Zogbeli and Russia Bungalow respectively were selected for the interviews and survey. The low income neighbourhoods tend to have high population densities, low incomes, poor infrastructure and the predominance of compound houses (dwelling units sheltering several households with shared facilities such as kitchen, bathrooms, and toilets). Apart from low educational and income levels, the mass of unskilled labour in both the formal and informal economy is found here. The middle and high-class areas are mostly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 planned with relatively lower population densities per hectare. Further, the middle and high- class residential areas are relatively well developed and maintained residential areas with mainly one household per dwelling. To complement the research methodology of the bigger project this study adopted the following methods. 3.3.1 Research Design The study adopted a mixed method approach. According to Creswell (2003), the mixed method approach combines both quantitative and qualitative forms. The choice of this design was also based on the understanding of the inherent weaknesses associated with the use of either a quantitative or a qualitative approach (Creswell, 2003). In this regard, whiles the study made use of statistical techniques such as inferential statistics to make inferences from the sampled data, interviews that gave insights on individual experiences were also used to give further detail on the issues been discussed. The choice of the method of triangulation was also to cross-validate and complement both the quantitative and qualitative data (Teye, 2012). The study also adopted a sequential mixed method approach. According to Creswell (2003) this approach of mixed method involves starting with either of the approaches (quantitative or qualitative) and then following through with the other. In this study, the survey was first conducted (i.e. quantitative). 3.3.2 Data Requirement and Sources The data for this study were mainly those from primary and secondary data sources. The primary data were obtained directly from residents in the three neighbourhoods in Tamale. Quantitative and qualitative techniques were the main methods that were used to collect the primary data. With the quantitative data, questionnaires were used to collect information from residents (e.g. socio-demographic characteristics, social network and community cohesion, assessment of crime in the neighbourhood, victims of crime and the assessment of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 criminal justice system) (see Appendix A). Majority of the questions on the questionnaire were mostly closed-ended. Few open-ended questions were included. The main advantages for using closed-ended questions are that they are efficient method to collect data from residents and they facilitate coding as against the open-ended questions which require a lot of time to think and answer a question. In addition, coding answers becomes difficult. As a way to complement the quantitative data that restrict respondents to pre-coded form of questions, qualitative interviews were conducted with some key informants and operators of some facilities in Tamale (see Appendix B and C). The qualitative interviews were made up of structured and unstructured questions. All interviews that were conducted were tape recorded only after seeking the kind permission of the interviewer. The reason for this is that, since all the conversations could not be hand written, recording conversation was deemed as appropriate. In addition, photographs as well as direct observations were also undertaken as a way to complement the qualitative data collection. 3.3.3 Sample Design The study adopted a multi-stage sampling method. First in the multi-stage sampling, there was a cluster sampling of neighbourhoods based on the official residential classification, historical development and the peculiar ecology of neighbourhoods which create physical and social context for interaction among residents that help shape the socio-demographic characteristics of the neighbourhood (GSS, 2010). This was followed by a systematic random sampling technique. This technique is appropriate in cases were the sample are large and also when sampling units are already grouped or are in classes (UNODC, 2010). Primary sampling units (PSU) for this study was the Enumeration Areas (EAs) of the selected neighbourhoods in Tamale and they also constituted the sampling frame for the study. According to GSS (2010), EAs are the smallest well defined units for which population and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 household data are available. One problem with regards to the EAs used for this study, was the fact that only the boundaries were provided, with no information regarding the number of houses within each EA. To be able to systematically sample the houses from which household members were to be randomly sampled, the number of houses on both length (L) and breadth (B) of each EA was identified and multiplied (LxB). The generated figure (N), assumed to be the number of houses within the (PSU) was divided by 15 which was the maximum sample size selected for each EA for this study. The arrived figure (X), after dividing (N) by 15 is the sample interval. A starting point within or outside the EA was identified after which every Xth house was included. The last stage of the multi-stage sampling technique was a random sampling of a household member; preferably the head of the household was selected for the structured interview. 3.3.4 Target Population and Sample Size The target population refers to the set of units to be studied. For the purposes of this study, the target population were adults who were above the ages of 18. The choice of this age group was based on the premise that, they were in the position to provide useful information with reference to their household, housing characteristics and neighbourhood. More importantly, the respondents of the survey were drawn from only residential areas or EAs deemed to be residential. In all the sample size for the survey were 450. Forty five (45) respondents were from Russian Bungalow, 225 respondents were from Zogbeli, and 160 respondents were from Aboabo. With the qualitative interviews, 12 interviews were conducted with key informant base on their knowledge about the subject under investigation. These include assemblymen, security officers, youth group leaders, women leader, religious leader, traditional leader. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 The second sets of interview were those that were conducted with operators of retail shops, hotels and schools in Tamale. Operators of these facilities who have ever been a victim of crime were selected based on purposive sampling. A total of 10 interviews were conducted. Three (3) hotels (1 hotel established before the year 2000 and 2 hotels established after the year 2000), three (3) retail shops (1 established before the year 2000 and 2 after the year 2000), three (3) schools (1 established before the year 2000 and 2 schools established after the year 2000). Detailed information was collected from the respondents after every interview. The respondents were told that they will be contacted if there was the need for further clarification. 3.3.5 Data Variables for the Research There has been a lot of debate regarding how fear of crime should be measured. For some, fear of crime should measure emotional response to crime (Ferraro, 1995), others have also argued that, fear can also be measured as perceived high risk of being victimized (Hinkle and Weisburd, 2008). In this study, fear of crime relates to vulnerability to crime, as this also bothers on how safe the environment within which one live in. Consistent with studies which include (Schweitzer et al, 1999; Adu-Mireku, 2002; UNODC, 2010), the question was posed as, how safe do you feel walking alone in your community at night. The independent variables included the socio-demographic characteristics of the individual, individual level measures including whether one has being a victim of crime before, collective efficacy and social cohesion measures were used to examine their influences on safety within the neighbourhoods. 3.3.6 Analytical Strategy The data obtained from the field were edited in order to address questions that were answered partially or not at all. After editing and coding, the data were entered into the computer using University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) software to perform the desired data transformation. Descriptive statistics in the form of frequency distribution, and graphs were used to analyse the data. Ordinal logistic regression was used to determine factors that influence fear of crime. Perceived neighbourhood safety (independent or predictor variables) was regressed on (Dependent variable). The choice of the Ordered Logistic Regression was important due to the ordering nature of the categories of perceived neighbourhood safety i.e. very safe, safe, not safe and don‘t know, and also the fact that almost all the independent variables were categorical and continuous. The choice of the Ordered Logistic Regression other than other regression methods was also because of the fact that it allowed for estimating categories of factors (categorical independent variables) that are likely to be in the higher cumulative outcome categories. In addition, a crime hotspot map was generated in order to identify the main crime prone areas located within each neighbourhood. First, all locations perceived as crime hotspots were picked using the Global Positioning System (GPS). The points were later transferred into the computer using ArcGIS software to generate the required map for analysis. Further, interviews were also transcribed and used to complement findings from the quantitative data in the form of vignettes and direct quotes. 3.3.7 Enumerators: Security Protocol and Working in the Field A thorough community entry was undertaken. Upon entering into any community, the Field Enumerators led by the Supervisor contacted the Assembly person and the traditional leaders (chief/queen mother) to announce their presence in the community and their mission. Each Enumerator was given a badge and an official Introductory Letter bearing his/her name and the purpose of the study. This allowed anyone who was in doubt to cross-check the background of the fieldworker while in the field. The Enumerators worked in groups supported by a knowledgeable local (community) person, moving from one neighbourhood to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 the other rather than spreading themselves across neighbourhoods within the community. Further, Enumerators were also advised to conform to the needs of their respondents by meeting them in their place of choice; seeking permission first before recording interviews or taking pictures; being as transparent as possible about the motives and potential results of the investigation; ending interviews when and if they feel uncomfortable; guaranteeing respondents privacy and confidentiality. 3.4 Limitations of the Study At the time of data collection, TAMA was highly volatile. There was serious political-, religious, and ethnic-tension in TAMA. As such it is believed that some of the respondents may have concealed vital information which would have helped in the study; this was done because they feared that such information may be used against them. More so, there were some areas which we could not go because they were suspicious our study and what the outcome of the work was going to be used for. As a dominant Muslim community which gives more preference to patriarchy also limited the number of females that were interviewed. In addition, language barrier posed a difficult challenge as most of the respondents did not understand the English Language. However, efforts were made to translate the English Language words to the local dialect. 3.5 Summary In this chapter the study area and the research methodology was presented. The study area included location and size, relief and climate, population trends and dynamics, religion, education, economic characteristics and local government. The research methodology included the research design, data requirement and sources, sample design, target population and sample size, enumerators, key variables and analytical strategy. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 CHAPTER FOUR EXPLAINING HOUSEHOLD’S PERCEPTION ABOUT NEIGHBOURHOOD CRIME 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents findings about people‘s perception of crime in Tamale. The chapter is made up of the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, crime trends and pattern, perceived crime prone areas, perceived safety, and assessment of the criminal justice system. 4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Table 4.1 presents information on gender and age of respondents in Tamale. With reference to gender 54 percent of respondents were male with the remaining 46 per cent been female. In the neighbourhood level about 58 percent of respondents from Russia Bungalow were male leaving 42 percent to be female. In Aboabo, 60 percent of the respondents were male, 40 percent were female. The only difference was in Zogbeli where there were more female respondents (51%) than male respondents (49%). The second demographic characteristic is age of respondents. From table 4.1 majority of the respondent were between the ages of 25 and 59 years, 18 percent are above 60 years and 14 percent were between the ages of 18 and 24. In the neighbourhood level, 86 percent of respondents in Russia Bungalow were between the ages of 25 and 59 years old, 9 percent were above 60 years, and only 5 percent were between the ages of 18 and 24. This trend was similar in Zogbeli and Aboabo where majority of the respondents were between the ages of 25 and 59 years. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 Table 4.1: Sex and Age of Respondents Variables/Questions Tamale Russia Zogbeli Aboabo Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Sex Male 243 54.2 26 57.8 108 48.6 110 60.4 Female 205 45.8 19 42.2 114 51.4 72 39.6 Total 449 100.0 45 100.0 222 100.0 182 100.0 Age 18-24 61 13.9 2 4.5 33 15.3 26 14.4 25-59 300 68.5 38 86.4 144 67.0 119 66.1 60+ 77 17.6 4 9.1 38 17.7 35 19.4 Total 438 100.0 44 100 215 100.0 180 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) The second group of socio-demographic characteristics are presented in Table 4.2. With reference to occupation, about 34 per cent of the respondents were involved in sales and services. As a typical urban centre, this finding is not surprising because in Ghana many people who move to towns and cities are involved in menial activities. About 20 percent are involved in professional, technical and managerial, 28 percent are involved in skilled manual, agriculture, clerical and other activities. Only about 19 percent of the respondents are unemployed, unskilled and pension. In the neighbourhood level about 53 per cent of the respondents in Russia Bungalow were involved in professional, managerial, or technical occupation. As a typical high income neighbourhood this finding is not surprising because in Ghana many residents living in high income neighbourhood are involved in involved in professional, managerial, or technical occupation. However, in Zogbeli and Aboabo, majority of the respondents were involved in sales and services. This finding is also not surprising because in Ghana many residents living in low-income and middle-income neighbourhoods are involved in menial activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 With reference to income, majority of the respondents about 86 percent earn between 1 and 1,000 Ghana Cedis, whiles about 12 percent earn between 1,000 and 2000 Ghana Cedis, leaving just about 3 percent of the respondents to earn between 2,001 and above 2,500 Ghana Cedis in Tamale. In the neighbourhood level, it is only in Russia Bungalow where about 41 per cent of the respondents earn between 1001 and above 2,500 Ghana Cedis. As a typical high income neighbourhood, this finding is not surprising because individuals who earn higher income live in higher income neighbourhoods. However, only about 10 and 12 percent of the respondents in Zogbeli and Aboabo respectively, earn between 1,001 and above 2,500 Ghana Cedis. Table 4.2: Occupation and Income of Respondents Variables/Questions Tamale Russia Zogbeli Aboabo Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Occupation Professionals 88 19.6 24 53.3 38 17.0 27 14.8 Sales/services 