UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON 

SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND LEADERSHIP 

DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION  

 

AN EVALUATION OF SCHOOL-BASED ASSESSMENT IMPLEMENTATION IN 

GHANA: A CASE OF JASIKAN DISTRICT.  

 

BY 

SAVIOUR KWADJO KUDJORDJI 

(10704243) 

 

 

THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER 

OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION  

 

 

OCTOBER, 2021 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



iii 

 

DEDICATION 

To my mother, my lovely wife, and children 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



iv 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

I wish to acknowledge with much pleasure, my indebtedness to God for his guidance and 

favour that has enabled me to complete this study. Special appreciation to my supervisors, 

Dr. Paul Butakor and Dr. Kwaku Amponsah, lecturers at the Department of Education, the 

University of Ghana for their countless directions, encouragement, and constructive 

criticisms throughout this work. Also, my sincere appreciation goes to my beloved wife, 

Irene Mensah, and son, Dennis Esianyo Kudjordji for their support and care during my 

entire master's degree program. Special thanks to Dr. Eliot Kumasah, a lecturer at the 

Department of Teacher Education, the University of Ghana for his encouragement and 

support given me to pursue this program. Finally, I thank all teachers and headteachers at 

the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana who helped me to 

collect my data for this work.    

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



v 

 

ABSTRACT 

This study examined the SBA implementation policy, the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation of the SBA policy, challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of 

the SBA policy, and the strategies to ensure successful implementation of the SBA policy 

in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana. The study used a 

descriptive and cross-sectional research design with a quantitative research approach where 

stratified random sampling technique was used to sample 273 teachers in the basic schools 

in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana where the study was carried out. The 

questionnaire was used as a primary data collection instrument, and data collected were 

coded and entered into IBM SPSS and analyzed using frequency tables; relative importance 

index and inferential statistics. The following key findings were found from the analysis of 

the data: Teachers are provided with the policy document on the implementation of SBA 

was the highest relative important factor to measure SBA implementation policy. Also, 

teachers' design of effective SBA tasks to facilitate learning was the highest relative 

important factor to measure the role of teachers in the implementation of SBA policy.  

Furthermore, the inadequate supply of logistics for the implementation of SBA in Jasikan 

District in the Oti Region of Ghana was the highest relative important factor to measure 

the challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the SBA Policy. Lastly, the 

constant supervision of teachers by headteachers and GES to implement the SBA policy 

was the highest relative important factor to measure the strategies to ensure successful 

implementation of the SBA policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti 

Region of Ghana. The study concludes that teachers are well informed about the 

introduction of SBA and they are provided with the policy document on the implementation 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



vi 

 

of SBA.  Also, the study concludes that teachers play a key role in the implementation of 

SBA in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of Ghana. Furthermore, the study concludes 

that the teachers are faced with challenges such as the inadequate supply of logistics for 

the implementation of SBA and inadequate training on SBA was given to teachers to 

implement SBA when implementing the school-based assessment policy. Finally, the study 

concludes the provision of logistics to teachers by GES, constant supervision of teachers 

by headteachers and GES, and the provision of well-designed professional development 

training for teachers under the SBA by GES is needed for the successful implementation 

of the SBA policy by teachers. The study recommends that the Ghana Education Service 

should enforce the use of the SBA policy by all basic schools in the Jasikan District of 

Ghana. Also, the teachers should be motivated through incentives, promotion, praise, etc. 

by GES, Parent-Teachers Association, and school management committee to enable them 

to continue playing the key role of a facilitator in the implementation of SBA policy. 

Furthermore, the Ghana Education Service should provide the needed logistics such as 

making available the SBA record books to all the basic schools in the Jasikan District. 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



vii 

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii 

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv 

ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ v 

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi 

LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... xiii 

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 

INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 

1.1 Background to the study ............................................................................................ 1 

1.2 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................... 6 

1.3 Purpose of the study .................................................................................................. 8 

1.4 Research Objectives .................................................................................................. 8 

1.5 Research Questions ................................................................................................... 9 

1.6 Significance of the study ........................................................................................... 9 

1.7 Delimitation ............................................................................................................. 10 

1.8 Organization of the study ........................................................................................ 10 

CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 12 

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ................................ 12 

2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 12 

2.1 Theoretical Review ................................................................................................. 12 

2.1.1 Classical Test Theory ....................................................................................... 12 

2.1.2 Item Response Theory ...................................................................................... 13 

2.2 Conceptual Review ................................................................................................. 14 

2.2.1 The taxonomies of Educational Objectives. ..................................................... 14 

2.2.1.1 Cognitive Domain ...................................................................................... 14 

2.2.1.2 Affective Domain....................................................................................... 16 

2.2.1.3 Psychomotor Domain................................................................................. 18 

2.2.2 Meaning of Assessment .................................................................................... 19 

2.2.3 Principles of Assessment .................................................................................. 21 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



viii 

 

2.2.4 Forms of Assessment ........................................................................................ 22 

2.2.5 The Concept of School-Based Assessment ...................................................... 24 

2.2.6 Characteristics of school-based assessment ..................................................... 25 

2.2.7 Purposes of School-Based Assessment (SBA) ................................................. 28 

2.2.8 Advantages of the School-Based Assessment .................................................. 32 

2.2.9 The mode of school-based assessment in Ghanaian basic schools .................. 38 

2.2.10 Combining SBA Marks and End-of-Term Examination Marks ..................... 40 

2.2.11 The roles of the teacher in the implementation of the school-based 

assessment ................................................................................................................. 40 

2.2.12 The Challenges of School-based Assessment in schools ............................... 42 

2.2.13 Strategies to ensure successful implementation of SBA ................................ 42 

2.3 Empirical Review .................................................................................................... 43 

2.3.1 Empirical Review on the Implementation of SBA policy ................................ 43 

2.3.2 Empirical Studies on the role of teachers in the implementation of 

SBA policy ................................................................................................................ 44 

2.3.3 Empirical Studies on the challenges facing teachers in the 

implementation of SBA policy .................................................................................. 45 

2.4 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 46 

2.5 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................... 48 

CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 49 

RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................................................. 49 

3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 49 

3.2 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 49 

3.3 Choice of Research Method .................................................................................... 50 

3.4 Study Area ............................................................................................................... 50 

3.5 Population................................................................................................................ 52 

3.6 Sample and Sampling Procedure............................................................................. 53 

3.7 Data Collection Instruments .................................................................................... 54 

3.8 Validity and Reliability of the Instruments. ............................................................ 55 

3.9 Data Collection Procedure ...................................................................................... 57 

3.10 Data Processing and Analysis ............................................................................... 58 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



ix 

 

3.11 Ethical Consideration ............................................................................................ 58 

3.12 Chapter Summary .................................................................................................. 59 

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 60 

RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 60 

4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 60 

4.1. Demographic Characteristics of the Study Participants ......................................... 60 

4.1.1 Gender of participants ...................................................................................... 60 

4.1.2 Age of participants ............................................................................................ 61 

4.1.3 Educational qualification of participants .......................................................... 62 

4.1.4 Number of years of teaching experience of participants .................................. 63 

4.1.5 Class level being taught of participants ............................................................ 64 

4.2. SBA Policy Implementation of participants........................................................... 65 

4.3. Reasons for Implementing SBA ............................................................................. 70 

4.4. The Roles of the Teacher in the Implementation of the SBA Policy ..................... 73 

4.5. Challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the SBA Policy ............... 79 

4.6. The Strategies to Ensure Successful Implementation of the SBA Policy .............. 85 

4.7 Differences in mean scores of the SBA implementation policy among socio-

demographic characteristics of study participants ........................................................ 90 

4.8 Differences in mean scores of roles of teachers in the SBA implementation among 

socio-demographic characteristics of study participants ............................................... 92 

4.9 Differences in mean scores of challenges facing teachers during the SBA 

implementation among socio-demographic characteristics of study participants ......... 95 

4.10 Discussion ............................................................................................................. 97 

4.10.1 Research Question One: How effective is the implementation of the 

school-based assessment policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District 

of Ghana? ................................................................................................................... 97 

4.10.2 Research Question Two: What are the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation of the school-based assessment in the Jasikan District of 

Ghana? ....................................................................................................................... 98 

4.10.3 Research Question Three: What challenges are faced by teachers in 

the implementation of the school-based assessment policy in the basic 

schools in the Jasikan District of Ghana? .................................................................. 99 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



x 

 

4.10.4 Research Question Four: What strategies could be adopted by the 

teachers to ensure effective implementation of the school-based assessment 

in the Jasikan District of Ghana? ............................................................................. 100 

4.10.5 Research Question Five: Are there differences in the SBA 

implementation policy, the roles of the teacher in the implementation of the 

SBA policy, and the challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of 

the SBA policy among the socio-demographic characteristics of teachers in 

the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana? .................... 101 

4.11 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................ 102 

CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................ 103 

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.................................. 103 

