UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF BASIC AND 
APPLIED SCIENCES 
 
 
 
 
 
PACKAGING OF PLANTAIN FOR IMPROVED 
QUALITY AND SHELF LIFE 
 
 
 
BY 
EMILY NAA ADOBEA OKU-ADDO (10406077) 
 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN 
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF 
MPHIL NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCE DEGREE. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
APRIL, 2021
 
DECLARATION 
 
This is to certify that this thesis is the result of research undertaken by Emily Naa Adobea 
Oku-Addo towards the award of the Master of Philosophy in Food Science in the 
Department of Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana. 
 
 
 
 
Emily N.A. Oku-Addo 
 
(Student)                                                                       Date: 11th August, 2021 
 
 
 
 
Professor Esther Sakyi-Dawson                                         
 
(Supervisor)                                                                  Date: 11th August, 2021 
 
 
 
Professor Agnes Simpson Budu 
 
(Supervisor)                                                                  Date: 11th August, 2021 
 
 
 
i 
 
ABSTRACT 
Plantain is an important cash and subsistence crop for the small-scale producers in Ghana 
but unfortunately, the plantain industry is plagued with high postharvest losses. These 
postharvest problems affect plantain quality and increase losses. The main aim of this 
study was to improve the quality and shelf life of plantains during the postharvest 
handling period by using different packaging options using two parameters. The first 
section was conducted to evaluate the effects of treatments (use of shredded plantain 
pseudostem, potassium permanganate, a combination of both, and control) and packaging 
types (paper, wood and plastic boxes) on the sensory and physicochemical components 
of plantains. The second part of the study dealt with the effect of packing arrangements 
on transit and subsequent storage of the plantains. The five packing arrangements were; 
i) Fingers separated by a layer of Styrofoam ii) Fingers lying directly on top of each other 
(no Styrofoam) iii) Hands separated by a layer of Styrofoam iv) Hands lying directly on 
top of each other (no Styrofoam) v) bunches separated by a layer of Styrofoam. All 
samples but the bunches were placed in were in plastic boxes during transportation 
and storage. Significant differences were found between the bunches and the four other 
arrangements after transit. 
 
Total soluble solids (TSS), reducing sugar (RS), total sugar (TS), titratable acidity (TA), 
and pH were determined to follow the progression to senescence.  By day 22, the TSS 
of the plantains in the pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment recorded 36% and 25% in the 
pseudostem treatment. RS recorded 1.8% for pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment and 
1.3% for the pseudostem treatment. TS recorded 3.2% for pseudostem + KMnO4 
treatment and 1.9% for the pseudostem treatment. This trend was also observed for 
both TA and pH. These results were general averages of the packaging types. Pulp 
ii 
 
firmness, peel colour and level of bruising, were also analysed by sensory means and 
followed the same trend with the plantains in the pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment 
ripening faster than those in the pseudostem treatment. The pseudostem proved to be an 
ideal storage material for preserving the quality and extending the green life of 
plantains. For the packaging types, the plastic boxes contained and protected the 
plantains effectively. They also provided enough air for ventilation to combat heat but 
not too much to facilitate the ripening of the plantains. The paper and wooden boxes 
were less efficient thus, the quality of the plantains was compromised. Results of the first 
section (Objectives 1,2,3) indicated that plastic boxes with shredded plantain pseudostem 
recorded the longest shelf life of the plantains at 22 days, while plantains in the paper 
boxes with the pseudostem + KMnO4 recorded the lowest at 13 days, before senescence. 
Results from Specific Objective 4 informed that pulp firmness and level of bruising were 
2.00±00 for the bunches and 1.00±0.2 for the other four arrangements. Peel colour 
however wasn't affected. The use of Styrofoam did not have as much or any effect on 
the plantains during transit as the use of packaging did. During storage, the bunches 
ripened and reached senescence the fastest due to a high level of bruising, exposure to 
direct sunlight and oxygen. Hands with no Styrofoam was the second arrangement to 
reach senescence, followed by hands with Styrofoam, then fingers with no Styrofoam, 
and lastly fingers with Styrofoam.  It took a maximum of 15 days for all samples to 
reach senescence but by day 12, the bunches were decayed. 
 
Consequently, the use of plastic box and shredded plantain pseudostem as a storage 
material prolonged the green life of the plantain and improved upon its physical quality. 
Plantains arranged in fingers can also be used to preserve quality and extend green life 
of plantain.  
iii 
 
DEDICATION 
This work is dedicated to the Glory of the Almighty God, my mother, Ms. Joyce Oku, 
all my family members and loved ones for their love, patience, support and words of 
encouragement throughout my two-year study programme. 
  
iv 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
First and foremost, I would love to say a big thank you to God Almighty for seeing me 
through these two years successfully. 
 
I am also eternally grateful to my supervisors Prof. Esther Sakyi-Dawson and Prof. 
Agnes Simpson Budu who dedicated time off their extremely busy schedules to go 
through the manuscripts and made salient contributions, comments, and corrections 
which fine-tuned and refined this work. 
 
I would like to take this opportunity to thank my lecturers who selflessly advised me on 
how to go about my project not to talk of the two years of acquisition of knowledge 
from them and also Prof Kofi Essuman who went out of his way to help me with my 
packaging types. To Auntie Joyce, Auntie Leo, and Mr. Eric, I say a big thank you for 
the immense help with the lab work. 
 
Last but not least, to my friends Sydney, Smend, Robert, Pamela, Ama, Nana Yaw, 
Vincent, Stephen, Danny, and all my other course mates; thank you so much for all your 
input in my work and studies as a whole. You deserve to be acknowledged. I appreciate 
you all and God richly bless you. 
  
v 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................... I 
ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................................... II 
DEDICATION ................................................................................................................. IV 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. V 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................ VI 
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ X 
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... XI 
TABLE OF PLATES .................................................................................................... XIII 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................ 1 
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................. 1 
1.1 Plantain Production in Ghana ............................................................................... 1 
1.2 Rationale ............................................................................................................... 4 
1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................. 5 
1.3.1 Main Objectives ................................................................................................... 5 
1.3.2 Specific Objectives ............................................................................................... 5 
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 6 
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 6 
2.1 Classification Of Plantain And Banana ................................................................ 6 
2.2 Economic Importance of Banana and Plantains in the Food Chain ..................... 7 
2.3 World Production of Plantain ............................................................................... 9 
2.4 Postharvest Losses In Fresh Produce ................................................................. 10 
2.5 Estimated Postharvest Losses Plantain ............................................................... 13 
2.6 Respiratory Behaviour of Fresh Produce and its Influence oProduce Ripening 14 
2.7 Ripening In Fruits ............................................................................................... 17 
2.8 Ethylene Gas As Ripening Agent ....................................................................... 18 
vi 
 
2.9 Postharvest Behaviour Of Plantain ..................................................................... 19 
2.9.1 Shelf-Life And Postharvest Losses Of Plantain ................................................. 21 
2.10 Quality Attributes of Plantain Ripening ............................................................. 22 
2.10.1 Changes In Peel Colour ...................................................................................... 22 
2.10.2 Changes In Fruit Firmness ................................................................................. 23 
2.10.3 Changes In Total Soluble Solids (Tss) ............................................................... 24 
2.10.4 Changes In Titratable Acidity And Ph ............................................................... 25 
2.10.5 Changes In Starch Content ................................................................................. 26 
2.11 Mechanisms To Delay Ripening And Extend The Shelf Life Of Fresh Produce 
… ........................................................................................................................ 27 
2.11.1 Field Storage Method ......................................................................................... 27 
2.11.2 Cold Storage ....................................................................................................... 28 
2.11.3 Use of Ethylene Absorbents/Scrubbers .............................................................. 29 
2.12 Packaging of Fresh Produce ............................................................................... 30 
2.12.1 Modified Atmosphere Package (Map) / Controlled Atmosphere Package 
(Cap)… ............................................................................................................... 31 
2.12.2 A Micor P-Plus Modified Atmosphere Packaging Technology ......................... 32 
2.12.3 Vacuum Packaging of Bananas and Plantains ................................................... 33 
2.13 Packaging and Packaging Types ........................................................................ 33 
2.13.1 Commonly Available Food Packaging Types .................................................... 33 
2.13.1.1 Paper And Cardboard ......................................................................................... 33 
2.13.1.2 Wood .................................................................................................................. 34 
2.13.1.3 Plastic ................................................................................................................. 34 
2.14 Postharvest Management and Value Addition on Plantains .............................. 34 
2.15 Synopsis of Literature Review ........................................................................... 35 
 
 
vii 
 
CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................... 37 
MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................... 37 
3.1 Materials ............................................................................................................. 37 
3.1.1 The Plantain Sample ........................................................................................... 37 
3.2 Sample Preparation ............................................................................................. 37 
3.2.1 Experimental Design .......................................................................................... 37 
3.2.2 Packaging Types ................................................................................................. 38 
3.2.3 Treatments .......................................................................................................... 39 
3.2.3.1 Shredded Plantain Pseudostem Treatment ......................................................... 39 
3.2.3.2 Potassium Permanganate (Kmno4) Treatment ................................................... 40 
3.3 Packaging Of The Plantain Samples .................................................................. 41 
3.4 Biochemical And Physicochemical Analyses .................................................... 42 
3.4.1 Extraction Of Plantain Filtrate ........................................................................... 42 
3.4.2 Total Soluble Solids ........................................................................................... 42 
3.4.3 Reducing Sugar and Total Sugar ........................................................................ 43 
3.4.4 Titratable Acidity ............................................................................................... 43 
3.4.5 pH ....................................................................................................................... 44 
3.5 Sensory Evaluation of Samples .......................................................................... 44 
3.5.1 Training Of Quality-Grading Panelists .............................................................. 44 
3.5.1.1 Generating a Grading Scale for Assessing the Pulp Firmness ........................... 45 
3.5.1.2 Generating a Grading Scale For Assessing The Colour ..................................... 46 
3.5.1.3 Generating A Scale for Assessing The Level of Bruising ................................. 47 
3.6 Material Preparation For Plantains Transported and Stored. ............................. 48 
3.6.1 Packing Arrangements of Plantains For Transportation .................................... 48 
3.7 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 50 
 
 
viii 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 51 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ...................................................................................... 51 
4.1 Biochemical and Physicochemical Properties of Plantains in Different 
Treatments and Packaging Types During Storage Over a Period of Time. ....... 51 
4.1.1 Total Soluble Solids (Tss) .................................................................................. 52 
4.1.2 Reducing Sugar and Total Sugar ........................................................................ 54 
4.1.3 Titratable Acidity (Ta) and pH ........................................................................... 57 
4.2 Effect of Packaging Conditions on The Pulp Firmness, Peel Colour and The 
Level of Bruising on The Plantain Samples. ...................................................... 61 
4.2.1 Pulp Firmness ..................................................................................................... 61 
4.2.2 Peel Colour ......................................................................................................... 64 
4.2.3 Bruising .............................................................................................................. 66 
4.3 Effects of Packaging Types and Treatments on the Plantains During Storage for 
Optimum Shelf-Life ............................................................................................ 68 
4.3.1 Effects of The Packaging Types on the Plantains .............................................. 68 
4.3.2 Effect of Treatments on the Plantains ................................................................ 71 
4.4 Effects Of Different Forms of Packing Arrangements on Plantain Quality 
During Transit and Subsequent Storage. ............................................................ 75 
4.4.1 Changes In Pulp Firmness, Peel Colour And Level of Bruising For Plantain 
Samples after Subsequent Storage. .................................................................... 77 
4.5 Evaluating The Best Packing Arrangement During Transit and after Subsequent 
Storage For Improved Quality and Shelf- Life .................................................. 79 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 82 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................ 82 
5.1 Conclusions ........................................................................................................ 82 
5.2 Recommendations .............................................................................................. 83 
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 84 
APPENDICES ............................................................................................................... 103 
 
ix 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 2.1: Classification Of Fruits According To Their Respiratory Behaviour During 
Ripening ........................................................................................................................... 16 
Table 3.1: Quality-Grading Scale For Pulp Firmness ..................................................... 45 
Table 3.2: Quality Grading Scale For The Peel Colour ................................................... 46 
Table 3.3: Scale Used For Grading The Level Of Bruising ............................................ 48 
Table 3.4: Packing Arrangements For Plantains Transported And Stored ...................... 49 
Table 4.1: Effect Of Transit On Pulp Firmness, Peel Colour And Level Of Bruising On 
Plantains In Different Forms Of Packing Arrangements As Assessed Through Sensory 
Evaluation ........................................................................................................................ 75 
 
 
  
x 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 2.1: Climacteric And Non-Climacteric Ripening (Salveit, 2004) ........................ 16 
Figure 4.1: Changes In Total Soluble Solids (TSS) Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four 
Treatments (Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The 
Storage Period. A – Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box ............ 53 
Figure 4.2: Changes In Reducing Sugar (RS) Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four 
Treatments (Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The 
Storage Period. A – Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box ............ 55 
Figure 4.3: Changes In Total Sugars (TS) Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four Treatments 
(Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The Storage Period. A 
– Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box .......................................... 56 
Figure 4.4: Changes In Titratable Acidity (TA) Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four 
Treatments (Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The 
Storage Period. A – Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box ............ 59 
Figure 4.5: Changes In pH Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four Treatments (Pseudostem, 
Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The Storage Period. A – Corrugated 
Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box ................................................................ 60 
Figure 4.6: Changes In Pulp Firmness Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four Treatments 
(Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The Storage Period. A 
– Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box .......................................... 63 
Figure 4.7: Changes In Peel Colour Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four Treatments 
(Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The Storage Period. A 
– Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box. ......................................... 65 
Figure 4.8: Changes In Bruising Of Fingers Of Plantains In Four Treatments 
(Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) Over The Storage Period. A 
– Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box .......................................... 67 
Figure 4.9: Number Of Days Till Senescence Of Plantains In Three Packaging Types 
(Corrugated Paper, Wooden And Plastic Boxes) Undergoing The Four Treatments 
(Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control) ........................................... 69 
Figure 4.10: Average Number Of Days Taken Till Senescence Of All Plantains In All 
Packaging Types (Corrugated Paper, Wooden And Plastic Boxes) Undergoing The Four 
Treatments (Pseudostem, Kmno4, Pseudostem + Kmno4 And Control). ....................... 72 
Figure 4.11: Changes In Sensory Quality Characteristics Of Plantains Packed In 
Different Ways For Transportation And Subsequent Storage Till Senescence (Fingers 
With Styrofoam, Fingers Without Styrofoam, Hands With Styrofoam, Hands Without 
xi 
 
Styrofoam, Bunches With Styrofoam). A- Pulp Firmness, B – Peel Colour, C – Level Of 
Bruising ............................................................................................................................ 78 
  
xii 
 
TABLE OF PLATES 
Plate 3.1 Packaging Types For Plantain Storage: A – Corrugated Paper Box, B – 
Wooden Box, C- Plastic Box ........................................................................................... 38 
Plate 3.2 Plantain Pseudostem Preparation In Stages: A- Freshly Harvested Plantain 
Pseudostems B- Freshly Chopped Plantain Pseudostems C- Dried Shredded Plantain 
Pseudostems ..................................................................................................................... 39 
Plate 3.3 A - Plantains Covered In Pseudostem In A Plastic Box B - Plantains With 
Kmno4 And Pseudostem Before Being Covered With More Pseudostem. ..................... 40 
Plate 3.4 Peel Colour Chart (Adapted From Geest, Uk) Used For Training Of Panelists
 47 
Plate 4.1: Different Stages Of Ripening In Packing Arrangements: A - Fingers Separated 
With A Layer Of Styrofoam On Day 6, B - Hands Separated With A Layer Of 
Styrofoam On Day 3, C - Hands Lying Directly On Top Of Each Other With No 
Styrofoam Layer On Day 3, D - Bunches On Top Of Each Other, Separated With A 
Layer Of Styrofoam On Day 3. ....................................................................................... 81 
 
xiii 
 
 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
1.1 Plantain Production in Ghana 
Plantain is a member of the Musaceae family, which originally stems from a wild–type 
species of banana Musa balbisiana (Samson, 1980). It is grown in the humid forest zones 
of Central and West Africa and is one of the most essential world food commodities 
providing up to 25% of the required food energy to about 70 million people in sub-
Saharan Africa. Plantain is an important subsistence and cash crop in Ghana, with a 
contribution of about 13.1% to the Agricultural Gross Domestic Product (AGDP) 
and an 84.4 kg per capita consumption with 90% of it being locally consumed (SRID - 
MOFA, 2014; FAOSTAT, 2014). Plantain is known to provide estimated available food 
energy (AFE) of 172 Kcal/inhabitant/day and contributes up to 9.5% of the total national 
calorie intake, with a per capita annual consumption of 108.8 kg per head (Lescot, 2000).  
It also makes up about 13.1% of the Agricultural Gross Domestic Products (FAO, 2006). 
Plantain production in Ghana is done under the smallholder farm units (Ampofo et al., 
2013) and more than 90% of the cropped area belongs to the smallholder farming system 
(Dzomeku et al., 2011). In the 2008/2009 farming season, 311,800 hectares of cropped 
areas produced 3,338,000 metric tons of plantain, while in the 2009/2010 farming 
season, 329,000 hectares of the cultivated area increased production to 3,587,000 metric 
tons (CILSS, 2010). 
 