153 34.1 8 17.8 77 34.5 68 37.4 Skilled manual 62 13.8 3 6.7 22 9.9 37 20.3 Unskilled manual 18 4.0 - - 16 7.2 2 1.1 Clerical 2 0.4 - - - - 2 1.1 Unemployed 52 11.6 2 4.4 29 13.0 21 11.5 Agriculture 9 2.0 1 2.2 4 1.8 4 2.2 Pensioner 13 2.9 2 4.4 4 1.8 7 3.8 Other 52 11.6 5 11.1 33 14.8 14 7.7 Total 449 100.0 45 100.0 223 100.0 182 100.0 Average household Income 1-500 278 62.8 10 22.7 143 65.0 125 69.4 501-1000 102 23.0 16 36.4 54 24.5 33 18.3 1001-1500 37 8.4 10 22.7 13 5.9 14 7.8 1501-2000 15 3.4 2 4.5 6 2.7 7 3.9 2001-2500 7 1.6 3 6.8 4 1.8 - - 2500+ 4 0.9 3 6.8 - - 1 0.6 Total 443 100.0 44 100.0 220 100.0 180 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 The occupation and income of respondents in Tamale illustrate Burgess‘s (1925) argument that people within the same income brackets live in the same neighbourhood. According to McGahey (1986) communities with the highest levels of crime also have the highest rates of poverty. If we are to go by McGahey‘s (1986) argument then it can be argued that crime will be high in Zogbeli and Aboabo which at the same time impact on residents‘ activity pattern within the neighbourhoods. Marital status and level of education of respondents are presented in table 4.3. With reference to marital status about 68 percent of the respondents in Tamale are married. Only 32 percent of the respondents are single, widowed, divorced, cohabiting or separated. This trend was similar across the three neighbourhoods. This shows clearly that majority of the residents were married. Sampson (1986) investigated the impact of the family structure on crime. He revealed that there is a relationship between marital status and the rates of crime; and that neighbourhoods with higher rates of divorced or separated have lower levels formal and informal social control which have an effect on neighbourhood disruption and crime. Thus comparing Sampson‘s (1986) argument to this finding, it can be argued that since majority of the respondents in TAMA are married there will be less crime and consequently its fear. But does this reflect the true situation in TAMA? With education, 24 percent of the respondents have no formal education, 22 percent have attained Junior Secondary/High School Certificate, 18 have attained Secondary School Certificate, 12 percent are graduate, 9 percent have completed primary school, 1 percent is postgraduate, and 5 percent have other educational certificate. In the neighbourhood level, majority of the respondents from Russia Bungalow have higher education compared to respondents from Zogbeli and Aboabo. This means that those respondents from Russia University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 Bungalow are likely to secure a job that provides them with higher incomes than residents from Zogbeli and Aboabo. Table 4.3: Marital Status and Level of Education of Respondents Variables/Questions Tamale Russia Zogbeli Aboabo Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Marital Status Single 89 19.9 7 15.6 51 22.9 31 17.1 Consensual/cohabitation 2 0.4 - - 2 0.9 - - Married 306 68.3 36 80.0 150 67.3 121 66.9 Divorced 5 1.1 1 2.2 1 0.4 3 1.7 Separated 3 0.7 1 2.2 2 0.9 - - Widowed 43 9.6 - - 17 7.6 26 14.4 Total 448 100.0 45 100.0 223 100.0 181 100.0 Educational Level None 110 24.5 - - 67 30.0 43 23.6 Primary 42 9.4 1 2.2 20 9.0 21 11.5 JHS 99 22.0 4 8.9 42 18.8 53 29.1 SHS 82 18.3 4 8.9 45 20.2 33 18.1 HND 37 8.2 5 11.1 19 8.5 13 7.1 Graduate 54 12.0 25 55.6 21 9.4 9 4.9 Postgraduate 5 1.1 2 4.4 2 0.9 1 0.5 Other 20 4.5 4 8.9 7 3.1 9 4.9 Total 449 100.0 45 100.0 223 100.0 182 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) With reference to ethnicity, majority of the respondents 75.1 percent were from the northern part of Ghana (Buli, Dagomba, Sissala, Frafra, Mamprusi, Wali, Kassen) and speak the Dagbani language, 3.3 percent of the respondents are Akan (Asante, Fanti, Brong and Nzema), 0.7 percent are Ga/Dangme, 1.8 percent were Ewe, 3.8 percent. This trend is similar across all the three neighbourhoods. The last of these characteristics is religion. Majority of the respondents 88.3 per cent are Moslems, only 11.7 percent of the respondents are Christians. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 The low income neighbourhoods tend to have poor infrastructure and the predominance of compound houses. Apart from low educational and income levels among with the exception of few residents, the mass of unskilled labour in both the formal and informal economy are found here. The middle and high-class areas are mostly planned with relatively lower population densities per hectare. Further, the middle and high-class residential areas are relatively well developed and maintained residential areas with mainly one household per dwelling. Table 4.4: Ethnicity and Religion of Respondents Variable/Question Tamale Russia Zogbeli Aboabo Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Freq. Per cent Ethnicity Akan 32 7.1 10 22.1 16 7.1 7 3.8 Ewe 8 1.8 - - 4 1.8 2 1.1 Ga/Dangbe 3 0.7 2 4.4 1 0.4 - - Northerners 366 81.5 24 53.3 185 82.8 157 86.1 Others 40 8.9 7 15.6 17 7.6 16 8.8 Total 449 100 45 100 223 100 182 100 Religion Christian 52 11.7 22 50.0 20 9.0 11 6.1 Moslem 394 88.3 22 50.0 202 91.0 170 93.9 Total 446 100.0 44 100.0 222 100.0 181 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) 4.3 Crime Trends and Pattern in Tamale Crime data were obtained from Ghana Police Service (GPS) to determine crime rates in Tamale (GPS, 2010). From the police data robbery, murder, defilement and rape are among the most commonly committed crimes which attract public concern in Tamale. The data are presented in Figure 4.1. The results suggest that crime rates in Tamale are increasing. For instance the percentage change of robbery from 2006 to 2013 was 120 per cent and that of murder was about 105 percent. Similarly, defilement increased by 119 per cent, while‘s rape University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 increased by 33 per cent. With the exception of rape all the other crime offences witnessed a significant increase. It may be that, people now report crime to the police because they now have confidence in the police. However, with such an increase crime level more resident will fear that they will be a victim of any of the crimes and therefore they are more likely to re- configure their livelihoods and households to more perceived safer and friendly environment as can be seen from Figure 2.2 in Chapter Two of this study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 Figure 4.1: Report of Four Major Offences in Tamale (2000-2013) Source: Ghana Police Service Report (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 4.3.1 Levels of Crime in TAMA Figure 4.2 presents respondents perceptions about levels of crime in TAMA. From figure 4.2 about 42 percent of the respondents in TAMA indicated that crime has increased over the past five years, leaving about 33 percent of the respondents to indicate that crime has decreased. Only 21 per cent stated that crime had remained the same leaving 5 per cent of the respondents with no idea about the level of crime in TAMA. Figure 4.2: Level of Crime within the Past Five Years Source: Household Survey (2014) In the neighbourhood level, respondents in all the three neighbourhoods indicated that crime was increasing. However, in Aboabo a significant number of the respondents 89 percent stated that the rate of crime in their neighbourhood has increased over the past five years. As a typical low-income neighbourhood this finding is not surprising because Sampson et al. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 (1997) explained that the rate of crime are higher in low-income neighbourhoods which are faced with problems of social disorganisation including teenage pregnancy, school dropout, prostitution, unemployment. Some of the findings from the socio-demographic factors of respondents from this research add credence to this argument. For instance, 12 per cent of respondents in Aboabo earn between 1,000 and 2,500 Ghana Cedis compared to their counterparts living in Russia Bungalow where 46 per cent of the respondents earn the same amount. 4.4 Perceived Crime Prone Areas within the Metropolis During the qualitative interviews the key informants were asked to identify some crime prone areas within their various neighbourhoods. All the crime prone areas which were identified were picked using the Global Positioning System (GPS) device. The points were later transferred into the Geographic Information System (GIS) software—ArcGIS—to perform the required data analysis. Figure 4.3 shows a map for perceived crime prone in Tamale. It can be seen from the figure that majority of the crime hotspots appear to be clustered around Aboabo and Zogbeli, only one hotspot was identified in Russia Bungalow. The location of Aboabo and Zogbeli are marked by high levels of social disorganisation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 Figure 4.3: Perceived Crime Prone Areas University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 According to the interviews conducted with key informants in Aboabo and Zogbeli it was revealed that because these areas are marked by high levels of youth unemployment, high population and housing density, teenage pregnancies, neglect of children, school dropouts, vulnerable individuals or groups involve themselves in illegal activities in order to survive. This finding illustrate Cohen and Felson‘s (1979) argument that crime occur when there is an offender (the vulnerable individual or group), potential target, and absence of capable guardian (absence of formal and informal control) as a result of social disorganisation. In addition, the finding also illustrates (McGahey, 1986; Sampson et al, 1997; Lee et al, 2003) argument that communities with the highest level of crime also have the highest rates of poverty. It is therefore not surprising that there were crime hotspots at Aboabo and Zogbeli because these neighbourhoods tend to have high low incomes, poor infrastructure and the predominance of compound houses. Apart from low educational and income levels, the mass of unskilled labour in both the formal and informal economy are found here. The implication of this finding are that, the high numbers of perceived crime prone areas are more likely to contribute to feelings of fear among residents and most fearful individual may withdraw from community activities or if possible relocate. This can lead to stigmatisation, unemployment and disinvestment from the low income neighbourhood. This notwithstanding, the perceived safer environment stands to gain from the crime prone areas (as depicted in Figure 2.2 in Chapter Two of this Study). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 4.5 Perception of Safety within the Metropolis 4.5.1 Most Feared Crime In an attempt to complement the qualitative data which asked key informants about crime prone areas, the quantitative data asked the respondents about the most feared crime in their respective neighbourhoods. The data is presented in Figure 4.4. The findings revealed that robbery, stealing, burglary, drug addiction, prostitution, rape, assault, fraud and murder are the most feared crime in the metropolis. A significant number of the respondent 54 per cent indicated that stealing was the most feared crime with the metropolis. Respondent cited stealing because it occurs more frequently. In the neighbourhood level, majority of the respondent 71.8 and 72.4 per cent in Russia and Zogebli respectively stated that stealing was the most feared crime. However, in Aboabo assault (35%), stealing (27%) and murder were considered to be the most feared crime within the neighbourhood. One researcher Warr (2000) noted that, the most feared crime is a multiplicative factor of the seriousness of the crime, reoccurrence, likelihood and also the impact on the victim. Hence, it is not surprising that respondents from Russia Bungalow and Zogbeli indicated stealing to be the most feared crime, whilst respondents from Aboabo cited assault, stealing and murder to be the most feared crime(s). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 Figure 4.4: Most Feared Crime in the Metropolis Source: Household Survey (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 4.5.2 Causes of Crime Table 4.5 presents respondents perceptions about the causes of crime in Tamale. Majority of the respondents about 53 percent indicated that the main reason why people commit crime is because of need/financial stress (poverty). About 19 percent of the respondents also cited peer influence, society induced, weak criminal justice system, greed, satanic or demonic influences, and breakdown of family as some of the reasons why people commit crime, leaving about 28 percent to cite other reasons. Interviews conducted with key informants and findings from other studies (Lee et al, 2003; Morenoff, Sampson, and Raudenbush, 2001) have shown that need/financial stress (poverty) is one factor that influences some individuals to commit crime. Table 4.5: Causes of Crime in the Metropolis Variable/Question Tamale ( %) Russia ( %) Zogbeli ( %) Aboabo ( %) In your opinion what is the main reason why people commit crime in your community? (n=444) (n=44) (n=221) (n=179) Need/financial stress 52.7 34.1 62.4 45.3 Peer influence 7.7 11.4 4.5 10.6 Society induced 0.5 0.0 0.0 1.1 Weak criminal justice system 0.7 2.3 0.5 0.6 Greed 4.5 9.1 5.0 2.8 Satanic/demonic influence/religious 1.1 0.0 1.8 0.6 Breakdown of family 2.3 2.3 1.4 3.4 Don‘t know 2.5 2.3 2.3 2.8 Other 28.2 38.6 22.2 33.0 Source: Household Survey (2015) From the interviews conducted, the key informants noted that poverty is closely tied to other problems, namely neglect of children by irresponsible parents, social and physical disorder, school dropout, and teenage pregnancies. These problems serve as an aversive stimulus that influences some individuals to commit crime. A historical overview of Aboabo is a case in point (see Box 4.1). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 Box 4.1: Aboabo: A Historical Overview and Some Challenges Aboabo is located within the central business of Tamale Metropolis an area mostly dominated by Dagombas. They practice an extended family system and their chief religion is Islam. The people consider themselves as one family mostly shown in intra family marriages, characteristics of the people and their social organisation. Each family has a family head. The family head is the centre of authority; he issues commands and also receives respect from all members of the family. In time past, the family head conduct a row call during the night in order to determine which members of the family were absent from home. Those who were found to be absent were punished the following day. Because of this, it was very common to find all members of family gather together outside the house in the night and in order to remove boredom the aged in the family gave stories which were laden with good moral lessons. This therefore went a long way to impact good moral lessons in the young members of the family. However, since education was not considered as a human resource at the time a significant number of the population remain uneducated and it consequence is the formation of small groupings in the area because they do not have anything to do in the form of work in order to earn a decent income that can support a family. The current situation of Aboabo can be traced to the past. They have now become use to sitting at one place and changing their position with the shade. Some of them have changed their sittings into formal political and non-political groupings with sets of aims and objectives, which have their bearings on their historical past (see Figures 4.5 and 4.6). Example of these formal political and non-political groupings include 44 minutes bench; Barmah Camp; Kandahar; Parliament; Future Youth of NPP; Taliban; Capitalist; Miskia Youth of NPP; Busia- Danquah Ladies; UN Youth of NPP all affiliated to the New Patriotic Party (NPP). On the other hand, World Trade Centre; Yarini Youth of NDC; Diro Base some examples of political groupings belonging to the National Democratic Congress (NDC). Other forms of groups exist but they are not affiliated to any political group. These include Tapagya Youth and Tehisuma Youth. Each group has it aim and objective have specific days on which the hold their meetings. Most residents in Tamale believe that these groups are used by influential people to crime. The reason been that most of the members are illiterate and as such they become vulnerable to the influential groups. Even though, some of them are into masonry and carpentry but lack of financial support has always been a bane of their development. Majority of these people cannot afford three square meals a day, hence fighting off the extreme pangs of poverty. Even though, the formation of these groupings in the area has curbed the incidence of thievery and societal nuisance because any member found to have been involved in any social vice would be ridiculed, but lack of support has always rendered them vulnerable to the influence of politicians. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 The politicians have infiltrated the activities of some of the groups to the extent that they operate within the antenna of the two major political parties thereby rendering their activities quite political. Chieftaincy is another issue that has eaten into the moral fiber of our society. Therefore, this is another avenue through which politicians control the people. There have been several instances where the area has come under attack for both political and chieftaincy reasons. Because of the location of the area any confusion that takes in any of the markets has a snow boiling effect in the area. There was this instance of confusion between Abudu and Andani men, because the area is perceived as largely Abudus, people from different area mobilized themselves and attacked the area and it eventually resulted into the death of one person. There was another attack of one child. From the above it can be observed that poverty, lack of education, bad moral behaviour, lack of self-realization and actualization and inferiority complex are the bane of the development of the area. We therefore call for support in this regard to better the lives of these people. Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2014) The historical overview of Aboabo exemplifies the argument that some people commit crime because they are poor. According to (Shaw and Mckay, 1942; Lee, et al, 2003; Morenoff, et al., 2001) these vulnerable are mostly located in perceived social disorganised neighbourhoods and are more likely to be used by influential groups in the society to commit crime(s). This is as a result of absence of social cohesion which hitherto bonded residents together and also provides support when a particular family or an individual was stranded. Therefore, as indicated in the conceptual framework (Figure 2.2) of this study, such social disorganisation wherever they exist can influence people‘s perception about their safety, and if possible they will relocate their households and livelihoods to more perceived organised environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 Figure 4.5: Sitting Grounds for NDC Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015) Figure 4.6: Sitting Grounds for NPP Source: Author’s Fieldwork (2015) 4.5.3 Perpetrators of Crime Table 4.6 shows respondents assessment about the origin, age and sex of perpetrators of crime in Tamale. About 50 percent of the respondents indicated that people who commit crime(s) live outside the neighbourhood; about 34 percent indicated that those who commit crime(s) within the neighbourhood are either community members or outsiders. About 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 percent indicated that those who commit crime(s) in the community are community members, leaving 7 percent with no idea with regard to the origin of the perpetrators. In the neighbourhood level, majority of the respondents in all the three neighbourhoods indicated that those people who commit crime live outside the neighbourhood. Only few of the respondents in all the three neighbourhoods indicated that those who commit crime live within the neighbourhood. For instance in Zogbeli about 46 per cent of the respondent indicated that those who commit crime live outside the neighbourhood, 35 per cent think that they are both community members and outsiders, whiles 10 per cent think they are community members. Only 8.6 per cent are without any idea. Community members fear to commit crime within their neighbourhood because they have the perception that they can be identified easily by other residents. Even if they are potential offenders they will not commit the act of crime in their neighbourhood for fear of been tagged as criminal. Results from the qualitative interviews also indicated that perpetrators of crime are mostly from neighbourhoods are which have higher levels of unemployment, and other social problems including breakdown in parental control, break down in formal and informal social control. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 Table 4.6: Perpetrators of Crime Variables/Questions Tamale ( %) Russia ( %) Zogbeli ( %) Aboabo ( %) Perpetrators of Crime Community members 8.8 0.0 10.0 9.4 People who live outside this neighbourhood 50.3 86.7 46.4 46.4 Both (Community members and outsiders) 34.4 8.9 35.0 39.8 Don‘t know 6.5 4.4 8.6 4.4 Total Sex and Age of Perpetrators of Crime Juveniles (below 18)-male 15.1 6.7 10.1 23.2 Juveniles (below 18)-female 2.1 2.2 0.9 3.4 Youth (18-35)-male 78.1 91.1 86.2 65.0 Youth (18-35)-female 2.7 0.0 2.3 4.0 Adults male (above 35) 2.1 0.0 0.5 4.5 Total Source: Household Survey (2014) From table 4.6 above, virtually all respondents in the three neighbourhoods indicated that male juveniles who are 18 years and below, and male who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years are the most common perpetrators of crime in their neighbourhoods. Result from the qualitative interviews indicated that these groups are from economically deprived neighbourhoods, and mostly unemployed, hence to make a living they commit crime in order to survive. 4.5.4 Victims of Crime Table 4.7 present respondents assessment concerning the origin, age and sex of crime victims in Tamale. From the table, about 60 per cent of the respondents in Tamale stated that crime victims are mostly community members, about 34 per cent also indicated that the victims are either community members or outsiders. However, about 4.1 per cent of the respondent noted that victims are mostly those who live outside the community, leaving about 2 per cent of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 respondent with no idea. In the neighbourhood level, all respondents from the three neighbourhoods indicated that crime victims are mostly community members. Only few crime victims were cited as outsiders. For instance, in Aboabo about 54 per cent of the respondents indicated that, community members are the most common victims of crime, 36 per cent stated that the some victims live within the community whiles others live outside the neighbourhood. Only 7 per cent of the respondents stated that crime victims are outsiders. During the qualitative interviews with the key informants indicated that crime victims within the neighbourhood are mostly strangers who do not know the terrain very well. With reference to age and sex, table 4.7 have shown that the majority of crime victims are mostly male who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years old. This finding is not consistent with other research findings which have continuously stated that women and the aged are mostly victims of crime (Pain, 2000). This however needs to be interrogated probably through a qualitative interview to find out why men who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years are mostly victims of crime in Tamale. Table 4.7: Victims of Crime Variable/Questions Tamale ( %) Russia ( %) Zogbeli ( %) Aboabo ( %) Common Victims of Crime Community members 60.4 64.4 64.7 54.4 People who live outside this neighbourhood 4.1 0.0 2.3 7.2 Both (Community members and outsiders) 33.9 35.6 31.2 36.7 Don‘t know 1.6 0.0 1.8 1.7 Total Sex and Age of Victims Juveniles (below 18)-male 11.1 11.1 8.3 15.2 Juveniles (below 18)-female 12.5 8.9 10.1 16.3 Youth (18-35)-male 53.9 40.0 63.3 45.5 Youth (18-35)-female 9.5 20.0 9.6 6.7 Adults male (above 35) 11.6 17.8 8.3 14.0 Adults female (above 35) 1.4 2.2 0.5 2.2 Total Source: Household Survey (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 4.5.5 Perceptions about Safety in Specific Times of the Day Figure 4.6 shows how respondents perceive safety within the Metropolis in specific times of the day. When the question how safe do you feel currently in your community was asked, about 50 per cent of the respondents stated that they feel safe, 36 per cent feel very safe whilst 11 per cent indicated they do not feel safe. With reference to the question how safe do you feel at night in your community, about 50 per cent of the respondents indicated that they feel safe, 25 per cent feel very safe, whilst 22 per cent stated that they do not feel safe, leaving 2 per cent of the respondents with no idea. Similarly, when the question how safe do you feel walking alone in your community during the day was asked, about 50 per cent of the respondents feel very safe, 49 per cent feel safe, leaving only 1.6 per cent not to feel safe. This pattern was similar across all the three neighbourhoods (see Table 4.8). It could be suggested that respondents feel safe and very safe because those crime(s) that were been experienced might not be of violent in nature. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 Figure 4.7: Perceptions of Safety Source: Household Survey (2014) The question arising from this finding is this: how can this affect the way people reconfigure their households and livelihoods to safer environments when as at the time of the study they feel safe in their respective neighbourhoods? An answer to this question is provided in Chapter 5. Victims of operators of some retail shops, hotels and schools were selected based on purposive sampling to answer questions about how perception of safety affect their location decision making. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 Table 4.8: Perceptions of Safety in the Neighbourhoods Neighbourhood Russia (%) Zogbeli (%) Aboabo (%) How safe do you feel in your community currently? Very Safe 35.6 39.5 31.8 Safe 51.1 55.2 52.0 Not Safe 13.3 5.4 16.2 Don‘t Know - - - Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 How safe do you feel walking alone at night in your community? Very Safe 11.1 27.4 26.4 Safe 48.9 56.1 44.0 Not Safe 37.8 14.8 27.5 Don‘t Know 2.2 1.8 2.2 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 How safe do you feel walking alone in your community during day time? Very Safe 11.1 49.5 48.9 Safe 48.9 49.5 48.4 Not Safe 37.8 0.9 2.7 Don‘t Know 2.2 - - Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) 4.5.6 Factors Influencing People‘s Fear of Crime within the Metropolis There has been a lot of debate regarding how fear of crime should be measured (Ferraro, 1995; Adu-Mireku, 2002; Hinkle and Weisburd, 2008; UNODC, 2010). According to Ferraro (1995) fear of crime should measure an individual‘s emotional response to crime. Hinkle and Weisburd (2008) argued that, fear of crime can be measured as perceived high risk of being victimized. In this study, fear of crime relates to vulnerability to crime, as this also bothers on how safe an individual feel within his or her environment. In order to be consistent with other studies for instance (Adu-Mireku, 2002; UNODC, 2010), how safe do you feel walking alone in your community at night was used as the dependent variable. An ordered logistic regression was used to model relationship between independent variables and categories of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 predictors in the highest cumulative frequency of the dependent variable category in order to determine the factors that influence fear of crime. The logistic regression is useful when predicting the presence or absence of a characteristic or an outcome based on the values of a set of predictor variables (Cox, 1972; Goodman, 1979; McCullagh, 1980; Pregibon, 1981). The ordered logistic regression unlike other regressions such as multinomial or binary, take into consideration the ordered nature of dependent variable (Cox, 1972). The independent variables are regressed against the highest cumulative frequency in the dependent category to determine the outcome or presence of an outcome. The basic form of a generalized linear model is shown in the following equation: Link (γij) = θj − [ β1xi1 + β2xi2 + ... + βpxiJ ] Where: link( ) is the link function γij is the cumulative probability of the j th category for the ithcase θj is the threshold for the j th category Β is the number of regression coefficients xi1...xip are the values of the predictors for the i th case b1...bp are regression coefficients In this study, explaining the relationship between the independent variable and the highest cumulative category of the dependent variable, that is, the Estimate was used. The estimate is likened to the beta in a linear regression and therefore indicates the direction and strength of the relationship when compared to the reference category, which by default is the last University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 category of a predictor variable (McCullagh, 1980). An estimate with a negative value means that compared to the reference category there is a less chance of occurrence in the highest frequency of the dependent variable, whiles a positive value means the opposite. First, the highest responded outcome of the dependent category across the various neighbourhoods was determined (see Table 4.9). Look at from the city level (50.2%) of the respondents indicated that they feel safe walking alone during the night. Similar patterns are found for Russia (47.7%), Zogbeli (56.5%) and Aboabo (43.7%) where respondents indicated that they feel safe in the night. Next was to determine the independent variables, and then regressed them against the highest cumulative frequency of the dependent variable that is safe. The independent variables that were regressed against the predictor in the highest cumulative frequency of the dependent variable includes age, sex, occupation, level of education, level of income, a question of whether one has being a victim of crime before collective efficacy and social cohesion. Table 4.9: Dependent Variable Variable Tamale (%) Russia (%) Zogbeli (%) Aboabo (%) How safe do you feel walking alone at night in your community? Very Safe 25.2 11.9 27.0 26.3 Safe 50.2 47.7 56.5 43.7 Not Safe 22.3 38.1 14.5 27.5 Don‘t Know 2.2 2.4 2.0 2.4 Source: Household Survey (2014) Table 4.10 presents model fitting information; with regards to the model fitting information all four models, which were based on three neighbourhoods and city were significant. The significant chi-square statistic indicates that the final model gives a significant improvement over the baseline intercept only model. This means that the model gives better predictions rather than just guessing base on the marginal probabilities for the outcome categories. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 Table 4.10: Model fitting information Model -2 Log Likelihood Chi-Square df Sig. Tamale Intercept only 904.707 Final 843.261 61.446 25 0.000 Russia Intercept only 89.318 Final 52.455 36.863 21 0.017 Zogbeli Intercept only 412.347 Final 350.808 61.539 23 0.000 Aboabo Intercept only 386.669 Final 322.349 64.320 23 0.000 Source: Household Survey (2014) Table 4.10 presents the factors that influence peoples of fear of crime in Tamale. With reference to the number of years (duration) stayed in the neighbourhood, estimates for both the city and the neighbourhoods showed an inverse relationship with the highest cumulative frequency of the dependent variable safe. This simply means that as the number of years stayed in community increases, there is a less chance of responding that one is safe when walking alone at night. This result is therefore inconsistent with other studies which show that the length of stay or residential stability is accompanied by more safety and less fear of crime (Sampson and Grooves, 1989). However, only Tamale and Zogbeli showed that this was significant with 0.002<0.05 and 0.001<0.05 respectively. Again with the exception of Russia and Zogbeli, Tamale as a city and Aboabo showed an inverse relationship between age and the likelihood of being safe, with estimates -0.008 and -0.009 respectively. In other words for Tamale and Aboabo as ones age increases there is a less chance of a person being safe. This is consistent with other studies which have indicated that whiles ones age increase personal vulnerability might make them feel unsafe (Pain, 2000). However this also shows University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 that there is a spatial variation in the incident of fear of crime measured by perceived safety with respect to an individual age. The study also complicates the theoretical bases of the gender-fear of crime hypothesis which states that women are likely to feel less safe or fearful compared to men (Mirrless-Black et al., 1998; Pain, 2000). As indicated, the estimate shows an inverse relationship between male respondents and the category ―safe‖ across neighbourhoods and the city. Meaning that when compared to the reference category which are females, males were less likely to respond that they are safe or females felt safe more than males. This may be attributed to (1) less prevalence of crime or (2) the fact that women were sampled more compared to men. However, only Tamale showed a significant relationship. For income, positive relationship was found for all categories of the predictors. However variations exist both in terms of strength and significance. For example when looked at from the neighbourhood level, respondents at Aboabo are more safe with estimates of not less than 19.5, with all being significant. This contradicts claims that poor neighbourhoods have higher fear due to social or criminal events. Another surprise with regards to the study is the experiences with victimization. The results revealed a positive relationship between estimates and being safe, meaning that compared to those who said no (not being a victim of crime) those who said yes are more likely to respond that they were safe. This result therefore needs further interrogation, probably through a qualitative study to examine why they made that assertion. However it could be suggested that probably crimes being experienced might not be of violent in nature or probably those who responded very safe might be those who have not experienced any victimization. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 Table 4.11: Factors Influencing Fear of Crime Predictors Tamale Russia Zogbeli Aboabo Estimate Sig Estimate Sig Estimate Sig Estimate Sig Duration -0.023 0.002 -0.032 0.669 -0.046 0.001 -0.011 0.437 Age -0.008 0.392 0.041 0.459 0.001 0.965 -0.009 0.547 Sex Male -0.487 0.041 -0.921 0.397 -0.331 0.380 -0.562 0.164 Occupation Prof/Tech/Magt. -0.671 0.083 -2.884 0.198 -0.388 0.512 -1.347 0.078 Sales 0.432 0.222 -1.585 0.520 1.113 0.039 0.401 0.518 Skilled manual -0.295 0.458 -0.563 0.861 -0.757 0.254 -0.198 0.755 Unskilled manual -1.084 0.056 NA NA -1.246 0.089 3.653 0.029 Clerical 0.309 0.877 NA NA NA NA 2.486 0.262 Unemployed 0.560 0.191 2.141 0.507 1.492 0.027 0.370 0.603 Agriculture 1.828 0.022 -2.104 0.606 1.479 0.255 2.207 0.089 Pensioner 0.557 0.430 -26.971 NA 1.456 0.228 3.434 0.006 Level of income 1-500 1.264 0.265 5.911 0.012 2.478 0.084 19.865 0.000 501-1000 1.499 0.187 4.857 0.046 2.765 0.059 19.900 0.000 1001-1500 1.715 0.134 3.648 0.137 4.421 0.005 19.671 0.000 1501-2000 2.620 0.033 4.450 0.114 3.916 0.021 NA NA 2001-2500 0.007 0.996 2.089 0.420 NA NA 21.846 NA Education None -0.317 0.541 NA NA -0.060 0.945 1.939 0.047 Primary -0.243 0.672 NA NA -0.959 0.317 2.513 0.028 JHS -0.118 0.824 -0.509 0.806 -1.096 0.235 2.695 0.011 SHS -0.064 0.904 0.681 0.755 -0.437 0.626 2.176 0.047 HND/Diploma -0.093 0.875 0.383 0.705 -0.910 0.359 2.918 0.013 Graduate 0.021 0.971 -0.100 0.957 -1.737 0.083 4.214 0.002 Postgraduate 1.267 0.261 3.454 0.170 1.325 0.576 3.252 0.001 Victimization Yes 0.447 0.028 1.090 0.378 0.169 0.609 1.228 0.000 Social cohesion 0.029 0.471 0.189 0.342 -0.133 0.856 -0.042 0.508 Abs. informal -0.099 0.025 0.197 0.449 -0.331 0.101 -0.223 0.002 Source: Household Survey (2014) Lastly are neighbourhood social organization variables. For social cohesion, there is a spatial variation in its incidence. Whiles Tamale and Russia showed a positive relationship, Zogbeli and Aboabo showed a negative relationship of -0.133 and -0.042 respectively. Meaning that, while social cohesion reduces in Zogbeli and Aboabo, residents feel safe more, which is inconsistent with claims that higher cohesion improves perceived safety. With the exception of Tamale as a city, Zogbeli and Aboabo, Russia indicated that as the absence of informal social control increases people feel safer which is also inconsistent with literature such as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 (Sampson et al, 1997; Choi and Choi, 2012). The question that needs to be asked is: why is there not a link between absence of informal social control and increased cohesion at Zogbeli and Aboabo, this need to be interrogated further. 4.6 Perceptions about Institutional Arrangement for Crime Prevention 4.6.1 Effectiveness of Police in Crime Prevention The perception that most households have with regards to the police has been recognised to be an important factor that drives perceptions of crime and consequently its fear and safety. Such public perceptions about the police in crime prevention have been contingent on the general level of trust and confidence that the general public have with respect to their work. Figure 4.8 present residents assessment of effectiveness of state agencies in crime prevention in Tamale. These state agencies include the work of the judicial service and police. About 46 per cent of respondents think that State agencies are effective in crime prevention, with about 23 percent stating that the state agencies are not effective in crime prevention. Only about 30 per cent stated that their efforts in crime preventions are moderate. A significant number of the respondents 88 per cent have in one way of the other reported crime to the police, 12 per cent of the respondents have never reported crime to the police. The reasons why they do report crime to the police are that they see the police as the law enforcers and also they think that the police can be of help when they need it most. However, the respondents who have never reported crime to the police explained that reporting crime to the police will interfere with their work. Some of the respondents also viewed the work of the police as corrupt and therefore there is no need to report crime to the police. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 Figure 4.8: Effectiveness of State Agencies in Crime Prevention Source: Household Construct (2015) With reference to the 88 per cent of the respondents who have in one way or the other reported crime to the police, 76 percent of those respondent indicated that they were satisfied with the response from the police, leaving 24 per cent of respondents not to be satisfied with the way the police handle the case. Their main reason was that, some police officials demanded money from them and since they refused to oblige to their whims, their cases were oftentimes neglected. This attitude on the part of the police can strongly erode the trust and confidence that people have in the police. In this regard, fearful individuals may reshape their activity pattern in order to avoid becoming a victim as they loss hope and confidence in the police. 4.6.2 Effectiveness of FBOs and Traditional Leaders in Crime Prevention An overwhelming majority of respondents about 87 per cent indicated that FBOs have a role to play in crime prevention. About 3 per cent of the respondents indicated that the FBOs have no role to play in crime prevent. About 10 percent of those respondents have no ideas concerning the functions of FBOs. In fact, the main reasons stated by the majority with regards to the roles been played by FBOs in crime prevention are that the heads of these University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 FBOs preach about crime and teach good morals. However, the remaining 3 per cent who stated that the FBOs have no role to play in crime prevention stated that the leaders of these organisations are criminals and corrupt in actual fact. Therefore, they have no role play in crime prevention. Similarly, about 61 per cent indicated that traditional leaders have a role to play in crime prevention. The respondents indicated that since the traditional leaders are the traditional leaders they are responsible for resolving conflicts, punish crime perpetrators, and also set up rules and regulations that promote law and order. Nevertheless, a minority of the respondents about 15 percent also stated that traditional leaders do not have any role to play in crime prevention. Their reason was that, in recent times traditional leaders have lost their credibility due to the incessant corrupt activities they involve themselves in. This has reduced the level of confidence the respondents in the traditional leaders in crime prevention. 4.7 Summary This chapter presented findings on respondents‘ socio-demographic characteristics, crime trends and pattern, perceived crime prone areas, perceptions of safety, and perceptions of institutional arrangements for crime prevention in Tamale Metropolis. Results from the socio- demographic characteristics indicated that residents living Aboabo (low) and Zogbeli (middle) income neighbourhoods tend to have more structural disadvantage that their counterparts from Russia (high) income neighbourhood. Apart from the low educational status and the income levels, the mass of unskilled labour in both the formal and informal economy are found here were from Aboabo. The respondents indicated that crime in Tamale has increased over the past five years. This was confirmed with the official data that were obtained from the Ghana Police Service. In addition, crime hotspots were identified in Tamale was clustered around Aboabo and Zogbeli. These two areas were identified to be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 marked by high structural disadvantage. Further, the most feared crime in Tamale was stealing and. Males between the ages of 18 and 35 years were identified to be crime offenders in all the three neighbourhoods. With regards to victims of crime they are most male who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years. Moreover, majority of the respondents indicated that they feel safe when they walk alone in the night and day. Also, respondents indicated that State Agencies are effective in crime control. The analysis revealed a spatial variation in the incident of crime and fear whereby areas with structural are perceived to be high in the levels of crime. Fearful and vulnerable will consider reconfiguring their residences and livelihoods or relocating their residences and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 CHAPTER FIVE MAPPING FEAR OF CRIME AND RECONFIGURATION OF LANDUSE PATTERN 5.1 Introduction The purpose of this chapter is to provide evidence to support the fact that when people perceive that they are living in an unsafe and unfriendly environment they tend to relocate or reshape their households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. In addition, the chapter also looks at crime effects on victim‘s activity pattern. Further, the chapter reviews some coping strategies adopted by residents to protect themselves from crime in Tamale Metropolis. 5.2 Relocation base on Fear of Crime It was revealed in Chapter Four of this study that, although crime was increasing residents felt safe either walking in the day or the night irrespective of whether they have been a victim of crime or not. It was assumed that at the time of the survey crime was low or the crime(s) that were experienced by resident were not all that violent in nature. This notwithstanding, in order to assess the true picture on the ground with regards to how fear of crime influence peoples location decision making, operators of some facilities who have ever been a victim of crime were selected based purposive sampling technique and thereafter interviewed. This was necessary because evidences were needed to support the fact that, fear of crime influence some residents to reshape or relocate their households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment; and that it is not only the prevailing rental patterns, distance, spatial networks, planning or land use regulations which have mostly been claimed by some scholars (Burgess, 1925; Shaw and Mckay, 1942) to be the main reason that influence some people to relocate. A case in point are experiences from a radio station, retail shop, and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 school which have all relocated not because of economic reasons but because of fear of crime and the need for safety both for their lives and properties. 5.2.1 Radio Station Northern Star Radio is one of the leading radio stations in the northern region established in 2007. It is owned by a leading member of a political party in Ghana. Although, the radio station has helped farmers by giving them information on best farming practices and pregnant women on health education, they had to relocate to a new location as a result of instability at the old location. Consider the case of Northern Star FM: Box 5.1: Northern Star FM Radio Station was established in 2007 by the former vice president of Ghana. The aim of the radio station was to disseminate information to farmers on best farming practices and pregnant women on health programs. Formerly, the radio station was located at Kamina (see Figure 5.1) but has now been moved to NIM AVENUE Russian Bungalow (see Figure 5.2) because of instability at the old location. Since the old location was mostly dominated by groups from the other political party and the radio station was owned by a leading member of the opposition party it was always under attack. The reason accounting for the attack from the other was that they think most of the programs we put on air go against them and also members from their political party are not called upon to make contributions. However, after relocating to the present location which is owned by the owner of the radio station programmes which touches on sensitive issues such as political, chieftaincy and religious matters have been eliminated. Because of this major improvement people now come to the radio station to conduct their businesses, hence contributing to the growth of the radio station. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 Figure 5.1: Old Location of Northern Star FM Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2015) Figure 5.2: New Location of Northern Star FM Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2015) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 86 This case study have shown that the constant attacks from party faithful‘s influenced owners of the radio station to relocate their facility to more perceived safe and friendly environment. It can therefore be said that the owners relocated not because of economic reasons which have mostly been cited by urban planners to be the factors influencing people‘s location decision, but here perception of safety arising from instability however influenced them to relocate. 5.2.2 Retail Shop Another case in point is an operator of a retail shop who has to relocate his households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment after he has been a victim of crime on several occasions. Box 5.2 Enterprise A Enterprise A was established in 1991 with kerosene, but has now been expanded include cement, iron rods, woods and other merchandise. Enterprise A have now relocated his household and livelihoods to another area because of crimes in the old location (see Figure 5.3 and Figure 5.4). Enterprise A have been attacked on several occasions at time have all his warehouse burned down to ashes. What was his crime that he should be faced with this violence? The owner of Enterprise A is owned by a former constituency chairman of a leading political party and in addition he was also from a rival clan who found himself living in the midst dominated by the other group. Since he was from the other divide he was viewed as a threat hence the attack on his household and livelihoods. These attacks led to the loss of properties such as five hundred bags of cement, timber materials and other merchandise, and worse the death of three people. Therefore, in order to prevent future attacks and to ensure the safety of household members and customers the owner relocated all households and livelihood to a different area. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 Figure 5.3: Old Location of Enterprise A Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2015) Figure 5.4: New Location of Enterprise A Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2015) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 88 Another case in point similar to that of Enterprise A is the owner of Enterprise B who also relocated all household and livelihoods to a perceived safer and friendly environment. Consider the case of Enterprise B: Box 5.3: Enterprise B Enterprise B was established in 1991. Enterprise B specialises in the production of rubber bags and supplies them to the different markets in Tamale. With an initial capital of 500 Ghana Cedis the total asset of the business has now been expanded to 3,000 Ghana Cedis. However, Enterprise B has to relocate to a new location after been a victim of crime in the old location on several occasions although business was booming in the old location. Since he was from the other clan and resided in an area dominated by the other clan he was considered as a threat. Therefore, seldom do residents come to his rescue if he was under attack. Through this most of his production materials were either burnt down or stolen in the full glare of residents with no one saying anything. Therefore, in order to protect his household and livelihoods he has to relocate to a different neighbourhood in which he perceived to be safer and friendly. These two case studies have shown that the owners of these shops relocated to perceived safer environment not because of economic reasons but because of crime and consequently its fear. They perceive their old location to be weak in social control and collective efficacy, and also one which is marked by structural characteristics of social disorganisation which produces fear. This illustrates Sampson et al. (1997) argument that there are high crimes in communities which lack both formal and informal social control which have an effect on people‘s perception of safety. 5.2.3 School School A was established with the intension of helping children in their community. However, the school was believed to be located in a crime prone area. Most parents were therefore not willing to send their children to the school for fear that their children will become victims of crime(s) either on their way to school or on their way from school. This had a dire consequence on the school as they recorded low number of school children in the school. Consider the case of School A: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 89 Box 5.4: School A When this school was established there were only five pupils and one teacher. However, upon assessing the reasons why there was less pupils in the school it was revealed that parents fear to enrol their children because they consider the area in which the school is located to be high in crime. The owners bear witnesses to the fact that there were always stories about fighting stealing, the use of hard drugs, burglary and other crimes in the area. Nevertheless, after relocating to their present location there have been tremendous expansion in both enrolment and the facilities in the school. In fact, this year they will be registering their first form 3 students to take part in GES Basic Education Certificate Examination (BECE).s all been made possible after relocating to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Since School A was formerly located in an area perceived by residents to be high in crime, most residents were therefore reluctant to send their children to School A for fear that their children may be victims of crime. However, after the school authorities have relocated the school to a perceived safer environment parents started to enrol their children in the school. This means that most residents first assess the safety within a neighbourhood before they send their children to any school located in that neighbourhood. Figure 5.5: New Location of School A Source: Author‘s Fieldwork (2016) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 5.3 Effects of Crime on Victims Despite relocating to a more perceived safer environment after being a victim, there are other effects including emotional, psychological, mental, physical and financial which even after relocating still affect the victims. Figure 5.6 presents data on emotional effects of crime on respondents who have ever been a victim of crime. From the figure, majority of the respondents (43.4%) who are victims of crime indicated that they are always angry when they remember the crime incident. Some respondents (22.1%) also indicated that the crime incident has now made them to be distrustful of other residents. In addition, some of the respondents have become security conscious as a result of the crime incident. The emotional effects of crime increase an individual‘s fear thereby causing him or her to relocate to perceived safer environment. This finding is not surprising as it also confirms the reasons why the owners of the radio station, retail shops and school have to relocate to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Figure 5.6: Emotional Effect Source: Household Survey (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 91 Figure 5.7 present data on the psychological effects of crime on victims. From the figure, 28 percent of the respondent said crime has made them suspicious of the activities of other people other people; 20.8 per said it has made them more protective of their property, and 19 percent also said they fear that they will be attacked again. Other effects were also stated and this includes sleepless nights, fear to go out, and the consciousness about their ones environment. Figure 5.7: Psychological Effect Source: Household Survey (2014) Figure 5.8 presents data on the mental effects of crime on victims. From the figure 39.1 percent of the respondents indicated that they fear that the same crime will be repeated on them, 32.6 per cent of the respondents indicated that the crime incident has left them thinking all the time. Other mental effects of crime included the fear that anyone can die again. These mental effects can cause residents to reconfigure their activity pattern to more perceived safer and friendly environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 92 Figure 5.8: Mental Effect Source: Household Survey (2014) Figure 5.9 presents data on the physical effects of crime on crime victims. From the figure 73.1 per cent lost their properties as a result of crime, 15.4 per cent indicated that it has left wounds on them and 3.8 per cent indicated that it has left a mark on their property. The respondents explained that these crime effects always remind them any time they see the indelible marks on their properties. Hence, most residents relocate in order to prevent any further physical damage to their properties that are likely to remind them of the crime incident. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 Figure 5.9: Physical Effect Source: Household Survey (2014) Figure 5.10 presents data on financial effects of crime on victims. From the figure 43.4 percent of the respondents indicated that they had to spend money on something else in order to make up for the losses been brought about by the crime. Also, 42.6 percent indicated that they have also lost their investments as a result of the crime incident. Other respondents about 4.7 percent have to spend huge sums of money on their health with others also losing their jobs. This also have the potential to influence people to relocate to perceived safer and friendly environment where they will spend less money on the losses brought by crime. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 Figure 5.10: Financial Effect Source: Household Survey (2014) 5.3 Coping Strategies Adopted by Households In order to prevent crime and its effects, most residents have applied some safety measures to their households and their livelihoods. Even after relocating to perceived safer and friendly environment they do not underestimate their safety as they adopt stringent protective measures to protect themselves against crime. Table 5.12 presents data on measures adopted by respondents to protect themselves against crime. The most common crime preventive measures adopted by households in Tamale includes security doors and locks (36.3%), reliance on community solidarity (17.6%), reliance on prayers (14.0%), and the use of special doors and window grilles (12.6%). Other crime preventive measures includes the use of dogs (3.2%), building high fence wall (1.1%), electronic fencing (0.9%), employing the services of a caretaker or security guard (0.9%), the use of barbed wires around their fence wall (0.2%), CCTV (0.2%). This finding illustrates Jeffrey‘s (1971) argument that through environment engineering crime can be reduced. He deduced that the best way to reduce crime was to initiate direct control over environmental conditions prior to the commission of an offense. It is believed that by adopting any of the measures suggested by Jeffrey (1971) namely access University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 95 control, surveillance and territorial reinforcement resident‘s safety will be assured and fear of crime reduced. This has been confirmed by the qualitative interviews that were conducted in the Metropolis. Examples of crime preventive measures cited by the key informants included the use of locks, security personnel, relying on strong community solidarity, the use of closed circuit television (CCTV) and relying on prayers when the need arise to initiate such action. However, in instances whereby the crime preventive measures do not bring out the desired changes in the behaviours of offenders then such preventive measures may appear to be a failure. Table 5.1: Crime Preventive Measures Measures Tamale (%) Security doors and locks 36.3 Community solidarity 17.6 Prayer and other religious options 14.0 Special window and grilles 12.6 Nothing 10.8 Use of dogs 3.2 Installed burglar alarm 1.1 High fence/wall 1.1 Other 1.1 Electronic fencing 0.9 Caretaker or security guard 0.9 Barbed wires or bottles 0.2 Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 0.2 Total 100.0 Source: Household Survey (2014) 5.5 Summary This chapter has provided evidence to support the fact that people tend to relocate their livelihoods and households to more perceived safer and friendly environment. In retrospect unlike extant studies which have explained people‘s location decision to be the result of economic factors i.e. the need for more profit and economies of scale, this study have identified fear of crime to be one of the potential factors which impact on an individual activity pattern within the urban space. In addition, when the effects brought about by crime University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 96 are beyond the control of the individual they tend to reconfigure or reshape their activity pattern within the urban space to a more perceived safer environment. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 97 CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION 6.1 Introduction This is the final chapter of the study. The chapter presents the summary, recommendations and areas for further research. 6.2 Summary The main purpose of this study was to provide evidence to support the fact that fear of crime influence people to reconfigure their livelihoods to perceived safer and friendly environments. This study was important because most urban land use theories and crime theories have focused less attention on how crime and consequently its fear can impact on people‘s location decision making. It is assumed that at the time when scholars and researchers were explaining the factors that influence people‘s location decision making fear of crime as a potential factor was not too significant. This notwithstanding, from the beginning of 1960 empirical studies deduced that, indeed fear of crime has a serious consequences on human behaviour pattern. Most of the studies that were conducted in this field focused on large cities in the developed world to the neglect of cities in the developing world. Even the relatively fewer studies that were conducted in this field in the developing world focused on large cities to the neglect of small and medium size cities and towns. In an attempt to fill this gap the study focuses attention on Tamale, a medium size city which is growing very fast. The questions that were raised in this study are as follows; where are the perceived crime hotspots in the community? What is people‘s perception about the general safety of the community? What are people‘s levels of confidence of the institutional arrangement for crime prevention? And how do people respond to/address their fear of crime? In order to address these questions, the study covered 450 households in Aboabo, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 98 Zogbeli, and Russia Bungalow, and 23 interviews were conducted with operators of retail shops, schools, and hotels. The findings of the study was made up of socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, crime trends and patterns, perceived crime prone areas, perceptions about safety and assessment of criminal justice system. With reference to the socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents, it was noted that majority (54%) of the respondents were male and (46%) were female. An explanation for this was that more male than female were sampled or more female than male move out of the metropolis. It was also indicated that majority of the respondents were between the ages of 25 and 59 years old both in Tamale as a city and the three neighbourhoods. Further, it was also revealed that most of the respondents from Aboabo and Zogbeli were involved in sales and services compared to the respondents from Russia Bungalow who were most likely to be involved in professional activities. It was also noted that majority of the respondents from Russia Bungalow have higher education compared to respondents from Zogbeli and Aboabo. This finding is not surprising because in Ghana individuals with higher education and higher income levels tend to live in higher income neighbourhoods. In addition, about 68% of the respondents are married. This finding confirms the national statistics that majority of residents in Tamale are married. A study conducted by Sampson et al (1997) noted that neighbourhoods with high levels of divorce and separation have lower levels of formal and informal social control which has the potential to impact on the level of crime. Considering this argument by Sampson et al (1997), can it therefore be argued that since more people in Tamale are married there will be more formal and informal control which can guard against crime and deviant behaviour? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 99 6.2.1 Perceived Crime Prone Areas Crime data that were obtained from the police revealed that robbery, murder, defilement and rape were all increasing at an alarming rate. It was also noted that most people now report crime to the police. The reason been that they now have confidence in the work of the police, hence accounting for increase in crime reported cases. It was also noted that the increase in the level of crime have the potential to influence people to relocate to more perceive safer and friendly environment (see Figure 2.2 in Chapter 2 of this study). In fact, this has been noted by Skogan (1986) and Landman (2012) that there are some individuals who respond to crime by reconfiguring their activity pattern to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Similarly, when respondents were asked to indicate the level of crime within the past five years, virtually all respondents from the three neighbourhoods indicated that the level of crime has increased over the past five years. However, it was only in Aboabo, a low-income neighbourhood were a significant number of the respondent (89%) indicated that crime has increased over the past five years. This finding illustrate other research findings (McGahey, 1986; Sampson et al. 1997; Lee et al, 2003) that crime are higher in low-income neighbourhoods which are faced with problems of social disorganisation which includes teenage pregnancy, school dropout, prostitutions. This social disorganisation in the neighbourhood can generate fear among the residents and this can in turn potentiate to influence some of the residents to relocate to more perceived safer and friendly environment as demonstrated in Figure 2.2 in Chapter Two of this study All the crime prone areas that were indicated by the key informants tend to be clustered around Aboabo (low-income neighbourhood) and Zogbeli (high-income neighbourhood). These neighbourhoods are marked by high levels of social disorganisation as indicated by the key informants. This is however consistent with other research finding (McGahey, 1986; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 100 Sampson et al. 1997; Lee et al, 2003) indicating that neighbourhoods with the highest level of crime also have the highest rates of poverty. This however has the potential to contribute to feelings of fear among residents if there has not been any effort to reduce crime in Aboabo and Zogbeli. All things been equal, the most fearful individuals are more likely to relocate to more perceived safer and friendly environment if no effort is put in place to control the problem with serious implications on employment, investment as depicted in Figure 2.2 in Chapter Two of this study. 