5.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 103 

5.1 Summary of Key Findings .................................................................................... 103 

5.1.1 Summary of Findings on Demographic Characteristics of Study 

Participants .............................................................................................................. 103 

5.1.2 Summary of Findings on the School-Based Implementation Policy .............. 103 

5.1.3 Summary of Findings on the Roles of the Teacher in the 

Implementation of the School-Based Assessment Policy ....................................... 104 

5.1.4 Summary of Findings on the Challenges faced by teachers in the 

Implementation of the School-Based Assessment Policy ....................................... 105 

5.1.5 Summary of Findings on the Strategies to ensure Effective 

Implementation of the School-Based Assessment Policy ....................................... 106 

5.1.6 Summary of Findings on the differences in the SBA implementation 

policy, the roles of the teacher in the implementation of the SBA policy, and 

the challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the SBA policy 

among the socio-demographic characteristics of teachers in the basic 

schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana ..................................... 107 

5.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 108 

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 109 

5.4 Areas for Future Research ..................................................................................... 110 

5.5 Limitations of the Study ........................................................................................ 110 

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 112 

APPENDICE (QUESTIONNAIRE) ............................................................................... 125 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xi 

 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 3.1: Total Population of the Study .......................................................................... 52 

Table 3.2: Total Sample of the Study ............................................................................... 54 

Table 3.3: Cronbach Alpha ............................................................................................... 56 

Table 4.1: SBA Policy Implementation ............................................................................ 68 

Table 4.2: Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Importance Index of SBA Policy 

Implementation ................................................................................................................. 69 

Table 4.3: Reasons for Implementing SBA ...................................................................... 71 

Table 4.4: Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Importance Index of Reasons for 

Implementing SBA ........................................................................................................... 72 

Table 4.5: The roles of the teacher in the implementation of the SBA Policy ................. 77 

Table 4.6: Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Importance Index of roles of the teacher 

in the implementation of the SBA Policy ......................................................................... 78 

Table 4.7: Challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the SBA Policy ........ 82 

Table 4.8: Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Importance Index of Challenges faced 

by teachers in the implementation of the SBA Policy ...................................................... 84 

Table 4.9: The strategies to ensure successful implementation of the SBA Policy .......... 88 

Table 4.10: Mean, Standard Deviation and Relative Importance Index of the strategies to 

ensure successful implementation of the SBA Policy ...................................................... 89 

Table 4.11: Differences in mean scores of the SBA implementation policy among socio-

demographic characteristics of study participants ............................................................ 91 

Table 4.12: Differences in the mean scores of roles of teachers in the SBA implementation 

among socio-demographic characteristics of study participants ...................................... 94 

Table 4.13: Differences in the mean scores of challenges faced by teachers in the SBA 

implementation among socio-demographic characteristics of study participants ............ 96 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xii 

 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 4.1: Gender of participants .................................................................................... 61 

Figure 4.2: Age of participants ......................................................................................... 62 

Figure 4.3: Educational Qualification of participants ....................................................... 63 

Figure 4.4: Number of years of teaching experience of participants ................................ 64 

Figure 4.5: Class level being taught by participants ......................................................... 65 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



xiii 

 

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 

BECE Basic Education Certificate Examination 

CAPE Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations 

CEC Caribbean Examination Council 

CRDD Curriculum Research and Development Division  

CSEC Caribbean Secondary Examination Certificate 

CTISBA Challenges Faced by Teachers in Implementing School-Based Assessment 

GES Ghana Education Service 

HPTU Hong Kong Professional Teachers union 

NEA National Education Assessment 

NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations 

OECD Organization for Economic Co-operation Development 

RISBA Reason for Implementing School-Based Assessment 

RTISBA Role of Teachers in Implementing School-Based Assessment 

SBA School-Based Assessment 

SBAP School-Based Assessment Policy 

SSISBA Strategies to ensure Successful Implementing of School-Based Assessment 

WAEC West African Examinations Council 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



1 

 

CHAPTER ONE 

INTRODUCTION 

School-Based Assessment (SBA) has increasingly become an important means of 

assessing students by teachers in the basic schools in the world, particularly in developing 

countries (Awoniyi, 2016; Elmelegy, 2015; Mkpae & Obowu-Adutchay, 2017). School-

Based Assessment serves multiple purposes such as providing summative information and 

improving learning (Bell & Cowie, 2001). It also provides teachers with a formative view 

of the student’s progress, helps them to adjust their instructions to suit the specific needs 

of students (Asare, 2020; Black & Wiliam, 2010), and identifies students’ depth and 

breadth of understanding, thus improving their learning (Dori, 2003). Despite the benefits 

of SBA in the educational sector, the teachers face challenges in the implementation of the 

SBA policy such as a lack of knowledge in the implementation of SBA (Raman & Yamat, 

2014; Lee et al., 2018). 

 

1.1 Background to the study  

Assessment is an old concept that is used by all sectors such as educational, health, 

financial, and so on to obtain information that is used to make decisions about individuals 

such as students and teachers in the educational sector, clients and staffs in the financial 

sector, and patients and health workers in the health sector (Ampaw et al., 2020; Tremblay 

et al., 2012; Raza et al., 2020; Berry, 2008; Norcini & Burch, 2007).  

In every educational setting of any country, assessment forms an integral part of the 

teaching and learning process because teachers use it as an evaluation procedure to collect 

information about learners and make valid and reliable decisions about them (Ahenkora, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



2 

 

2019; López-Pastor & Sicilia-Camacho, 2017; Paulo et al., 2009; Pellegrino, 2014; 

Falchikov, 2013). According to Brookhart and Nitko (2011), decisions made concerning 

students due to their assessment include managing classroom instruction, placing students 

into different types of educational programmes, assigning students to appropriate 

categories, guiding and counseling students, selecting students for educational 

opportunities, and credentialing and certifying students' competences. Hence, much 

attention is given to the modes of assessment that should be used in any educational reform. 

 

Conducting assessments in the educational sector serve a lot of purposes. Educators 

conduct an assessment to gather evidence to make decisions of judgment about student's 

learning (Stobart, 2008). After instruction, the learner is expected to perform a given task 

to justify that learning has taken place. The expectation of the task performed by the learner 

is for his or her knowledge to be expanded which would influence his or her academic 

performance (Costa & Kallick, 1995).  

 

In this regard, alternative assessment procedures that aim at improving the learning process 

are required rather than merely the results of the assessment (Harlen, 2006; Kirton et al., 

2007; Stobart, 2008). An example of alternative assessment that is usually conducted in 

the school context is referred to as the School-Based Assessment (SBA) (Lee et al., 2018). 

 

The School-Based Assessment is a formative assessment procedure which is embedded in 

the teaching and learning process to provide standardization to the practice of internal 

school-based assessment in all schools and to provide a reduced assessment task for each 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



3 

 

of the primary school subjects and other assessment tasks (Ministry of Education, 2011). 

The School-Based Assessment was proposed and introduced by the Ministry of Education 

in Ghana and other countries in the world including Malaysia, Nigeria, China, England, 

and Zambia to evaluate the academic performance of learners. 

 

 School-Based Assessment (SBA) is designed and conducted by teachers in schools (Lee 

et al., 2018).  The key to the successful implementation of SBA depends on whether it 

delivers what it claims (Mercurio 2008). SBA is an assessment of a holistic evaluation of 

the National Education policy. SBA is exercised in schools aimed at strengthening the 

quality system of assessment and evaluation (Ahenkora, 2019; Ervin et al., 2001).  

 

Among the goals of SBA is to get an overview of the performance of students in learning, 

assessing the activities carried out during the teaching and learning process, continuous 

information about teaching and learning as well as planning the appropriate materials to 

use during teaching and learning (Ojo & Gbinigie, 2009; Tong & Adamson, 2015). The 

school-Based assessment is thought to have the features of assessment as it is carried out 

with the prime purpose of improving students' learning and increasing the validity of 

assessment (Hamp-Lyons, 2009). Also, the reason for the implementation of SBA policy 

in schools is to serve as a response to the change of expectations of schooling and to the 

dissatisfaction with external examinations that are disconnected from teaching and learning 

(Dori, 2003). It has connections with the process of teaching and learning, and broadens 

the scope of the assessment, by creating an environment for nurturing formative elements 

of assessment (Asare, 2020; Grima, 2013).  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



4 

 

SBA may also enable the teacher to realize the potentials of the learners and as well as 

enabling the learner to identify their potentials. SBA develops creativity in pupils and 

hence makes teaching and learning easier and meaningful to students (Abdullah et al., 

2015; Othman et al., 2013).  

 

Teachers play a role in the implementation of SBA (Abreh, 2017). Teachers facilitate in 

the implementation of SBA, design effective SBA tasks to facilitate learning, conduct 

various tasks in the academic terms under the SBA, clearly explain the SBA tasks to all 

students, support pupils, and ease frustration towards the performance of the SBA tasks 

(Yung, 2002; Abdullah et al., 2015; Nair et al., 2014).  