Plantain is a widely consumed starchy, staple food in Ghana and is highly versatile in 
its use as it is consumed in the unripe, ripe, and overripe forms, when raw or cooked 
(Akinyemi and Tijani Eniola, 2000). There are 3 main varieties of plantains, which 
1 
 
 
include the False Horn plantain (with local names; Apantu, Apentu pa, Brodewuo, 
Osoboaso or Brode Sebo), which is the most popular in terms of cultivation and 
consumption, the French Horn (also locally known as Apem, Oniaba, Apempa or 
Nyeretia) and lastly, the True Horn (Asamienu or Aowin).  
 
Postharvest losses as high as 10% to 30% are associated with the crop because plantains 
have a short pre-climacteric period of less than one week and a shelf life of about 11 
days under ambient conditions (Sugri et al., 2010). Improper handling during transit 
leads to bruises, breakages, peel darkening, fungal diseases (such as crown rot), and 
major postharvest losses. Plantain packaging for storage, as well as during transportation, 
remains a challenge in Ghana, leading to major post-harvest losses (Dzomeku et al., 
2016; Ayanwale et al., 2016). 
 
Research findings show that the use of moistened plantain pseudostem around the 
plantains extends the green shelf-life of the plantains, whereas pseudostem in 
conjunction with Potassium permanganate, induces ripening (Asimeng, 2018; Quarshie, 
2017). An ideal packaging material, preferably local, in addition to the above findings, 
is much needed to aid in the postharvest losses of plantains by controlling the rate of 
ripening as well as providing overall protection for the them. Good postharvest handling 
which includes proper packing arrangements and packaging, will ensure optimum 
quality and storage of the plantains is maintained over longer periods. 
 
Materials that may be used in food packaging include glass, metal, plastics, wood, 
paper and some other natural materials. These materials can extend the shelf life of food 
by preserving both fresh and processed foods right from the farm to the consumer through 
2 
 
 
the prevention or reduction of water loss (especially in fresh produce). Food items that 
are not packaged are exposed to a wide range of microorganisms and pests that could 
potentially reduce the shelf life of food items (Opara, 2013). The material used is 
dependent on the nature of food product since different packaging materials possess a 
range of performance characteristics that exerts significant impact on shelf-life 
(Robertson, 2011). Hence, bottles and glass jars are often used for packaging liquid food 
stuff while solid food products are mostly packed in plastics, wood, paper and 
cardboards. Paper, wood and plastics are mostly used to package agricultural produce 
such as plantain, which is the focus of our study. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
3 
 
 
1.2 Rationale 
Annual postharvest losses of plantain have been recounted to range from 10% to as high 
as 35% (Sugri et al., 2010; Odemero, 2013) and these losses have been reported to be 
caused by a lack of proper handling practices in the value chain of plantain (Adeniji et 
al., 2010). The Ghanaian agricultural sector is predominantly made of smallholder 
farmers and plantain production is ranked third in the food crop sector after yam and 
cassava.  According to Adu-Amankwa & Boateng (2011), the majority of postharvest 
losses is severe among farmers (smallholder farmers) who lack sophisticated storage 
facilities to reduce post-harvest losses. Thus, an appropriate intervention would be the 
use of cost-effective methods to extend the shelf-life of the plantains.  
 
Even though previous studies, such as Quarshie (2017) and Asimeng (2018) have been 
made in the area of maintaining the quality of plantains by the use of shredded and 
moistened plantain pseudostem for preserving the freshness and green colour of plantain 
for about 16 days and also, the use of KMnO4 in conjunction with the pseudostem, their 
studies did not include the use of packaging types. KMnO4 and pseudostem have been 
widely used for chemical treatments by scholars because they are readily available and 
are effective reagents that when combined can induce ripening (individually prolongs the 
green shelf-life of plantain) through the release of ethylene gas and changes in the natural 
fibre content of plantain (Kalia, Kaith & Kaur, 2009; Imoisili et al., 2017). It is therefore 
against this background that this research aims to investigate packaging types and close 
the gap in literature; with the above treatments, that will further maintain the quality of 
plantain during transportation and subsequent storage.  
 
 
4 
 
 
1.3 Objectives 
1.3.1 Main Objectives 
To investigate the effect of different packaging types and treatments on the quality of 
plantain during transportation and storage. 
 
1.3.2 Specific Objectives 
1. To determine changes in some biochemical and physicochemical properties of 
plantains in different storage treatments. 
 
2. To determine the effects of packaging types and treatments on some biochemical and 
physicochemical properties of plantains. 
 
3.  To evaluate changes in some sensory quality characteristics (pulp firmness, peel 
colour and level of bruising) of plantains stored in the various packaging types and 
treatments over time. 
 
4. To investigate the effects of different forms of packing arrangements on sensory 
quality characteristics of the plantains during transit and subsequent storage.  
5 
 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW 
 
2.1 Classification of Plantain and Banana 
Plantain (Musa spp. AAB group) is a giant perennial herb which is a natural inter-specific 
cross between the two wild species Musa accuminata colla which contributes to genome 
A and Musa balbisiana colla, contributing genome B (Simmonds and Shepherd, 
1955; Stover and Simmonds, 1987). It is believed to have originated from the hot 
tropical region of South Asia, into the humid tropics of Western and Central Africa where 
some 116 named cultivars have been identified. It is also said to have a life span of about 
fifteen years (Swennen, 1990; Philips, 1982). Plantains require some form of processing 
before consumption since these are crops whose fruits remain starchy at maturity 
(Marriot and Lancaster, 1983; Robinson, 1996). 
 
It is estimated that plantain production in Africa is more than 50% of worldwide 
production (FAO, 1990) and is the fourth most important starchy staple crop after 
grains, cassava and yam in Ghana, according to Cropley and Morris (1993). In 
Ghana, plantain is usually grown using shifting cultivation and bush fallow in the moist 
forest belt, where the annual rainfall ranges from 1500 to 3600 mm per year (Schill et 
al., 2000). About 80% of plantains in Africa are produced in the area stretching from the 
lowlands of Guinea and Liberia to the central basin of DR Congo (Aiyelaagbe et al., 
2001). 
 
The family includes two main genera Musa and Ensete and sometimes the monotypic 
genus, Musella (Constantine and Rossel, 2001). Two diploid species, Musa acuminata 
6 
 
 
(AA), and balisiana (BB) gave rise to most of the identified edible-fruited cultivars. 
However, there are diploid, triploid and tetraploid hybrids comprising of subspecies of 
M. acuminata, and subspecies between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana (Robinson 
1996; Stover and Simmonds, 1962). 
 
The use of physical attributes such as forms, shapes or structures and colour, as well as 
determined traits such as the weight of a bunch enables one to characterize or classify 
the bananas (Stover and Simmonds, 1962). Simmonds and Shepherd (1955) gave a list 
of fifteen features used in the scoring of Musa cultivars. For each character 
corresponding with the wild Musaceae acuminata, a score of one (1) was given while 
those corresponding to M. balbisiana got a score of five (5) and intermediate cultivars 
were given intermediate scores. This means a cultivar could get a total score of at least 
fifteen (15) and at most seventy-five (75). The AA and AAA cultivars obtained scores 
of fifteen (15) to twenty-four (24), AAB cultivars twenty-five (25) to fifty-four (54) and 
ABB fifty-five (55) to sixty-four (64) (Onguso et al., 2002). Age, developmental stage, 
or environmental effects on measured traits may reduce the efficiency of identification, 
although classical phenotype characteristics are still extremely useful (Bhat et al.,1995). 
 
2.2 Economic Importance of Banana and Plantains in the Food Chain 
Plantain has been rated the fourth most important food crop after rice, wheat, and maize 
as it occupies a strategic position in world food production (Phillip et al., 2009; FAO, 
2014). It is a major staple food and also a cash crop supporting the socio-cultural life of 
both rural and urban economies in sub-Saharan Africa (IITA, 2009). In Ghana and 
Nigeria, plantain is rated third, following yam and cassava closely, and respectively, in 
terms of importance in the starchy staple community (FAO, 2014).  The socioeconomic 
7 
 
 
importance of plantain and banana in most African economies where it is usually grown, 
is seen in the areas of food security, job creation and as a source of rural income. An 
example can be seen in the Ghanaian sector where only a hectare of plantain cultivation 
is said to provide an average of 0.75 direct employments, which when compared with the 
national cultivated acreage, is converted into about 350,523 permanent jobs for people 
(Rodriguez and Rodriguez, 2001, Dzomeku et al., 2011).  
 
Plantain is said to have a proven medical, as well as industrial relevance, other than being 
consumed as food (Faturoti et al., 2007). Plantain, especially its peels, contains low 
amounts of sodium making it an ideal diet for people with kidney diseases and can  also 
neutralize free hydrochloric acid, thereby making it a very potent medicine for treating 
peptic ulcers (Gowen, 1995). 
 
This crop is described as being versatile and with a great potential of being processed 
into different products. Several processing industries have emerged as a result of this and 
are processing the crop into products such as bread, cakes and biscuits (Ogazi, 1996; 
Phillip et al., 2009). Cooking banana and plantain are eaten either as raw (in the ripe 
state) or as a cooked crop and in many homes, it is the raw material for the preparation 
of several popular local delicacies and snacks (Aina et al., 2012). In Cameroon, 
Ghana, Nigeria and other parts of Africa, the plantain may be boiled, fried, roasted, 
and sometimes even baked into a variety of food products with some of the methods 
requiring further processing such as slicing, cutting, mashing and grinding. In some parts 
of Uganda, dried forms of the unripe fruits are stored as famine food, and the flour is 
used in making cakes and cookies (INIBAP 2001).  
8 
 
 
The crop is also said to be a major source of carbohydrates for many people in Latin 
America, the Pacific, Asia, the Caribbean and Africa (Tchango et al., 1999) and a 
fundamental source of rural income to most people in the developing world (Vuylsteke 
et al., 1993). 
 
2.3 World Production of Plantain 
Approximately 120 countries in the world are known to cultivate plantains and bananas 
(Olorunda, 2000) with the estimated total world production of plantains presently around 
33 million metric tons. Out of the total production, about 32% or more is produced in 
West Africa alone.  The ten highest banana and plantain producing countries are from 
Africa and the Caribbean regions with the top three being from Africa. Uganda, 
Cameroon and Ghana produce 4.6 million MT, 3.9 million MT and 3.8 million MT, 
respectively. Nigeria is 5th and Cote d‘Ivoire is 7th producing 3.0 million MT and 1.6 
million MT, respectively (FAOSTAT, 2017). In Uganda alone, the per capita 
consumption of bananas as a staple food is about 223 kg per person per year (Viljoen 
et al., 2004). These statistics emphasize the importance of sub-Saharan Africa, 
particularly West Africa, in the worldwide production of plantain and banana (EPAR, 
2013). Available Food and Agricultural Organization Statistics (FAOSTAT) over the 
years also show that plantain production in Africa is much higher as compared to banana 
production. 
 
In the Carribeans, plantain is usually grown in the Caribbean coastal area, largely 
by small-scale farmers for local consumption and also for export. Banana production 
absorbs half of the pesticide imports in Costa Rica whilst plantain traditionally has been 
less dependent on chemical treatments (Agama-Acevedo et al., 2015). Plantain is a 
9 
 
 
diet very common in many Latin American countries (Barraza et al., 2011). In Ghana, 
plantain cultivation covers about 337, 000 hectares of the available farmlands with an 
average farm size of around 0.8 hectares. The total household farming of plantain in 
Ghana is also estimated to be over 400,000, with over more than 90% of the cultivated 
area in smallholder farms (SRID-MOFA, 2014). Plantain, maize, rice, sorghum, millet, 
cowpea, cassava, yam, and cocoyam are the major food crops known to be cultivated in 
Ghana, which collectively contribute appreciably to the country’s Agricultural Gross 
Domestic Products (AGRA, 2014). 
 
2.4 Postharvest Losses in Fresh Produce 
Postharvest losses (PHLs) can occur either qualitatively or quantitatively. When losses 
occur qualitatively, they occur as physical conditions on the plantain and manifest in the 
form of perceived substandard value, texture and flavour deterioration and changes in 
nutritional value. On the other hand, quantitative value manifests in the form of physical 
losses of food unfit for human consumption and as such leads to food being discarded. 
Economic loss is also another form of loss and occurs when high quality produce is 
restricted to lower markets. Comparatively, quantitative losses are easier and less 
complicated to assess than qualitative losses since qualitative losses are determined by a 
plethora of factors included in an official grading standard since loss in quality does not 
always translate to food loss (Morris & Kamarulzaman, 2014). 
 
This further complicates qualitative losses and could be the reason postharvest losses 
information system (APHLIS) network model for grain loss assessment is quantitative 
losses and not qualitative. Plantain is a staple in Ghana and as such that downgrades its 
quality and economic value making them undesirable for certain culinary user markets. 
10 
 
 
Therefore, assessments of both quantitative and qualitative losses in plantain are of equal 
importance (Parfitt et al., 2010). 
Generally, quantitative losses are measured by a number of methods such as weight of 
discarded, calorific value, lost inputs, greenhouse gas (GHG) emitted and cumulative 
weight loss. If weighed values are obtained in each supply chain activity, the volume of 
PHLs can be estimated in terms of percentage losses with respect to total production 
volumes as described in the study by Sharma and Singh (2011). Alternatively, a “loss 
profile” described by APHLIS model could be obtained for plantain through collection 
of cumulative weight losses for each step of the supply chain with respect to the total 
production estimates (Parfitt et al., 2010). On the other hand, qualitative losses which is 
more of a subjective and abstract phenomenon is difficult to measure directly and rather 
described in terms of or state of the product in question. Though complicated, qualitative 
losses should not be ignored: because PHLs may not give a complete picture without 
qualitative losses. For this reason, measurement of qualitative postharvest losses should 
not be generalized but instead simplified to include only important valued factors for 
each commodity (Ekunwe & Ajayi, 2010). 
 
Many authors have had varying definitions for postharvest losses (Parfitt et al., 2010). 
Generally, all the definitions for postharvest losses’ have revolved around anything 
or any condition that causes quantitative and/or qualitative decrease in the produce 
during the various interconnected activities from harvesting through to the final 
consumer that are measurable (Kader, 2002; Grolleaud, 2002; Stuart, 2009). Qualitative 
loss, which includes the acceptability or edibility and/or loss in the nutrient content of 
a given food product, is more common among developed countries (Kader, 2002) 
11 
 
 
whereas quantitative loss, resulting from a loss in the number of products are much 
common in developing countries (Kintinoja and Gorny, 1999). 
 