6.2.2 Perception of Safety within the Metropolis A significant number of respondents in Tamale cited stealing to be the most feared crime. Other crimes that were cited by the respondents included robbery, burglary, drug addiction, prostitution, rape, assault, fraud and murder. However, with the exception of Aboabo, respondents from Russian Bungalow and Zogbeli indicated stealing as the most feared crime in their neighbourhoods. In Aboabo respondents indicated stealing, assault and murder as the most feared crime. One researcher, Warr (2000) noted that the most feared crime which are often cited by some residents of a neighbourhood is a multiplicative factor of the seriousness of the crime, its reoccurrence, it likelihood and impact on the victim. Hence, it is not surprising that those respondents from Russian Bungalow and Zogbeli cited stealing, whiles those from Aboabo cited stealing, murder, and assault as the most feared crimes because these are the crimes that occurs frequently. This can in turn have serious implication on an individual activity pattern, with the most fearful relocating to more perceived safer and friendly environment. In addition, the main reason why some people choose to commit crime in Tamale is as a result of need/financial stress (poverty). In fact, 53 per cent of the respondents in Tamale indicated that poverty is the main cause of crime. Complementing the quantitative data with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 101 the interviews that were conducted with key informants in Tamale explained that poverty is closely tied to other social problems namely inadequate parental control, neglect of children, teenage pregnancies, drug abuse to mention but a few of the social problems. They explained that these problems can serve as an aversive stimulus that influences some residents to commit crime(s). According to Cohen and Felson (1979) and Lee et al (2003), poor individuals who live in disorganised neighbourhoods are more likely to commit or to be used by powerful individuals or groups to commit crime(s). This is because of the absence of social cohesion which hitherto binds residents together and also provided support for families and individuals who are in need. With reference to those who commit crime in Tamale, it was revealed that the perpetrators are mostly young male adults who are between the ages of 18 and 35 years old. The perpetrators of crimes are mostly people who live outside the neighbourhood. Most perpetrators fear to commit crime(s) in their neighbourhoods because of the fear of stigmatisation if apprehended. According to some interviews conducted with some key informants most of these perpetrators are from socially disorganised neighbourhoods which have higher levels of unemployment, breakdown of parental control, and absence formal and informal social control. With reference to crime victims, about 60 percent of the respondent indicated that the victims are mostly community members, whiles 34% indicated that they are both community members and outsiders. Also, majority of the respondents indicated that crime victims are young male adults between the ages of 18 and 35 years old. The finding is however not consistent with other findings which have continuously stated that women and the aged are mostly victims of crime due to their personal vulnerability (Pain, 2000). This however needs University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 102 further interrogation probably through a qualitative interview in order to find out why men are mostly victims of crime in Tamale. 6.2.3 Institutional Arrangement for Crime Prevention The respondents indicated that the State Agencies are effective in crime prevention. With reference to the police a significant number of the respondent report crime to the police. They consider the police to be law enforcers and also they think the police are there to help them hence they report all crime cases to the police. However, those respondents who refuse to report crime cases to the police consider them not to be effective and also consider them to be corrupt. This is likely to reduce the confidence and trust that some individuals have in the police service. If this happens it can generate fear among some of the residents and this can in turn make them to reshape their activity pattern within the urban space. In addition, a significant number of the respondents indicated that they were satisfied when they reported their crime cases to the police. They claimed that the police acted promptly after they reported the crime incident. However, there were some respondents who were not satisfied when they reported their crime cases to the police. These group of residents argued that some police personnel demanded money from them they proceed to act on the case; other respondents indicated that it is a waste of time to report crime cases to the police. For this reasons they refuse to report any crime incidence to the police. This has serious implication the trust and confidence that some of the respondents have in the police. Indeed, fearful individuals living in the neighbourhood may reshape their activity pattern because most of them will fear that when they become victims of crime there will be little that the police can do to help them. Further, with reference to the faith based organisations (FBOs) and traditional leaders in crime prevention, most of the respondents indicated that they have a role to play in crime University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 103 prevention in their communities. Their reason was that the spiritual heads of these FBOs teach about effects of crime and they also preach about good moral behaviours. In addition, they believed that the traditional leaders also give advice to the residents on how to reduce crime. In spite of this, some of the respondents indicated that some of the leaders of FBOs and traditional institutions are corrupt. They believed that some of the leaders exploit vulnerable residents to commit crime for their parochial interest. This is likely to reduce the confidence and trust that some residents have in these FBOs and traditional leaders and therefore it has the potential to cause resident to re-configure their livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. 6.2.4 Responding to Fear of Crime Majority of the respondents indicated that they feel very safe and safe in their community. The pattern was similar across all the three neighbourhoods. It was suggested that respondents feel safe and very safe because the crime that they have experienced or others have experienced were not violent in nature or the presence of security personnel both formal and informal has make most of the residents to feel safe. Nevertheless, the question that arose from this was that how can this after how some residents re-configure their households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment if they feel very safe? One will appreciate the true situation if they assess the crime situation say about five ten years ago. Hence in order to understand how fear of crime influences people‘s activity patterns some facilities were selected using purposive sampling technique to understand how fear of crime has influenced them to reshape their households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. Some crime preventive measures which are commonly adopted by residents to protect them against crime included the use of security doors and locks, special doors and window grilles, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 104 high fence and electronic fencing, the use of security guard, rely on community solidarity and prayers. Beside these crime preventive measures some residents relocate their households and livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment. The evidences from this study have shown that the best option adopted by some facilities is to relocate their livelihoods to more perceived safer and friendly environment, most especially when the effects of crime on their activities are beyond reasonable control as shown in Figure 2.2 in Chapter Two of this Study. 6.3 Recommendations and Areas for Further Studies Since crime has been considered as a subjective and dynamic phenomenon, proposed strategies for reducing crime and fear of crime may vary from place to place depending on the socio-demographic characteristics of the neighbourhood, perception about crime prone areas, perception about safety, and perceptions of institutional arrangement for crime prevention. As a matter of fact, the results of this research indicate that there is a spatial variation in how crime is distributed in the three neighbourhoods, and hence resources that will be provided thereafter to deal with the problem of crime must concentrate on areas that need more attention. While specific recommendations can be suggested for policy consideration, those policies must be developed in partnership with local communities so as to accurately reflect their level of concern and experiences. First, improved strategies and initiatives proposed to reduce crime should focus on neighbourhoods where the levels of crime are high and also where crime significantly reduce or greatly reduce the quality of life. In determining and paying close attention to perceived hotspots, the authorities should ensure that those adequate resources aimed at reducing crime are directed towards residents and neighbourhoods. The identification of perceived crime prone areas by the key informants in Tamale and the crime mapping technique employed in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 105 this research can be used to reduce crime and other security issues. It is also suggested that since this study gave little attention to the other factors that influence crime in the neighbourhoods, it is suggested that future studies should include a detailed analysis of the demographic profile of resident of the area, the type of crime, and the local perceptions of crime and police. Second, based on the research results, a strategy for reducing fear must also aim at reducing victimisation, providing support for vulnerable groups and also address local perceptions of crime and policing. Individuals with adequate information about crime prevention measures and information about crime hot spots in the neighbourhood can assist residents in reducing the risk of victimisation by empowering resident to change their activity to safer environments. In addition specific intervention should also be targeted on those neighbourhoods experiencing social disorganisation, that is, if the fear of crime is to be reduced. Voluntary groups should also assist in reducing fear of crime by informally engaging with individuals to reduce feelings of vulnerability and isolation. Moreover, perceptions of institutional arrangement for crime prevention are however not clear whether the perceptions held by the residents can impact on the fear. However, it is possible that the perceptions that those residents have can lead to crime and fear of crime, as dissatisfaction with the performance, confidence and trust they have in them in crime prevention may lead to fear among residents. However, in neighbourhoods where the levels of confidence and trust in the authorities have been reduced could enhance peoples fear and safety. Nevertheless, where feelings of satisfaction are not high community policing and joint policing committees could play an important role in enhancing and further strengthening feelings of safety. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 106 Moreover, the media can also be used to educate people on safety and security issues. Using the media to explain the problems of criminal activities, individuals will be encouraged to engage in safety and precautionary measures but may also inflate fear of crime levels if they do not accurately portray the true prevalence of these activities. Further, the results of this analysis also indicate that there are a number of areas worthy of further investigation to widen our understanding of fear of crime and its impacts on mobility pattern. For instance, further research probably through a qualitative study to examine why more men do not feel safe to walk in the night compared to women. It is proposed that future research should explore how different kinds of crime may evoke fear among different groups and neighbourhoods. 6.4 General Conclusion In conclusion, this research provided evidences to support the basic fact when some residents are more at risk of experiencing crime and fear of crime they tend to relocate their households and livelihoods to a more perceived safer and friendly environment. Nevertheless, by being able to identify neighbourhoods which are at risk of experiencing crime and a reduced quality of life than others, a broader and an integrated approach can target vulnerable neighbourhoods to ensure territorial cohesion and to lessen the impact of fear of crime. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 107 REFERENCES Adu-Mireku, S. (2002). 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Vold, G., Bernard. T., and Snipes, J. (2002). Theoretical Criminology (5th ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. Walklate, S. and Mythen, G. (2008) ‗How Scared Are We? British Journal of Criminology, 48(2), pp. 209-25. Warr, M. (1984). Fear of Victimization: Why are Women and the Elderly More Afraid? Social Science Quarterly, 65, pp. 681-702. Warr, M. (2000). Fear of crime in the United States: Avenues for research and policy. In D. Duffee (ed.), Measurement and analysis of crime and justice, 4, pp. 452-489. Washington, DC: National Institute of Justice. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 122 Wilson, J. Q., and Kelling, G. (1982). Broken Windows: The Police and Neighbourhood Safety. In A. Blumberg and E. Niederhoffer (eds), The Ambivalent Force. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Wilson, W. (1980). The Declining significance of Race. Chicago: Universsity of Chicago Press. Wilson, W. (1987). The Truly Disadvantaged (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Wyant, B. R. (2008). Multilevel impacts of perceived incivilities and perceptions of crime risk on fear of crime: Isolating endogenous impacts. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 45(1), pp. 39-64. Yin, P. P. (1980). Fear of Crime among the Elderly: Some Issues and Suggestions. Social Problems, 27, pp. 492-504. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 123 Appendix A Interviewer ID: Time started: Supervisor ID: Time ended: EXPLORING CRIME AND POVERTY NEXUS IN URBAN NEIGHBOURHOODS IN GHANA SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE Introduction This Interview is aimed at exploring the subject of crime and poverty relationships in major cities in Ghana, namely Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tamale. The research is being undertaken by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, Legon. All information provided will be treated as strictly confidential and will be used only for purposes of this research. There will be no penalty for people who decide not to be a part of it. If you begin it, you are also allowed to quit from being a part of it without being penalized. However, we will very much appreciate it if you would be part of this study. It will only take us about 30-40 minutes to complete this interview. Do you have any questions for me before we begin this interview? Section A: DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION 1. City: ………………………………… Neighbourhood: ……………………………….. How long have you stayed in your neighbourhood: ……………………………………….… 2. Age (as of your last birthday): ......................................... years 3. Sex: 1. Male  2. Female  4. Household size: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 124 5. Occupation: 1.Professional/technical/managerial  6.Unemployed  2.Sales/services  7.Agriculture  3.Skilled manual  8.Pensioner  4.Unskilled manual  9. Other (Please specify)  5.Clerical  ……………………………………………………. 