 

They also ensure that every child takes part in writing the SBA tests (CATS), give adequate 

home assignments and projects to learners, use the SBA scores to track the progress of all 

children, report accurately the progress of the learners on SBA to parents, guardians, family 

members, and monitor the progress of the special needs’ children for early intervention 

under the SBA (Abdullah et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2018). 

 

Despite the benefits of SBA in the educational sector, teachers face challenges in the 

implementation of the SBA policy. Some of the challenges faced by teachers are lack of 

knowledge in the implementation of SBA, inadequate orientation to the implementation of 

SBA, and no work schedule or timetable as known to students when tasks related to SBA 

are to be conducted. Also, other challenges faced by teachers are lack of regular 

management’s supervision of teachers to perform the SBA tasks, lack of supply of logistics 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



5 

 

for the implementation of SBA, inadequate training on SBA, no provision to cater for 

students who are absent on the day that a task is performed, and managements’ lack 

attention to the execution of projects work under the SBA (Raman & Yamat, 2014; Lee et 

al., 2018). 

 

The nation cannot benefit from education if measures are not undertaken to ensure a 

successful implementation of the SBA Policy. The 2007 educational reform of Ghana was 

based on two concepts and procedures, namely, assessment of students based on the profile 

dimension of each subject and school. The school-based assessment was introduced in 

Ghana in 2007 by the Ministry of Education and implemented in 2008. It was introduced 

to replace the continuous assessment used by both the basic and secondary schools. In 

Ghana, school-based assessment is practiced at both basic and secondary school levels. It 

is a system that involves the collection of periodic information on pupils‟ learning status 

for the purpose of planning improved programmes to enhance the performance of pupils 

(Curriculum Research and Development Division [CRDD], 2011). It puts emphasis on 

students acquiring thinking skills, problem-solving skills, cooperative learning, the ability 

to work with numbers, moral and spiritual development and formal presentation skills 

(CRDD, 2011) 

 

The purpose of this study is to examine the SBA implementation policy, challenges faced 

by teachers in the implementation of the SBA policy, the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation of the SBA policy, and the strategies to ensure successful implementation 

of the SBA policy in the basic schools in Jasikan District of Ghana. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



6 

 

1.2 Statement of the problem 

The School-Based Assessment (SBA) policy has recently been implemented in the 

educational sector to evaluate the teaching and learning process worldwide (Mercurio, 

2008). The implementation of SBA aids teachers in getting a bigger view of students’ 

capabilities, and in assisting students in developing their capabilities through a personal 

learning approach (Lee et al., 2018). It also offers teachers with a formative assessment of 

the progress of students, assist them in the regulation of the instruction to fit the particular 

needs of students, and aids in enhancing the learning of students (Dori, 2003; Bell & Cowie, 

2001; Keightley & Coleman, 2003). 

Although there are several benefits when SBA is implemented in schools, several schools 

have failed to implement the SBA policy due to the challenges teachers encounter during 

the implementation of the SBA (Lee et al., 2018). According to Yip and Cheung (2005), 

most teachers lack the skills to accomplish the goals of SBA. Also, the disparities in the 

capabilities and learning behaviors of students may affect the effectiveness of teaching and 

learning (Yung, 2002).   

 

Teachers' role during the implementation of SBA is key to assess the effectiveness of the 

SBA. Some teachers fail to properly conduct instructions and assessments as part of their 

roles which negatively affects the implementation of SBA (Broadfoot & Black, 2004). 

Also, most teachers are used to the examination-oriented evaluation method which makes 

them unwilling to involve themselves in SBA which is a new form and method of 

assessment (Ogan-Bekiroglu, 2009). According to Sato et al. (2005), some teachers have 

inadequate skills and knowledge to implement the SBA and hence, get easily tempted to 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



7 

 

go back to their usual activities. Most teachers in the basic schools in the Jasikan District 

of the Oti Region of Ghana have been observed not to have adequate knowledge as far as 

the implementation of the SBA is concerned and hence perform abysmally with regards to 

its successful implementation (Ministry of Education 2010). 

 

Also, some teachers have been found to have difficulties in the recording of pupils’ marks 

in their terminal report cards over the years which made some of the children to be dejected 

at the end of every term when the report cards were given out (Nunley, 2006). Furthermore, 

some teachers in the district have challenges as far as the implementation of the SBA is 

concerned. In this regard, most of the teachers in the district do not have much interest in 

the implementation of the SBA and hence prefer to use the continuous assessment to assess 

the performance of the learners instead of the new school-based assessment. Because of 

this situation, it is very clear that the implementation of the SBA in the Jasikan District of 

the Oti Region of Ghana will not achieve its stated objectives if these situations continue 

to exist.  

 

Although all efforts were made by the Ministry of Education to explain these policies to 

teachers during workshops and seminars, the teachers still face challenges as far as the 

implementation of SBA is concerned. This study, therefore, intends to examine the SBA 

implementation policy, challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the SBA 

policy, the roles of the teacher in the implementation of the SBA policy, and the strategies 

to ensure successful implementation of the SBA policy in the basic schools in Jasikan 

District of Ghana. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



8 

 

 1.3 Purpose of the study 

The purpose of this study is to examine the SBA implementation policy, the roles of the 

teacher in the implementation of the SBA policy, challenges faced by teachers in the 

implementation of the SBA policy, and the strategies to ensure successful implementation 

of the SBA policy in the basic schools in Jasikan District of Ghana.  

 

1.4 Research Objectives 

The objectives of the study are to; 

1. Assess the School-Based Assessment policy implementation in the basic schools in the 

Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana. 

2. Examine the roles of the teacher in the implementation of the School-Based 

Assessment policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of 

Ghana. 

3. Identify the challenges faced by teachers in the implementation of the school-based 

assessment policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of 

Ghana. 

4. Identify strategies to ensure the successful implementation of the school-based 

assessment policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of 

Ghana. 

5. Assess the differences in the SBA implementation policy, the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation of the SBA policy, and the challenges faced by teachers in the 

implementation of the SBA policy among the socio-demographic characteristics of 

teachers in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



9 

 

1.5 Research Questions 

The following research questions were formulated to guide the study: 

1. How effective is the implementation of the School-Based Assessment policy in the 

basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana? 

2. What are the roles of the teacher in the implementation of the School-Based 

Assessment in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana? 

3. What challenges are faced by teachers in the implementation of the School-Based 

Assessment policy in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of 

Ghana? 

4. What strategies could be adopted by the teachers to ensure effective implementation of 

the School-Based Assessment in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana? 

5. Are there differences in the SBA implementation policy, the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation of the SBA policy, and the challenges faced by teachers in the 

implementation of the SBA policy among the socio-demographic characteristics of 

teachers in the basic schools in the Jasikan District of the Oti Region of Ghana? 

 

1.6 Significance of the study 

Teachers have important roles to play as far as the effective running of the schools is 

concerned. This study will alert the Ministry of Education, Ghana Education Service, and 

policymakers to the challenges facing teachers with regards to the successful 

implementation of SBA in the basic schools in Ghana. Also, the study would inform 

teachers in the basic schools concerning their roles in the implementation of the SBA 

policy. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



10 

 

Furthermore, the study will suggest to teachers and policymakers the required strategies 

that could be adopted to ensure the successful implementation of the SBA policy in Ghana. 

Moreover, the findings of the study will inform parents, guardians, Non-Governmental 

Organizations (NGOs) about what to expect from teachers as far as SBA is concerned. 

Finally, the results of the study may serve as reference material for further research on 

School-Based Assessment in other institutions in Ghana and the world at large. 

 

 1.7 Delimitation 

The successful implementation of SBA is a major concern of all basic schools in Ghana. 

However, due to time constraints, the researcher decided to limits his study to the Jasikan 

district of the Oti Region of Ghana. The study also focused on the perceived challenges in 

the implementation of the School-Based Assessment particularly in the Jasikan district and 

suggested strategies to curb the challenges. 

 

1.8 Organization of the study 

The study is organized into five main chapters. Chapter one which forms the introductory 

section is made up of the background to the study, statement of the problem, the purpose 

of the study, research questions, significance of the study, delimitation, limitation, and the 

organization of the study. 

 

Chapter two reviews relevant and related literature on the concept of school-based 

assessment, the role of teachers in the implementation of SBA, and challenges faced by 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



11 

 

teachers in the implementation of SBA. It also included the theoretical, the empirical 

review, and the conceptual framework under the study. 

 

Chapter three dealt with the methods employed to address the objectives of the study. This 

includes the research design, the population, the sample, and the sampling techniques, the 

instruments for the data collection, the data collection procedure, and the data analysis plan. 

 

Chapter four presents the results and the discussion of findings. Chapter five presents the 

major findings, a summary of the entire study, and conclusions delivered by the researcher 

for which various suggestions are made. It also included a recommendation for the study 

and a recommendation for future researchers. 

 

  

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



12 

 

CHAPTER TWO 

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 

2.0 Introduction 

This chapter reviews the literature relating to assessment, particularly school-based 

assessment, and other related issues. The review comprises the conceptual review, 

theoretical review, empirical reviews, and conceptual framework. The following sub-

headings are discussed under the conceptual review: the meaning of assessment, principles 

of assessment, forms of assessment, the concept of school-based assessment, characteristics, 

and the purposes of school-based assessment, and the roles of the teacher in the 

implementation. The theoretical framework focuses on the Item Response Theory and 

Classical Test Theory whereas the empirical review focuses on challenges militating against 

the successful implementation of school-based assessment in schools. 

 

2.1 Theoretical Review 

The theories used in this study are the Classical Test Theory and Item Response Theory. 

 

2.1.1 Classical Test Theory 

From the early 20th century, the basis for psychometric test development was a set of 

techniques collectively known as Classical Test Theory (CTT) (Nunnally, 1978). Classical 

Test Theory (CTT) was developed in the early 20th century to measure individual 

differences (Zickar & Broadfoot, 2009). The origin of CTT can be traced to 1904 when 

Charles Spearman figured out how to correct a weak correlation coefficient due to error 

measurement and how to gain the reliability index required in correcting (Allen & Yen, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



13 

 

1979). According to Allen and Yen (1979), CTT was developed after the following three 

ideas were hypothesized: identification of the presence of errors in measurements, a 

formation of that error as a random variable, and a formation of a correlation and how to 

index it.  

 

Classical Test Theory (CTT) is a psychometric theory that assumes the observed score a 

student earns on an assessment is a combination of their true score and error from the 

assessment (Hambleton & Jones, 1993; Crocker & Algina, 1986). Classical Test Theory is 

concerned with the relationship between these three variables and how they relate to testing 

reliability (Hambleton & Jones, 1993; Bejar, 1983). Birnbaum et al. (1968) define the true 

score for a particular subject as the expected value of the observed score in an infinite 

number of hypothetical (independent) replications of the measurement for that subject. 

 

2.1.2 Item Response Theory 

Item Response Theory (IRT) was developed in the last quarter of the 20th century as an 

alternative approach to psychometrics (Embretson & Reise, 2000; Reise et al., 2005). Item 

Response Theory (IRT) has had a key influence on educational testing, affecting, for 

example, the development and administration of school-based assessment (Koloi-

Keaikitse, 2017; Kulesz et al., 2016). Given its success in these areas, some researchers 

have speculated that the application of IRT might improve the measurement of usability 

(Hollemans, 1999; Schmettow & Vietze, 2008; Cappelleri et al., 2014). Item Response 

Theory (IRT) refers to a set of models that connects observed item responses to a 

participant examinee’s location on the underlying (latent) trait that is measured by the 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



14 

 

entire scale (Mellenbergh, 1994). Item Response Theory focuses on modeling item 

characteristics which makes it ideal for adaptive computerized testing (Zickar, 1998; 

Embretson and Reise, 2000), which is one of the reasons it has become so popular in large-

scale educational testing. This study is meant to assess the teacher's response patterns in a 

set of items that measured their perceived role in implementing the school-based 

assessment. To gain insights into the teacher's response to their perceived role in 

implementing a school-based assessment scale, an item response theory (IRT) model was 

utilized. Using IRT, the study identified items that provide the most information about 

teachers’ perceived roles in the school-based assessment. In turn, by identifying which 

roles teachers most and least play during the implementation of school-based assessment, 

it is hoped to provide educational administrators, policy-makers, and teacher educators 

with useful information for the planning and conducting of assessment training for 

teachers. 

 

2.2 Conceptual Review 

2.2.1 The taxonomies of Educational Objectives.  

Assessment tends to measure the fulfillment of educational objectives, which is centered on 

the three domains of educational objectives: the cognitive, the affective, and the 

psychomotor objectives. 

2.2.1.1 Cognitive Domain 

This domain was developed by Benjamin Bloom in 1956, hence it is known as Bloom’s 

taxonomy of educational objectives. The taxonomy classifies educational objectives into 6 

main headings (Bloom, 1956). 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



15 

 

1. Knowledge: This involves the recall of specific facts, methods, and processes. They 

include those objectives, which deal with the recall or recognition of knowledge and the 

development of intellectual abilities and skills. It is often defined as the remembering of 

previously learned material. Illustrative verbs used include define, identify, and label among 

others. 

2. Comprehension: It is the ability to grasp the meaning of the material. It is shown 

by translating material from one form to another, or by interpreting material (explaining or 

summarizing). Illustrative verbs include convert, explain, summarize, etc. 

3. Application: This refers to the ability to use learned material in new and concrete 

situations. This includes the application of such things as rules, methods, concepts, 

principles, etc. illustrative verbs include change, compute, and prepare. 

4. Analysis: This is the ability to break down the material into its parts so that its 

organizational structure may be understood. This includes the identification of parts, 

analysis of the relationships between parts, etc. Illustrative verbs include break down, 

differentiate, illustrate, etc. 

5. Synthesis: This refers to the ability to put parts together to form a new whole. This 

may involve the production of a unique communication or a plan of operations. Illustrative 

verbs include categorizing, combine, organize, etc. 

6. Evaluation: This is the ability to judge the value of the material (e.g. novel, poem, 

and research report) for a given purpose. The judgments are based on definite criteria. 

Illustrative verbs include appraise, contrast, support, etc. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



16 

 

Benjamin Bloom’s taxonomy was restructured by Quellmalz (1985), and according to his 

taxonomy, the cognitive educational objectives have five categories. 

1. Recall: this requires a student to recognize or remember key facts, definitions, 

concepts, and principles. He/she is to repeat verbatim or to paraphrase given information. 

E.g. Who wrote the story? 

2. Analysis: Students divide a whole into component elements, e.g. What are the 

different parts of the story? 

3. Comparison: This requires students to recognize or explain similarities and 

differences. E.g. How was this story like the last one? 

4. Inference: Students are given a generalization and are required to recognize 

evidence or details and are required to come up with the generalization. E.g. What might be 

a good title for the story? 

5. Evaluation: Students are required to judge quality, credibility, worth, or 

practicality. E.g. Is this a good story? 

 

2.2.1.2 Affective Domain 

This was developed by David Krathwohl, Benjamin Bloom, and Masia in 1964. They 

classified educational objectives in the affective domain into 5 categories (Krathwohl et al., 

1964). 

1. Receiving: It is the lowest level of learning outcomes in the affective domain. It is 

the willingness of a student/ pupil to attend to particular phenomena/stimuli (e.g. classroom 

activities, reading textbooks or library books, doing class assignments, etc.). Examples of 

general instructional objectives include; listen attentively, and attends closely to the 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



17 

 

classroom activities. Illustrative verbs that are used include ask, chooses, follows, gives, 

holds, names. 

2. Responding: It is the active participation of a student in given activities. The student 

does not only attend to particular stimuli but also reacts to them in some way. The student 

may read assigned material or do an assignment or project. Examples of general 

instructional objectives include completing an assigned homework and obeying school rules 

and regulations and some illustrative verbs that are used include the answer, assist, comply, 

conform, discuss, practice, write, etc. 

3. Valuing: It is concerned with the worth or value a student attach to a particular 

object, phenomenon, or behavior. The value ranges from a simple acceptance of a value to 

a more complex level of commitment. Examples of general instructional objectives include; 

show concern for the welfare of others, appreciates the role of science in everyday life. 

Illustrative verbs include complete, describes, differentiates, explains, follow, initiates, 

invites, joins, read. 

4. Organization: It is the ability to bring together different values, resolving conflicts 

between them, and beginning to build an internally consistent value system. Students begin 

to develop philosophies of life. Examples of general instructional objectives include; 

accepts responsibility for own behavior, understands and accepts own strengths and 

weaknesses. Illustrative verbs include adheres, alters, arranges, combines, compares, 

defends. 

5. Characterization by a value or value complex: This is the highest level in the 

affective domain. At this level, the individual student has a value system that has controlled 

his/her behavior for a sufficiently long time for him/her to have developed a characteristic 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



18 

 

lifestyle. Examples of general instructional objectives include; practices, cooperation in 

group activities, maintains good study habits. Illustrative verbs include acts, discriminate, 

displays, influences, listens, modifies, performs, practices, proposes, qualifies. 

 

2.2.1.3 Psychomotor Domain 

This domain of human development which is assessed in school was developed by Simpson 

(1972) and Harrow (1972). Simpson produced seven categories while Harrow had six 

stages. Simpson’s categories are presented as follows: 

1. Perception: This is the lowest level. It is the ability to use the sense organs to obtain 

cues that guide motor activity. For example, relating the sound of drums to the dance type. 

Illustrative verbs include, choose, describe, detect, identify.  

2. Set: it is the readiness to take a particular type of action. Demonstrating a proper 

position to save a penalty kick in a soccer game. Illustrative verbs include, behind, displays, 

explains and shows starts. 

3. Guided response. It involves the early stages of learning a complex skill. For 

example, starting a car while beginning to learn how to drive. Illustrative verbs include, 

assembly, build construct, and display.  

4. Mechanism: this occurs when a learned activity has become habitual and 

movements are performed with confidence and proficiency. For example, typing, operating 

a video recorder. Illustrative verbs include a sketch, fix, fasten, dissect, assemble. 

Also, the study is premised on the utilization of feedback as part of the assessment for 

learning (AFL). SBA allows teachers to capitalize on these formative qualities and promote 

achievement. Because of its proximity to the task, the assessment can contribute to raising 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



19 

 

the quality of learners’ work. Feedback is a ‘continuous, ongoing, and interactive’ process 

(Kouritzin & Vizard, 1999, p.17) which involves multiple sources (teachers, peers, friends, 

and so on) and a variety of forms (visual, written, and oral). Feedback on performance is 

vital for any learner to improve their learning and guide their future learning. This helps 

both students and teachers alike by helping them practice what they preach. Gikandi et al. 

(2007) assert that central to the role of assessment is to provide true and meaningful 

feedback for refining students learning, instructional practice, and educational options. 

 

2.2.2 Meaning of Assessment 

The word “assess” comes from the Latin verb “Assidere” meaning “to sit with”. In 

assessment, one is supposed to sit with the learner. This implies that, it is something we do 

with the learners, but not for learners (Williamson, 2017). Griffin and Fleet (2013) pointed 

out that assessment is a generic term that involves the whole process of gathering, 

synthesizing, and interpreting information of all kinds. He went further to say that 

assessment in education may be defined as a process of collecting information about an 

individual or a group of individuals to make a particular educational decision. 

Assessment deals with obtaining data about students, teachers, or schools by well-

constructed measures; interpreting the meaning of scores (data) for such outcomes as 

student progress or instructional effectiveness; and using the interpreted scores to make 

decisions regarding the best ways to facilitate student learning (Shermis & DiVesta, 2011; 

Popham, 2003). Shermis and DiVesta (2011) thus illustrate this diagrammatically in Figure 

2.1. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



20 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Figure 2.1: Assessment Processes 

Source: Shermis and DiVesta (2011, p.4). 

 

Mark and Francis further posit that for assessment to be characterized in the ways shown in 

Figure 2.1, the design and overall plan must be technically accurate. This requires an 

understanding of how the assessment is used by different users and for different purposes. 

A teacher may ask such questions as: “How do I ensure that my testing practices are well-

planned and of high quality? Are the tests used in these assessments the ones that will work 

for these particular students? Are there some special needs that I need to consider? Who 

will be using the results of this assessment? What questions will be asked about them (e.g., 

how will my tests and the way they are scored appear from their unique perspectives)?” 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



21 

 

2.2.3 Principles of Assessment 

Principles are fundamental truths and doctrines accepted by most authorities as 

characteristics of assessment. McMillan (2000) presented the following principles;  

1. A test developer must be clear about the learning target to be assessed. This 

involves specifying the intended learning goals and helps to select the appropriate 

assessment technique.  

2. Again, clear, accurate, and timely information on assessment tasks and procedures 

should be available to students, staff, and other external assessors or examiners. Thus, the 

information should be explicit, accessible, and transparent. 

3. Moreover, the assessment technique selected must match the learning target. The 

main criterion is whether the procedure is the most effective in measuring the learning 

target.  

4. Assessment tasks should primarily reflect the nature of the discipline or subject but 

should also ensure that students have the opportunity to develop a range of generic skills 

and capabilities. 

5. Again, assessment is inherently a process of professional judgment. Proper use of 

assessment procedures requires that the user is aware of the limitations of each technique. 

In interpreting the results of the assessment, these limitations must be considered therefore, 

all those involved in the assessment of students must be competent to undertake their roles 

and responsibilities. 

6. Assessment techniques must serve the needs of the learners. They should provide 

meaningful feedback to the learners about how closely they have approximated the learning 

targets. A good assessment uses multiple methods. Multiple indicators of performance 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



22 

 

provide a better assessment of the extent to which a student has attained a given learning 

target.  

7. Assessment needs to be comprehensive. Formative and summative assessments 

should be incorporated into the programmes to ensure that the purposes of assessment are 

adequately addressed. Many programmes may also wish to include diagnostic assessment. 

8. One key principle of assessment is that assessment is a means to an end but not an 

end in itself. Assessment influences student motivation and learning. The nature of 

assessment influences what is learned and the degree of meaningful engagement by students 

in the learning process. Students are therefore entitled to feedback on submitted formative 

assessment tasks and on summative tasks, where appropriate, the nature, extent, and timing 

of feedback for each assessment task should be clear to students in advance.  

9. Assessment should be valid and reliable. Evidence needs to be provided that the 

interpretations and use of students’ assessment results are appropriate and reliable. There is 

the need for assessment to be reliable and this requires clear and consistent processes for 

setting, marking, grading, and moderation of assignment/tests. 

McMillan (2000) state that a good assessment should be fair and ethical. Usually, four views 

of fairness are presented by the assessment standards as first, absence of bias (e.g. 

offensiveness and unfair penalization), second, equitable treatment, third, Equality in 

outcomes. The last one then is the opportunity to learn. 

 

2.2.4 Forms of Assessment 

The assessment could be either formative or Summative in form. Formative Assessment 

refers to frequent and interactive assessments of students’ progress and understanding to 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



23 

 

identify learning needs and adjust teaching appropriately. Teachers using formative 

assessment approaches and techniques are better prepared to meet diverse students’ needs 

through differentiation and adaptation of teaching to raise levels of student’s achievement 

and to achieve greater equity of student’s outcomes (organization for economic co-operation 

development [OECD], 2008). Black and Wiliam (1998) pointed out that formative 

assessment often means no more than that the assessment is carried out frequently and is 

planned at the same time at which teaching is done. According to Harlen (2006), formative 

assessment provides feedback that leads to students recognizing the (learning) gaps and 

closing it and it is forward-looking. Formative assessment includes both feedback and self-

monitoring (Sadler, 1998). Tunstall and Gipps (1996) provided out that formative 

assessment was used essentially to provide feedback into the teaching and learning process. 

 

Summative assessments are used to measure what students have learned at the end of a unit, 

to promote students, to ensure they have met the required standard on the way to earning 

certification for school completion, to enter certain occupations, or as a method for selecting 

students for entry into further education. Ministries or departments of education may use 

summative assessment and evaluation as a way of holding publicly funded schools 

accountable for providing quality education. Black and Wiliam (1998) made the point that 

summative assessment had increasingly been used, to sum up learning. The summative 

assessment looks at past achievements, adds procedures or tests to existing work, and 

workers only marking and providing feedback grades to students. It is separated from 

teaching and is carried out at intervals when achievement has to be summarized and reported 

(Harlen, 2006). 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



24 

 

2.2.5 The Concept of School-Based Assessment 

Ministry of Education in Trinity and Tobago (2013) defined school – Based Assessment 

(SBA) as a project or assignment which is done by an examination candidate as a 

contribution to his or her final exit grade. If approached in the right spirit by the candidate, 

it demonstrates a good understanding of subject matter content and a proficient application 

of useful skills and competencies developed and refined during the study of the subject, 

projects, and assignments.  These comprise research papers on quantitative and qualitative 

studies, reports after actual events, reports after stimulated events, reports after interviews 

of the appropriate person, a report from observations, demonstrations of skills, 

performances, pieces to be done in school and out of school, setting, visual arts pieces, report 

after laboratory experiment, portfolio, teacher-made test, and oral examinations. Most 

subjects’ examination offered by the examination’s council requires that in school, 

candidates complete an SBA. The examination Council continues to devise ways and means 

of assessing candidates via SBAs. 

 

School-based assessment (SBA) is a form of formative assessment involving feedback and 

appraisal to the student based on their school-based projects; it enables students to identify 

and improve on their areas of weakness and teachers to adjust their teaching strategies 

(Organization for Economic co-operation and Development [OECD], 2015). Caribbean 

Examinations Council (2013) stated that SBA is a set of assessment 

tasks/assignments/projects conducted in the school, carried out by the students’ following 

guidelines provided by the learner and assessed by the teacher using criteria provided. The 

SBA score contributes to the candidate’s overall examination grade. 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



25 

 

2.2.6 Characteristics of school-based assessment 

The Ministry of education (2011), came out with the following characteristic of SBA. First, 

there is a periodic collection of assessment information. To obtain accurate and reliable test 

data on a student, the test must be spread over a longer time, allowing the student to take the 

tests at different times throughout the year. SBA prescribes the administration of one 

assignment at the end of each month of the school term. The average of the scores earned 

by the student will be a more accurate indicator of the student's performance in the subject. 

 

Moreover, there is the use of different test modes. The performance of a student can be 

better assessed if the assessment is made on different test modes such as class tests, class 

exercises, homework, projects, and other practical activities. SBA will consist of class tests, 

class exercises, and projects. Homework has been eliminated in the redesigned SBA 

programme and more prominence given to projects. The justification for eliminating 

homework from the SBA programme is that it is not certain whether homework will be 

carried out for the student by an adult. Homework is important in the instructional system 

and teachers must therefore give homework as part of the instructional process. Homework 

will, however, not be scored as part of the SBA. There will be situations, as in the projects, 

where the SBA will involve students in seeking views and opinions from teachers, parents, 

elders, and schoolmates. This is the normal work practice in the adult world where the 

opinion of colleagues and views collected from books etc. are vital for effective work 

performance. Teachers should encourage the search for information during the project 

period. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



26 

 

One other major characteristic is the inclusion of more complex thinking skills in testing 

programmes. A further characteristic of the SBA is that it includes tasks that require high-

ability thinking and performance. Such tasks require analytical thinking; the ability to 

generate different solutions to a problem; the ability to plan a project; and the ability to be 

innovative, generate new ideas, and create new products, etc. High-level thinking skills 

generally require extended time for learning and responding.  With the addition of such 

skills, the SBA programme will encourage students to form the habit of using high-level 

thinking skills in solving problems rather than the habit of memorizing class notes which 

defeats the purpose of education and does not help in problem-solving. 

 

Furthermore, it has a high involvement with teacher assistance. Another characteristic of the 

new SBA is that it fosters cooperation between the teacher and the student especially in the 

area of the students’ class projects.  The process allows the teacher to assist students in the 

form of advice on various aspects of students’ projects. The teacher is expected to provide 

constructive feedback to help students reach a better understanding of their projects. 

Students learn to consult the teacher, classmates, and other sources on aspects of their project 

work, while maintaining their position as the leader(s) in the project undertaken. 

 

There is also a reduction in the number of assessment and mark recordings. The SBA has 

been designed to reduce the amount of workload in the previous continuous assessment 

system by 64 percent on the part of the student and by 53 percent on the part of the teacher 

(CRDD, 2011). The reductions have been made to reduce the tediousness in the SBA 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



27 

 

process and at the same time make SBA a more useful tool for improving school 

performance and for improving the thinking abilities of school children. 

Emphasis is placed on student-centered learning. One of the major problems that led to the 

low performance of students on national tests (National Education Assessment (NEA) and 

BECE) is the predominantly teacher-centered approach used in the instructional system in 

schools (CRDD, 2011). As a method for improving this situation, the syllabuses that the 

Ministry of Education has issued to schools since 2000 have all stressed the importance 

of high ability thinking skills on the part of students. The full impact of this has yet to be 

realized. However, the SBA system puts a lot of stress on the project undertaken. This is 

the component that allows the student individually or in groups, the freedom to explore 

different ideas and skills to produce something of their own. This is the student-centered 

learning component that should help in improving the standard of education in the country. 

 

Finally, yet important, SBA practice is standardized across schools. This characteristic is 

particularly important in Ghana. In previous years where class teachers had the option of 

setting their continuous assessments, a variety of exercises, some good and many of them 

rather trivial, were used in the school system. The number of items used in the continuous 

assessment system was not uniform and the marking and grading systems differed from 

school to school. The current SBA system has been designed to improve the old practice of 

leaving schools to develop their assignments by supplying schools with sample 

items/questions, project topics, marking, and grading systems as a procedure for 

standardizing the SBA process across schools in the country. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



28 

 

2.2.7 Purposes of School-Based Assessment (SBA) 

Lee et al. (2018) identified that SBA is intended to give teachers and students a full picture 

of students’ performance or ability and to support students in developing their abilities via 

a personal learning path. Costa and Kallick (1995) suggested to educators to adopt a vision 

in which learning is seen as a process of developing more complex and higher learning goals 

rather than merely the learning of knowledge. They proposed that assessment should be 

used to highlight the need to create incentives for learners to improve, empower the learners 

to define their learning path, devalue completion and enhance interdependence and see that 

skills and knowledge are interrelated, and assess them as a whole. 

 

Bell and Cowie (2001) argued that SBA serves multiple purposes such as providing 

summative information and improving learning. SBA provides teachers with a formative 

view of the student’s progress, helps them to adjust the instruction to suit the specific needs 

of students (Cheng & Lee, 2010), and identifies students’ depth and breadth of 

understanding, thus improving their learning (Dori, 2003). 

 

Caribbean Examinations Council (2013) maintains that SBA is an integral part of the 

assessment process. It is intended to assist students in acquiring certain knowledge, skills, 

and attitudes that are associated with the subject. The activities for the SBA are linked to 

the syllabus and should form part of the learning activities to enable the student to achieve 

the objectives of the syllabus. According to the council, the SBA serves several important 

functions. The SBA provides the opportunities to gather data on students’ performance over 

time, obtaining assessment based on students’ performance over an extended period and 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



29 

 

developed by those who know the students best, that is, their subject teachers thus providing 

a more reliable assessment of each student. 

 

More so, it serves to motivate students by engaging them in meaningful activities that are 

relevant to them; and for teachers, it can reinforce curriculum aims and good teaching 

practices. It aligns assessment with curriculum and instructions and provides students with 

multiple opportunities to demonstrate their competencies. It allows students to be active 

participants in the assessment process and gives credence and recognition to the teachers in 

the assessment process. 

They added that the SBA is designed to achieve the following objectives: 

i. Test skills and abilities that cannot be adequately tested by external assessment; 

ii. Provide opportunities for teachers and students to individualize aspects of the 

syllabus. 

iii. Provides students with formative feedback as it is conducted for several months. 

This formative feedback should improve students learning as they work through the aspect 

of the SBA task. 

iv. Civic responsibility (for history, these include researching and documenting). 

 

Ministry of Education, Ghana, (2011) was of the view that the Basic Education Certificate 

Examination (BECE) that Junior High School pupils sit at the end of nine-year of basic 

education is administered by the West African Examinations Council (WAEC), an external 

examinations body. Thirty percent of the marks that WAEC uses to award grades at 

the BECE come from marks that pupils obtain on their performance in school. The 30 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



30 

 

percent mark is an internal mark that comes from schools while the 70 percent mark is an 

external mark based on pupils ‘performance at the BECE. Assessment of the performance 

of pupils is therefore carried out in two ways: by external examinations and by internal 

examinations that are, the school-based assessment. They further stated that pupils tend to 

do well on tests administered in their schools because they are more relaxed when taking 

the tests in their classrooms. The familiarity with their classroom and school 

surroundings helps them to do better on tests administered in the school.  

 

External examinations during which pupils ‘work is supervised by people who are not 

known to them, tend to create anxiety for some pupils. This anxiety may tend to reduce the 

level of performance on the part of some pupils. It is therefore generally accepted that the 

performance of pupils on tests administered by their teachers in their classrooms better 

reflects the true performance of the pupil. It is for this reason that the Ministry of Education 

decided in 2011 that 30 percent of the marks for the BECE should come from t h e  

performance of pupils on their school-based assessment. 

 

Education in the school system consists of a variety of practical work as well as theoretical 

work. SBA, therefore, gives schools the chance to ensure that the performance of pupils 

on both practical skills and theoretical knowledge is reflected in the marks pupils obtain on 

their End-of-Term examinations. Learning does not take place only in the classroom, 

Ministry of Education (2011). Education is a broad concept and pupils are expected to learn 

from a variety of sources; from their teachers, from their friends and elders, from the library, 

from the Internet, and generally from their environment. All these sources they said, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



31 

 

contribute to the education of the young child.  The seriousness with which pupils learn in 

the classroom and outside the classroom should therefore be reflected in the assessment 

system of schools. 

 

Ministry of Education, Ghana, 2011, therefore summarized that the purposes of SBA are to: 

(i) Ensure that the grades pupils obtain at the BECE are based on their performances 

on the internal test administered in school and on the external examination administered by 

WAEC. 

(ii) Give schools the chance to make sure that all aspects of the education and training 

of the young child are taken into account in the assessment of the performance of the young 

person while in school. 

(iii) Provide pupils the chance to show the quality of their learning in and out of school 

on the marks they obtain on their SBA assignment. The SBA in effect gives pupils the 

chance to receive a broad education. 

 

SBA is by no means a new assessment tool; it is widely accepted and comprehensively 

implemented in countries such as Australia, New Zealand, England Scotland, Canada, 

Malaysia, and South Africa. SBA is regarded as a tool to more accurately reveal the true 

ability of the student, reduce the limiting effect of “exam fright” and to increase the 

confidence of students as they have already learned and brought to practice the examination 

content and skills during the conduct of their SBA projects. In addition to this, students can 

also feel less anxious as they have already achieved a certain percentage of the final mark 

before their final exam. Also, SBA is proven to have a positive effect on students’ public 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



32 

 

oral examination and a better absentee rate than students from the school that does not 

submit SBA marks (Cheng & Lee, 2010). 

 

According to the Ministry of Education in Trinidad and Tobago, an SBA may contribute as 

much as 70% towards a student’s final grade in some of the Caribbean Secondary 

Examination Certificate (CSEC) and Caribbean Advanced Proficiency Examinations 

(CAPE). In other cases, SBAs still contribute a significant 20%. Since SBAs generally allow 

opportunities for self-paced production and comprehensive feedback from teachers, it can 

be viewed as an excellent method for effective integration of teaching and learning with an 

assessment. 

 

After the teacher has taught through discussion and demonstration, students, individually or 

in groups, attempt to demonstrate what they have learned and have it subjected to 

standardized and known appraisal rubrics. As students and teachers gain an understanding 

of the students’ strengths and weaknesses, the SBA, and indeed the other assessment papers, 

can be approached more thoroughly with confidence, a sense of independence, and an 

increased motivation to improve one’s performance as a student and teacher. 

 

2.2.8 Advantages of the School-Based Assessment 

Walvoord and Anderson (2011) were of the view that assessment should be viewed as a tool 

to measure the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process and should not be 

interpreted as the objective of students’ learning experiences. It should serve as a means to 

attain educational goals. According to Brown (2001), SBA has the characteristics that fulfill 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



33 

 

the above requirement, and it is the ideal assessment system to relieve students’ pressure 

while at the same time allowing teachers initiative in assessing their students. 

 

To promote the benefits of the assessment, teachers are expected to be involved in four 

phases of the assessment process: (a) planning, (b) gathering evidence (c) interpreting 

evidence, and (d) using the results for decision making. 

The benefits laid down by the Hong Kong SBA consultancy Team (2005) for using SBA in 

teaching a language subject such as English, include providing stable and continuous 

pressure-free assessment, reducing the reliance on standard examination, improving test 

item reliability, reflecting students, ability, promoting leisure reading in the evaluation 

process. 

 

Another important benefit of SBA based on the researcher's teaching experience is that 

students themselves are evaluated based on school standards and school information, not on 

the state-wide or nationwide information. Students are not compared to students in other 

locations when school-based evaluations are used in schools, the bigger picture impact is 

how SBA itself transforms the classroom teaching and learning process that benefits the 

students most. Because SBA is complete education written and can create evaluations based 

on their own students’ accomplishments, it clearly shows that students have learned during 

a specific grading period or school year, unlike standardized test which is researched and 

written by the state or by teachers in another school (Mansor et al., 2013). 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



34 

 

Mansor et al. (2013) maintain that students are given mid-year and end-year state-wide tests 

for easy standardizations and school ranking practices. These tests assume that all schools 

study the same material covering similar topics. While this should be true, the fact is that 

some schools do not get to cover every topic due to unexpected situations or the student's 

inability to complete a study in a particular area. School-based evaluations can be tailor-

made to include only what has been accomplished by the students and the scores will reflect 

what the students have learned, instead of what they were supposed to be learning. They 

concluded that the above suggests that the change in the assessment system has further led 

to a paradigm shift in the teaching and learning processes of all primary schools that deserve 

the attention of academicians, educators, researchers including stakeholders. 

  

Therefore, the role of teachers in this new assessment system is vital; teachers have to have 

a variety of teaching approaches and assessment techniques that have a direct impact on the 

assessment outcomes (Fook et al., 2013). Ministry of Education, Trinidad and Tobago were 

of the view that an SBA may contribute as much as 70% towards a student’s final grade in 

some of the Caribbean Secondary Examination Certificate (CSEC) and Caribbean 

Advanced Proficiency Examinations (CAPE). In other cases, SBA still contributes a 

significant 20%. Since SBAs generally allow opportunities for self-paced production and 

comprehensive feedback from teachers, it can be viewed as an excellent method for 

effective integration of teaching and learning with an assessment. 

 

After the teacher has taught through discussion and demonstration, students individually or 

in groups can attempt to demonstrate what they have learned and had it subjected to 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



35 

 

standardized and known appraisal rubrics. As students' and teachers’ strengths and 

weaknesses, the SBA and indeed the other assessment papers can be approached more 

thoroughly with and an increased motivation to improve one’s performance as students and 

teachers. 

 

According to Mansor et al. (2013), using SBA to assess amendments performance comes 

with the following benefits: 

a) It encourages personal progress: From the researchers’ point of view, one of the 

benefits of SBA is that it encourages both the teacher’s and student’s progress. In this 

system, the subject teacher designs the assessment; it provides a platform for teachers to 

use a broader range of assessment methods in assessing students’ abilities. Teachers do not 

limit the assessment to the traditional test method. In such cases, role-play, project work, 

presentation, and other methods were used in the classroom during the assessment. They 

also pointed out that these assessments have no right or wrong answers, but the purpose was 

to evaluate how well the students were able to perform based on the learning outcomes.  

Indirectly, it encouraged teachers and students to develop their creativity and develop their 

talents.  Also, it encourages students to develop their thinking and analytical skills. They 

added that besides students, teachers also have shown personal progress by using various 

teaching approaches such as role-play, quizzes, and reading comprehension to improve their 

teaching skills. 

 

b) It develops a positive attitude in pupils. They also observed that in primary 

language subjects, the curriculum focuses more on speaking than writing. Therefore, 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



36 

 

students have more chances to practice their speaking skills through daily activities, such 

as role-playing and discussion. As a result, students are more outspoken and less shy than 

they were in the old system. Students have shown increased confidence in communicating 

with people and can do so politely and effectively. They also like to contribute ideas during 

discussions or in-class activities, showing their commitment to learning. The teachers feel 

that this assessment system has reduced the pressure of exams and m a k e s  students 

happier, and therefore enjoy learning more. 

c) It enhances collaborative learning skills. According to the researchers, the 

activities, such as group work, role-play, and practical work, give immediate feedback to 

teachers about students’ progress, as well as encouraging the students to collaborate with 

their peers. They enjoy sharing ideas, discussing and solving problems together, and 

working towards the learning goals because this system has reduced the unhealthy or 

unnecessary competition among students. The researchers again added that some 

respondents also realized that they have improved their collaboration skills with their 

colleagues. 

 

d) Promotes creative teaching and learning activities. Under the SBA system, teachers 

use different assessment methods to assess students’ learning performance. Teachers also 

use different teaching methods to ensure the effectiveness of learning. Sometimes they 

use colorful pictures or real objects to stimulate students’ thinking; sometimes they play 

games such as board games, bingo, or scrabble to increase students’ vocabulary, and they 

also give them worksheets for practice. On the other hand, under the SBA’s goal, which is 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



37 

 

“no one will be left out”, they have to monitor every student’s progress every day to ensure 

the effectiveness of every lesson. 

 

According to the Caribbean Examinations Council (2013), the SBA is an integral part of 

the assessment process.   It is intended to assist students in acquiring certain knowledge, 

skills, and attitudes that are associated with the subject.   The activities for the SBA are 

linked to the syllabus and should form part of the learning activities to enable the student to 

achieve the objectives of the syllabus. They were of the view that SBA serves several 

important functions. The SBA provides opportunities to gather data on students’ 

performances over time.  Obtaining assessments based on student performance over an 

extended period and developed by those who know the students best - their subject teachers 

- provides a more reliable assessment of each student. 

 

Moreover, the Caribbean examinations Council is of the view that SBA serves to motivate 

students by engaging them in meaningful activities that are relevant to them; and for 

teachers, it can reinforce curriculum aims and good teaching practices, aligning assessment 

with curriculum and instruction. It also provides students with multiple opportunities to 

demonstrate their competence as well as allows students to be active participants in the 

assessment process. Again, SBA gives credence and recognition to the teachers’ informed 

judgments about students’ performance allowing teachers to be critical leaders in the 

assessment process. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



38 

 

The Caribbean examinations Council (2013) still maintains that the SBA has many 

advantages. They were of the view that the SBA: 

(i) Facilities feedback to the students at various stages of the experience. This helps to 

build the Self-confidence of students with their studies. 

(ii) Provides an opportunity to individualize a part of the curriculum to meet the needs 

of students. 

(iii) Facilitates the development of the critical skills and abilities emphasized by the 

subject and enhances the validity of the examination on which candidates’ performance is 

reported. 

(iv) Makes a significant and unique contribution to both the development of relevant 

skills and the testing and rewarding of students for the development of those skills. 

(v) Caters to multiple intelligence as various teaching and learning strategies are 

utilized. 

(vi) Provide students with skills needed to function in everyday life; and 

(vii) Provides multiple opportunities and multiple ways to develop and demonstrate 

knowledge, skills, and attitudes. 

(viii) The SBA provides an excellent opportunity for students to get feedback, conduct, 

self-assessment, apply their knowledge and skills and improve their learning and 

achievement. 

 

2.2.9 The mode of school-based assessment in Ghanaian basic schools 

The SBA in Ghana comprises: 

(i) End-of-month tests 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



39 

 

(ii) Home assignments (specifically designed for SBA) 

(iii) Project 

The SBA system will consist of 12 assessments a year instead of the 33 assessments in the 

previous continuous assessment system. This will mean a reduction of 64% of the workload 

compared to the previous continuous assessment system. The 12 assessments are labeled as 

Task 1, Task 2, and Task 3 to Task 12. Tasks 1-4 will be administered in Term 1; Tasks 5-

8 will be administered in Term 2, and Tasks 9-12 administered in Term 3. 

 

Task 1 will be administered as an individual test coming at the end of the first month of the 

term. The equivalent of Task 1 will be Task 5 and Task 9 to be administered in Term 2 and 

Term 3 respectively. Task 2 will be administered as a Group Exercise and will consist of 

two or three instructional objectives that the teacher considers difficult to teach and learn. 

The selected objectives could also be those objectives considered very important and which 

therefore need pupils to put in more practice. Task 2 will be administered at the end of the 

second month of the term. Task 3 will also be administered as an individual test under the 

supervision of the class teacher at the end of the 11th or 12th week of the term. 

 

Task 4 (and also Task 8 and Task 12) will be a project to be undertaken throughout the term 

and submitted at the end of the term. Schools will be supplied with 9 project topics divided 

into three topics for the term. A pupil is expected to select one project topic for each term. 

Projects for the second term will be undertaken by teams of pupils as Group projects. 

Projects are intended to encourage pupils to apply knowledge and skills acquired in the term 

to write an analytic or investigative paper. Apart from the SBA, teachers are expected to use 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



40 

 

class exercises and home works as processes for continually evaluating pupils’ class 

performance, and also as a means of encouraging improvements in learning performance. 

 

2.2.10 Combining SBA Marks and End-of-Term Examination Marks 

The new SBA system according to the Ministry of Education, Ghana, (2011), is important 

for raising pupils’ school performances. For this reason, the 60 marks for the SBA will be 

scaled to 50 in schools. The total marks for the end-of-term test will also be scaled to 50 

before adding the SBA marks and end-of-term examination marks to determine pupils’ end-

of-term results. The SBA and the end-of-term test results will then be combined in an equal 

proportion of 50:50. 

 

2.2.11 The roles of the teacher in the implementation of the school-based assessment 

Darling-Hammond and McCloskey (2008) explained that SBA was a policy-supported 

practice that had increased in several educational institutional systems around the world 

including those of Australia, Bangladesh, New Zealand, Canada, the United Kingdom, 

Finland, Africa, Northern Ireland, Hong Kong, etc. In Bangladesh for example, teachers 

have the freedom to choose the topic from the syllabus and design the class test, classwork, 

practical work, assignment, homework, or oral presentation. It is also the teacher who is 

responsible for assigning the final grade to students’ work (Purvin, 2011). 

 

It is important to note that his teacher’s roles are central in assessing the students’ 

achievement for several reasons (Caribbean examinations Council 2012). 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



41 

 

1. Test prepared by the teacher responsible for a subject provides the most appropriate 

measure of the students’ achievement of the objective of a unit of work or a period of 

instructions 

2. The relevance of teacher assessment is high since the teacher is the best judge of 

what has been done with the students. It stands to reason then that the role of the teacher is 

both the formative and the summative assessment of the SBA would make the public 

examination more reliable instead of weakening its value; 

3. Teacher assessment allows observation to be made on a wide sample of students’ 

behavior, in a more natural setting than would occur in a single externally assessed paper 

(Caribbean examinations Council, 2012). 

4. In subjects with a high practical element, the teacher is in the best position to 

observe not only the student's manipulative skills but also their general work habit 

(Caribbean examinations Council 2012). 

5. Teaching and testing go hand in hand. Teachers measure the effectiveness of their 

instruction on the assessment of the students’ grasp of the objective of the instruction. 

Feedback from testing allows teachers to refine their objectives, revise their teaching 

strategies, select the most appropriate instructional materials, and plan their next unit of 

work (Caribbean examinations Council, 2012). 

6. Task selected by teachers provides the opportunity for self–directed learning in 

which the student can assume responsibility for work on the aspect of the subject area. 

 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



42 

 

2.2.12 The Challenges of School-based Assessment in schools 

As indicated by a report published by the Hong Kong Professional Teachers Union (HPTU) 

in 2013, the workload brought upon by SBA is overwhelming for both teachers and students. 

For the student, the demand for SBA is high in terms of its quality and quantity, sometimes 

exceeding that of a student’s ability (may even include tertiary education level content). 

 

Also, the heavy workload derived from SBA often incurs extra lesson time, therefore limits 

students from partaking in extracurricular activities. On the other hand, teachers are 

similarly affected by hosting the extra lessons and making the vast amount of students’ SBA 

work. Further, the PTU report suggested that the inadequate proportion of SBA that makes 

up the final mark will ultimately be “unfairly” adjusted by the public paper examination, 

regardless of how well the student did the former. A study by Mansora, Vikaramanb, and 

Medinac (2019) found that SBA implementation challenges include administrative support, 

teacher readiness, teacher workload, technical provision and professional support from the 

state education department. According to Ahmad and Mahamod (2016), teachers felt that 

SBA has caused students to take learning very lightly due to the non-exam culture, 

decreased emphasis on writing skills and increased teacher workload, including more time-

consuming class preparation. 

 

2.2.13 Strategies to ensure successful implementation of SBA  

To ensure a successful implementation of SBA, Mansora, Vikaramanb, and Medinac 

(2019) stated that many teachers group students according to capability, and then, apply 

different approaches to explain the task to be performed either in class or during 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



43 

 

assessment. According to them, this explains reasons to opt for formative assessments to 

evaluate student performance compared to summative examination that only shows final 

scores. Teachers are able to assess their student’s capability, capacity and skills gradually 

(in accordance to student’s learning phase) in order to achieve the final learning goals 

without rushing through syllabus or examination dates (Mutalib and Ahmad, 2016). This 

also promotes fun-learning, stress free learning environment. Mansora, Vikaramanb, and 

Medinac (2019) further stated that teachers should create various types of classroom 

activities to assess students’ physical, emotional, cognitive, affective and social 

performance. 

 

2.3 Empirical Review 

2.3.1 Empirical Review on the Implementation of SBA policy 

Rasid et al. (2015) assessed the role of mathematics teachers in the implementation of the 

SBA policy in Malaysia. The study sampled 260 teachers and found that mathematics 

teachers are ready and confident toward the implementation of SBA. The study also found 

that half of the teachers wish not to continue the use of the SBA as a mode of assessment. 

 

Abdullah et al. (2015) conducted a study to identify the level of planning and 

implementation of School-Based Assessment (SBA) among teachers in Malaysia. The 

study uses a combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches in their methodology 

to select four teachers who carry out SBA for an interview and administered a questionnaire 

to 589 teachers from 48 schools.  The study found that teachers do make careful planning 

before carrying out the assessment. This assertion was supported by Maba (2017) who 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



44 

 

found that planning should be done to ensure the implementation of the assessment to the 

standard of learning.  Brown (2001) added that proper planning will help teachers to focus 

better on teaching and this will produce meaningful learning. Stiggins and Chappuis (2006) 

stated that planning in terms of teaching materials should be done every day to ensure 

smooth implementation.  Abdullah et al. (2015) also found that teachers plan the teaching 

methods that are used for assessing students. This conforms with the findings of Khalil and 

Awang (2016) who stated that the method should be selected based on the performance 

which will be measured. 

 

2.3.2 Empirical Studies on the role of teachers in the implementation of SBA policy 

Adediwura (2012) stated that teachers ensure that the scores given are per the assignment 

given and they build the instrument based on what was assessed.  This is consistent with a 

study by Wiliam and Thompson (2008) which stated that teachers do the right concept of 

assessment by implementing SBA very well. 

 

Abdullah et al. (2015) found that teachers do not build their instruments but use books in 

the market as an instrument of their assessment in the classroom. However, Gipps and 

Stobart (2003) stated that the construction of instruments is a very heavy load and puts 

pressure on teachers’ knowledge and skills in the construction of instruments that is obtained 

during courses do not affect teachers. 

 

A study by Mansor et al. (2013) in Malaysia on the assessment of School-Based Assessment 

found that all the teachers are very committed and had taken a positive approach. They also 

University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 



45 

 

found that teachers take their jobs very seriously and go all out to make the teaching and 

learning process lively, interesting, and to touch each student's learning cord.   

 

Purvin (2011) stated that apart from teachers assigning the final grade to students' work, 

they are free to select the topic from the syllabus and design the classwork, homework, test, 

assignment, practical work, or oral presentation. Teachers conduct various tasks in the 

academic terms under the SBA, clearly explain the SBA tasks to all students, support 

pupils, and ease frustration towards the performance of the SBA tasks (Yung, 2002; 

Abdullah et al., 2015; Nair et al., 2014).  

 

According to Adediwura (2012), teachers ensure that the scores they provide are linked to 

the assignment given and the instrument are built based on the assessment list. That is, they 

ensure that the instrument employed produces a valid outcome (Abdullah et al., 2015). This 

is supported by Wiliam and Thompson (2008) who stated the assessment of teachers is 

standard since they implement SBA very well. 

 

2.3.3 Empirical Studies on