The issue of food loss may be interchanged with food damage and food wastage. Any 
physical sign of deterioration that limits the use of the product/food is food damage, 
while food loss has to do with the food being unavailable or impossible to use (ACF, 
2014). In fresh agricultural products like fruits, vegetables and tubers, these losses 
may occur as a result of certain natural or biochemical changes and processes that are 
ongoing even after harvest (Sousa- Gallagher et al., 2011). Food waste also occurs when 
food that is appropriate for human consumption is left to spoil or is discarded whether 
before or after its expiry date (ACF, 2014). Wastage therefore is centered on the 
behaviour of consumers and food handlers, and the term “wastage” is used to include 
loss and waste of food. This definition, however, does not include inedible parts of food 
disposed of or animal feed but rather, a subset of food loss, which can be retrieved for 
human consumption (Hodges et al., 2011). 
 
Globally, food wastage (and/or loss) is higher in the downstream phases of the food 
chain in high-income countries, however, in low-income regions, more wastage and 
loss are recorded at the upstream phases (FAO, 2013). The population of the world 
in 2050 is expected to rise to about 9 billion and by this figure; there must be a 
corresponding rise of about 70% in the world’s food production of especially the major 
food crops to be able to feed this population (FAO, 2011). These high postharvest losses 
recorded in fresh produce, especially in Africa, could therefore be tolerated no longer, 
and as such diverse interventions and strategies are required (ACF, 2014). 
  
12 
 
 
2.5 Estimated Postharvest Losses Plantain 
According to Parfitt et al. (2010), the global estimation of loss in all foods produced is 
about 1.3 billion tons and this poses a huge problem in parts of Africa, the Pacific, and 
the Caribbean (ACP countries), where a high percentage of about 40-50% of the 
total of fresh produce from these areas are wasted due to poorly developed infrastructure 
and further worsened by the tropical weather (SPORE, 2011). The postharvest loss of 
plantain is mostly due to the highly perishable nature of the plantain fruits and varies 
from country to country due to the difference in the organization of the market link 
and modes of consumption (Tchango et al., 1999). In developing countries, 
postharvest losses in plantain are estimated to be around 35% (Adeniji et al., 2010). 
Losses are about 10-30% in Ghana annually and even higher in Nigeria at about 
40% (Sugri and Johnson, 2009; Odemero, 2013). Also, reports have shown that 50- 
60% of all food crops grown in Ghana fail to make it to the final consumer (AGRA, 
2014). These high postharvest losses and wastes recorded in plantain as well as other 
fresh produce are major factors that limit the availability of crops on the market 
(Ayanwale et al., 2016). 
 
Plantain losses through wastage in sub-Saharan Africa are nearly non-existent due to the 
many uses found for plantain in this region (Ogazi, 1996; Phillip et al., 2009).  In Ghana, 
plantains are used in the preparation of several dishes and snacks, from the matured green 
stage right through to its almost rotten stage, where it is used to prepare ‘tatale’. However, 
whether it is food damage, food waste or food loss, research has shown that they are all 
likely to occur at any stage in the postharvest chain and sometimes even at the production 
stage (Parfitt et al., 2010). In Cameroon, the clearest postharvest losses are recorded at 
the producer level in the enclave sites during the wet season (Treche, 1997). 
13 
 
 
Some factors contributing to the agitation of postharvest losses and cause of fruit quality 
depreciation include maturity level of produce (harvesting at different maturity close to 
fruit ripening), poor transportation and distribution facilities in the production site, poor 
storage conditions, and also, improper handling practices. 
 
2.6 Respiratory behaviour of fresh produce and its influence on produce ripening 
A process in living organisms which involves the production of energy, typically with 
the intake of oxygen and the release of Carbon dioxide from the oxidation of complex 
organic substances. It is one of the important processes in fresh produce that affects the 
quality and shelf-life (Fagundes et al., 2013). The sugar and acid reserves, with increased 
metabolism activity, are the substrates consumed during respiration, which leads to the 
shortening of their shelf life (Chitarra and Chitarra, 2005). The respiration rate of given 
fresh produce is said to be inversely proportional to its shelf-life and therefore, the 
estimation of respiration rate is of crucial importance in shelf-life determination (Kader, 
1987). 
 
The rate at which fresh produce respire, is dependent on certain external and internal 
factors. Internal factors being the nature and or type of fresh produce such as variety, 
stage of maturity/ripening and extent of bruises/damages. Conditions in the storage 
environment such as temperature, gaseous composition, presence/absence of ethylene 
and relative humidity, count as the external factors. Bananas and plantains under ambient 
conditions have been reported to have a moderate respiration rate of between 10-20 mg 
CO2 Kg/h compared to the high rate of between 20-40 mg CO2 Kg/h for avocados and 
low rate of between 5-10 mg CO2 Kg/h for apples, citrus, potatoes, and onions under 
same conditions (Kader, 1987). 
14 
 
 
 
Fruits and vegetables are classified as either climacterics or non-climacterics based 
on their distinct respiration rates (Mahajan and Goswami, 1999; Suman et al., 2011). In 
climacteric fruits, there is a trend of decreasing respiration rate to a very low value also 
known as the pre- climacteric minimum. This is then followed by a sudden upsurge in 
the rate of respiration to the climacteric peak also termed respiratory climacteric. This 
respiratory climacteric is that point in time during the development of the fruit when 
there is a change from growth to senescence due to a series of biochemical changes and 
an autocatalytic ethylene production initiated by a rise in respiration rate (Sousa-
Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011). This process is what makes climacteric fruits continue to 
ripen even when they have been harvested mature green from the mother plant. When 
the temperature is not controlled, there is a rapid ripening and senescence in climacteric 
fruits due to the rise in respiration. It also leads to the breakdown of tissues, synthesis of 
characteristic volatiles and moisture loss due to over-ripening. Fungal and bacterial 
infections can also result from high moisture and warmth (Aked, 2000). 
 
Non-climacteric fruits and vegetables show no rise in respiration rate as well as ethylene 
production (Sousa-Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011) and in these kinds of fruits, the process 
of ripening can only be completed when the fruit is still attached to the mother plant 
(Kader, 2002). Unlike climacterics, their eating quality greatly suffers when picked from 
the parent plant before the ripening process completes since their acid and sugar contents 
do not increase afterward (El- Ramady et al., 2015). In Table 2.1 are some examples of 
15 
 
 
both climacterics and non-climacteric fruits according to Kader (2002) and Sirivatanapa 
(2006). 
Figure 2.1: Climacteric and non-climacteric ripening (Salveit, 2004) 
 
Table 2.1: Classification of fruits according to their respiratory behaviour during ripening 
Non-climacterics Climacterics 
Lime Guava 
Grape Papaya 
Orange Banana 
Pomegranate Plantain 
Pineapple Pear 
Watermelon Apple 
Lemon Avocado 
Blackberry Berries 
Cranberry Melons 
Cherry Plum 
Raspberry Apricot 
Litchi Kiwifruit 
 
16 
 
 
2.7 Ripening in Fruits 
Ripening is a growth indicator used in assessing the growth of fruits (Ogazi, 1996). It is 
the ultimate stage of fruit development and it involves several metabolic, biochemical 
and physiological changes, which cause the fruit to develop key quality attributes like 
colour, texture, aroma, flavour as well as making the fruits sweeter and more edible 
(Payasi and Sanwal, 2005; Gandhi et al., 2016). 
 
In ripening, there is a chlorophyll breakdown and the fruit becomes less green, softer 
and regardless of the rise in acidity, the fruit is still sweeter and more delicious to 
consume (Rahman et al., 2008).  The process of ripening in fruits is associated with the 
synthesis of mRNA, novel proteins, pigments, and flavour in the fruit by using the carbon 
skeleton blocks and energy supplied to the tissues through the respiration process. 
(Sampaio et al., 2007). Naturally, ripening usually occurs when fruits have achieved the 
right physiological maturity or after the matured green stage telling of an internal 
genomic control mechanism and phenomenon that prevents premature fruits from 
ripening (Clendennen & May 1997; Seymour et al., 2002). 
 
In a conclusive work on bananas and plantains, Dadzie and Orchard (1997) showed 
them to be typical climacteric fruits that experience a sudden exponential increase in 
respiration rate and subsequent metabolic changes that result in significant 
transformations in colour, texture and flavour during ripening. This rise in the respiration 
rate of ripening fruits has been discovered to quadruple. According to Sugri and Johnson 
(2009), this is the main reason responsible for the faster deterioration rate of ripe plantain 
fruits as compared with green ones. 
 
17 
 
 
Some chemicals have been shown to stimulate the ripening process of fruits (Suman 
et al., 2011; Sogo-Temi et al., 2014) and these ripening agents may either be natural or 
artificial (Gunasekara et al., 2015).  While the natural ripening process is known to be 
controlled by genes which regulate the release of ethylene gas, (a natural agent) to initiate 
the ripening process (Gray et al., 1992), the artificial ripening process is a commercial 
strategy deployed to reduce the losses during transportation, by harvesting fruits before 
the release of ethylene by natural processes at the matured green stage and using 
artificially prepared chemicals to cause ripening in the harvested fruits later in the 
handling process when required (Gunasekara et al., 2015). Ethephon, ethrel, ethylene 
glycol, artificial ethylene and calcium carbide are examples of these commercially known 
artificial ripening agents. 
 
2.8 Ethylene gas as ripening agent 
Ethylene is a plant hormone that plays a functional role in growth regulation and 
climacteric fruit ripening (Liu et al., 2015). It is a colourless naturally occurring 
hydrocarbon gas (C2H2) which may be produced not only in ripening fruit, but from 
internal combustion of exhaust engines, smoke, rotting vegetation, natural gas leaks, 
welding and in some types of manufacturing plants and other related processes (Argenta 
et al., 2001). It is active in very small amounts (part per million) and is transported by 
diffusion from its production site to the active site (Zagory, 2009). Ethylene is sometimes 
represented as C2H2 and has the chemical structure indicated below: 
 
 
 
 
18 
 
 
 
Injured fruits produce ethylene that enhances faster ripening of fruits than in the 
uninjured ones due to the faster rate of respiration in the bruised ones. Ethylene utilization 
can be traced to the early years where the Egyptians used to gash figs to facilitate ripening 
response. It is said that the ancient Chinese were also known to burn incense in closed 
rooms to keep pears, where ethylene was released in the combustion process, to stimulate 
fruit ripening (Argenta et al., 2001). 
 
The use of ethylene gas is mainly to induce ripening and colouring of fruits like 
tomatoes, mangoes, citrus, pears, plantains and bananas whereas it stimulates flowering 
in pineapples and also improves the appearance and growth of bean sprouts when applied 
on the field using ethylene generator or gas emission systems (Suman et al., 2011). 
When applied artificially to achieve these purposes, extra care has to be taken since 
higher concentrations could cause undesirable effects in fruits and vegetables, and can 
also have bad effects on human health (Hasan et al., 2010). 
 
Compounds such as 1-Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), potassium permanganate, 
Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), aminooxy acetic acid (AOA) and Ozone generators 
(normally used in cool-rooms) can inhibit ethylene. It is mostly used commercially and 
poses no known toxicological and environmental hazards from its use (Argenta et al., 
2001). 
 
2.9 Postharvest behaviour of Plantain 
Plantain is one of the most valued crops all over the world because of its versatility in 
being used as food.  Inadequate proper postharvest management practices may bring 
19 
 
 
about massive economic loss. Reduction of respiration rate, delay of ripening and control 
of disease-causing organisms during transport and storage are various postharvest 
management practices used to improve upon the quality and shelf-life of produce. 
Ripening is a growth indicator used in assessing the growth and development of fruits. 
Usually, the fruit is developed in size, with a green peel (which is mostly dependent 
on the fruit type), and at its peak of starch level at physiological maturity (Ogazi, 1996). 
The ripening stage of plantain is combined with several biochemical reactions such as 
ethylene synthesis, starch degradation, sugar accumulation and changes in other 
bioactive compounds (Nascimento et al., 2006; Fatemeh et al., 2012; Wang et al., 
2014). There is no known aromatic sensory characteristic at the matured green stage till 
the fruit loses its angularity and the bioactive compounds undergo chemical reactions 
and the peel colour turns yellowish. Since plantain is a climacteric fruit, storing it among 
other ethylene emitting produce minimizes its storage life due to the autocatalytic nature 
of the ethylene substance present in the produce (Argenta et al., 2001). 
 
Large-scale producers can catalyze the rate of ripening through the use of artificial 
processes such as controlled atmospheres (Rahman et al., 2008).  Under these controlled 
atmospheres, the plantain cultivars require low ethylene exposure ranging from as little 
as 100 to 150 ppm of the said gas at a temperature of about 15 °C to 20 °C and relative 
humidity of 90 to 95% to stimulate uniform ripening in the produce (NARI, 2003). Also, 
concentration levels of the CO2 are kept below l% as in the controlled atmosphere to 
prevent carbon dioxide from delaying the ethylene action. Temperatures higher than 25 
°C can make the pulp undesirably soft; therefore, temperature regulation is also a key 
factor here and must correspond very well with the desired degree of ripening (Tchango 
et al., 1999). 
20 
 
 
 
Ethylene gas is expensive and not easily accessible to market women in the local 
communities; therefore, to initiate the ripening process to sell their plantains in their 
ripen state, they pile the plantains in baskets lined with sacks or polyethylene sheets, or 
in drums and other containers suitable enough to exclude air circulation and accumulate 
heat around the produce. They also pile them in heaps on the ground sometimes 
(Tchango et al., 1999) while others too trigger ethylene production or initiate ripening 
in the heaped produce by adding already ripe plantain to the pile or stored produce. 
These methods normally take about 3-7 days or even more depending on the maturity 
stage of the fruits and other environmental factors like temperature and humidity 
(Robinson, 1996; Daniells, 2003). 
 
2.9.1 Shelf-Life and Postharvest losses of Plantain 
Plantain is a climacteric fruit and therefore undergoes metabolic processes including 
respiration and transpiration even after harvest. As a catabolic process, respiration 
coupled with ripening processes, eventually leads increased enzymatic breakdown of 
available starches to simple sugars, degradation of chlorophyll and tissue softening as a 
result of increased pectinase activity (Daniells, 2003). Under poor storage conditions and 
handling methods, these processes lead to decreased quality during postharvest 
management. Unfavourable storage conditions allow rapid ripening and subsequent 
spoilage of harvested plantains. This is reported to occur most at the producer level along 
the supply chain (Daniells et al., 2001).  
 
 
 
21 
 
 
2.10 Quality Attributes of Plantain Ripening 
Gunasekara et al. (2015), describe fruit quality as the degree of excellence of the fruit 
for a particular purpose, which is, assessed either qualitatively or quantitatively. 
Qualitative assessments include, pulp firmness, peel colour, level of bruising, amongst 
others, and are usually measured with the use of the five sensory attributes, while 
quantitative assessments are used for physicochemical parameters such as; peel to pulp 
ratio, moisture content, pH, Total Soluble Solids (TSS), Titratable Acidity (TA), Total 
Sugar or Starch and Vitamin C (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997; Gunasekara et al., 2015). 
 
Superficial changes in the plantains may not be an accurate determination of the degree 
of ripeness due to changes occurring both internally and externally (Dadzie and Orchard, 
1997) Some factors such as low relative humidity, high temperatures and other 
genetic factors may cause the peel colour of the fruits to remain green even when 
ripening has already occurred internally. Therefore, a combination of external as well as 
internal changes to determine the maximum eating quality of fruits is necessary for 
reliability (Wills et al., 1998; Anthon et al., 2011). 
 
A combination of high temperature, high perishability, poor or slow market systems as 
well as poor handling practices and storage enable losses in the fruit quality and finally 
lead to a postharvest loss (Fagbohu et al., 2010). 
 
2.10.1 Changes in peel colour 
One of the most important external qualities that affect a consumer’s decision on the 
edibility of a given fruit is the change in the colour of the peel. This is due to it being 
a reflection of the internal changes in the pulp (Kays, 1999). Some fruits do not only 
22 
 
 
change their peel colour during ripening but their pulp colour as well. These changes 
indicate the degree of ripeness and subsequent postharvest life of the fruit (Ajayi & 
Mbah, 2007). For every fruit, there are acceptable colours for unripe, ripe and overripe. 
The development of these colours in fruits is greatly influenced by certain naturally 
occurring pigments in the fruit, which result from either the degradation of the 
chlorophyll structure and/or the synthesis of carotenoids (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). 
These carotenoids synthesized in plants give colour to fruits and may normally occur as 
red, orange or yellow pigments.  
 
In bananas and plantains, the change in the green colour with the emergence of the 
yellow, is indicative of ripening. This usually begins immediately after the climacteric 
peak in about two to seven days after harvest, depending on the fruit maturity and the 
temperature (Wills et al., 1998; Ajayi and Mbah, 2007). At the early stage of plantain 
maturity, the peel is green in colour and changes to yellow, brown and finally black at 
the final ripening stage (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997; Wills et al., 1998). 
 
The orthodox way of determining the degree of ripeness in fruits mostly depends on 
the peel colour. Standard colour charts may be used to compare the changed in peel 
colour as a form of quick assessment (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). Colorimeters may 
also be used in some instances. 
 
2.10.2 Changes in fruit firmness 
Major changes in hardness or softening of the flesh of the fruit do occur as part of the 
ripening process. As the peel of the fruit turns from green to yellow, it is corresponded 
by important textural transformations in the pulp (Smith et al., 1990). At the optimal 
23 
 
 
ripening stage, the pulp becomes tenderly soft and as it moves into the overripe stage, 
the pulp then becomes extremely soft or mushy (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). This 
textural loss has been linked to certain processes such as cell wall breakdown due to 
pectic substances, solubilization and also starch breakdown to form sugars (Ali and Abu-
Goukh, 2005; Anthon et al., 2011). 
In fruits like plantain, banana, guava, tomato, and mango, fruit softening is directly 
proportional to increasing enzymatic activities and also follows the climacteric pattern 
of their respiration. These textural changes in fruits tend to greatly affect the quality, 
shelf-life and how fruits are handled after harvest (Ajayi and Mbah, 2007). Measurement 
or determination of fruit firmness is usually done by either using a texture analyzer or 
by the use of human instruments through sensory analysis (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). 
 
2.10.3 Changes in total soluble solids (TSS) 
The change in total soluble solids is a quality, which essentially gives the amount of 
increase in soluble mineral content in fruits as they ripen. The conversion of 
polysaccharides to simple sugars as the fruit ripens causes an increase in total soluble 
solids (Kader, 1992). This parameter gives an estimated index of the level of sugar, 
which is also a determinant of quality and may differ between various cultivars. 
 
As fruits ripen, the total solids remain constant while the soluble solids increase. Sugar 
makes up approximately 85% of the amount of these soluble minerals in the fruits 
(Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). Unripe plantains and bananas are high in starch and low 
amounts of sugar but as they ripen, the starch is converted to sugar up to the point where 
bananas can have as much as about 25% total sugar (Ayanwale et al., 2016).  TSS is an 
important quality for consumer preference and it is measured by the use of a 
24 
 
 
refractometer, which reads the Brix level or sugar content by weight and at the indicated 
temperature (Anthon et al., 2011; Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). 
 
2.10.4 Changes in titratable acidity and pH 
Titratable acidity can be defined as the percentage of acid in a food substance (sample) 
measured by the titration with a standard base and reported in terms of one predominant 
acid (Pearson, 1976). The titratable acidity is usually a measure of the collective acids 
including all the volatile and fixed acids or all acids present while the pH gives the 
acidity or the alkalinity (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). Both the titratable acidity (TA) and 
the pH of the pulp are attributes of importance in assessing the quality of ripening 
(Anthon et al., 2011). The two main naturally occurring food acids in plantain are oxalic 
and malic acid. Oxalic acid is the most predominant acid in unripe plantain samples 
whereas, in the ripe plantains, malic acid is the most predominant (Dadzie and Orchard, 
1997).  Since taste is determined by the regulation of acid and sugar levels in the fruit 
and sometimes fruit maturity, the estimation of these could give a better idea of 
consumption quality (Anthon et al., 2011). 
 
During plantain storage, changes may occur due to both chemical and enzymatic actions 
and the extent of these changes is influenced by the pH rather than the titratable acidity. 
Generally, fruits at the immature and the matured green stage have high pulp pH 
and low titratable acidity but as ripening advances, there is a sharp decline in the pulp 
pH while acidity increases greatly. These indicators could therefore be used to ascertain 
the rate of ripening and evaluation of fruit taste (Silva et al., 2009). The use of colour 
indicators or electronically using pH meters or pH electrode can measure the pH of 
the filtrate of the pulp. The titratable acid (TA) is also determined through titration of 
25 
 
 
the pulp filtrate against a standard base, usually, 0.1N sodium hydroxide using a 
phenolphthalein indicator (Dadzie & Orchard, 1997). The result is then expressed in 
terms of the acid that is predominant in the particular fruit. 
 
2.10.5 Changes in starch content 
The chemical makeup of plantain differs with variety, degree of ripeness, maturity as 
well as soil type, where the plantain was grown (Zakpaa et al., 2010). Starch 
hydrolysis into simple sugars like glucose, sucrose, and fructose is the major chemical 
change that occurs during the ripening of plantain (Islam et al., 2013). The starch content 
in the unripe stage is over 80% of the dry weight matter of the pulp (Marriott et al., 
1981). Amylose and amylopectin are the predominant starch in the unripe plantain but 
replaced by glucose, fructose and sucrose at the ripening stage due to fat hydrolysis. 
This conversion leads to the sweetening of the fruit due to the sugar accumulation 
and breakdown of starch. Changes in starch content indicate the degree of fruit ripeness. 
This can be seen in the starch breakdown of plantain being much slower and dragging 
even into the overripe stage as compared to banana where the total starch breakdown is 
usually accomplished at full ripeness stage (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997; Ayanwale et al., 
2016). The ripening process can decline the starch content of about 30% and above to 
about less than 2% in plantain (NARI, 2003). 
 
The starch iodine test is said to be the easiest, fastest and the most inexpensive method 
in estimating starch content during ripening (Dadzie and Orchard, 1997). Some 
researchers have also described other methods like acid hydrolysis and titration methods 
but these are usually time-consuming and complex and therefore they require highly 
skilled personnel to carry it out (Norgia et al., 2008). 
26 
 
 
2.11 Mechanisms to Delay Ripening and Extend the Shelf Life of fresh produce 
An important role in the management of fresh fruits and vegetables involves storing 
harvested plant parts and keeping them fresh over a relatively long period than they 
would usually last (El-ramady et al., 2015). This allows for the attainment of its 
greatest value and utility if their supply is extended over and beyond their harvested 
season (Sousa-Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011). What every storage method or equipment 
aims to achieve is to manipulate the primary factors that may influence undesirable 
processes in the stored product and extend the storage life and quality to the possible 
maximum. 
 
Factors that can affect the quality and shelf-life of fresh produce have been grouped into 
two main; primary and secondary factors (Kader et al., 1989; El-ramady et al., 2015). 
Harvesting at the right maturity stage, proper sanitation procedure, minimizing 
mechanical injuries, providing optimum relative humidity and temperature are some of 
the primary factors and an example of a secondary factor is a modification of the CO2, 
O2, and/or ethylene gases concentrations. Strategies to manipulate these factors to delay 
ripening and prolong the storage life of fresh produce has become very essential and this 
has motivated the evolution of different methods over the years, both conventional and 
unconventional ones (De Long and Prange, 2003). 
 
2.11.1 Field storage method 
According to El-ramady et al. (2015), this practice is usually adopted among the small- 
scale farmers and is the simplest and the most basic system of storage. Here, crops such 
as yam, cassava, carrots, potatoes and other tubers are not harvested even when they 
have reached maturity till there is a ready market for them. Similarly, fruits like citrus, 
27 
 
 
plantain and bananas are left on the parent plant until preparations for the market are 
complete. This way, they are kept fresh for a certain period even though not for a longer 
period and their quality may be affected negatively by this method. 
 
Sometimes, the crops are harvested and heaped in bulk on the ground or assembled at a 
common location which may be under a shade or no shade at all while waiting to be 
transported or marketed (Tchango et al., 1999; NARI, 2003). Some may also be stored 
in bags, bins, baskets and boxes and placed on pallets but this method relies only on 
natural ventilation or airflow to remove the heat and the moisture generated in the 
produce by their respiratory activities. This is the method usually adopted by most 
market women and handlers of fresh produce in areas where there are inadequate or no 
proper storage facilities (Ajayi and Mbah, 2003; Ayanwale et al., 2016). Higher levels 
of losses are usually recorded under this mode of storage and fruit ripening is also quite 
rampant, especially in the middle of the heaps. 
 
2.11.2 Cold storage 
Controlling temperature is a vital factor that affects the quality and value of fresh produce 
once it has been harvested. The shelf-life of fresh produce has been shown to extend 
when there is the rapid removal of the field heat immediately after harvest (Jobling, 
2001). Low-temperature storage for fresh produce is one of the dominating and the most 
fundamental technologies after harvest. When the temperature in the surrounding 
atmosphere and inside the product is lowered, it slows down the respiration rate and 
reduces the resultant ethylene production as well as reducing tissues response to ethylene 
(Sirivatanapa, 2006). Respiration rate doubles or may even triple for every 10 °C rise in 
28 
 
 
temperature, which also suggests that shelf-life is reduced for every 10 °C rise in 
temperature of fresh produce (Jobling, 2001). 
 
Each fresh produce has a temperature threshold. Ergo, storing a given fruit or vegetable 
above a certain critical temperature is likely to cause chilling or freezing injuries 
(Sousa-Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011). The geographical origin of the product often 
determines its ideal storage temperatures.  Most tropical produce do not tolerate storage 
temperatures below 12	°C whereas those cultivated in the temperate climates can 
tolerate lower storage temperatures to as low as 0°C. For example, at 21 °C, some apple 
cultivars ripen within a day while at -1 °C, they ripen in 10 days ( Jobling, 2001). In the 
NARI Technical Bulletin (2003), it is stated that, at an optimal temperature of between 
12 °C and 14 °C, the transportation and storage temperature of matured green tropical 
plantains and bananas could be maximized and the shelf-life also prolonged, to between 
4 and 5 weeks, without any chilling injury. 
 
2.11.3 Use of ethylene absorbents/scrubbers 
The use of ethylene absorbents to either reduce or completely get rid of the ethylene 
produced during storage has become a common technology in most commercial fruit 
handling (Park et al., 2016). The ability to control the ethylene produced during fruit 
storage is very key in preventing unwanted discolouration and prolonging the 
postharvest life of fruits (Bhattacharjee and Dhua, 2017). 
Several compounds that can be used as ethylene inhibitors such as potassium 
permanganate (KMnO4), an oxidizing agent; Aminoethoxyvinylglycine (AVG), which 
inhibits the synthesis of ethylene and 1- Methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), which inhibits 
ethylene action. For bananas and plantains, KMnO4 is the most commonly used 
29 
 
 
ethylene scrubber (Prasad and Kochhar, 2014). When the KMnO4 is impregnated with 
a porous inert mineral and inserted into the storage environment, it oxidizes the ethylene 
produced by the fruits into water and carbon dioxide, and by this, it prolongs the 
postharvest life of fruits by delaying softening and other adverse effects of ethylene 
(Hasan and Hasan, 2014). 
 
Glahan (2006) and Sharma et al. (2012), reported that the main component of ethylene 
absorbents is potassium permanganate (KMnO4), which prevents the adverse effects of 
ethylene (C2H4) produced by fruits during ripening by oxidizing the ethylene to CO2 
and H2O. This possibility is considered because Okelana (2001) and Akpabio et al. 
(2012), analyzed the plantain pseudostem and they found the pseudostem to contain 
several mineral elements that included appreciable amounts of potassium. Okelana 
(2001) reported that the plantain pseudostem contains about 6.2% of potassium (K), and 
at least 0.1% of other minerals like calcium (Ca), sodium (Na), phosphorus (P) and 
magnesium (Mg). The use of potassium permanganate to delay ripening in climacteric 
fruits like tomatoes, apples, plums, bananas and papayas has been reported in the 
literature (Park et al., 2016; Bhattacharjee and Dhua, 2017). The shelf life of mature 
green plantains being extended to 4 weeks when stored in polyethylene bags with 
potassium permanganate (KMnO4) wrapped in porous paper at a temperature of 29.4 °C 
and up to 7 weeks at a temperature of 12.7 °C has also been reported (ARI, 2003). 
 
2.12 Packaging of fresh produce 
Fresh bananas and plantains are sometimes packed in wooden crates and lugs, wooden 
baskets and hampers, pulp containers, paper and mesh bags or plastic baskets. They are 
often transported and stored in these packaging materials, which may provide protection, 
30 
 
 
containment and information about the product (Paine & Paine, 1992).  However, since 
plantains and bananas are highly perishable, sometimes other forms of packaging are 
adopted to further prolong the quality and shelf–life of these crops. 
 
2.12.1 Modified Atmosphere Package (MAP) / Controlled Atmosphere Package 
(CAP) 
Modified atmosphere (MA) refers to any atmosphere varying from the normal air (20 to 
21% O2, about 0.03% CO2, about 78 to 79% Nitrogen and trace quantities of other gases) 
(Yahia, 2009). This is a preservation technique that seeks to minimize the physiological 
and microbial decay of perishable produce further due mainly to the reduction of O2 
and/or increase in CO2 
 
MAP operates on the principle of establishing equilibrium in the gas composition inside 
the package through the interplay between the respiration rate of the product and the 
permeability of the package. MAP occurs in either passive or active condition. In 
passive MAP, the permeability of the packaging film and respiration rate of the crop are 
the most important parameters. Due to the respiration of food products, oxygen 
consumption is proportional to carbon dioxide production in the modified atmosphere 
packaging. After a certain time, the gas composition in the package of the fresh product 
reaches a definite equilibrium between respiration rate and permeability of packaging 
film. In this state, the total amount of carbon dioxide produced and oxygen consumed by 
respiration, is the same as that permeated through the membrane exchange. Active 
modification however involves the air migration within the pack and then replacing the 
atmosphere with the desired gas mixture to accelerate gas composition modification and 
to avoid exposure to high concentrations of unsuitable gases by the product (Zhang et 
31 
 
 
al., 2014). MAP employs either micro-perforated or unperforated films that have 
selective permeability for CO2 and O2 gases (Kupferman and Sanderson, 2001).  
 
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) is used to precisely monitor and control the concentration 
of gaseous atmosphere around the fresh produce by altering oxygen and the carbon 
dioxide concentrations during the storage period (Hoehn et al., 2009; Sousa-Gallagher 
and Mahajan, 2011). Saltveit (2003) and Rocculi et al. (2006) reported that reported that 
Controlled Atmosphere (CA) has the ability to decrease respiration rate of fruits and 
vegetables up to certain limits when the oxygen gas (O2) concentrations are decreased 
and carbon dioxide (CO2) concentrations are increased. 
 
Both packaging processes are very effective in prolonging the shelf-life of fresh produce 
(Kader et al., 1989; Kupferman and Sanderson, 2001). There are reports by several 
researchers indicating the use of MAP and CAP as a tool to prolong the postharvest 
life of several perishables like apples, cabbages, pears, cherries, raspberries, blueberries, 
bananas and plantains, as well as some minimally processed vegetables like lettuce, 
broccoli, cabbage and celery (Cameron et al., 1995; Kupferman and Sanderson, 2001; 
Kader et al., 2005; Yahia, 2006). 
 
2.12.2 A MICOR P-Plus Modified Atmosphere Packaging technology 
This works by altering the gas permeability of the flexible film to prolong the shelf-life 
of fresh produce by naturally creating a modified atmosphere. This technology gives an 
extra two days to bananas and about 4 days to plantains over the standard non-MAP 
bags. Recyclable material is used to produce specialized wicket bags (Kader et al., 1989; 
Kupferman and Sanderson, 2001). 
 
32 
 
 
2.12.3 Vacuum packaging of bananas and plantains 
Vacuum packaging delays the ripening of bananas and plantains by preventing contact 
with air/oxygen. This technique may delay ripening by 21 days and further ripening can 
be completed one week after the package has been opened. Patented methods of vacuum 
packaging and freezing of the produce prevent discolouration during storage (Sousa-
Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011). 
 
2.13 Packaging and Packaging Types 
Food packaging is an organized system of the preparation of food for its transportation, 
distribution, storage as well as retailing and then end-use to satisfy the ultimate consumer 
with optimal cost (Coles et al., 2003). Materials used in food packaging include metal, 
wood, glass, plastics and paper and paper board which can be broken down further. 
 
2.13.1 Commonly available food packaging types 
2.13.1.1 Paper and cardboard 
Sulphate and sulphite are used on wood for the production of an interlaced network of 
cellulose fibres in sheets known as paper and paperboard. These fibres are pulped and/or 
bleached and treated with chemicals such as slimicides and strengthening agents to 
produce the paper product. Paper and paperboards are generally used in milk cartons, 
bags and sacks, corrugated boxes, folding cartons and wrapping paper. Advantages of 
this product include mechanical strength, biodegradability and good printability.In 
addition to their poor barrier properties to oxygen, carbon dioxide and water vapour 
other disadvantages include being porous, opaque, and not heat sealable To improve their 
poor barrier properties, coatings such as polymeric materials or waxes can be used 
(Raheem, 2013). 
33 
 
 
 
2.13.1.2 Wood 
These are used for storage or as shipping containers and have been in use for several 
years for storage needs. The wooden boxes as a means of storage are one of the best 
ways to give protection for the objects that are being stored as these boxes are not easily 
damaged or broken. They are often used for heavy-duty packaging when high 
strength is needed for heavy and difficult loads or when large size is required. Local 
manufacturing and relative resistance to water and harsh weather conditions are some 
advantages of the wooden crates. Most wooden boxes have also good ventilation (Paine 
and Paine, 1992). 
 
2.13.1.3 Plastic 
Plastic materials are made up of large sized carbon-containing molecules that can be 
formed into a variety of useful products. These plastics are easy to print, fluid, heat 
sealable and moldable (Marsh and Bugusu, 2007). The use of plastics in packaging has 
increased worldwide with an estimate of 280 metric tonnes (Paine and Paine, 1992). The 
packaging industry is the largest user of plastics. The major drawback of plastics is their 
variable permeability to gases, light, low molecular weight molecules and vapours. 
 
2.14 Postharvest Management and Value Addition on Plantains 
It is suggested that plantains should be transported in packages, be it wooden, paper or 
plastic, which should be padded with either polythene bags or plantain leaves to prevent 
scuffing. A fungicidal treatment can be applied to cut ends to prevent stem-end rot 
(Yahia, 2006). During packing, the curved side of the hands should be kept facing 
upwards making sure that the crown of the upper hands does not damage the plantains 
34 
 
 
underneath. During cold storage, plantains should be stored at a temperature of 13-14 °C 
with 90-95% relative humidity (Sousa-Gallagher and Mahajan, 2011). 
 
2.15 Synopsis of Literature Review 
This review has highlighted the importance of plantain to the national economy 
contributing in the areas of food, job security and a source of rural income. Despite 
these benefits derived from plantain, postharvest losses still hover around 35% in 
developing countries like Ghana, which is quite disturbing. These losses have been 
identified to occur at various stages in the value chain and more so with the handlers who 
are of the wrong view that plantains do not necessarily go to waste due to their versatility 
in use at any stage of ripening and the comparatively robust nature of the plantain. 
 
Undoubtedly, the major problems encountered with plantain postharvest are 
concentrated in the areas of transportation, packaging and how to extend the green 
life. There are also several factors, both inherent and external, that predispose the 
plantain to deterioration which when not controlled can be devastating. These have been 
basically because plantain is fresh produce and unlike the durables, its handling is quite 
delicate and complex. The processes of respiration and ethylene production are also of 
great importance in their handling. 
 
Handlers of plantain, especially, on the local markets are faced with major difficulties of 
getting proper storage materials and ripening (either slowing or increasing) methods, to 
help them overcome these difficulties. Certain ways introduced to them may have come 
across as cumbersome or expensive and they may have adopted make-shift methods 
which may have adverse effects on the plantains. 
35 
 
 
The gap of coming up with affordable but effective means dealing with some of these 
postharvest problems especially in packaging, storage and the ripening processes that 
local handlers could adopt with ease still exists, hence the objective of this study. 
  
36 
 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
MATERIALS AND METHODS 
 
3.1 Materials 
3.1.1 The Plantain Sample 
Matured green ―Apantu a locally known cultivar of the false Horn variety of plantain 
cultivated at a farm in Dodowa, in the Greater Accra region of Ghana, was obtained for 
Specific objectives 1, 2 and 3 of this study. This variety was used because of its market 
predominance and consistent agricultural performance.  
 
All the samples of the plantain used for the study were at least 90 days after flowering 
and their physiological maturity was also examined as stated by Dzomeku et al. (2016). 
The second and third hands of the cultivars were used for the study for homogeneity. 
 
3.2 Sample Preparation  
3.2.1 Experimental design 
A 3×4 factorial design was used. The plantain samples were subjected to four different 
treatments (pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem+KMnO4 and the control which had no 
treatment) in three different packaging types (corrugated paper, wooden and plastic 
boxes). The experimental factors were packaging types (3) and their different treatments 
(4). The factors and their various treatment included the following 
I. Packaging Type (corrugated paper, plastic and wooden boxes) 
II. Treatment (pseudostem, potassium permanganate (KMnO4), pseudostem 
+KMnO4 and a control (no treatment)). 
37 
 
 
Samples were stored in their respective packaging type with their treatments at room 
temperature (26 °C-27 °C) till there was a clear indication of the shelf-life of plantains 
from their green state till senescence. Experiments were performed in triplicates with the 
mean values presented in graphs during storage time. 
 
3.2.2 Packaging types 
Corrugated Paper boxes (23x25x38 cm), Plastic boxes (32x33x51 cm) and Wooden 
boxes (28x33x38 cm) with these dimensions, were used to house the plantains. The 
corrugated paper boxes had no holes for ventilation (only holes for handles) whereas both 
the plastic and wooden boxes had holes and spaces throughout the packaging. This was 
done not only for experimental purposes but to represent packaging types as they are 
traditionally made for storage. 
 
Plate 3.1 Packaging types for plantain storage: A – Corrugated paper box, B – Wooden 
box, C- Plastic box 
38 
 
 
3.2.3 Treatments 
3.2.3.1 Shredded plantain pseudostem treatment 
For the shredded plantain pseudostem preparation, plantain pseudostems of freshly 
harvested plantains were cut and chopped into smaller sizes to facilitate drying. It was 
dried in the sun at a temperature range of about 32 ºC to 34 ºC for four continuous days 
when almost all the moisture was lost. The pseudostem was shredded and chopped into 
smaller sizes with a pair of scissors. When it was ready to be used, it was then moistened 
with pipe-borne water of pH 7 to raise the moisture content to about 75%. About 4.0 kg 
of pseudostem was weighed and used to store the sample. 
 
 
 
Plate 3.2 Plantain pseudostem preparation in stages: A- Freshly harvested plantain 
pseudostems B- Freshly chopped plantain pseudostems C- Dried shredded plantain 
pseudostems  
39 
 
 
3.2.3.2 Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) treatment 
For each KMnO4 treatment, the amount used was 0.69-0.71% of the average weight of 
the Apantu samples which was in the range of 8849.0 – 8857.0 g per box.  The KMnO4 
was put in a polyethylene sheet of 0.05mm thickness, which was untied for effective 
absorption of the ethylene gas. 
 
Plate 3.3 A - Plantains covered in pseudostem in a plastic box B - Plantains with 
KMnO4 and pseudostem before being covered with more pseudostem. 
 
The SALTER AND EP-12KA weighing scale was used in weighing the samples 
(plantains, plantain pseudostem and KMnO4). Laboratory procedure used was adopted 
using standardized procedures as stated by Rajuva and Joy (2014). Before using the 
weighing scale, the balance was calibrated using standard weights. The weighing boat 
was then placed and tared till it became zero. To get the final weights of the samples, it 
was ensured that the symbol ‘g’ was stable next to the weight shown. It was also ensured 
that no part of the samples spilled on the weighing pan.  
 
 
40 
 
 
3.3 Packaging of the plantain samples 
The plantains were harvested around 6:30 a.m.  They were then transported from the 
farm at Dodowa to the Nutrition and Food Science Laboratory, University of Ghana main 
campus.  The journey took approximately an hour and a half.  The samples were 
immediately assessed through physicochemical and sensory analysis. During the 
packaging, the plantain samples were completely covered with the shredded 
pseudostem for those solely undergoing the pseudostem treatment. For the KMnO4 
treatment, the weighed KMnO4 put in a polythene bag, was inserted in the center of the 
plantains and left open. The pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment incorporated both methods 
by putting the weighed KMnO4 into the middle of the plantains and completely burying 
them in shredded pseudostem. The control sample just had the plantains arranged in the 
boxes. The boxes were then carefully wrapped with a transparent polyethylene sheet and 
the edges sealed with a masking tape. They were then kept in the Laboratory throughout 
the experimental period at room temperature of (26 °- 27 °C).  
 
Physicochemical and Sensory assessments were done on a regular basis at 3-to-4-day 
intervals till senescence occurred in all the treatments. Before the analysis on the first 
day, temperature readings within the packages were initially measured 26 – 27 °C (±1), 
followed by a random sampling of the plantain samples. 
 
The mercury-filled clinical thermometer (Fisher brand, UK) was used to determine all 
temperature readings in the various packaging types (corrugated paper, plastic and 
wooden boxes) with treatments (pseudostem, KMnO4, or both pseudostem and KMnO4) 
and without treatment (control). This was done by putting the thermometer into the 
41 
 
 
various boxes without having any contact with the bottom and sides of the boxes for 
several seconds till the mercury thread was steady. The reading was then noted and taken. 
 
3.4 Biochemical and Physicochemical analyses  
This section provides the methodology used for the different biochemical and 
physicochemical analysis in this section. All laboratory procedures were done through 
the use of standardized procedures as stated by Rajuva and Joy (2014). Two plantains 
randomly selected from each of the 12 boxes were used in conducting the biochemical 
and physicochemical analysis making them 24 in total per session. Three sessions were 
conducted per (test) day. 
 
3.4.1 Extraction of Plantain filtrate 
Ten grams (10 g) of the peeled sample (5g each from the two plantains) was homogenised 
in 100 mL of distilled water using a Waring commercial blender and filtered with a grade 
4 Whatman qualitative filter paper. 
The filtrate was used to determine total soluble solids, reducing and total sugar, titratable 
acidity and the pH of the plantain samples. 
 
3.4.2 Total Soluble Solids 
Total soluble solids (TSS) of a given sample represent various chemical substances 
present in its insoluble form. It indicates a measure of sugars present in the sample. The 
amount of TSS present in a food sample is also considered to be a reliable index in 
judging its maturity. Following the harvest – the maturity of many food items is assessed 
by considering the TSS of their juices. Total soluble solids TSS were assessed using the 
Abbe’s handheld refractometer. 
42 
 
 
 
Before each reading was taken, the lid and the prism-plate were carefully washed with a 
jet of clean water to ensure that they had no stain on their surface. Water adhered on the 
surfaces was completely wiped off with blotting paper. After ensuring the scale was 
calibrated and clearly visible, the plantain filtrate was taken in the dropper. A drop was 
then carefully placed on the prism plate. Reading of the sample as “Brix” was obtained 
and the amount of TSS was expressed accordingly.  
 
3.4.3 Reducing sugar and Total Sugar 
The Lane and Eynon method as described by James (1995) was used in determining the 
total sugar content and reducing sugar. This involved the addition of the plantain filtrate 
to a flask of boiling copper sulphate solution and a methylene blue indicator. The 
reducing sugars in the carbohydrate solution reacted with the copper sulfate present in 
the flask. Once all the copper sulfate in the solution had reacted, any further addition of 
reducing sugars caused the indicator to change from blue to white. The volume of sugar 
solution required to reach the endpoint was recorded. 
 
3.4.4 Titratable Acidity 
The titration method described by Dadzie and Orchard, (1997) in the INIBAP Technical 
Guidelines 2, was used to determine the titratable acidity (TA) of the samples. This 
involved an amount of filtrate against an alkali solution of known normality. It was 
expressed as an equivalence of malic acid.  
Fifty millilitres (50 mL) of the filtrate was titrated against a standard solution of 0.1 N 
NaOH. The titre value was used to calculate titratable acidity of the plantain pulp as 
percentage malic acid using the formula: 
43 
 
 
% Titratable acidity = 6.4 x titre value x Normality of NaOH/ weight of sample. 
 
3.4.5 pH  
The pH of the samples was also determined using digital pH meter Model No WTW 422. 
After the pH meter was turned on, the electrode was lifted and the tip was cleaned by 
pressing with tissue paper. The instrument was carefully calibrated using buffers of pH 
4, pH 7 and pH 9. After calibration, the electrode was then placed in the plantain filtrate 
solution to determine the pH. 
 
3.5 Sensory evaluation of samples 
A sensory evaluation of the quality attributes of the plantain was performed. The quality 
parameters assessed were pulp firmness, peel colour and level of bruising at every three- 
or four-day interval till senescence occurred in all samples. Three plantains randomly 
selected from each of the 12 boxes were used in conducting the sensory analysis making 
them 36 in total per session. Three sessions were conducted per (test) day. 
 
3.5.1 Training of quality-grading panelists 
Four consecutive training sessions were arranged for a seven-member grading panel at 
Sensory Laboratory, Department of Nutrition and Food Science (University of Ghana). This 
panel consisted of students, with a significant amount of sensory analysis experience, who 
were available for training and test days. The trained panelists were used for all the 
subsequent sensory analysis in the study, which was subjected to only physical quality 
measurements, such as firmness, level of bruising, and colour. 
 
 
44 
 
 
 
3.5.1.1 Generating a grading scale for assessing the pulp firmness 
Before calibrating a scale for evaluating the firmness, different food items, which had 
varying forms of hardness, were presented to the panelists to assess and classify them 
according to their degree of hardness (firmness). This was done on a scale of 1-5. The 
extremely firm received a score of 5 and the extremely soft was given a score of 1 to 
show to decreasing level of pulp firmness of the plantains. All the panelists were 
allowed to touch and press gently each of the items presented for them to give a score 
based on the scale. Several samples were presented to the panelists including banana (of 
varied ripening states), candies, boiled and peeled egg, overripe mango fruit with brown 
speckles and 500ml Sachet water. Afterward, the panel discussed and came to a 
consensus on the actual score for each of the items presented and then grouped them to 
serve as a scale for the final evaluation. The intensity scale agreed on and used by the 
panelists for grading the pulp firmness is as shown in Table 3.1. 
 
Table 3.1: Quality-grading scale for pulp firmness 
Quality parameter Description Score 
Firmness Very firm 5 
Firm 4 
Soft 3 
Very soft 2 
Extremely soft 1 
 
 
 
 
 
45 
 
 
3.5.1.2 Generating a grading scale for assessing the colour 
For colour grading, the unripe (all green colour) and overripe (dark brown colour with a 
trace of yellow) plantain fingers were used as the endpoints to calibrate the quality scale 
for ripeness. Plantains at different stages of ripeness were also presented to the panel for 
them to score according to peel colour. The level of ripening was scored based on the 
intensity and the degree of the spread of the green colour. In the end, a scale of 1 to 9 
was used for grading colour. 
Table 3.2 shows the scale used for grading the colour. The Colour chart for grading the 
ripeness of bananas (Plate 3.4, adapted from Geest, UK) was used to facilitate both the 
training and the test sessions. 
 
Table 3.2: Quality grading scale for the peel Colour 
Quality parameter Description Score 
COLOUR All green 1 
Green with a trace of yellow 2 
More green than yellow 3 
More yellow than green 4 
Yellow with a trace of green 5 
All Yellow 6 
All yellow with brown speckles 7 
More spread of brown in yellow 8 
Dark brown with yellow traces 9 
 
 
46 
 
 
     
 
                  
Plate 3.4 Peel Colour chart (adapted from Geest, UK) used for training of panelists 
 
 
3.5.1.3 Generating a scale for assessing the level of bruising 
On bruising, the panel was shown the difference between a defective (poor quality) and 
a non-defective (high quality) plantain by presenting to them a highly bruised plantain 
finger and one without any bruise/damage. For grading, any kind of mechanical damage 
on the plantain fingers such as scratches, breakages, abrasions, skin darkening, and 
any kind of damage was scored as a bruise. The panel was also shown the differences 
between mechanical damages and physiological damages, as well as mechanical 
damages that occurred before harvest. It was also agreed that both physiological damages 
such as peel splitting, sunscald, varietal variation in the intensity of the green colour and 
mechanical damages that did not occur during the postharvest period such as damage 
by birds, rodents, and other animals on the field (if they were found on the plantain) 
47 
 
 
did not qualify as postharvest damage (bruised). Quality grading in terms of bruising 
was scored on a scale of 1-5, judging from the percentage damage on the total surface 
area of the fruit. Table 3.3 shows the scale used for grading the level of bruising. 
 
Table 3.3: Scale used for grading the level of bruising 
Quality Parameter Description Score 
Level of bruising Extremely low/None  1 
Low  2 
Medium 3 
High 4 
Extremely high 5 
 
 
3.6 Material Preparation for Plantains transported and stored. 
For Specific Objective 4, (To investigate the effects of different forms of packing 
arrangements on sensory quality characteristics of plantains during transit and 
subsequent storage) matured green plantain ―Apantu cultivated at a farm in Techiman, 
in the Bono East region of Ghana, was obtained. The choice of location was mostly 
influenced by distance (375 km from Accra) since a longer distance from Accra would 
better inform us of the efficiency of the packaging type and packing arrangements during 
transit. This Apantu variety was used because of its market predominance and consistent 
agricultural performance. 
 
3.6.1 Packing arrangements of plantains for transportation 
The plantains were harvested around 6:30 a.m. All the samples of the plantain used for 
the study were at least 90 days after flowering and their physiological maturity was also 
examined as stated by Dzomeku et al. (2016). The second and third hands of the cultivars 
48 
 
 
were used for the study for homogeneity. The plantains were arranged in 5 specific 
patterns as seen in Table 3.4. 
 
The arranged plantains were then transported from Techiman to the Nutrition and Food 
Science Laboratory, University of Ghana main campus. The journey took approximately 
seven hours.  
 
Table 3.4: Packing arrangements for plantains transported and stored 
Groups Arrangements 
Fingers Neatly arranged and lying directly on top of each other 
with crowns facing the base of the box separated by a layer 
of Styrofoam 
Fingers Neatly arranged and lying directly on top of each other 
with crowns facing the base of the box dividing the layers 
with no layer of Styrofoam.  
Hands Neatly arranged and lying directly on top of each other 
with crowns facing the base of the box separated by a layer 
of Styrofoam. 
Hands Neatly arranged and lying directly on top of each other 
with crowns facing the base of the box dividing the layers 
with no layer of Styrofoam. 
Bunches The bunches at the bottom were placed in the center 
and overlapped with the adjacent hands with crowns 
facing the floor and separated by a layer Styrofoam.  
 
All the sensory parameters (pulp firmness, peel colour and level of bruising) used in 
the prior study (Specific objectives 1, 2 and 3) were repeated for this study, using the 
same scales and colour charts by the same trained panelists. 
 
 
49 
 
 
3.7 Data Analysis 
Data entry was done using Microsoft excel, 2010 and statistical analyses were done using 
Minitab Version 14 (Minitab Version 14, LLC. State College, Pennsylvania) and SPSS 
(IBM Corp. Released 2017. IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0. Armonk, 
NY: IBM Corp). For the sensory analysis, an intensity scale for pulp firmness and level 
of bruising was used and a colour grading (colour chart) was used for peel colour. The 
general linear model (ANOVA) determined the statistical differences between treatments 
P < 0.05. Factors with significant differences were submitted to the means test (Fishers). 
The data was presented in charts, graphs and tables.  
50 
 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 
 
4.1 Biochemical and physicochemical properties of plantains in different 
treatments and packaging types during storage over a period of time. 
Changes in some biochemical and physicochemical properties of plantains stored in 
three types of boxes (corrugated paper, wooden and plastic) were determined, with either 
plantain pseudostem, KMnO4, a combination of plantain pseudostem and KMnO4 or no 
treatment (control) for the storage period (unripe till senescence).  
 
Physicochemical and biochemical analyses are useful parameters that provide an 
overview of quality and the degree or magnitude of ripeness (Borges et al., 2019). 
Several factors influence and accelerate fruit senescence, with postharvest 
senescence impacting the quality of plantain, i.e., aspect, texture, taste, aroma and 
nutritional characteristics, leading to consumer rejection and important economic 
losses for the fruit industry. These can be evaluated through by performing sensory 
and physicochemical analysis (Adi et al., 2019).  
 
Plantain, as a climacteric fruit ripens with time. This ripening process is characterized by 
changes such as conversion of starch to sugars, changes in the total soluble solid content, 
pH and titratable acidity (Aquino et al., 2017). Sampaio et al. (2007) postulates that, 
starch and sugar content in plantain are important factors used in assessing fruit maturity, 
ripeness and other sensory parameters like taste, firmness and peel colour. In this study, 
some biochemical and physicochemical analyses that aid in a quantitative determination 
of acidity and sugar were conducted, as the plantain samples were studied under the 
51 
 
 
different treatments and packaging types. These analyses included total soluble solids 
(TSS), reducing sugar (RS), total sugar (TS) titratable acidity (TA) and pH. As such 
these analyses provide not just a measure of the maturity of the plantain but also an 
understanding of the plantain quality, since these processes affect the final eating quality 
of the plantain.  
 
4.1.1 Total Soluble Solids (TSS) 
Total soluble solids (TSS) signify the proportion (%) of dissolved solids in a solution as 
measured using the refractive index. It is the sum of sugars, acids and other minor 
components in the fruit pulp (Balibrea et al., 2006; Kader, 2008).  Though imprecise, it 
is still widely used as it is cheap, fast and correlates sufficiently with the plantain sugar 
levels and therefore good for comparison of several plantain samples. For this study it 
was observed that in all the packaging types, there was an increase in total soluble solids 
as the plantains ripened (Figure 4.1).  
 
On day 1, all the TSS values were less than 5%. The low TSS recorded at the early stages 
of storage was because the available starch was yet to undergo enzymatic degradation to 
be converted into sugars (Kader, 2008). By the 15th day, the plantains in the pseudostem 
+ KMnO4 treatment recorded values as high as 35%, whereas, the highest value 
recorded for the plantains in the pseudostem treatment alone was only 15%. Both values 
were recorded in the corrugated paper box (Figure 4.1A). The increase in the total 
soluble solids (TSS) of the plantains was gradual over the ripening period at the various 
ripening stages. TSS varied significantly (p < 0.05) over the storage period and at the 
different ripening stages. Degradation of stored starch in the pulp to sugars increases the 
total soluble solids of the pulp.  
52 
 
 
A 
 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.1: Changes in Total Soluble Solids (TSS) of fingers of plantains in four 
treatments (pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage 
period. A – Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
 
53 
 
 
As starch degrades, there is sugar buildup, which causes the total soluble solids to 
increase at ripening till senescence (Zakpaa et al., 2010).  Thus, the TSS is directly 
proportional to the degree of fruit ripening (Balibrea et al., 2006). On day 22, 
pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment had an average TSS value of 35% and pseudostem 
treatment had an average of 24% for all packaging types.  
TSS levels dropped slightly on the last day in the case of the plantains stored in the 
paper box with the control treatment (Figure 4.1A). TSS accumulation is strongly related 
to ripening but could cause a fall off owing to decaying.  
 
4.1.2 Reducing sugar and Total Sugar 
Percentage reducing sugar and % total sugar in the stored plantain increased as the days 
progressed due to the hydrolysis of starch content in the plantain fruit resulting in the 
predominant conversion of starch to sugars in plantain at the fruit ripening stage (Zakpaa 
et al., 2010). 
 
As shown in Figure 4.2, there was a steady increase in % reducing sugar from day 1 to 
day 22 with the pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment in the corrugated paper box (Figure 
4.2A) having the highest values of 2 % and 1.8 % and 1.7% in the wooden (Figure 
4.2B) and plastic boxes (Figure 4.2C) respectively. The pseudostem treatment had 
the lowest values of 1.5 % in the corrugated paper box, 1.4 % in the wooden box and 
1.3 % in plastic box. 
 
In Figure 4.3, the plantains packed in the corrugated paper box, with pseudostem + 
KMnO4 treatment showed the highest rise in total sugar, moving from 0.4% on day 1 
54 
 
 
to 3.2% by day 22. The plastic box package with pseudostem treatment had the lowest 
rise from 0.4% to 1.7% as observed in Figure 4.3C. 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.2: Changes in Reducing Sugar (RS) of fingers of plantains in four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – 
Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
 
55 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.3: Changes in Total Sugars (TS) of fingers of plantains in four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – 
Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
56 
 
 
4.1.3 Titratable Acidity (TA) and pH 
The pH values give a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a product, while titratable 
acidity gives a measure of the amount of acid present. Assessment of pH and titratable 
acidity of banana, cooking banana and plantain are used primarily to estimate 
consumption quality and hidden attributes. They could be considered as indicators of 
fruit maturity or ripeness. Acids make an important contribution to the postharvest 
quality of the fruit, as taste is mainly a balance between the sugar and acid contents, 
hence postharvest assessment of acidity is important in the evaluation of the taste of the 
fruit (Aquino et al., 2017). 
 
Generally, titratable acidity (expressed as Malic acid), increased steadily till the 15th 
day and then declined, in all the plantain samples (Figure 4.4). An average of value of 
0.2 to 1.1 occurred in the plantains in the pseudostem treatments and 0.2 to 2.1 in the 
plantains found in the combination of pseudostem and KMnO4 treatments throughout 
all the packaging types. Youryon and Supapvanich, (2017) reported a similar trend of 
titratable acid content in ripening bananas. They proposed that increase in titratable 
acidity in ripening fruits has an impact on ethylene secretion in climacteric fruits and 
declines when ethylene production reduces or ceases. This can be observed in Figure 4.4. 
 
A critical look at the trend of the titratable acidity levels for all the samples shows that 
the gradual increase generally occurred between the unripe stage and the fully ripe stage 
but declined between the fully ripe and the overripe stages. Siriboon and Banlusilp 
(2004) reported that the increase seems to positively correlate with peak ethylene 
production and thereafter drops gradually to lower levels. It can then be said that 
titratable acidity in plantain tends to increase gradually as the fruit moves from the unripe 
57 
 
 
to the fully ripe stage, the same period where respiration rate and ethylene production is 
also on the increase, and gradually declines as the plantain moves from fully ripe 
to the overripe stage through to senescence. This is the same period when ethylene 
production and respiration rate are also decreasing. If this holds, then %TA levels in 
plantain could be used as an indicator in predicting ethylene production and respiration 
rates in plantains. 
 
It has been reported that fruits at the matured green stage have high pulp pH but as 
ripening progresses, the pH drops (Silva et al., 2009). From Figure 4.5, it was observed 
that the pH decreased as the days progressed and then started to increase again. This 
could be a result of titratable acidity increasing with ethylene production and then 
subsequently declining slowly when production decreases or stops (Osman & Abu-
Goukh, 2008). High pH implies low TA and vice versa. This is the trend observed 
throughout the experiment for all packaging types and treatments. The pH levels however 
all stayed in the range of 5.82-5.99 for all the samples.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
58 
 
 
A 
.  
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.4: Changes in titratable acidity (TA) of fingers of plantains in four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – 
Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
59 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
 
Figure 4.5: Changes in pH of fingers of plantains in four treatments (pseudostem, 
KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – Corrugated 
Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
 
60 
 
 
4.2 Effect of packaging conditions on the Pulp Firmness, Peel Colour and the Level 
of Bruising on the plantain samples. 
Sensory assessment of pulp firmness, peel colour and level of bruising was done to assess 
the quality of the plantains from green life till senescence. Peel colour is the easiest 
noticeable parameter consumers used in assessing fruit quality and is a reflection of pulp 
colour change (Wills et al., 1998). Fruit firmness and level of bruising are also another 
dependable parameter used in assessing fruit quality with reduction in firmness being 
viewed as one of the most perceptible attributes, resulting from the ripening process. Fruits 
with higher firmness are more resistant to transport and durable after the harvest, however, 
excessive loss of firmness as a consequence of overripening can prompt physical damage 
and pathogen attack, and consequently lead to an important decrease in fruit quality 
(Pereira et al., 2004). Usually, these three parameters are used during the quality grading 
of fruits, both climacteric and non-climacteric. The plantain peel colour is an essential 
buying indicator for consumers, and it usually determines its potential usage (Adi et al., 
2019). 
 
Results shown in Figures 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8 indicated differences between the pulp 
firmness, the peel colour and level of bruising, respectively, among the various 
treatments in the different package types.  
 
4.2.1 Pulp Firmness 
Softening is a very important aspect of ripening syndrome. Loss of turgor, degradation 
of starch, and enzyme-catalyzed changes to wall structure and composition, are the 
mechanisms that lead to fruit softening. Excessive loss of firmness as a consequence of 
overripening can however, prompt physical damage and pathogen attack, and consequently 
61 
 
 
lead to an important decrease in fruit quality. According to Finney (1967), textural change 
in banana and plantain fruit during ripening is predominantly due to the changes in the 
chemical structure of starch grains. 
 
The pulp firmness decreased steadily in the samples throughout the storage period 
(22days). For all packaging types the trend observed was the same (Figure 4.6). The 
pseudostem + KMnO4 and control treatments ripened faster thereby moving from very 
firm (5) to extremely soft (1) by day 19 in all packaging types.  The pseudostem and 
KMnO4 treatments were observed to have slowed down the ripening process of the 
plantains and some of the samples with these treatments went on to day 22 before 
reaching a score of 1.  
  
62 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.6: Changes in Pulp Firmness of fingers of plantains in four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – 
Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
 
63 
 
 
4.2.2 Peel Colour 
The most important compounds responsible for the change in peel colour are 
chlorophylls and carotenoids. During ripening chlorophyll levels decrease till they are 
completely absent when fully ripe (Zakpaa et al., 2010).  
 
For this study it was observed that, peel colour changed from full green to at least all 
yellow (score of 6) by day 19 for all samples in all the packaging types and treatments.  
In the pseudostem + KMnO4 treatment samples however, the samples were dark brown 
(score of 9) by day 19. Control treatments in all the packaging types were also increasing 
at a fast rate, slightly behind the pseudostem + KMnO4 samples and hovering between 
scores of 8 (yellow with more spread of brown) and 9 (dark brown). This is observed in 
Figure 4.7.  
 
The KMnO4 treatment had a much slower colour change as by day 19, the plantains had 
a score of 7 (All yellow with brown speckles) as shown in Figures 4.7 A and B. Figure 
4.7 C showed a score of 6(All yellow) which indicates the plantains had just fully ripened 
and were not at the senescence stage unlike those in the pseudostem + KMnO4 and 
control treatments. The pseudostem treatment had the slowest ripening rate hence slowest 
color change. This was evident with the average samples scoring 6 (All yellow) in all the 
packaging types, by day 19. By day 22 however, all samples had reached the dark brown 
point (9).  
 
 
 
 
64 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.7: Changes in Peel Colour of fingers of plantains in four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) over the storage period. A – 
Corrugated Paper Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box. 
65 
 
 
4.2.3 Bruising 
A bruise is an indicator of cellular damage.  The level of bruising in the plantains 
increased over the 22 days in all the samples (Figure 4.8). This could be as a result of 
peel softening due to ripening, making bruising easier and it occurred in all the packaging 
types. Bruising was highest in Figure 4.8 A, the corrugated paper box. Figure 4.8 C; 
plastic box, reported the least amount of bruising.  
 
Ripened plantains are more susceptible to bruising due to softening of the pulp (Finney, 
1967). This tends to be in line with the study where it was found that the samples under 
the treatment that caused early ripening; pseudostem + KMnO4, and the control treatment 
recorded the highest cases of bruising. This reported trend can be observed in Figure 4.8. 
The pseudostem treatment recorded the least level of bruising for all packaging types.  
 
It can therefore be said that the pseudostem + KMnO4 treated samples in the corrugated 
paper box (Figure 4.8A) had the highest level of bruising while the pseudostem treated 
samples in the plastic box (Figure 4.8C) the lowest level of bruising. 
 
  
66 
 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.8: Changes in Bruising of fingers of plantains in four treatments (pseudostem, 
KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) the storage period. A – Corrugated Paper 
Box, B – Wooden Box, C – Plastic Box 
67 
 
 
4.3 Effects of packaging types and treatments on the plantains during storage for 
optimum shelf-life 
4.3.1 Effects of the packaging types on the plantains 
Among the primary roles of food packaging are protecting the food products from 
external influences and damage and containment of the food products (Coles et al., 
2003). The three packaging types (corrugated paper boxes, wooden boxes, plastic boxes) 
performed these functions with varying degrees of efficiency. The ability of a packaging 
type to protect the plantains and how well it contains them were some parameters used 
to determine the ideal packaging type for optimum shelf-life of the plantains  
 
Food packaging aims to contain food in a cost-effective way that satisfies both 
industry requirements and consumer desires while maintaining the safety of the food 
and minimizing environmental impact (Chiellini, 2008).  The ideal packaging type 
should not be too expensive and should be readily available. Other parameters such as 
aeration and its effects on the plantains as well as the durability, portability and 
appearance of the boxes were also taken into consideration. These were measured by 
physical observation during handling and storage periods. 
 
From the results in the previous sections, Figures 4.1- 4.5, the graphs representing the 
physicochemical (and biochemical) analysis of the plantain samples followed similar 
trends in all packaging types. The plantain samples in the plastic boxes had a longer 
green life of 2-3 days and were of better physical quality with regards to pulp firmness, 
peel colour and level of bruising (Figures 4.6 – 4.8) as opposed to those in the corrugated 
paper and the wooden boxes.  
 
68 
 
 
  
 Paper Box    Wooden Box    Plastic Box  
 
Figure 4.9: Number of days till senescence of plantains in three packaging types 
(corrugated paper, wooden and plastic boxes) undergoing four treatments (pseudostem, 
KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control) 
 
The plantains in the pseudostem treatment lasted for 20 days, while those in the KMnO4, 
pseudostem + KMnO4 and control treatments lasted for 17, 12 and 14 days respectively 
in the paper box (Figure 4.9). The corrugated paper box, had no holes (except those for 
carrying the box) and therefore trapped heat, causing the plantains to ripen faster than 
the other packaging types. Elevated temperatures cause ripening and shorten the shelf 
life of fresh produce at postharvest storage (NARI, 2003). This packaging type was also 
not suitable for carrying the heavy plantains and caused deformities due to the extreme 
pressure from the plantains and the fragile nature of the boxes. For packaging of certain 
heavy items, corrugated paper boxes may not be suitable because of their relatively less 
endurance to mechanical stresses (Fagbohu, et al., 2010). In the case of having to 
transport the plantains in the paper boxes the task may be met with some difficulty. 
 
69 
 
 
In the wooden box, the plantains in the pseudostem treatment lasted for 21 days. It took 
19, 14 and 15 days for the plantains in the KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control 
treatments to reach senescence, respectively (Figure 4.9). Though the plantains in the 
wooden box had a relatively longer shelf life than those in the paper boxes, the structure 
of the box did not allow for optimum storage and shelf-life of the produce. The wooden 
box had huge airspaces (big holes), increasing the availability of oxygen into the 
system. Oxygen facilitates respiration, which in turn facilitates ripening (NARI, 2003). 
Untreated wood can easily become contaminated with fungi and bacteria however, 
treatment of wooden crates with paint or other chemicals may cause produce 
deterioration (Fagbohu, et al., 2010). The wooden box was left untreated in order not to 
affect the plantains being stored and after the first week, beginning signs of fungal growth 
was observed in two of the wooden boxes. The wooden boxes were relatively expensive 
to make as compared to the two other packaging types, though they were locally 
manufactured. They were aesthetically pleasing but the large spaces did not make it 
practical for storage of plantains or any perishables over any period of time as the spaces 
leave the produce easily susceptible to harmful external factors such as rat and insect 
infestation.  
 
In the plastic box, the plantains in the pseudostem treatment lasted for 22 days. Those in 
the KMnO4 treatment lasted 20 days while pseudostem + KMnO4 and control treatments 
lasted for 15 and 17 days, respectively (Figure 4.9). The plastic boxes had numerous 
small-sized holes, which reduced the heat in the boxes that could have aided in 
accelerated ripening. The design of the plastic container, its water resistance and ability 
to keep its shape over a long period was better for containing and protecting the plantains 
compared to the other packaging types. For plantain storage, the external factors play a 
70 
 
 
major role in the ripening of the sample more than the internal or intrinsic factors 
(Fagbohu, et al., 2010). It was also light and easy to carry around despite not being empty. 
 
Though the wooden box was a better packaging type than the paper box, it was quite 
heavy to carry around as compared to the plastic. It is also more expensive to make. This 
eliminates it from being the most ideal packaging material, along with the earlier 
stated reasons. All in all, the plastic was able to protect the plantains from accelerated 
ripening and harmful external factors, relatively inexpensive and aesthetically pleasing. 
Due to the plastic box’s provision of optimum aeration and ability to properly protect the 
plantain samples throughout the 22 days, it can be observed in Figure 4.9 that irrespective 
of the treatment for each box, the plastic box provided longer shelf-life. 
 
4.3.2 Effect of treatments on the plantains 
The shredded plantain pseudostem showed an ability to delay ripening of the plantains, 
followed by potassium permanganate while the combination of shredded plantain 
pseudostem and potassium permanganate hastened the ripening rate of the plantain 
compared to the control.  
 
 
71 
 
 
25 
  20 
  15 
10 
  
5 
0 
PSEUDOSTEM PSEUDOSTEM KMNO4 CONTROL 
P+P  KMNO4   
TREATMENTS  
Figure 4.10: Average number of days taken till senescence of all plantains in all packaging 
types (corrugated paper, wooden and plastic boxes) undergoing the four treatments 
(pseudostem, KMnO4, pseudostem + KMnO4 and control). 
 
The plantains packaged in the pseudostem lasted for an average of 22 days in the plastic 
boxes, 21 days in the wooden boxes, and 20 days in the paper boxes till senescence 
occurred. Those plantains packaged in the combination of pseudostem and potassium 
permanganate lasted for an average of 17 days in the plastic boxes, 15 days in the wooden 
boxes and 13 days for the paper boxes till senescence (Figure 4.10). 
 
The ability of sawdust of moisture content 50% to increase the pre-climacteric and post- 
climacteric storage life of Apantu (false horn plantain) to 26 and 32 days respectively 
under ambient conditions has been reported by Sugri and Johnson (2009). They 
attributed this efficiency of the moist sawdust being able (under tropical conditions) to 
increase the storage days to the combination of humidity and the velocity of the wind, 
creating the necessary cooling conditions that are below the ambient air temperatures. 
All the conditions were similar to this study, except the plantain pseudostem in place of 
72 
 
DAYS TILL SENESCENCE 
  
 
the sawdust, which makes it logical to also assert that the same reasons might have been 
responsible for the observation in this experiment. 
 
The plantain pseudostem has mineral elements or chemical compositions that can 
oxidize ethylene produced by the plantain, which may have resulted in the observed 
delay in ripening with an average of 22 days as shown in Figure 4.10. It can therefore be 
said that the plantain pseudostem behaved as an ethylene absorbent just like potassium 
permanganate (Golden et al., 2014). 
 
Another possible explanation to this observation could also have resulted from a possible 
competition for the limited oxygen (O2) that was trapped in the boxes between the 
plantain fingers and the shredded pseudostem, which hindered the rate of respiration of 
the plantains and therefore delayed senescence of the plantain fingers in storage. This 
assertion is premised on the fact that plantain is fresh fruit, and as such requires oxygen 
for its respiration process (Fonseca et al., 2002), which also leads to biochemical changes 
and initiation of ethylene production (Golden et al., 2014). As the shredded plantain 
pseudostem began to decompose, it was likely to have some molds, which are known to 
consume oxygen (Ofor et al., 2010). Since the fresh plantains and the shredded 
pseudostem were put together in boxes and sealed, the mold growth on the surface of 
the decomposing shredded plantain pseudostem might have consumed available oxygen 
in the box, creating a reduction in the optimum O2 level required by the plantain fingers 
for respiration and hence the observed delay in ripening. 
 
This phenomenon of lowering the O2 levels a little below the threshold (and raising the 
CO2 level a little above optimum) has been the basis for the success of modified 
73 
 
 
atmosphere package (MAP) in extending the postharvest shelf life of fruit and vegetables 
(Sandhu and Singh, 2000; Dou-ShiJuan et al., 2002 and 2003; Bhande et al., 2007). 
This could have been a possible occurrence in the paper boxes, which had no holes 
and provided an enclosed environment. 
 
The next important trend observed during this experiment is the result of the 
combination of the shredded pseudostem and the KMnO4 used in the packaged plantain. 
This treatment stored the plantains for an average of 15 days. While the shredded 
pseudostem and the KMnO4 were individually able to delay ripening better than the 
control, their combination rather caused a shorter shelf-life, faster than the control. This 
could have resulted from the possibility of some of the mineral elements present in the 
plantain pseudostem having an adverse effect on potassium permanganate (KMnO4) or 
interacting with it to form a different compound(s) that could have altered their 
individual effects on ripening (Akpabio et al., 2012; Okelana, 2001). Examples such as 
Bhattacharjee and Dhua (2017) treating bitter gourds with Silica gel-permanganate and 
elite- permanganate mixture under ambient storage conditions of 27.2°C -31.4 °C and 
69-72% RH, recorded faster rates of spoilage and Sharma et al.(2012) using different 
combinations of potassium permanganate (KMnO4) together with other materials 
(sachet, absorbed in chalk and absorbed in a newspaper) and also recording varying 
rates of spoilage under uniform storage conditions, showed that potassium 
permanganate may be effective as an ethylene absorbent when used alone but 
becomes less effective when its structure is altered or absorbed into a material, possibly 
due to an interaction with the material. 
 
74 
 
 
In conclusion, it could be stated that for improved quality and the shelf life of the 
plantains, the best combination observed was the plastic packaging type with the 
pseudostem treatment, and this run throughout for all the biochemical and 
physicochemical as well as sensory analysis conducted. 
 
4.4 Effects of different forms of packing arrangements on plantain quality during 
transit and subsequent storage. 
The last objective was to investigate the effect of different forms of arrangements on 
plantain quality during transit and storage. 
 
Table 4.1: Effect of transit on Pulp firmness, Peel Colour and Level of Bruising on 
plantains in different forms of packing arrangements as assessed through sensory 
evaluation 
 
Arrangement Firmness Peel Colour Bruises 
Fingers with 5.00±0.00b 1.00±0.00a 1.10±0.00a 
Styrofoam 
Fingers without 5.00±0.00b 1.00±0.00a 1.15±0.00a  
Styrofoam 
Hands with 5.00±0.00b 1.33±0.58a 1.20±0.00ab 
Styrofoam 
Hands without 5.00±0.00b 1.67±0.58a 1.20±0.00ab 
Styrofoam 
Bunches 4.00±0.00a 2.33±0.58a 2.00±0.00c 
 
Data are presented as means±SD, means within a column with different superscripts are 
significantly different at P≤0.05. 
75 
 
 
Firmness was graded on a scale of 5- Very firm to 1- Very soft. Peel colour was graded 
from 1- All green to 9- Dark brown with yellow traces and bruises was graded from 1- 
Extremely low/None to 5- Extremely high for the plantain samples. 
 
From the results in Table 4.1, introducing some form of packaging (plastic box in this 
case) for plantain during transportation reduced the level of mechanical damage that was 
inflicted on the plantains during transit. The high level of bruising observed in the 
bunches at 2.00 ±0.00 is significantly higher than that of the other packing arrangements. 
Also, packing smaller numbers of plantains (fingers and hands) led to less mechanical 
damage through friction or hitting against each other, hence the relatively low level of 
bruising for the fingers 1.10 ± 0.00 (with Styrofoam), 1.15 ±0.00 (without Styrofoam), 
and the hands, with or without Styrofoam;(1.20 ± 0.00). The pulp firmness was 
compromised for the bunches and scored an average of 2.00 ± 0.00. The firmness for 
the hands and fingers, however, remained at 1.00 ± 0.00. The colour was however 
unaffected in all samples. 
 
Significant differences were found between the bunches and the four other arrangements 
for firmness and bruising, at a confidence level of 95%.  It could be said that though the 
Styrofoam may have provided a form of protection, possibly the prevention of scuffing, 
it did not make much of a difference as opposed to the added effect of protection the 
packaging of the plantains in the plastic box had on all those that were packaged. 
 
 
 
76 
 
 
4.4.1 Changes in Pulp firmness, Peel Colour and Level of bruising for plantain 
samples after subsequent storage. 
Improper handling during transit leads to bruises, breakages, peel darkening, fungal 
diseases (such as crown rot), and major post-harvest losses (Ayanwale et al., 2016). The 
packing arrangements of the plantains had an effect on their quality and shelf life.  
Four packing arrangements (not including the bunches) saw to the reduction of post -
harvest losses by including packaging; greatly reducing the adverse effects of transit on 
the plantains. Also, reduction of the number of the plantains (reducing the bunches to 
hands and reducing the hands to fingers) lessened the effects of mechanical damage. The 
bunches, which had no packaging, had Styrofoam which may have prevented further 
scuffing. 
 
Results from the experiment showed a significant difference between the pulp firmness, 
peel colour and level of bruising, among all the various treatments at 5% level probability 
(95% significant level). In Figures 4.11 A and B, it can be observed that the fingers with 
the Styrofoam layer stayed green and firm the longest. It also had the least bruising in 
Figure 4.11 C. 
 
Post-harvest losses as high as 10 to 30% are associated with plantains because they have 
a short pre-climacteric period of less than one week and a shelf life of about 11 days 
under ambient conditions (Sugri et al., 2010). The packaging type (plastic boxes) and 
the arrangements (fingers) of the plantains extended the shelf life of some of the 
plantains to about 15 days before senescence. This was in the case of the fingers with 
Styrofoam. However, in the arrangement with bunches, senescence was reached by day 
12 for all the plantains. 
77 
 
 
A 
 
B 
 
C 
 
Figure 4.11: Changes in sensory quality characteristics of plantains packed in different 
ways for transportation and subsequent storage till senescence (fingers with Styrofoam, 
fingers without Styrofoam, hands with Styrofoam, hands without Styrofoam, bunches 
with Styrofoam). A- Pulp firmness, B – Peel Colour, C – Level of Bruising  
78 
 
 
4.5 Evaluating the best packing arrangement during transit and after subsequent 
storage for improved quality and shelf- life 
The best packing arrangement was determined after results from the previous 
experiments concluded that plastic was the most optimum packaging type as compared 
to wooden boxes and paper boxes. This experiment further went on to use the plastic 
boxes to house the arranged plantains for maximum quality storage. All but the bunches 
were packed in the plastic boxes. These arrangements were used to store the plantains 
which were assessed immediately (on arrival) and subsequently (every 3 days till 
senescence) using sensory analysis. 
 
Generally, it was observed that the plantain bunches ripened the fastest, followed closely 
by the hands without Styrofoam, hands with Styrofoam, before the fingers without 
Styrofoam and then the fingers with Styrofoam. This could be because ripening 
occurred in one or few plantain samples and due to the proximity of the other plantains, 
there was an autocatalytic ethylene production, which hastened the ripening process, 
spreading it across all the plantains close by causing a chain reaction. This reaction is 
commonly found in climacteric fruits (Youryon and Supapvanich, 2017). 
 
The fingers separated by the Styrofoam lasted a maximum of 15 days before senescence 
whereas all other groups completely decayed between 12-14 days (bunches by day 12). 
Plantain responds to ripening indices at elevated temperatures faster than that of the 
normal room temperature (Ogazi, 1996) and this may have also contributed to the faster 
ripening in the grouped plantains (bunches and hands) than in the separated ones 
(fingers). There was also bruising on arrival found especially on the bunches since they 
79 
 
 
had no packaging and this influenced the rate of ripening as bruising leads to high 
respiration rate which in turn causes accelerated ripening. 
 
Plate 4.1 shows the different stages of ripening with the different packing arrangements. 
“A” denotes fingers separated with a layer of Styrofoam on day 6, and here, the various 
stages of ripening can be observed in one box. It can be observed that while some of the 
plantains were almost yellow with more spread of brown (score of 8) indicating near 
senescence, some were yet to ripen and turn yellow (scores of 4, 5). This means unlike 
in the case of the grouped plantains (hands and bunches) where ripening of one or more 
plantains can lead to autocatalysis of ethylene production to ripen all the plantains 
rapidly, these individual plantains were allowed to ripen at their own pace without 
necessarily affecting the others. This ensures longer shelf life of the plantains. It could 
therefore be stated that plantain fingers packed with a layer of Styrofoam, has the ability 
of improving the quality and prolonging the shelf life of plantains better than any of the 
other packing arrangements. 
 
 
 
 
 
80 
 
 
 
 
Plate 4.1: Different stages of ripening of plantains in packing arrangements: A - Fingers 
separated with a layer of Styrofoam on day 6, B - Hands separated with a layer of 
Styrofoam on day 3, C - hands lying directly on top of each other with no Styrofoam 
layer on day 3, D - bunches on top of each other, separated with a layer of Styrofoam on 
day 3.  
81 
 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
5.1 Conclusions 
The conclusions are stated as per the objectives of the study. 
 
The shredded plantain pseudostem as a storage material for plantain preserved the green 
state of plantain for a relatively long period, more so than potassium permanganate. 
However, the combination of the shredded plantain pseudostem and the potassium 
permanganate as a storage material for plantain rather hastened the ripening process. So, 
to extend the green life of produce, the shredded plantain pseudostem is an ideal storage 
material whereas to increase the rate of ripening, the combination of the shredded 
plantain pseudostem and the potassium permanganate should be employed. 
 
The plastic box was proven to be the most ideal packaging material, as it is not only 
hardy and easy to handle but also gave the best results from the observations made, with 
regards to improving and maintaining the quality of the plantains over the study period. 
The plastic box should be used in packaging to improve upon the quality and shelf life 
of produce to 22 days. 
 
Packaging is the main factor needed to minimize the level of mechanical damage during 
transportation of the plantains. Packing the plantains in fingers with Styrofoam 
prolongs the green life of the plantain best as opposed to packing plantains in hands or 
bunches. Packing plantains in bunches increases the rate of ripening. To extend the green 
82 
 
 
life of plantains, they must be arranged in fingers. Arranging them in bunches increases 
their ripening rate. 
 
5.2 Recommendations 
An additional step in evaluating packing arrangements for transportation of the plantains, 
which would include using different storage materials such as pseudostem (for extending 
green life) and pseudostem + KMnO4, (for enhanced ripening) should be studied. A 
limitation during the packing arrangement study was my inability to include the 
pseudostem in the packaging conditions from the farm, to prolong the green life of the 
plantains. 
 
Studies need to be conducted on the mechanism of how storing plantain with a 
combination of potassium permanganate and shredded plantain pseudostem hastens 
ripening while when they are used separately, they each delay ripening. 
 
Biochemical analysis of shredded plantain pseudostem should be done to uncover the 
minerals and other substances, which aid in the ability of the shredded pseudostem to 
delay ripening in the plantain. 
  
83 
 
 
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APPENDICES 
Worksheet and Ballot Sheet for Sensory Evaluation 
THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON DEPARTMENT OF NUTRITION 
AND FOOD SCIENCE SENSORY EVALUATION OF THE PLANTAIN 
SAMPLES 
 
PROJECT TOPIC: Project PowerPuff girls 
OBJECTIVE: To determine the quality of plantain through descriptive sensory 
evaluation of plantain samples based on pulp firmness, peel colour and level of bruising. 
PANEL TYPE: Quality descriptive panel 
NUMBER OF PANELISTS: 6 
ACTIVITY ONE: TRAINING OF PANELISTS 
OBJECTIVE: To familiarize the panelists with the plantain samples and to come up 
with a scale for grading. 
Samples needed include: 
• Banana at all stages of ripening. 
• Peeled egg 
• Candies 
• Mango at different stages of ripening  
• Sachet water 
 
Protocol for Training of Sensory Panelists. 
 
Generating a Grading Scale to Assess Pulp Firmness. 
103 
 
 
Before calibrating a scale for evaluating the firmness, various food items, which have 
various forms of hardness, will be presented to the panelists to assess and classify them 
according to their degree of hardness (firmness). This will be done on a scale of 1 - 5. 
The very firm will receive a score of 5 and the softest will be given a score of 1. All the 
panelists will be allowed to touch and press gently each of the items presented for them 
to give a score based on the scale. Several samples will be presented to the panelists 
including mango fruit (of varied Colours), banana (of varied Colours), candies, boiled 
and peeled eggs, and 500ml Sachet water. Afterward, the panel will discuss and came 
to a consensus on the actual score for each of the items presented and then this will be 
grouped to serve as a scale for the final evaluation. 
Quality Grading Scale for Pulp Firmness 
Quality parameter Description Score 
FIRMNESS Very firm 5 
firm 4 
Soft 3 
Very soft 2 
Extremely soft 1 
 
 
Generating a Grading Scale for Assessing Peel Colour. 
The unripe (all green Colour) and overripe (dark brown Colour with a trace of 
yellow) plantain fingers will be used as the endpoints to calibrate the quality scale for 
ripeness. Plantains at different stages of ripeness will also be presented to the panel for 
them to score according to peel Colour. Scoring for the Colour will be done based on the 
degree of ripeness. A scale of 1 to 9 will be used for grading the peel Colour. The Colour 
104 
 
 
chart for grading the ripeness of bananas (adapted from Gee st, UK) will be used to 
facilitate both the training and the test sessions. 
 
Quality Grading Scale for Peel Colour 
Quality parameter Description Score 
COLOUR All green 1 
Green with a trace of yellow 2 
More green than yellow 3 
More yellow than green 4 
Yellow with a trace of green 5 
All Yellow 6 
A ll   Yellow   with   brown 7 
S peckles 
   More spread of brown in  8 yellow 
 Dark   brown   with   yellow 9 
    (adapted from Gee st, UK)  
 traces 
**This session should last for about 60 to 90 minutes. 
 
ACTIVITY TWO 
BALLOT SHEET FOR PANELISTS Instructions 
The samples to be assessed are twelve, from twelve different storage treatments. The 
sensory analysis is to assess the quality of the samples based on their peel colour and 
pulp firmness. The test will be conducted at every five days interval with a  test 
duplicate in each session. 
You are to carefully look at the sample presented and grade the peel Colour according 
to the ripeness level, that is, colours like all green, green with a trace of yellow, more 
green than yellow, more yellow than green, all yellow, yellow with brown speckles, 
brown with yellow speckles, browner than yellow and dark brown with a trace of yellow 
105 
 
 
will be graded following the generated scale. You should score the colours on the said 
scale from 1 to 9 depending on the ripeness level of the plantain. 
The assessment of the firmness will also be measured on a scale of 1 - 5. You are 
to gently touch the sample and press them to assess their firmness. The scores for the 
firmness will also be graded following their degree of firmness on the generated scale; 
very firm, firm, soft, very soft, and extremely soft. For the colour, all green is 1 and 9 
is dark brown with a trace of yellow. The rest of the colours will be graded between 
2 and 8. For the firmness also, 1 is very firm and 5 is extremely soft (with pulp juice 
oozing out). The other touch indicators like firm, soft, and very soft will be scored 
between 2 and 4 depending on the firmness. You will be provided with 12 samples. 
Assess the samples provided from left to right. 
• Evaluate the samples by observing/examining (feeling) the entire surface 
area of each of the individual samples in a set carefully before scoring. 
• Use the colour chart provided to aid in the grading for the peel colour of 
the samples. 
Peel colour 
Sample code 
 
									A													
	
	
	
	
													 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	 	1																																																																																2	
 
                                     All green                                           Green with a trace of yellow 
 
 
 
 
																																												3																																																																																4	
 
         More green than yellow                                More yellow than green
106 
 
 
 
 
																																			5																																																																													6	
 
           Yellow with a trace of green                                      All yellow 
 
 
 
 
																																		7																																																																															8	
 
      All yellow with brown speckles               More spread of brown in the yellow 
 
 
 
 
 
																																																																				9		
 
                                                   Dark brown with yellow traces 
 
 
 
Pulp Firmness 
   Sample Code 
 
A 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 1 2 3 
 
       Very firm                                              Firm                                            Soft 
 
 
 
 
                             4 5 
 
                       Very soft                                            Extremely soft 
107 
 
 
Level of Bruising 
Sample Code 
 
A	
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  1                                                     2                                                     3 
 
Extremely low/none                                   low                                              medium 
 
 
 
 
 
 
																																						4																																																																					 5	
 
                               High                                               Extremely high
108 
 
 
ACTIVITY THREE: WORKSHEET FOR THE QUALITY 
ASSESSMENT TEST Type of sample: Plantain fingers 
Test type: Quality grading 
Test location: Department of Nutrition and Food Science 
Samples served: Twelve plantain fingers with different storage condition 
Each panelist receives 12 plantain samples at a time. Each sample is coded with 
a random number. The sample codes are given below: 
 Q1: Pseudostem treatment in a paper box  
 Q2: Pseudostem treatment and KMnO4 in a paper box for the Apantu 
 Q3: KMnO4   treatment in a paper box for the Apantu 
 Q4: Apantu in paper box without any 
treatment (control)  
D1: Pseudostem treatment in a plastic box for 
the Apantu 
D2: Pseudostem treatment and KMnO4 in a plastic box for the Apantu 
D3: KMnO4 treatment  in a plastic box for the Apantu 
 D4: Apantu in plastic box without any 
treatment (control)  
S1: Pseudostem treatment in a wooden box for 
the Apantu 
109 
 
 
S2: Pseudostem treatment and KMnO4 in a wooden box for the Apantu 
S3: KMnO4 treatment in a wooden box for the Apantu 
S4: Apantu in wooden box without any treatment (control) 
 
Sample Codes and Order of Presentation. 
 
Test sessions Q Q Q Q D D D D S S S S
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 
Session one 4 2 4 3 1 4 2 3 2 1 4 4
92 78 48 96 70 12 82 00 91 88 70 62 
4 4 3 4 4 1 4 4 3 1 2 4
86 51 15 55 36 10 41 78 65 82 10 29 
3 4 1 1 1 1 1 3 4 3 4 4
96 29 74 05 87 63 15 25 00 56 92 15 
Session two 1 4 4 1 2 4 1 2 3 1 3 3
35 50 38 61 71 89 89 21 61 64 59 92 
4 4 4 3 3 1 3 2 3 1 1 4
75 55 24 64 77 32 94 45 70 21 87 22 
1 1 3 2 3 4 1 3 2 2 2 2
94 37 12 01 24 87 10 07 62 54 72 68 
Session three 4 1 1 4 4 4 2 2 3 3 3 2
27 37 38 04 55 88 22 02 94 11 11 00 
3 2 1 3 1 2 2 3 4 2 1 4
35 74 36 04 30 27 82 53 37 13 04 40 
1 2 4 2 2 3 1 2 4 4 3 1
22 43 34 68 51 05 21 98 64 99 48 30 
Session four 4 2 5 2 2 1 3 1 3 2 4 4
16 23 00 22 77 28 88 31 49 47 25 32 
3 4 1 4 1 3 3 4 3 2 4 4
87 71 36 41 11 82 48 34 49 13 56 32 
4 1 4 3 2 4 4 4 2 4 4 3
65 62 27 27 23 64 31 66 83 73 63 74 
Session five 2 1 3 1 1 4 3 3 2 3 2 2
67 89 53 67 29 92 98 57 02 92 11 41 
1 1 3 2 4 1 4 3 1 1 1 4
44 30 82 66 09 45 58 12 25 36 50 77 
3 3 4 4 2 3 3 3 3 4 2 2
85 42 30 93 38 35 03 69 84 92 02 02 
110 
 
 
APPENDIX TABLE 1: ANOVA TABLE FOR TOTAL SUGAR (GENERAL 
LINEAR MODEL) 
ANALYSIS ADJ SS ADJ MS F-VALUE P-VALUE 
Treatment 10.66 3.55 11.20 0.00 
Days 69.96 23.32 73.54 0.00 
Packaging 0.25 0.13 3.40 0.03 
Error 42.81 0.32   
Total 123.67    
 
 
 
APPENDIX TABLE 2: ANOVA TABLE FOR REDUCING SUGAR 
(GENERAL LINEAR MODEL) 
ANALYSIS DF ADJ SS ADJ MS F-VALUE P-VALUE 
Treatment 3 2.33 0.78 3.99 0.03 
Days 3 277.01 92.34 355.59 0.00 
Packaging 2 11.46 5.73 22.07 0.00 
Error 135 35.06 0.26   
Total 143 325.86    
111 
 
 
APPENDIX TABLE 3: ANOVA TABLE FOR pH (GENERAL LINEAR MODEL) 
 
ANALYSIS DF ADJ SS ADJ MS F-VALUE P-VALUE 
Treatment 3 0.11 0.04 3.73 0.04 
Days 3 15.10 5.03 103.37 0.00 
Packaging 2 2.26 1.13 23.24 0.00 
Error 135 6.57 0.05   
Total 143 24.04    
 
 
 
APPENDIX TABLE 4: ANOVA TABLE FOR BRIX (GENERAL LINEAR 
MODEL) 
 
ANALYSIS DF ADJ SS ADJ MS F-VALUE P-VALUE 
Treatment 3 13.70 4.55 3.35 0.02 
Days 3 17244 3.08 4222.03 0.00 
Packaging 2 6.20 0.13 2.26 0.01 
Error 135 17447.60 1.36   
Total 143 123.67    
112 
 
 
APPENDIX TABLE 5: ANOVA TABLE FOR TOTAL SOLUBLE SOLIDS 
(GENERAL LINEAR MODEL) 
ANALYSIS DF ADJ SS ADJ MS F-VALUE P-VALUE 
Treatment 3 0.12 0.00 3.98 0.04 
Days 3 2.71 0.90 220.38 0.00 
Packaging 2 0.11 0.05 12.85 0.03 
Error 135 0.55 0.00   
Total 143 3.39    
 
 
113