6. Marital status: 1.Single (never married)  4.Divorced  2.Consensual/cohabitation  5.Separated  3.Married  6.Widowed  7. Ethnicity: 1.Asante  7. Ahanta  13. Frafra/Gruni  2.Fanti  8. Ga/Dangme  14. Kassen  3.Akuapem  9. Ewe  15. Dagomba/Dagbani  4.Sefwi  10. Guan  16. Wali/Dagaari  5.Brong  11. Buli  17. Sissala  6. Nzema  12. Mamprusi  18. Other (Please specify):  ………………………………………. 8. Religion: 1.Christian  3.Traditional  2.Moslem  4. Other (please specify)…………………………  9. What is your average monthly household income (in Ghana cedis - GH¢)? 1. 1 – 500  4. 1,501 – 2,000  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 125 2. 501-1,000  5. 2,001 – 2,500  3. 1,001 – 1,500  6. Above 2,500  10. What is your highest level of education completed? 1.None (No formal education)  5.HND/Diploma  2.Primary  6.Graduate (Tertiary)  3.JSS/JHS/Middle School  7.Postgraduate  4.SSS/SHS/Vocational/Technical  8. Other (Please specify): ……………...……  Section B: HOUSING CHARACTERISTICS 11. Type of housing: 1.Separate housing  5.Kiosk/container/improvised home  2.Semi-detached housing  6.Uncompleted building  3.Flat/apartment  7. Other (Please specify)………………..  4.Room(s) [compound housing]  12. How many room(s) does this household occupy? (Count living rooms, dining rooms, and bedrooms but not bathrooms, toilet and kitchen and store room) Number……………………………………………….. 13. Do other households share this dwelling with you? 1.Yes  2.No  14. What is your present occupancy status? 1.Owner-occupier  4.Perching  2.Renting  5. Other (Please specify)………..............  3.Rent free  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 126 15. Are you connected to the national electricity grid? 1.Yes  2.No  16. What is the main source of lighting for your household after sunset? 1.Electricity (mains)  5. Generator  2. Kerosene  6. Candles/torches (flashlights)  3. Gas lamp  7. No light (skip to Q 18)  4. Solar energy  8. Other (Please specify): ……………………………………………….  17. How regular is your main power supply after sunset? 1. Regular  3. Cut more than twice a week  2. Cut once or twice in a week  4. Other (Please specify)………………..  18. Do you have street lights in your community? 1. Yes  2. No (Skip to Q. 20)  19. If yes, are you satisfied with the street lights in your community? 1. Yes  2. No 20. What is the main source of energy used by the household for cooking? 1. None, no cooking  6. Animal waste  2. Wood  7. Crop residue/saw dust  3. Charcoal  8. Gas/LPG  4. Electricity  9. Other (Please specify)  5. Kerosene  ……………………………………………. 21. Main type of toilet facility used by the household 1. In-house flush toilet/WC (Skip to Q.24)  5. Public toilet (flush bucket/KVIP/WC)  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 127 2. In-house pit latrine (Skip to Q.24)  6. Toilet in another house  3. In-house KVIP (Skip to Q.24)  7. No toilet facility (bush/beach) (Skip to Q.23)  4. In-house pan latrine (Skip to Q.24)  8. Other (Please specify)  ……………………………………………… 22. If you do not have in-house toilet facility; what is the average time spent travelling to the nearest toilet facility? ……………………………………………….. 23. If you do not have in-house toilet facility; what is the average time spent waiting at nearest toilet facility? ……………………………………………….. 24. What is the main source of water supply for this household? 1. Drinking |____| (See codes below) 2. General use |____| (See codes below) Codes for Q. 22 (a) Codes for Q. 22 (b) Indoor plumbing………………………………………… 01 Indoor plumbing………………………………………… 01 Inside standpipe…………………………………………. 02 Inside standpipe…………………………………………. 02 Water truck/tanker service………………………….. 03 Water truck/tanker service…………………….. 03 Water vendoring ………………………………………... 04 Water vendoring ………………………………………... 04 Pipe in neighbouring household………………………… 05 Pipe in neighbouring household………………………… 05 Private outside standpipe/tap……………………………. 06 Private outside standpipe/tap……………………………. 06 Satchet/bottled water……………………………………. 07 Satchet/bottled water……………………………………. 07 Public standpipe………………………………………… 08 Public standpipe………………………………………… 08 Borehole………………………………………………… 09 Borehole………………………………………………… 09 Protected well…………………………………………… 10 Protected well…………………………………………… 10 Unprotected well……………………………………….. 11 Unprotected well……………………………………….. 11 River/stream……………………………………………. 12 River/stream……………………………………………. 12 Rain water/spring………………………………………. 13 Rain water/spring………………………………………. 13 Dugout/pond/lake/dam…………………………………. 14 Dugout/pond/lake/dam…………………………………. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 128 Other (specify): 15 Other (specify): 15 25. On the average, what is the maximum time you spend to access water for your household in a day? 1. For Drinking …………………………. 3. For General use …………………………….. 2. Not applicable  4. Not applicable  26. How does your household dispose off refuse? 1. Collected  4. Burned by household  2. Public dump  5. Buried by household  3. Dumped elsewhere  6. Other (Please specify)  …………………………….... 27. What is the main construction material used for the outer wall of your building? 1. Mud/Earth  6. Burned bricks  2. Wood/bamboo  7. Landcrete  3. Metal sheet/slate/asbestos  8. Thatch  4. Stone  9. Cardboard  5. Cement/sandcrete blocks  10. Other (Please specify)  ……………………………….. 28. What is the main construction material used for the floor of your building? 1. Mud/Earth  5. Wood  2. Stone  6. Cement/concrete  3. Burnt bricks  7. Terrazzo  4. Ceramic/marble/tiles/vinyl tiles  8. Other (Please specify)  ……………………………………………. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 129 29. What is the main construction material used for the roof of your building? 1. Palm leaves/raffia/thatch  6. Cement/concrete  2. Wood  7. Asbestos/slate  3. Corrugated iron sheet  8. Roofing tiles  4. Mud /earth  9. Other (Please specify)  5. Bamboo  ……………………………………… 30. Indicate which of the following assets are available to your household: No. Item Quantity Ownership Male Female Joint 1. Room furniture set 2. Sewing machine 3. Stove 4. Refrigerator/fridge 5. Air conditioner 6. Fan 7. Radio 8. Desktop computer/laptop/iPad 9. Video player 10. Camera 11. Bicycle 12. Motorcycle 13. Mobile phone 14. Telephone fixed line 15. Television (TV) 16. Blenders 17. Washing machine 18. Private car University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 130 19. Commercial car 20. House 21. Land (Residential plots) 22. Land (Farm/agric. Land) 23. Livestock/birds 24. Microwave 25. Financial savings (formal) 26. Financial savings (informal) 27. Insurance (excluding health) 28. Health insurance Section C: SOCIAL NETWORK AND COMMUNITY COHESION 31. What kind of cooperation and support do you mainly exhibit in this community against crime? 1. Strong community bonding (SCB)  3. Both (SCB and Individualism)  2. Individualism/weak community bonding (Skip to Q. 33)  4. Nothing (Skip to Q. 33)  32. If strong community bonding exists, what is the main basis for this SCB? 1. Ethnic association  4. CBOs/CSOs  2. Religious bonding  5. Other (Please specify):  3. Trade associations  ………………………………………. 33. How would you rank (in order of severity) the statements about your community? (Rank in the order of severity: 1 as strongly agree and 5 as don’t know).Read out statements to respondent No. Statements 1 Strongly agree 2 Agree 3 Disagree 4 Strongly disagree 5 Don’t know i. Community University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 131 1. People in this community are willing to help their neighbours 2. This is a close-knit neighbourhood 3. People in this community can be trusted 4. People in this community generally do not get along with each other 5. People in this neighbourhood do not share the same values ii. Youth (18-35 years) 1. Common to find youth idling about in your community 2. Common to find youth fighting in this community 3. Youth in this community show disrespect to adults 4. Common to find the youth of this community breaking into people‘s homes to steal 34. Do you have regular community meeting(s)? 1. Yes  2. No (Skip to Q.37)  3. Don‘t know  35. If yes, are crime/security issues discussed at this meeting? 1. Yes  2. No (Skip to Q.37)  3. Don‘t know  36. If yes, how often did you attend these resident meetings held in the past 12 months in your community? 1. Every month  3. Every six month  2. Every three month  4. Every twelve month  37. How often do you do the following: No. Statements 1 Once a day 2 About once a 3 About once a month 4 Several times a year 5 About once a year 6 Never University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 132 week 1. Borrowing or exchanging things with neighbours such as food, tools, and other. 2. Asking someone from the neighbourhood over to your house or go to their house for a meal, to play cards, watch TV, or talk, etc. 3. Asking your neighbour for help, (like moving stuff, or taking care of a child, etc.) 4. Going out for an evening with someone from the neighbourhood (to movie, sports events, for a drink, or others) 5. Talking to someone in the neighbourhood about shopping, programs for kids etc. 38. Is disruption around (i.e. youth hanging around, making noise, vandalizing and starting fights) or truancy (kids not being in school when they should be) a problem in the neighbourhood? 1. Not a problem  3. A big problem  2. Somehow a problem  4. Don‘t know  39. On the whole, what is your likeness of this neighbourhood as a place to live? 1. Like it a lot  3. Dislike it  2. Like it  4. Dislike it a lot  Section D: ASSESSMENT OF CRIME IN THE RESEARCH LOCALITY University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 133 40. In general, how will you rate the level of crime in your community? 1. Very high  3. Moderate  5. Very low  2. High  4. Low  41. What is the most feared crime in your community? 42. How would you rank (in the order of severity), the following crimes in your community? (Rank in the order of severity: 1 as very high and 6 as don’t know). No Type of crime 1 Very high 2 High 3 Moderate 4 Low 5 Very Low 6 Don’t Know i. Crime against household 1. Theft of car/car hijacking 2. Theft from car 3. Car vandalism/theft of car parts 4. Theft of motorcycle 5. Theft of bicycle 6. Theft of livestock 7. Burglary with entry 8. Attempted burglary 9. Kidnapping 10. Other (Please specify) ……………………………………. No Type of crime 1 Very high 2 High 3 Moderate 4 Low 5 Very Low 6 Don’t Know ii. Crimes against the individual 1. Drugs (peddling/addiction) 2. Robbery 3. Personal theft University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 134 4. Rape 5. Defilement 6. Incest 7. Prostitution 8. Assault/threat 9. Consumer fraud 10. Corruption 11. Other (Please specify) …………………………………. 43. In your opinion, who are the most common perpetrators of crime(s) in your community? 1. Community members  3. Both (Community members and Outsiders)  2. People who live outside this community  4. Don‘t know  44. In terms of sex and age, who are the most common perpetrators of crime in this community? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed). 1. Juveniles (below 18)—male  4. Youth (18 – 35)—female  2. Juveniles (below 18)— female  5. Adults male (above 35)  3. Youth (18 - 35)—male  6. Adults female (above 35)  45. In your opinion, who are the most common victims of crime(s) in this community? 1. Community members  3. Both (Community members and Outsiders)  2. People who live outside this community  4. Don‘t know  46. In terms of sex and age, who are the most common victims of crime in this community? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 135 1. Juveniles (below 18)—male  4. Youth (18 – 35)—female  2. Juveniles (below 18)— female  5. Adults male (above 35)  3. Youth (18 - 35)—male  6. Adults female (above 35)  47. In your opinion, what is the main reason why people commit crime in your community? 1. Need/financial stress  6. Satanic/demonic influence/religious  2. Peer influence  7. Breakdown of family  3. Society induced  8. Don‘t know  4. Weak criminal justice system  9. Other (Please specify)  5. Greed  …………………………………………….. 48. In your opinion, which time of the day are most crimes committed in your community? (Read out responses: open and multiple responses allowed). 1. Dawn (4am – 6am)  4. Evening (4pm – 8pm)  2. Morning (6am – 12noon)  5. Night (8pm-4am)  3. Afternoon (12pm – 4pm)  6. Other (Please specify): …………………………………. 49. In your opinion, which day of the week is crime USUALLY committed in this community? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed). 1. Sunday  3. Tuesday  5. Thursday  7. Saturday  2. Monday  4. Wednesday  6. Friday  8. Don‘t know  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 136 50. In your opinion, which month(s) of the year is crime USUALLY committed in this community? (Multiple responses allowed). 1. January  6. June  10. October  2. February  7. July  11. November  3. March  8. August  12. December  4. April  9. September  13. Don‘t know  5. May  51. Do you feel the need for more police patrols/presence in your community? 1. Yes  2. No  3. Don‘t know  52. Does your community have a neighbourhood crime watchdog committee? 1. Yes  2. No  3. Don‘t know  53. How safe do you feel in your community currently? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  54. How safe do you feel walking alone at night in your community? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  55. How safe do you feel walking alone in your community during day time? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 137 56. In general, how would you assess the level of crime in your community within the past five years? 1. Increased  3. Decreased  2. Stayed the same  4. Don‘t know  57. What measures do you take to prevent crime in your home? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed). No. Prevention measures Tick appropriately 1. Installed burglar alarm 2. Electronic fencing 3. Security doors/special door locks 4. Special window/door grilles (burglar proof) 5. Use of dogs 6. High fence/wall 7. Caretaker or security guard 8. Community solidarity 9. Barbed wires/bottles, sharp ends of walls 10. Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) 11. Prayer/other religious options 12. Nothing 13 Other (Please specify): University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 138 58. Which of the following crimes are you and your households most likely to be victim of in your community? (Rank in the order of likelihood: 1 as Very likely and 7 as N/A). Read out statements to respondent No. Type of crime 1 Very likely 2 Likely 3 Unlikely 4 Very unlikely 5 Don’t know 7 N/A i. Crime against household 1. Theft of car/car hijacking 2. Theft from car 3. Car vandalism/theft of car parts 4. Theft motorcycle 5. Theft of bicycle 6. Theft of livestock/birds 7. Burglary with entry 8. Attempted burglary 9. Kidnapping 10. Other (please specify) : ii. Crime against the individual 1. Drugs peddling/addiction 2. Robbery 3. Personal theft University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 139 4. Rape 5. Defilement 6. Incest 7. Prostitution 8. Assault/threat 9. Corruption 10. Other (please specify) ………………………………… 59. Do you know of any Private Security Organisations (PSOs) that operate in the community? 1. Yes  2. No 60. Assessment of Private Security Organisations (PSOs) in crime prevention in your community. (Read out loud: multiple responses allowed). No. Statement Tick appropriately i. Types of security services rendered by PSOs 1. Provide work surveillance system 2. Guard public servants/firms/property 3. Collaborate with state security [police/military/CID] for community protection 4. Guard private firms/persons/property 5. Provide quasi-judicial functions/ADR University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 140 6. Other (Please specify): ii. What account for the stringing up of PSOs in your neighbourhood/city? 1. Absence of public security set-up 2. Complimentary efforts to enhance communal security 3. Community self-help initiative 4. Loss of confidence in public security 5. Over-population with unmet security needs 6. Job creation drive / business motive 7. Came alongside a multinational company 8. Affordability/tailor-made services 9. Other (Please specify): iii. Benefits of PSOs to household/community 1. Improved household security 2. Created jobs 3. Improved community security 4. Improved industrial/commercial security 5. Improved crime prevention efforts University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 141 6. Complimented police efforts 7. Don‘t know 8. Other (Please specify): iv. Challenges of PSOs to household/community 1. Weakened/compromised household security 2. Weakened/compromised neigbourhood security 3. Increased crime occurrence 4. Duplicating police effort 5. Allowed criminals to infiltrate neigbourhood 6. Increased household expenditure 7. Increased industrial/companies‘ expenditure 8. Other (Please specify): Section E: VICTIMS OF CRIME 61. Have you or any member of your household ever been a victim of any crime? 1. Yes  2. No (Skip to F)  62. If yes, indicate the type of crime and the number of times you have been a victim? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 142 No. Type of crime Tick appropriately Number of times i. Household crime 1. Theft of car/car hijacking 2. Theft from car 3. Car vandalism/theft of car parts 4. Theft of motorcycle 5. Theft of bicycle 6. Theft of livestock 7. Burglary with entry 8. Attempted burglary 9. Kidnapping 10. Other (specify) ii. Crime against the individual 1. Drugs peddling/addiction 2. Robbery 3. Personal theft 4. Rape 5. Defilement University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 143 6. Incest 7. Prostitution 8. Assault/threat 9. Corruption 10. Other (specify): 63. Have you ever been a victim of crime in the following public spaces? No . Selected public spaces Yes No i. Market 1. Ever been a victim at the market 2. Ever witnessed any crime in and around the market 3. Please, state the crimes that occurred there: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……. 4. Do you feel safe at the Market place? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  ii. Transport terminal 1. Ever been a victim of crime at the transport terminal 2. Ever witnessed any crime in and around the transport terminal 3. Please, state the crimes that occurred there: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 144 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……. 4. Do you feel safe at the transport terminal (trotro/taxi station)? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  iii. Public toilet 1. Ever been a victim of crime at the public toilet 2. Ever witnessed any crime in and around public toilet 3. Please, state the crimes that occurred there: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……. 4. Do you feel safe at the public toilet? 1. Very safe  3. Not safe  2. Safe  4. Don‘t know  Section F: HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF CRIME 64. Please remind me, did you say you personally or a member of your household has ever been a victim of crime?  Yes  No (skip to next section G) 65. If yes, please specify what type of crime you experienced? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………....................................... University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 145 66. In what way(s) did the crime experience affect you? (Read out responses: multiple responses allowed). No. Statement Tick appropriately i. Emotional effect 1. It has given me excessive (short term) fear 2. It has made me very angry 3. It has made me distrustful of others 4. It has made me feel the need to be more security conscious 5. It has made me better appreciate the criminal justice system/Police 6. It has made me appreciate other persons 7. It has left me with chronic (long term and permanent) fear 8. It has made me to regret coming to live in this neighbourhood 9. It has made me distrustful of the criminal justice system/the Police 10. It has made me value my life the more 11. It makes me feel like I will be attacked again 12. It makes me feel I have already been attacked again 13. Other (Please specify): ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ii. Psychological effect 1. It has created a panic attack in me 2. It makes me fear to go out sometimes 3. It has given me sleepless nights 4. It has strengthened my (religious) faith 5. It has weakened/challenged my (religious) faith 6. It has made me suspicious of other persons University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 146 7. It has made me more protective of my property/household/family, etc. 8. It has made me too conscious of my environment/too sensitive 9. Other psychological effect on you (please specify) …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. iii. Mental effect 1. It has left me thinking all the time 2. It makes me think that the crime will be repeated 3. It has made me know /think that I or anyone can die at anytime 4. It has given me a different perspective on life 5. It has left me with a mental picture of the crime scene/incident. 6. It has left me thinking that I am not safe 7. It has made me forgetful 8. Other effect (Please specify): ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… iv. Physical effect 1. It has left some wound/scars on me 2. It made me lose part of my property (including domestic and commercial animals) 3. It has maimed/made me lose some part of my body or part of a family member‘s body 4. It has left a mark on my property 5. Other (Please specify): …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 67. Financial Effect: In what other way did the crime experience affect you financially? 1. I have had to spend money on my health due to that experience.  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 147 2. I lost my job due to the crime experience. Please, tell me specifically what happened regarding this: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………  3. I have had to spend money on something else (personal belongings, property, replacing lost property, etc.) as a result of the crime experience. Please, tell me specifically what happened regarding this: ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………  4. I have had to lose trading capital/investment/property, etc. to use in taking care of the financial shock due to the crime experience.  5. It has made me need/pay for more property insurance.  6. Other financial effect(s) on you (please specify): …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………  University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 148 Section G: CRIME REPORTING 68. Have you or any member of your household ever reported crime incident(s) to the police? 1. Yes (Skip to 70)  2. No  69. If no, why not? (Skip to Section H after giving reasons) ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70. If yes, why did you report to the police? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 71. If you reported to the police were you satisfied with their response?  Yes  No 72. If no, why not? ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… Section H: ASSESSMENT OF THE CRIMINAL JUSTICE 73. (Rank in the order of 1 as Strongly agree and 5 as Don’t know). (Read out statements to respondent). No Statement 1 Strongly 2 Agree 3 Disagree 4 Strongly 5 Don’t University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 149 agree Disagree know i. Police 1. The security services arrest criminals within the community promptly 2. They respond in a timely manner 3. They are committed to fighting crime 4. They are trustworthy 5. They treat all citizens equally 6. They are transparent 7. They are corrupt 8. They have lackadaisical attitude to work ii. The Courts 1. Dispense justice fairly 2. The judges are corrupt 3. They dispense justice timely 4. The courts are generally performing well iii. Informal structures/Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR) 1. They respond in a timely manner 2. They are committed to fighting crime 3. They are trustworthy 4. They treat all citizens equally 5. They are transparent 6. They are corrupt 7. They have lackadaisical attitude to work iv. District assembly/unit committee/assemblymen and women 1. They respond in a timely manner 2. They are committed to fighting crime 3. They are trustworthy 4. They treat all citizens equally 5. They are transparent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 150 6. They are corrupt 7. They have lackadaisical attitude to work 74. In your view, how effective are the state agencies (police/courts) in combating crime? 1. Very good  4. Poor  2. Good  5. Very poor  3. Moderate  Section I: Building Safer Community/Neighbourhood 75. On a scale of 1 to 5 (1 being very near and 5 too far), how near or far is your community to building a safer settlement? 1  2.  3.  4.  5.  76. In your opinion, do you think Faith-Based Organizations (FBOs) such as churches, mosques etc) have a role to play in reducing crime in your community? 1. Yes  2. No  3. Don‘t know  77. Please give reasons for your answer in Q. 76 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 78. In your opinion, do you think chiefs, queenmothers and other traditional leaders have a role to play in reducing crime in your community? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 151 1. Yes  2. No  3. Don‘t know  79. Please give reasons for your answer in Q. 78 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 80. In your view, what 3 main things/conditions must be in place to make your community safe from crime? a.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- b.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ c.------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 81. Please, share any additional comments on crime in your neighbourhood and city: ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 152 ……………………………………………………………………………… THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION Please, kindly provide me with the following details in case I need to come back to you for further clarification. Mobile phone number: …………………………………………………………………………………………………… House No.: …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. Description of residence: …………………………………………………………………………………………………. Date of interview: …………………………………………………………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 153 Appendix B GUIDE FOR KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEWS AND FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS POVERTY AND CRIME NEXUS IN URBAN GHANA Note: To be administered to Key informants (KII) and members of the general community (FGDs) Name of City/metropolis: Name of Neighbourhood: Introduction This Interview is aimed at exploring the subject of crime and poverty relationships in major cities in Ghana, namely Accra, Kumasi, Sekondi-Takoradi and Tamale. The exercise is part of the International Development Research Centre (IDRC)/DFID global funded research project on Safe and Inclusive Cities (SAIC). In Ghana, the research project is being implemented by the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER) and the Department of Geography & Resource Development, University of Ghana, Legon. All information provided will be treated as strictly confidential and will be used only for purposes of this research. It is not compulsory that you participate in this study. There will be no penalty for people who decide not to be a part of it. If you begin it, you are also allowed to quit from being a part of it without being penalized. However, we will very much appreciate it if you would be part of this study. Do we have your permission to begin the study with you? Yes… No… Do you have any questions for me before we begin this interview? A. City and Neighbourhood Characteristics  What is the estimated population of this neighbourhood?  Who are the dominant ethnic in this community?  Which are the dominant occupational groups in this community (by sex i.e. among males and females?  What are your views about your household and the community‘s general access to water, toilet and sanitation, education, health and other services?  Are you happy with the housing situation/type of houses in this community? Why? Why not?  What in your view is the situation of unemployment in this community?  Which group(s) in this community is most affected by unemployment (in terms of age and sex groups)?  What is the general level of education in this community?  Which of the sexes appear to be more educated and why?  How would you describe the general state of street lighting in this community and why? B. Social Organization and Networks within the Neighbourhood  Are there any social groups/NGOs in the community? If yes, what are they  What is the nature of these groups/ what are the focus of these groups? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 154  What is the general level of social interactions / social networks among these groups?  To what extent do these groups hinder or facilitate crime? C. Nature, Type and Incidence of Crime  What is your understanding of ‗crime‘?  What are the nature and type of crime frequently reported in your neighbourhood?  How frequent are these reported crimes?  What time of the day/month do the crimes in this community normally occur?  Where within this community do these crimes frequently occur?  Why?  Who are the victims and perpetrators of these crimes? Probe for responses in terms of age and sex  Why?  How different are the nature and types of reported crimes in this community in the last 5 years compared to earlier periods or times (more than five years ago)?  Why?  What do you think account for these changes in the nature and types of crime in this community with time, if any?  Apart from the police, where else do you report these crimes? And which types of crimes?  Which types of crimes are not reported and why?  WHICH OF THESE ARE LIKELY TO REOCCURE? REPORTED OR NOT REPORTED CRIME, WHY? D. Causes and Effects of Crime  What accounts for the incidence (either high or low) of crime in this area? Why?  What are the effects of crime in this community? (PROBE FOR MORE INFORMATION)  What are outsiders‘ general perceptions of this community with respect to crime?  What are the effects of outsiders‘ perceptions on crime to the general well-being of this community? E. Poverty and Crime  How do you understand ‗poverty‘?  How would you evaluate your community (in terms of poverty-poor, medium or high income)?  Do you think poverty has any relationship with crime in your community? (if yes, in what ways)?  What is the relationship between crime and poverty in your community? F. Measures to Combat Crime  How do community members protect themselves against crime?  How do community members protect their households against crime?  What is your assessment of the police in preventing crimes in this community? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 155  Which other actors and agencies are present in the community to provide protection against crime?  What roles are being played by chiefs and traditional authorities in providing protection to community members against crime?  What specific measures would you recommend to prevent crime in this community?  What specific measures would you recommend to reduce crime in this community?  What are the challenges that you face in combating crime? G. The Role of Private Security Agencies  What is the relationship between the police and the private security agencies?  How effective are the operations of the private security agencies in crime prevention?  Are there any challenges/conflicts that the private security agencies pose in (police) crime prevention? (if yes, what are these challenges).  Do you encounter any operational challenges with the police in your operations (as far as crime prevention is concerned)?  How can the role of the private security agencies be improved. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 156 Appendix C INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR KEY OPERATORS OF EDUCATIONAL FACILITIES, HOTELS, AND RETAIL SHOPS. MAPPING URBAN PLACE AND SPACE: FEAR OF CRIME AND THE (RE) CONFIGURATION OF OCCUPPATIONAL GEOGRAPHIES IN TAMALE, GHANA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Good morning /afternoon /evening, I am a student at Department of Geography and Resource Development, University of Ghana, conducting a survey on “Mapping Urban Place and Space: Fear of Crime and the (Re) Configuration of Occupational Geographies in Tamale, Ghana.” This interview is aimed at examining how fear of crime influence people to relocate their residence and livelihood to more perceived safer and friendly environment in Tamale. You contribution will help greatly in the success of the study. All information provided will be used only for the purposes of this study. 1. Historical data  Name of facility  Date established  Type of facility  Size of facility  Any change of location since establishment?  Any expansion or contraction since establishment (Why?) 2. Factors influencing location decision  Why choose this location?  Any regret for choosing this location?  Any intention to move and why?  What is your general perception about crime in this neighbourhood?  Any protection and challenges pose by crime? 3. Given the opportunity will you want to change your location and to where and why? 4. How can security situation in your locality be improved? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh