UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IMPLEMENTATION OF SDG 16.1: ANALYSIS OF GHANA’S EFFORTS TO REDUCE SEXUAL VIOLENCE BY DORA ACHEMPONG (10528646) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON OCTOBER, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DEDICATION To Theresa Bioh, you will forever be in my heart. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Foremost, I am grateful to God for His providence and mercies which are new every morning. My sincerest appreciation goes to Dr. Fredrick Boamah for his support, guidance and consistent feedback toward this research. His consistency is the reason why I could finish this work. I am also grateful to my family for their unending care and outstanding support through this journey. Especially to Mr. Acheampong, my dad, your assurances and daily prayers kept me afloat. Thank you. Lastly, I appreciate the contributions and candid opinions of all interviewees who gave me information for this work, especially to Mr. Bawa from UNFPA, and all others who made time for me during my data collection. I’m grateful. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii LIST OF ACRONYMS ACHPR - African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights ANPPCAN - The African Network for the Prevention and Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect AWD - Adults with Disabilities CDC - Centre for Disease Control and Prevention CEDAW - Convention on the Elimination of all forms of Discrimination against Women CHRAJ - Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice CID - Criminal Investigations Department CSEC - Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children CWD - Children with Disabilities DOVVSU - Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit ECOSOC - United Nations Economic and Social Council FST - Feminist Security Theory GA - General Assembly GMA - Ghana Medical Association GoG - Government of Ghana GSGDA - Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda GSS - Ghana Statistical Service IDS - Institute of Development Studies IEA - Institute of Economic Affairs IGOs - Intergovernmental Organizations University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ILO - International Labor Organization IPV - Intimate Partner Violence IPSV - Intimate Partner Sexual Violence IR - International Relations MDGs - Sustainable Development Goals MGCSP - Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection MWD - Men with Disabilities NDPC - National Development Planning Commission NGOs - Nongovernmental Organizations NGP - National Gender Policy NPA - National Plan of Action NPV - Non-intimate Partner Violence PTSD - Post Traumatic Stress Disorder SCR - Security Council Resolution SDGs - Sustainable Development Goals SGBV - Sexual and Gender-based Violence UDHR - Universal Declaration of Human Rights UN - United Nations UNCRC - United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children UNDP - United Nations Development Programme UNFPA - United Nations Population Fund UNGA - United Nations General Assembly UNHCR - United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v UNICEF - United Nations Children Emergency UNODC - United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes WHO - World Health Organization WWD - Women with Disabilities University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.......................................................................... 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DEDICATION................................................................................................................................ i ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ ii LIST OF ACRONYMS ............................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................. ix CHAPTER ONE: RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................. 1 1.0 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................. 5 1.2 Research Questions ............................................................................................................ 7 1.3 Research Objectives ........................................................................................................... 8 1.4 Rationale............................................................................................................................. 8 1.5 Scope of the Study.............................................................................................................. 8 1.6 Theoretical Framework ...................................................................................................... 9 1.7 Literature Review ............................................................................................................. 11 1.7.1 Prevalence of Sexual Violence ........................................................................................ 11 1.7.2 Culture as the most prevalence cause of sexual violence ................................................ 13 1.7.3 Reducing Sexual Violence ............................................................................................... 15 1.8 Research Methodology ..................................................................................................... 17 1.8.1 Study Design .................................................................................................................... 17 1.8.2 Sources of Data ................................................................................................................ 19 1.8.3 Sampling Methods and Sample Size ................................................................................ 19 1.8.4 Method of Data Collection............................................................................................... 20 1.8.4 Data Processing and Analysis .......................................................................................... 20 1.8.5 Ethical Issues ................................................................................................................... 21 1.9 Arrangement of Chapters ................................................................................................. 22 CHAPTER TWO: OVERVIEW OF SDG 16.1, INCIDENCES AND DETERMINANTS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE GLOBALLY AND IN GHANA. .................................................. 23 2.0 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 23 2.1 Overview of SDG 16.1 .................................................................................................... 23 2.2 Global Overview of Sexual Violence ............................................................................... 24 2.2.1. Rape within Dating or Marriage Relationship ................................................................. 25 2.2.2 Systematic Rape during Armed Conflicts ........................................................................ 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 2.2.3 Unwanted Sexual Harassment or Advances .................................................................... 27 2.2.4 Sexual Abuse of Mentally or Physically Challenged People........................................... 28 2.2.5 Sexual Abuse of Children; Child Marriage ..................................................................... 29 2.2.6 Rape by Strangers, Familiar People or Family Members ................................................ 31 2.2.7 Gang Rape ........................................................................................................................ 32 2.2.8 Denial of the Right to Use Contraception and Force Abortion ....................................... 34 2.2.9 Sex Trafficking and Forced Prostitution .......................................................................... 35 2.3. Defining sexual violence in Ghana .................................................................................. 36 2.3.1. Rape, Carnal Knowledge and/or Unnatural Carnal Knowledge ...................................... 37 2.3.2. Early and Forced Marriage (Child Marriage) .................................................................. 38 2.3.3. Defilement ....................................................................................................................... 39 2.3.4. Indecent Assault ............................................................................................................... 40 2.3.5. Incest ................................................................................................................................ 41 2.3.6. Householder Permitting the Defilement of a Child ......................................................... 42 2.3.7 Causing or Encouraging the Seduction or Prostitution of a Child under Sixteen. ........... 43 2.3.8 Procuration ....................................................................................................................... 45 2.4. Determinants of sexual violence ...................................................................................... 46 2.4.1. Level of Education ........................................................................................................... 46 2.4.2 Culture and Sociocultural norms ..................................................................................... 47 2.4.3 Marital Status ................................................................................................................... 47 2.4.4 Economic Status ............................................................................................................... 48 2.4.5 Previous Rape Experience ............................................................................................... 49 2.5 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 49 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH FINDINGS: ANALYSIS OF GHANA’S EFFORTS TO REDUCE SEXUAL VIOLENCE .............................................................................................. 51 3.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 51 3.1 Policies, Instruments and Institutions Established before Signing the SDGs .................. 51 3.1.1 National Domestic Violence Policy (DV Policy, 2009) ................................................... 51 3.1.1.2 Child and Family Welfare Policy (2014) .......................................................................... 52 3.1.2 Instruments ....................................................................................................................... 53 3.1.3 Institutions ........................................................................................................................ 56 3.1.3.1 Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU) ............................................... 56 3.1.3.2 Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) ............................. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 3.1.3.3 Ministry of Gender, Children and Social Protection (MGCSP) ...................................... 60 3.2 Policies, Instruments and Institutions Implemented after Signing the SDGs .................. 63 3.2.1 Policies ............................................................................................................................. 63 3.2.1.1 National Gender Policy (NGP, 2015) .............................................................................. 63 3.2.1.2 Child and Family Welfare Operational Plan (2015 - 2019) ............................................. 64 3.2.1.3 Five-Year Strategic Plan for Gender Statistics (2018 -2022) .......................................... 65 3.2.2 Instruments ....................................................................................................................... 66 3.2.2.1 7th Government of Ghana/UNFPA Country Programme, (2018-2022) .......................... 67 3.2.2.2 Ghana Coordinated Programme of Economic Social Policies (2017 – 2024). ................ 68 3.2.2.3 The Ghana Medium-term National Development Policy Framework (GSGDA) . 69 3.2.3 Institutions ........................................................................................................................ 70 3.3 Contributions of International and Non-governmental Organizations ............................. 71 3.3.1 United Nations Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF) ................................................. 71 3.3.2 United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) ..................................................................... 72 3.3.3 The Ark Foundation ......................................................................................................... 73 3.4 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 75 CHAPTER FOUR: SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMENDATION .................................................................................................................. 76 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 76 4.1 Summary of Findings ..................................................................................................... 76 4.2 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 80 4.3 Recommendation ............................................................................................................ 80 BIBLOGRAPHY......................................................................................................................... 83 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................... 100 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR INSTITUTIONS ....................................................................... 101 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR VICTIMS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE..................................... 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix ABSTRACT Sexual violence has been classified as a public health problem which happens in various forms and context such as rape, unwanted sexual advances, sexual abuse of vulnerable people, forced marriage or cohabitation, among others. Despite numerous existing instruments, sexual violence still persists, necessitating a more comprehensive guide in 2015 as part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Target 16.1 of the SDGs specifically seeks to reduce all forms of violence and its related deaths in the world. To achieve this target, some states have designed specific instruments and programmes aimed at reducing sexual violence by 2030, and these frameworks have been tailored into their national policies. To investigate the specific interventions being implemented by Ghana after the SDGs and the progress made so far, this study was conducted using qualitative research methodology. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with selected persons from key institutions such as DOVVSU, CHRAJ, UNFPA, UNICEF and Ark Foundation, as well as with victims of sexual violence. Findings show that before 2015, Ghana has been signatory to seventeen existing international instruments that prohibits sexual violence and has therefore translated some of these legal instruments into national policies and created institutions to spearhead their implementation. After the SDGs were adopted, more instruments and policies have been implemented in the short and medium term to further reduce sexual violence by 2030. The study reveals that recent legislations and commitments towards reducing sexual violence by 2030 are more pronounced than before as more resources have been committed towards this course especially by intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs). Despite the various efforts, the study identified that new initiatives and policies spearheaded by government are not as progressive as anticipated due to inadequate financial commitments. Meanwhile, initiatives and programs steered by IGOs and NGOs are progressive due to adequate resource allocations and financial commitments. The study concludes that commendable strides have been made from 2015 to 2021 towards reducing sexual violence in Ghana through existing institutions, policies and legal frameworks, but more could be achieved. The study therefore recommends that government should make adequate financial commitment towards gender-related issues, must cut unnecessary bureaucratic processes that impede contributions of development partners and should revise some existing instruments to meet current standards. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE RESEARCH DESIGN 1.0 Introduction Sexual violence is a global phenomenon that has been with society for ages and happens everywhere in the world, but incidences are more frequent in some parts than others. Sexual violence has been classified as public health problem (Ellsberg et al, 2015; Leseke et al, 2005) which happens in various forms and context such as “rape within marriage or dating relationships, rape by strangers, systematic rape during armed conflict, unwanted sexual advances or sexual harassment including demanding sex in return for favors, sexual abuse of mentally or physically disabled people, sexual abuse of children, forced marriage or cohabitation including the marriage of children, denial of the right to use contraception or to adopt other measures to protect against sexually transmitted diseases, forced abortion, violent acts against the sexual integrity of women including female genital mutilation and obligatory inspections for virginity, forced prostitution and trafficking of people for the purpose of sexual exploitation” (World Health Organization (WHO) 2002). Various attempts have been made to deal with sexual violence through numerous resolutions and policies by international organizations, states and stakeholders. As a result, the United Nations (UN) through the Security Council, the General Assembly (GA) and various UN agencies have made considerable number of declarations and resolutions against all forms of sexual violence. The Security Council Resolution SCR 1325 (2000), SCR 2467 (2007), SCR 1820 (2008), SCR 1888 and 1889 (2009), SCR 1960 (2010), SCR 2106 and 2122 (2013), and 2242 (2015) seek to eliminate all forms of sexual exploitation and abuse (UNSCR, 2019). The GA on the other hand also made resolutions to intensify efforts towards the elimination of all forms of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 violence against women which include sexual violence, from the year 2000 to 2016. In February 2007 during the sixty-second session of the GA, resolution (61/143) was adopted, which was comprehensive and focused on “eliminating rape and other forms of sexual violence in all their manifestations, including in conflict and related situations.” (UN, 2008). Some UN agencies like United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), United Nations Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF), United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and United Nations Office on Drugs and Crimes (UNODC) have united efforts to reduce sexual violence in all settings and places (UNSCR, 2019). Despite all of the above, sexual violence still persists, necessitating the provision of a more comprehensive guide in 2015 as part of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Therefore, the SDGs as part of the global agenda setting for development was implemented by the UN in 2015 to achieve 17 goals of development. The SDGs replaced the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) after 2015 and has been termed as the “blueprint to a better world”; of which all members of the UN have subscribed to share development goals to achieve “increase peace and prosperity for all people and the planet, now and into the future” (UN, 2015). The agenda of the SDG is to tackle a range of issues, not limited to people only, but to the planet and animal life as well. The seventeen (17) goals are further divided into one hundred and sixty-nine targets (169) and two hundred and thirty (230) indicators to measure the entire framework. Goal 16 of the SDGs seeks to “promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice and build effective and accountable institutions at all levels. Its implementation will prevent threats of international homicide, violence against children, human trafficking and sexual violence, which are important to promote peaceful and inclusive societies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 for sustainable development.” (UNDP; 2016, 2019). Goal 16 of the SDGs seeks to reduce the various multifaceted problems of the world which include sexual violence of all forms and types. Target 16.1 specifically seeks to reduce all forms of violence and its related deaths everywhere. According to UNDP (2019), one of the most common type of violence, disaggregated by sex, age or location is sexual violence. Amoakohene (2005) explains that sexual violence affect both males and females but it is mostly instigated by males against females. Amoakohene further asserts that violence against men do not equate to that against women in terms of frequency, trauma, consequences, effects and severity. Sexual violence is defined as “any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances, or acts to traffic or otherwise directed against a person’s sexuality using coercion by any person regardless of their relationship to the victim, in any setting, including but not limited to home and work.” (WHO, 2002). WHO further explains that sexual violence may take the form of rape within marriage or dating, unwanted sexual harassment or sexual advances, sex in return for favor, sexual abuse by children, and rape by strangers, family members, familiar people or gang rape. According to WHO World Report on violence (2019), almost one out of four (1/4) women have experienced some form of sexual violence by an intimate partner, one out of three (1/3) adolescent girls “report their first sexual experience as being forced, and women between the ages of fifteen to twenty-four (15 -24) years would have experienced some form of sexual violence from their intimate partners by the time they reach their mid-twenties.” The report further explains that sexual violence against men is less talked about and under researched for reasons such as “myth and prejudice surrounding male sexuality.” Nevertheless, boys and men experience sexual violence University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 just like girls and women. Five to ten percent (5-10%) of men have ever experienced sexual violence during their childhood (WHO, 2002). Globally, the most prevalent form of sexual violence is Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) which is perpetuated by intimate partners and it affects around six hundred and forty-one (641) million women (Centre for Injury prevention and Control, 2021). This is not to say that IPV is perpetuated against women only but they are mostly the victims as compared to men. In Africa and some parts of the developing world, acts of sexual violence predominantly remain unreported, under-researched and less talked about as compared to other regions of the world. Meanwhile, The Protocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women (2003) which was adopted sets to ensure that women especially are protected against sexual violence as started in (Article 3 (4); Article 4; Article 5; Article 6; Article 11 (3); Article 22 (b); Article 23 (b)). Other protocols such as the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (1990) and the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights also guarantee the protection of children, adolescents and women against sexual abuse and exploitation. Despite the availability of these legal instruments, sexual violence is still prevalent on the continent. Furthermore, sexual violence by an intimate partner is as high as 36% (McCloskey, 2016). Comparative studies made by WHO in three African countries; Namibia, Tanzania and Ethiopia revealed that about 16-59% of women from these three countries have ever experienced IPV. Data from South Africa, Nigeria, Kenya and Mozambique resonate with existing data that sexual violence is relatively higher in Africa due to reasons such as sex inequalities, male sexual entitlement and impunity for rape. (WHO, 2005; Jewkes et al 2002; Igreja, 2006). Statistics about sexual violence experiences of men are under-reported (Kumar, 2012), but the lowest recorded University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 among developing countries is “3.6% in Namibia, 14.6% in Tanzania and 20% in Peru” (WHO, 2020). Comparatively, the situation is not any different in Ghana. According to the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA, 2019) twenty-seven (27%) percent of women in Ghana have ever been sexually assaulted, one-third (1/3rd) of women in Ghana have been fondled against their will, one out of five (1/5th) have had sex against their will and seven percent (7%) of women have been forced to touch the genitals of men against their will. The figures are estimated to be slightly higher due to the fact that sexual violence in intimate relationships, especially marriages are not reported and also adolescent girls do not open up about their experiences of sexual abuse. Sexual violence against men in Ghana are predominantly sexual comments, followed by unwanted body touches and lastly forced sex, and statistics are 12.1%, 10.3%, and 6.9% respectively (IDS et al, 2016). Sexual violence has tremendous impact on the physical and mental health of its victims (Kumar, 2012; Cantalupo et al, 2006), therefore, there was the need for the development of the Sustainable Development Goal (SDGs) and more specifically target 16.1 by the United Nations (UN). 1.1 Problem Statement Sexual violence is a multifaceted problem that affects people of all ages and classes, and different geographical regions have different policy response and measures to deal with this problem. Due to the impact of sexual violence on victims, it has gained global and regional attention, and has found expression in a number of international instruments and policies. As a result, a call for action to end this crime has brought together various stakeholders such as States, Intergovernmental University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Organizations and Nongovernmental Organizations, who are adopting various dynamic measures and strategies to ensure that sexual violence is reduced drastically by 2030. In response to the call, some states have designed specific instruments and programmes aimed at reducing sexual violence by 2030, and these frameworks have been tailored into national policies (UN Women, 2020). Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs) such as the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA) and the United Nations Children Emergency Fund (UNICEF) as international partners are contributing their quota towards this goal as well as Non-Governmental Organization (NGOs). Globally, more policies have been adopted to meet the framework and targets of SDG 16.1. Particularly in the past two years, the global pandemic which restricted movement and brought social isolation led to increased rate of sexual violence in many countries, as calls to helplines increased five-fold in some countries (UN Women, 2020). In response to that, fifty-two (52) countries as of September 2020 have integrated prevention, help and response plans into their COVID-19 recovery plans, and one hundred and twenty-one (121) countries have improved their services for victims of sexual violence (UNDP, 2020). Countries like “Bulgaria, Greece, Guatemala, Ireland, Lithuania, Paraguay and Peru have introduced specific laws and policy frameworks addressing violence against women and girls which include sexual violence in the context of COVID-19”; these countries have instituted stronger institutional coordination to ensure that victims and survivors recover if possible (UNGA, 2020). Also, in some parts of Africa, shelters and temporary homes have been provided by governments and women support groups in some countries to shelter victims from their perpetuators. Both government and NGOs have partnered to eliminate all forms of sexual violence in some African countries. A report from the UNGA (2020) shows that countries like Senegal, Democratic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 Republic of Congo, Morocco and South Africa have launched campaigns against sexual violence. Messages against sexual violence are delivered through traditional and print media and economic support are provided for vulnerable people. Women in the informal sector as well as young girls and women affected by HIV/AIDS are supported in their various communities. In Ghana, notwithstanding the plethora of research that exists to look at the efforts to deal with sexual violence before the SDGs, research focusing on new and innovative approaches adopted by government and various development partners to deal with sexual violence in this SDGs era is scanty. Current research dealing with SDG 16.1 has focused on the perception of survivors (Kaburi, 2018), media coverage of violence against women (Owusu-Addo et al, 2018), and sexual violence as a transnational issue (Nyahuma, 2015). But it is important to investigate and examine new laws, policies, programs and institutions that are being implemented to deal with the issues of sexual violence. This research therefore looks at the efforts of government, IGOs, and NGOs in reducing sexual violence to achieve SDG16.1 in Ghana. 1.2 Research Questions a. What policies, institutions and instruments existed before the implementation of SDG 16.1 in Ghana to deal with sexual violence? b. What new policies, institutions and instruments have been implemented in Ghana to reduce sexual violence after signing the SDGs? c. What has been the efforts and inputs of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to achieve SDG 16.1 in Ghana? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.3 Research Objectives a. To investigate policies, institutions and instruments that existed before the implementation of SDG 16.1 in Ghana to deal with sexual violence. b. To examine new policies, institutions and instruments that have been implemented in Ghana to reduce sexual violence after signing the SDGs. c. To assess the contributions of intergovernmental organizations (IGOs), and nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to achieve SDG 16.1 in Ghana. 1.4 Rationale After signing the SDGs, various states have made commitments to reducing sexual violence in their countries. Therefore, it is imperative to investigate the various efforts made by Ghana to reduce sexual and related violence since research around this area is scanty. This study seeks to identify various approaches adopted by Ghana to curb sexual violence before and after the implementation of SDG 16.1. The findings of the study will eventually determine if Ghana, as a signatory to the SDGs, is on the right path to achieve SDG 16.1 or not. It also highlights the contributions of IGOs and NGOs toward reducing sexual violence in Ghana. 1.5 Scope of the Study This study examine policies, institutions and instruments aimed at reducing sexual violence in Ghana from 2000 to 2021. This period is examined in two fold; from the MDGs era (2000 -2015) and the SDGs era (2015 to 2021). This presents a clearer picture on the systematic progress made over the years towards reducing sexual violence in Ghana. In literature, there are no comprehensive studies that examine the continuous efforts made by Ghana and international organizations to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 achieve SDG 16.1 through policies, institutions and legal instruments. Therefore, this study presents the progressive efforts towards meeting the target. 1.6 Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework that will guide this study is Feminist Security Theory (FST). FST emanates from feminist approaches to security studies, which is a subfield of security studies as an academic discipline (Enloe, 2004). FST originates from liberal, empiricist, modified standpoints, and perspectives that emerged from conversational debates, cross-ideology and trans- epistemology among several feminists (Blanchard, 2003). FST is a subset of feminist International Relations (IR), which began in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when Cynthia Enloe asked the question “where are the women?” This opened way for feminist contributions to IR, and as the scholarship continued to evolve and develop, so did different and diverse feminist contributions and approaches to security studies (Williams, 2017). Feminist approaches adopt gender lenses to contribute to international security. Gender as defined by feminists transcend any distinction made between men and women, whether visible or not, and variances attributed to those perceived as men and women (Sjoberg, 2018). Sjoberg further explains that its definition includes traits and characteristics aligned with people (whether masculine or feminine) and how they function in “social or political life” at various levels and structures. Zalewski (1995) clarifies that feminism is centered on gender (men and women) and not just women. FS theorists argue that whether normative or empirical, “the international system is gender- hierarchical,” which is wrong in the first place and also “gives inaccurate and incomplete explanations” to life. They further argue that gender regardless of being “biological sex, social University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 conditioning or discursive signification has the power to influence people’s position in the world such that people, things, and institutions associated with femininities are seen, and treated differently than people, things, and institutions associated with masculinities” (Peterson, 2010). FS theorists also believe that asymmetric power relations between men and women often lead to gender inequality mostly against women which has the possibility of leading to violence against women (Steans, 1998). For the fact that masculinity is tied with perceptions such as strength, power and dominion often leads to violence against women because femininity is linked with weakness and vulnerability, which are all social constructs. FS theorists further argue that sexual violence is a threat to the security of everyone in times of war or in peace, therefore both genders should be involved in building consensus about security and peace processes (Steans, 1998). They reject the argument that women are always the victims and are inherently non-violent as believed by the essentialist (Blanchard, 2003). Sjorberg (2016) points out that women who are culpable of sexual violence predominantly remain invisible because of the perception that women are associated with peace and there’s a positive correlation between women and peace. The theory explains that violence of any form prevents people from enjoying human rights which raises global security concerns (UN CEDAW, 1992). In cases of sexual violence by intimate partners, victims live in constant fear because of the repetitive nature of the abuse which creates insecurity and fear. FST posits that some culture practices and beliefs instigate violence against women. In the view of Abane (1999), a typical example is the cultural practice of ‘bride price’ which explains the widespread violence in marriages. Critics of the theory debate how narrow the theory is and implore that it expands its tenets to all insecurity issues that face all individuals as well as states (Sylvester, 2010). Also, traditional IR University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 theorists have denounced FST as a strong unified theory. They argue that the theory is a discourse originating from various discussions, agreements and conflicting views of various feminists (Stean, 1998). Despite the criticisms leveled against this theory, it is the most appropriate for this study because it advocates for policies and legislations that are more gender-sensitive and not neutral as states’ policies have been over the years. The theory embraces the challenges of both males and females and offers better recommendations that are more gender sensitive. FST recommends that states should adopt better public policies to compensate and address all forms of social and economic injustices including sexual violence which affects women the most due to the social privileges of masculinity. The theory therefore enables the researcher to assess institutions, instruments and policies that were enacted from 2015 to 2021, and whether they address gender-sensitive issues such as sexual violence. 1.7 Literature Review This section discusses literature on the prevalence of sexual violence, root cause of sexual violence and the various strategies that have been adopted by some countries to ultimately reduce sexual violence. 1.7.1 Prevalence of Sexual Violence Sexual violence is common in every part of the world and has dire consequences which could be carried from one generation to another (Morrison, Quadara & Boyd, 2007), negatively affecting the development and progress of individuals, families, communities, societies and countries over time (Ellsberg, 2006). Sexual violence is mostly instigated against women as compared to men University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 (Amoakohene, 2005), although male sexual abuse is on the rise in most parts of the world (Bongiorno et al, 2019; Stemple and Meyer, 2014) Globally, it is estimated that about seven hundred and thirty-six (736) million women, which is almost one out of three (1/3) women in the world have ever been subjected to either Intimate Partner Violence (IPV), non-partner sexual violence (NPV) or both, in their lifetime (Alkan and Tekmanlı, 2021). Violence against men whether IPV or NPV instigated by females has over the years remained under-researched (Dery and Diedong, 2014) and literature and policies on violence are mostly tilted on the side of women (Kumar, 2012; Lambert, 2012). Despite that, one out of six (1/6) men are sexually abused before the age of sixteen (16), and the prevalence could be as low as three percent (3%) in some countries and as high as seventy-six percent (76%) in other countries (Dube et al, 2013). These figures are mostly exclusive of sexual harassment, which is the most common form of sexual violence, and victims stand a higher change of depression, sexually transmitted infections, unplanned pregnancies and many other health complications which may last years after the incidence. In developing countries, the prevalence of sexual violence is pronounced in literature. Sexual violence is most prevalent in Africa, specifically South Africa and ranks top of the global list, followed by Botswana, Lesotho, Eswatini (Swaziland), Bermuda, Sweden, Surinam, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and Grenada (Alesina, 2016). The statistics of sexual violence against men in developing countries are as high as forty to fifty-four percent (40-54) % in countries such as Barbados, Trinidad and Jamaica (Hilton, 2012) and as low as six or seven to twelve percent (6, 7- 12) % in Indonesia, Rural- Urban- Papua (Fulu et al, 2013). In Sub-Saharan Africa, growing studies about sexual violence posit that the first sexual experiences of most girls are unwanted and forced (Alesina et al, 2016). Thirty-one percent (31%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 of one hundred and ninety-one adolescent girls that reported teen-age pregnancy were forced, and when they were questioned on the consequences of refusing, seventy-seven percent (77%) responded that they feared being beaten for refusing sex. In countries where both men and women are the focus, more women suffer sexual coercion as compared to men (Halco´n, 2000). In Ghana, Campbell (2016) reports that thirty-three to thirty-six (33-36) percent of women have experienced intimate partner violence at some point in their lives. Lithur (2013) also adds that thirteen to fifty-two (13-52) percent of girls have ever experienced sexual violence in their lifetime. All these figures are estimated to be lower due to low reporting rate of sexual crimes due to factors such as the perpetrator not known by the victim (stranger sexual assault), collective family shame and unwillingness of family to report the offender due to familiarity (Boateng, 2015). 1.7.2 Culture as the most prevalence cause of sexual violence Cultural norms and beliefs have been identified as a profound cause of sexual violence (Alkan, Yilmaz and Abar, 2020; Amoakohene, 2005; Issahaku, 2017) and Quintero-Hernández (2017) is of the view that although culture plays an integral part, it is important to understand that there are cultural differences and similarities between countries. Kalra and Bhugra (2013) contribute that, sexual violence takes place in all societies around the world, albeit under different socio-cultural practices, Alkan, Oktay, Unver and Gerni (2020) are also of the view that cultural continues to play a role in sexual violence because “acts of violence are behavioral patterns that are internalized in the socialization process by new generations and passed down to other generations in this manner”. As a result, Kocacik and Dogan (2006) believe that culture does not enlighten women enough on their rights, therefore most women are not aware of their sexual rights. Ipekten and Yildiz (2014) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 further contribute that cultural norm preaches that “men own women, manhood is all about violence, and violence is just ordinary behavior,…women must be submissive to men, rebelling against one’s husband is a sin, and in marriage, the sexual needs of men must be met.” Therefore, women especially do not consider acts of sexual violence as offensive and criminal. Eswaran & Malhotra, (2011) argue that “in many African countries, men are socialized to believe that they wield authority in partner relations and marriages” and Borumandnia et al, (2020) conclude that this is the reason for unequal power relations between men and women in society, which has the tendencies of victimizing women in sexual violence. Moreover, many societies in sub-Saharan Africa enforce the payment of dowry during the marriage ceremony, which is mostly interpreted as the “transfer of rights from the woman’s family to the husband, allowing men to own their wives” (Archampong & Baidoo, 2011; Stafford, 2008; Tenkorang et al., 2013). This practice, according to literature instills patriarchal entitlement, which is known to be a strong basis for IPV, especially male partner sexual violence, where women are mostly the victims. (Amoakohene, 2004; Tenkorang et al., 2013). Other studies show that there are customary forms of sexual violence against women in Africa and one of the most common forms is child marriage. (Hossain et al, 2015; Kamal et al, 2015). Practices such as child ransom and wife inheritance are still practiced in some parts of Africa. A girl-child is used as ransom to pacify the sins of her male family members by giving her out to the offended family, and about wife inheritance, the sister of the deceased wife is forced to replace the deceased in her marital home (Anankemag, 2016). Women are not the only gender affected by cultural dispositions. Due to cultural believes, most men are not able to report any form of sexual violence meted out against them, especially by women (Dolan, 2014). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 Literature asserts that the prevalence of sexual violence against women in Ghana is due to the cultural disposition that males are supposed to dominate over women in every aspect of life (Takyi- Baffour and Mann, 2009). Other studies also posit how the cultural patriarchal system of subjugation and assertion of authority over women has led to sexual abuse in various forms (Johnson, 2006; Stark, 2007). Therefore Edström et al., (2014) are of the view adherence and compliance to such traditional masculinities predispose women to all forms of violence, including sexual violence. Other forms of patriarchal beliefs such as “men are the breadwinner, men are heads of home” are believed to justify sexual violence in the household under certain circumstances (Mann and Takyi, 2009). These are consistent with the findings of Acheampong and Baidoo (2011) and Stafford (2008) which say “gender inequality; social norms around masculinity; social determinants and economic inequality; harmful behaviors, particularly alcohol misuse, and child maltreatment and abuse” are the most common causes of sexual violence. 1.7.3 Reducing Sexual Violence Despite the act being recognized as human rights violation, Garcia-Moreno & Watts., (2011) and Lalor, (2004) believe there are inadequate prevention and management policies for victims. Different approaches and policies are being developed by countries to match the root cause of the problem. In developed countries, the Schwartz model is one of the many strategies that have been adopted over the years as a measure to reduce sexual violence. This model puts in place effective “intervention before birth, during childhood and in adolescence and young adulthood.”(Schwartz, 1991). In this model, right from childhood, child sexual abuse is introduced in discussions in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 media space for children and as the children grow, they are encouraged to own their personality and bodies to boost their self-image and confidence. This education continues through adolescence and young adulthood through enlightenment on the difference between sexual violence, coercion and myth about rape. According to Yuan et al (2019) and Yuan and Hesketh (2019) some countries in Asia have recently adopted the Domestic Violence Laws (DVL) to create awareness as a first step to eliminate all forms of violence against women. Education-based programs have been developed for Africa and other developing countries to curb the issue of sexual violence and the two most prominent are Stepping Stones (1995) and Men as Partners (1998). These programs are designed for both men and women in the same age brackets and delivered using a participatory learning approach during seminars and workshops. These programs have over the years educated both men and women about issues of sexual violence, avoiding labeling victims and perpetrators as such, helping people to take responsibility for their offenses, communicating in a better way and promoting respect. Communities in Cambodia, Gambia, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania that adopted these programs have reported a significant reduction in the rate of sexual violence against women. Other countries have also adopted a developmental approach to reduce sexual violence; they emphasize the importance of gender-balanced parenting and home nurturing of children (Malamuth et al, 2000; Malamuth, 1998). Experiences from Africa based on successfully implemented programs show that sexual violence must be addressed through a comprehensive policy guide from experts (Christofides et al 2005; Keesbury & Askew, 2010). This implies that countries that are willing to eliminate sexual violence should formulate policies that will deal effectively with the problem, but unfortunately, the extent to which countries have effective policies to prevent sexual violence is still unknown University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 (Loots, Dartnall and Jewkes, 2011). Despite the odds, Spangaro et al, (2013) are of the view that in Africa, sexual violence is on the decline. Literature has very little to show how Ghana intends to curb this canker. Therefore, this study seeks to bring to light how government, IGOs and NGOs intend to reduce sexual violence especially against women with the help of legal instruments, state institutions and policies. 1.8 Research Methodology Diverse approaches are employed in every research to collect, analyze and interpret data. The selection of a particular field for research, collection of data and the adoption of the appropriate technique for interpretation to conclude is termed research methodology (Silverman, 2005). This section describes the processes used for collecting and analyzing data to arrive at the objectives of this study; to analyze Ghana’s efforts to reduce sexual violence. The study approach, sources of data, sampling methods and sample size, data analysis, ethical issues and limitations of the study as organized below will help to achieve the above objective. 1.8.1 Study Design There are three (3) main research designs, and these are the quantitative method, the qualitative method and the use of both the quantitative and the qualitative method known as the mixed method (Biggam, 2015; Creswell, 2014). This study adopts a qualitative research design. According to Crossman (2019), qualitative design gathers data and uses non-numeric data to generate meaning information out of the data gathered on the social lives of the sample. It entails the use of direct and interactive collection of information which provides the opportunity for the researcher to relate and appreciate the matter under study. Bobbie (2005), highlights some advantages of qualitative research method, which are flexibility and cost. Due to its flexible nature, researchers are at liberty University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 to alter, modify and strategize research questions as well as pose open-ended questions to obtain clarity and in-depth understanding. On the issue of cost, Bobbie asserts that qualitative research could be relatively less expensive. In his opinion, some basic materials such as a recorder, a pen and paper are enough for a researcher to undertake good research. Qualitative research design is the most appropriate method for gathering and interpreting data on efforts made by Ghana to reduce sexual violence because apart from its flexibility and the cost component, this study intends to explore and dig deeper into the worldview of respondents. Also, the qualitative study design provides the opportunity to have direct contact with professionals and victims of sexual violence to draw meaningful outcomes out of their experiences and responses. Also, due to the sensitive nature of the subject of sexual violence, a qualitative study design was deemed appropriate due to its nature of adaptiveness and informality, which enable respondents to cooperate and make meaningful contributions to the subject matter. There are four approaches to qualitative research; grounded theory, ethnography, case study and phenomenology (Hancock et. al., 2002). Among these, phenomenology was the most appropriate approach for this research. This approach is used to explain how the experiences of people should impact policy and change. It draws essence from the lived experiences of several individuals and makes inferences from them. The unpleasant experiences of victims and survivors of sexual violence over the years must influence national policies and institutions toward reducing the act by 2030. Thoughts, expressions and past experiences of victims could determine whether there are effective policies and institutions capable of reducing incidences of sexual violence by 2030. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 1.8.2 Sources of Data This research was carried out in the Greater Accra Region, the capital of Ghana where most of the headquarters of the relevant institutions for this study are based. Residents of Greater Accra are engaged in both formal and informal economic activities and fall within different social and economic strata. Both primary and secondary sources of data were used in this study. The primary data was gathered from the Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU) of the Ghana Police Service, Commission for Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ), UNFPA Ghana, UNICEF Ghana, The Ark Foundation, and victims of sexual violence. The above- mentioned institutions were also carefully selected because they are the main organizations that are responsible for or contribute to gender and its related issues in Ghana. Respondents were selected from the above-mentioned institutions due to their experience and expertise in sexual violence-related issues and policies. They were either heads or assistants of the gender unit of their respective organizations and therefore were instrumental in primary data collection. Secondary data was equally important for this study, therefore they were collected from credible journals, articles, books, reports, statistics and related legislative instruments. Information was also gathered from the website of DOVVSU, CHRAJ, USAID Ghana, UNFPA Ghana and UNICEF Ghana. 1.8.3 Sampling Methods and Sample Size Some phenomena or characteristics are unevenly distributed in the universe, therefore, the most appropriate sampling method to use is a non-probability or non-random sampling (Kumekpor, 2002). To meet the objectives of this study, purposive sampling which is a non-probability sampling was employed in selecting the respondents for this study. Purposive sampling, also known as subjective sampling is a sampling technique whereby the researcher employs his or her University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 discretion in the selection of respondents from a population (Etikan, 2016). Participants’ selection was based on their ability to answer questions on sexual violence-related policies, institutions and legal instruments. A total of eleven (11) respondents were purposively selected for this study. One professional each from DOVVSU, CHRAJ, UNICEF Ghana, UNFPA Ghana, and the Ark Foundation. One married woman who has ever experienced sexual violence was selected. Also, a lady and gentleman who are not married but have ever experienced sexual violence were interviewed. Lastly, a total of three adolescents, two (2) females and a male who have ever experienced sexual violence were selected for this study. The selection was useful in obtaining holistic data on how best the experiences shared by victims could be mitigated through effective policies and institutions 1.8.4 Method of Data Collection A semi-structured interview guide was used in collecting primary data. This method according to Creswell (2013) helps the interviewer to appreciate people’s perceptions and experiences of the topic under study. It allows the participants to express their own opinions and perspectives while keeping them in check. It also enabled the interviewer to probe more for clarity and insight. Primary data was collected through face-to-face interviews. Interviews were recorded using tape and were stored according to the name of the institution for further processing. 1.8.4 Data Processing and Analysis Descriptive content analysis was used to interpret the primary data which were collected for this study. This helped the researcher gain a deeper understanding of every individual’s unique experience. According to Silverman (2016), this method provides an excellent opportunity for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 researchers to get the best out of the data gathered because they can draw meaningful understanding, and provide in-depth and valuable analysis of people’s thoughts. Data gathered were analyzed just as they were collected, devoid of bias. Responses were interpreted just as they were taken. Recorded interviews were transcribed from audio to text format and subsequently grouped into themes based on the research objectives of this study. According to (Braun & Clarke, 2006), thematic analysis is the process of identifying salient patterns or themes within qualitative data and aligning them in a manner such that they address the research problem and objectives. A summary descriptive analysis was used to explain all figures that were collected during this study. 1.8.5 Ethical Issues Ethical issues were considered throughout the entire study. According to Rogers (1987), issues about ethics are becoming more complex in a technology-advancing world and issues about societal values and roles are also changing dramatically. Vanclay et al (2013), are of the view that every researcher should consider ethical issues such as consent of participants, confidentiality, disclosure of sources of funding, voluntary participation, exclusive right to pull back and avoidance of excessive interference. Due to the sensitive nature of sexuality and sex-related issues in our culture and society, the researcher assured participants of confidentiality, voluntary participation and exclusive right to pull back at any point. Interviewees from UNFPA and Ark Foundation waived their anonymity, therefore their positions were mentioned, but interviewees from the rest of the organizations are kept anonymous. Victims were equally kept anonymous, but to appreciate their varying experiences, they were given identities. The married woman is identified as victim 1, unmarried University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 women are identified as victim 2, unmarried men are identified as victim 3 and adolescents (both males and females are identified as victim 4. Additionally, participants were informed that the research was for academic purposes only, and verbal consent was sought before any interview was conducted. Privacy was assured to enable them to freely speak about issues. 1.9 Arrangement of Chapters This study was organized in four chapters. Chapter one discusses the design of the research. It introduces the subject matter, provides a research statement, outlines the research questions and objectives, scope and rationale, theoretical framework which navigates the study, a brief literature review and research methodology. Chapter two gives an overview of SDG 16.1, explaining the goal, targets and its indicators. It also highlights incidences and determinants of sexual violence globally and in Ghana. Chapter three presents an analysis of the research findings based on the research questions and objectives. It was put into three main sections based on the research objectives. It discusses the policies, institutions and legal instruments that were implemented in Ghana before signing on the SDGs. The second half discusses the policies, institutions and legal instruments that have been adopted after the signing of the SDGs and the last part focuses on the contributions of international and non-governmental organizations to help Ghana achieve this goal by 2030. Chapter four presents the key findings of this study, draws a conclusion and give some recommendations to help Ghana reduce sexual violence by 2030. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF SDG 16.1, INCIDENCES AND DETERMINANTS OF SEXUAL VIOLENCE GLOBALLY AND IN GHANA. 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents an overview of SDG 16.1, explains the various forms of sexual violence that exist globally and in Ghana and highlights some determinants of the act. Goal 16 which is the broader vision, together with its 12 targets and 24 associated indicators explain the importance of strengthening institutions to reduce global crimes. On the other hand, this chapter explains global incidences of sexual violence and also explains the contextual meaning of sexual violence as defined by the Domestic Violence Act (2007) and the Criminal Offence Code 1960 (Act 29) of Ghana. Lastly, the chapter discusses some contributing factors to the crime. 2.1 Overview of SDG 16.1 The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), also known as the Global Goals were adopted by the United Nations (UN) in 2015. They serve as a clarion call to end poverty, protect people and the planet, ensure universal peace and wellbeing and harness country-level collaborations to achieve world peace. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP, 2019), the official UN agency in charge of the SDGs, countries which have ratified the agreement “have committed to prioritize progress for those who're furthest behind, because the SDGs are designed to end poverty, hunger, AIDS, and discrimination against women and girls;… they show progress, or lack thereof, on peace, justice and inclusion.” The SDGs are divided into 17 goals, 169 targets and 230 indicators. Every goal has targets, and the targets are further divided into indicators to simplify the goals and make them more University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 measureable. SDG 16 seeks to “promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels.” Under Goal 16, there are twelve (12) related targets which deals with issues of violence; child abuse, exploitation and trafficking; rule of law and equal access to justice; organized crimes and illicit financial and arms flows; corruption and bribery; effective, accountable and transparent institutions; responsive, inclusive and representative decision making; participation in global governance; universal legal identity; public access to information and protect fundamental freedoms; national institutions to prevent violence and combat crime and terrorism; non-discriminatory laws and policies (Inter-Agency and Expert Group on Sustainable Development Goal Indicator, 2016) Target 16.1 which falls under goal 16 aims at reducing all forms of violence and its related death rates everywhere. This target is further divided into four indicators namely; 16.1.1- international homicide; 16.1.2 – conflict related death; 16.1.3 – Prevalence of all forms of violence; and 16.1.4 – public safety (UNDP, 2019). Explaining further, Indicator 16.1.3, encourages states to “significantly reduce all forms of violence and its related death rates across all countries by 2030” (UN Department of Economic and Social Affairs, 2015). When countries build strong and accountable institutions, they are effective in dealing with any form of violence that affect its citizens. Sexual violence, which affects both males and females can be reduced when there are effective and accountable institutions that will ensure that policies and laws are effective enough to deter perpetrators and protect victims or survivors. 2.2 Global Overview of Sexual Violence Globally, there are some forms of sexual violence that are more predominant, and happen in almost every country. Knowing and defining them is very crucial because this will give a clearer direction University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 and perspective to analyze the effectiveness of policies, legal instruments and institutions which are aimed to help reduce all forms of sexual violence by 2030. 2.2.1. Rape within Dating or Marriage Relationship Both men and women experience rape within dating or marriage relationships, and most times partners who experience sexual violence experience physical violence as well (Chibber et al, 2012). This phenomena is neither rare nor unique to a specific geographic location because studies across different regions indicate so. Defining intimate partner sexual violence, specifically rape is difficult and this is as a result of the sexual and intimate nature of the relations between couples or partners (Bagwell-Grey et al, 2015). Bagwell-Grey et al (2015) further argue that, the term “rape” in marriages and dating relations have been downplayed and avoided altogether by many victims. As a result, some political terms like “legitimate rape” have been introduced due to the complicated nature of the situation (Jaco, 2012). According to WHO (2002), rape is defined as “physically forced or otherwise coerced penetration – even if slight – of the vulva or anus, using a penis, other body parts or an object”. The above definition applies to everyone, including persons in intimate relationships. Explaining the terms and making distinctions between “being raped” and “had sex” become more complicated when the victim has in the past consented to any form of sexual contact with the perpetrator. Rape within dating or marriage relationship fall under intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV), and the Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) defines this act within four broad characteristics; lack of consent, whether the act was attempted or completed, type of force and the nature of sexual activity. According to WHO factsheet (2021), almost one-third (1/3), which is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 approximately twenty-seven percent (27%) of women worldwide who fall between the ages of fifteen to forty-nine (15-49), and have ever been in a relationship have experienced sexual, and sometimes physical violence from their partner. Its prevalence is as high as thirty-three percent (33%) in South East Asia and Africa, thirty-one percent (31%) in Eastern Mediterranean region, twenty-five percent (25%) in America and twenty-two percent (22%) in Europe (IMF Factsheet, 2021). 2.2.2. Systematic Rape during Armed Conflicts Systematic rape during armed conflict has exited throughout history and it is as old as conflict itself (UN Women, 1998). Women have no or little influence in the outbreak of war but they are the gender that suffer most (Prescott, 2013). According to Leatherman (2007), rape during armed conflict has been part of the spoils of war, and although it affects both men and women, it is mostly instigated by men (military officers, civilians, militants, workers in displacement camps) against women. This atrocity had not received enough attention in the international space although it happened during World War I and II, but at the end of 1992 when the media reported the existence of detention and rape camps in former Yugoslavia, and in 1994 during the Rwanda genocide, when women were raped and sexually tortured as part of the campaign for ethnic cleansing (UN Women, 1998; Alcorn, 2014). Subsequently, systematic rape has become part of conflict and has been described as the “new war” (Kaldor, 2003; Weiss, 2006). In all contemporary armed conflict, women are subjected to violence (Bernard, 2014). Rape in armed conflict is ubiquitous, but its statistics is dearth. UN Women (1998) and Alcorn (2014) estimate that over ten thousand (10,000) Muslim women and hundred thousand (100,000) girls and women were raped during armed conflicts in Yugoslavia and Rwanda respectively. During 2018 mid-year review of reported cases of rape, gang rape and sexual slavery in the South Sudan University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 conflict, it was revealed that about two thousand and three hundred (2,300) cases have been recorded and twenty-one percent (21%) were children (Lund, 2019). Lund further explains that in 2014, about six thousand (6,000) Yazidi women and children from Iraq were “captured and sold into sexual slavery” after an attack, and in Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), about one thousand, four hundred and twenty-nine (1,429) cases are recorded annually, and sixty-eight (68%) of victims are children, including boys. Throughout history, rape has been used as a weapon of war and predominant in countries like Sri Lanka, Bosnia, DRC, Iraq and Central African Republic (CAR). Several reasons contribute to this problem, but the most common is the notion that women are part of the spoils of war, are properties to be owned and therefore victorious armies are entitled to this “property”. 2.2.3 Unwanted Sexual Harassment or Advances Sexual harassment is the most prevalent form of sexual violence and it happens in every country. Studies have identified sexual harassment or advances among the military, police, health workers, schools, faith based organizations and homes (Norman et al, 2012; de Haas, 2009; Timmerman, 1999; Fitzgerald, 1997). Also, it happens to both males and females regardless or occupation, race, geographical location, wealth status and level of education. Sexual harassment is defined as any form of “sexual discrimination, unwanted sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and other verbal or physical conduct” (Council Revolution, 1990). Sexual harassment could be physical, verbal and nonverbal, and there are different types and range of behaviors which constitute the act. They include, but not limited to gendered comments, seductive behavior, sexual coercion, sexual imposition, unwanted neck massage, unwanted sexual pressure for sexual favor, unwanted sexual look or gestures, unwanted sexual phone calls or letters in a sexual nature, persistent and unwanted gifts or dates, sexual comments, unwanted sexual jokes, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 unwanted touch or hug, unwanted sexual teasing, remarks or questions among others (UN Women, 2019). The key elements in sexual harassment or advancement are that they are unwanted, unwelcomed, offensive, unconsented and intentional. It could be from a supervisor, friend, co- worker, schoolmates or strangers. There are physiological, psychological and social effects of sexual harassment but literature conflict on which gender it affects most. While some believe it affects males the most (Fitzgerald, 2005), others believe it affects females the most due to “social power and their vulnerable status (Magley, Waldo et al, 1999) and the last category believe it affects both males and females alike, in terms of their health (Norman et al, 2012). Some of the effects are headache, panic attacks, sleep disturbance, nightmares, depression, anger, embarrassment, guilt, low self-esteem, shame, isolation, insecurity, withdrawal from school, public or work, absenteeism and poor performance (Whatley, 2010; Norman et all, 2012). 2.2.4. Sexual Abuse of Mentally or Physically Challenged People People who are mentally or physically challenged are not left out of the terrible experiences of sexual violence. Both adults and children who live with disabilities face sexual violence more often than people with no disabilities (Nixon, 2016; Taylor et al, 2016). According to UNFPA (2018), girls and young women with disability face up to ten times more violence than those without any disability, and girls with mental disability are the most vulnerable. Children with disabilities (CWD) and adults with disabilities (AWD) face all other forms of violence, but CWD are at a higher risk of sexual abuse (Nixon, 2016). Also, Fogden et al (2016) report that women with disabilities (WWD) experience more violent victimization as compared to men with disabilities (MWD). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 About 90% of mentally challenged children experience sexual violence at some point in their lifetime, and the perpetrators are caregivers, educators, drivers and domestic helps (Groce et al, 2013; Helander, 2004). Perpetrators often know the health conditions of victims, therefore making it a calculated abuse with the highest possibility of escape; and “children who are deaf, blind, autistic, or living with psychosocial or intellectual disabilities are most vulnerable to violence” (UNFPA, 2018). Men mostly prey on mentally challenged children because depending on the severity of their condition, most cannot narrate or tell who their abuser is, do not know that such act is illegal or have no one to complain to. Thomson et al (2021) contribute that stereotypes such as “all disabled people as asexual, believing a disability means an inability to participate equally in an intimate relationship, and assuming that disabled people cannot control their urges, among many others” ultimately lead to neglect of the sexual needs of AWD. Unfortunately, just like other incidences of abuse, cases of sexual abuse of CWD and AWD normally go unreported, and perpetrators are left unpunished (Beckene, Forrester- Jones, & Murphy, 2017; Murphy et al., 2016). They are often victimized because they are mentally or physically challenged, they have low self-esteem and power imbalances in relationship when they rely on partners for basic surviving services, which mostly lead to sexual manipulation and violence (Thompson, 2021). 2.2.5 Sexual Abuse of Children; Child Marriage Children can be sexually abused in many ways just like adults but the most predominant way takes the form of child marriage. It is a global phenomenon which has been in existence for centuries, and is defined as “both formal marriages and informal unions in which a girl lives with a partner as if married before the age of eighteen” (UNICEF, 2005). Over the years, much effort have been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 made to eliminate this canker from society through the ratification of international treaties. Key among them is the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Children (UNCRC) 1998. Globally, one out of nine (1/9) girls is likely to marry before her fifteenth birthday, one out of three (1/3) girls in developing countries except China would be married before age eighteen, thirty-eight percent (38%) of girls in sub-Saharan Africa marry before age eighteen and most of these girls are poor, have no or less education and living in rural communities (Santhya, 2011; UNFPA and UNICEF, 2011). A report by UNICEF (2018) estimated the prevalence of child marriage to be 9% in South America and the Caribbean, 5% in the Middle East and North Africa, 44% in South Asia and 18% in sub-Saharan Africa. Very often, these girls have little or no say with respect to the age and partner they want to marry because their families orchestrate the marriage (Jensen and Thornton, 2003). If nothing is done to end child marriage, predictions are that by 2030 over one hundred and fifty (150) million more girls will marry before their eighteenth (18th) birthday, deepening the strides of poverty in their families (UNICEF, 2018). This is because they are likely to get pregnant and give birth without sufficient education or alternative pathway to equip them to make enough money to support themselves, their babies and families. In 2017, efforts were made by UNICEF and UNFPA to reach over one million girls in four million communities in different parts of the world; Africa, Middle East and South Asia (UNFPA, 2018). This outreach was mainly about information dissemination, skills acquisition and service provision to empower girls to end child marriage. Nine out of the twelve countries which benefited from this program have developed national strategic programs to end child marriage. Also, efforts have been made to sensitize girls between the ages of ten to nineteen (10-19) years who are at risk of getting married in prevalent countries like Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Mozambique, Nepal, Niger, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Yemen and Zambia (UNFPA, 2018). Some University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 countries like Bangladesh, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Nepal, Niger, Sierra Leone, Uganda, Yamen and Zambia have made commitments to end child marriage through education, legal enforcement, state interventions and gender-responsive health services (UNICEF, 2018). 2.2.6. Rape by Strangers, Familiar People or Family Members Just like any form of sexual violence, rape by strangers, familiar people or family members happen to both males and females, but it affects females are most. Dedel (2011) opines that rape by strangers and rape by familiar people have the same defining terms as rape, but the only difference is the perpetrator; either a stranger or someone already known. Therefore she defined it as “offenses in which an assailant forces a victim to participate in a variety of sexual behaviors that may include the actual or attempted penetration of the vagina, anus or mouth with the penis or an object.” Rape by strangers are committed by people unknown to the victim, and males are likely to rape female strangers than for females to rape male strangers (Lalumiere et al, 2005; Soothill et al. 2002). Some researchers believe that males who perpetuate this act use it as a weapon of power against women (Dedel, 2011; Ghitis, 2013). This could be as a result of sexual entitlement, sense of necessity to always be in control, hostility or anger (Rozee and Koss 2001; Abbey et al. 2007). Research has proven that rape by strangers is more traumatic and involves more violence than rape by a familiar person or a family members (Katz and Mazur, 1979). Males are more likely to be raped by strangers when they are unemployed and have no shelter, but the situation is not same for women because females are as likely to be raped by strangers with or without employment (Stermac et al, 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 Most victims face varying degrees of physical, emotional, sexual and social problems after an experience of assault depending on the relationship between the assailant and the victim. Some are severely injured, contract sexually transmitted diseases or get pregnant. National Center for Victims of Crime (2009) and Allison and Wrightsman (1993) also state that “almost all women experience psychological anguish, and many experience Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) or a combination of fear and anxiety, denial, shock, disbelief; guilt, hostility, blame, feelings of helplessness or a loss of control at some point in their lives.” While the effects on others are momentarily or seasonal, others live with their experiences for longer period causing “disturbances in eating and sleeping, strained relationships with family, friends, and partners, difficulty maintaining employment; and sexual problems (Allison and Wrightsman 1993). 2.2.7. Gang Rape Gang rape is the least frequent and least reported among all forms of rapes, and it is explicitly undefined as some countries do not segregate multiple assailant rape (gang rape) and single assailant rape cases (Singha, 2013). According to Greenfield (2012) and Porter and Allison (2006), one out of ten (1/10) rape cases constitute gang rape in the United States of America, and approximately twenty (20) percent of gang rape victims die from injuries every year in United States and United Kingdom. Across Asia, in countries like China, Indonesia, Bangladesh and Malaysia, most men who indulge in gang rapes also commit single assailant rape crimes, and some of these victims are minors (Jewkes et al, 2013). In Africa, countries like South Africa and Egypt record quite a number of cases, but most of them are not reported (Tadros, 2013). Furthermore, women in particular are more likely to report rape cases that have only one perpetrator (70%) as compared to two or more perpetrators (30%) (Anderson et al, 1998). Despite the low reportage, twelve (12) percent of all reported rape cases in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 South Africa can be classified as gang rape, and in Egypt a lot more cases have been recorded, especially during the civil protest period, where about forty-six women were gang raped in four (4) days in the month of July, 2013 (Hirschowitz, 2000; Goodyear, 2011). Onyejekwe (2008), Dartnall and Jewkes (2012) explain that the situation is no different in Nigeria as thousands of gang rape cases have happened but only few were reported; and unfortunately, it is considered as one of the potential means for the spread of HIV/AIDS in the country. The dynamics of gang rape is entirely different from single perpetrator rape. Although they are all unconsented sex, but the location, age of assailants (mostly between 15-29years), homogeneous identity, total number of assailants and the rape process (queuing to take their turn), less resistance and fewer weapons are some of the few characteristics that differentiate between the two (Jewkes, 2013; Ullaman, 2001 ). According to Vetten and Haffejee (2005) gang rapes happen everywhere but often in school settings among college students who are mostly members of a gang. Literature suggests different reasons why women and most especially men decide to participate in gang rapes. Wood (1996) and Mokwena (1991) suggest that “gang rape may be used as a form of punishment by the friends or acquaintances of men whose girlfriends are suspected or known to have other partners; again, it may be used to put unattainable women in their place.” Others also suggest that gang rape may be one of the requirements or part of the initiation process into a gang, and also young women who may want to associate with or enter into “gang controlled prostitution” may have to be subjected to gang rape or participate as an assailant. (Merten, 1999; and Robertson, 1996). There are other factors such as drug use and alcohol consumption or part of other crimes such as robbery (Ullman, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 2.2.8 Denial of the Right to Use Contraception and Forced Abortion Human rights are indivisible, and they include the right of both men and women to use contraceptives, or women to keep pregnancies when they want. WHO, (2014) reports that “protection and fulfilment of human rights contributes to positive sexual health outcomes”, which includes the right to contraception and pregnancies. Singh, (2012) asserts that about two hundred and twenty-two (222) million women have no access to proper contraceptive use, and this is predominant in regions where maternal mortality is highest. According to Cottingham et al, (2010) the problem of denial of right to use contraception emerges from state laws, cultural practices and societal policies that criminalize or ban their use in the country. Cottingham et al (2010) further explain that in this regard, some states prevent, limit or ban the availability of some contraceptive methods such as emergency contraception, and sometimes intentionally limit distribution which leads to an increment in prices. In male dominated cultures, women have no right to make decisions concerning contraceptives and pregnancies. Forced abortion on the other hand is defined as “intentional termination of pregnancy without the prior and informed consent of the victim” (Council of Europe, 2011). It mostly originates from unconventional laws and policies which prevent people from keeping pregnancies to full-term, or sex-selective laws which prioritize one gender over other. Such laws until recently existed in some Asian countries like China, India and Korea in the form of population control policies, which were not official laws (Barboza, 2015). Denial of the right to use contraception involves discrimination, unavailability and inaccessibility of contraceptive information and service. Some face discrimination based on their location, age race, gender, socioeconomic and health status (ECOSOC, 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 Right to contraception has clear health benefits. It prevent unplanned pregnancies, which in the long run decrease infant and maternal mortality, because WHO (2014) estimates that providing access to all women, especially in developing countries will prevent over fifty-four (54) million unplanned pregnancies, twenty-six (26) million abortions (of which sixteen (16) million are likely to be unsafe), seven (7) million miscarriages, seventy nine (79) thousand maternal deaths and over one million infant mortality (Singh, 2012). Much benefits will be enjoyed by adolescent girls, who upon getting pregnant are forced to stay out of school or work, which lead to poverty, unattained education goals and has a high risk pregnancy term (WHO, 2011). 2.2.9 Sex Trafficking and Forced Prostitution Sex trafficking and forced prostitution have received global attention in recent years due to the involvement of violations and abuse of the rights of the victim. It is a growing business internationally, but unlike smuggling of humans, trafficking is done without consent and full disclosure, therefore trafficked persons do not make informed decision. The UN Protocol (2003) to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children defines trafficking and sexual trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion …, for the purpose of exploitation (Article 3). Trafficking is a criminal act that affects over fifty (50) million people worldwide, and out of that over twenty-six (26) million are estimated to be in sexual slavery and forced prostitution (Au’Vonnie, 2020). This implies that most trafficked people are forced into prostitution whilst the rest serve as slaves and laborers. Some researchers concluded that trafficking, especially of women and children has become very lucrative, and is very rewarding, and could be at par with drug trafficking and arms smuggling (Au’Vonnie 2020; Salt, 2000). Sexual trafficking affects all University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 genders, but mostly females, who constitute about ninety-eight (98) percent of the whole (UN Divisions for the Advancement of Women and UN Office on Drugs and Crimes, 2005; International Labor Organization (ILO) 2012). Minors are trafficked also, and are sold for various sexual activities, which is termed as Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) which is further categorized into different forms such as prostitution, child sex tourism and child pornography (Miller-Perrin and Wurtele, 2017). Child sex trafficking is appalling because children are treated as commercial objects to satisfy the sexual needs of adult. For instance, child pornography according to Quayle, Loof, & Palmer (2008) “often involves financial exchange but can also be based on nonmonetary exchange via the Internet when images are traded or exchanged between pornography possessors and are treated as their own form of currency”. Therefore, Shively et al (2012) have proposed series of comprehensive and collaborative responses to combat sex trafficking and forced prostitution, which they believe have a common source, which is “men’s decision to buy sex.” Buying sex always create demand, which will necessitate supply through illegal means such as sexual trafficking and forced prostitution. Discouraging men from buying sex will go a long way in reducing sex trafficking because they are the primary consumers and beneficiaries. 2.3. Defining Sexual Violence in Ghana Sexual violence has been defined in the sixth chapter of the Criminal Offence Code 1960, the Domestic Violence Act 2007, the Human Trafficking Act 2005 (Act 694), the Juvenile Justice Act 2003 (Act 653); and are explained as follows; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 2.3.1. Rape, Carnal Knowledge and/or Unnatural Carnal Knowledge Rape is one of the biggest social crimes in Ghana despite the various legal instruments implemented to discourage perpetrators (Quashie, 2017). Rape, according to the Criminal Offence Act 1960 section 98, is “carnal knowledge of a female of sixteen years or above without her consent” and the Criminal Code Amendment (Act 554) criminalize rape as a first degree felony which attracts a sentence of not more than twenty-five years and not less than five years (Section 97). Rape in Ghana is gender specific, which implies that the only gender that can be raped in Ghana is the female by a male, with the former as the victim and the later as a perpetrator. Section 99 adds, “whenever, upon the trial of any person for an offence punishable under this Code, it is necessary to prove carnal knowledge or unnatural carnal knowledge, the carnal knowledge or unnatural carnal knowledge shall be deemed complete upon proof of the least degree of penetration.” Carnal knowledge and unnatural carnal knowledge were not explicitly defined by the Act, but over the years have been interpreted to mean sodomy. In Hanson vs The Republic (1978), the court held that rape can only be established when the penis penetrates the vagina, any other means such as stick, objects, fingers or tongue cannot be termed as such. Therefore, carnal knowledge (rape) implies the penetration of the vulva with the penis while unnatural canal knowledge implies penetration into any part of the female body other than the vulva, with the male sex organ, or with other parts of the body or objects such as fingers, tongue, stick and dildos. Regardless of the legal definitions, males report issues of rape but the figures are significantly low as compared to women. This does not mean few men experience rape, but could be as a result of the consequences of reporting rape as a male. Rape and forced sex mostly happens between the ages of 20 to 60 years, and the statistics indicates that 44.1% have ever been physically forced to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 have sex, 8.1% reported being otherwise forced to have sex, 26% reported sex without consent, and 22.4% reported sex because they were afraid (Ganzi & Isharaza, 2016). Other forms of rape such as multiple perpetrator rape, also known as gang rape is not defined but attracts same punishments as single perpetrator rape cases, and reports available on such crimes are woefully inadequate and scanty (Adinkra, 2017; Aryee, 2013). Adinkra (2017) further explained that such crimes are sometimes reported in the media space before handing over to the police for legal redress, making the media a reliable source of such information. A study conducted by Quarshie et al (2017) on the media reportage and coverage of gang rapes in Ghana from January 2000 to June 2016 established that a lot of such cases are not identified and reported. The few that could be reported had sixty-one victims and one hundred and eighty-four perpetrators in fifty- seven perpetrator group. 2.3.2. Early and Forced Marriage (Child Marriage) Child marriage remains a challenge in Ghana, despite the availability of various legal instruments. The 1992 constitution pegs marriage at the age of eighteen (18) years, although the legal age for consensual sex is sixteen (16) years, therefore any female who is forced to cohabit, marry or live with another man under the guise of marriage is liable to punishment by the law. Child marriage is defined as “both formal marriages and informal unions in which a girl lives with a partner as if married before the age of eighteen (18)” (UNICEF, 2018). The Marriage Act (Cap 127) prohibits both boys are girls from getting married before the legal age of eighteen, but girls are more likely to be forced into early marriages as compared to boys, making boy child marriage not as common as girl child marriage (Alhassan, 2013). Child marriage is on decline in most parts of the world as well as Ghana, as the trend showed a decrement from University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 47% in 2010 to 27% in 2014 and a subsequent decrease to 19.3% in 2018 (Ghana Statistical Service, (GSS) 2014, 2018). According to GSS (2014), child marriage occurrence is highest in the Upper East (39.2%), followed by the Western (36.7%), Upper West (36.3%), Central (31.2%), Ashanti (30.5%), Volta (29.3%), Brong-Ahafo (29.10%), Northern (27.4%) Eastern (27.2%), and Greater Accra (12.2%). Again, child marriage occur most in the rural centers as compared to the urban centers, 34.3% and 19.4% respectively. This can be attributed to economic, social and structural factors.. To effectively eliminate child marriage, community based approach and strategies, together with the legal framework must be adopted. 2.3.3. Defilement Defilement is the most prevalent form of sexual violence in Ghana (Ghana Police Service, 2015) and the Criminal Offence Act 1960 (Act 29) defines it as the natural or unnatural carnal knowledge of a child below the age of sixteen with or without the consent of the child. Act 29, section 101 (2) specifies that “a person who naturally or unnaturally carnally knows a child under sixteen years of age, whether with or without the consent, commits a criminal offense and is liable on summary conviction to a term of imprisonment of not less than seven years and not more than twenty-five years.” Crime of such nature involves acts such as “forcing or enticing a child or young person to take part in sexual activities, which may involve physical contact, including assault by penetration (for example, rape or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts such as masturbation, kissing, rubbing and touching inside of clothing. They may also include non-contact activities, such as looking at or in the production of sexual images, watching sexual activities, encouraging children to behave in sexually inappropriate ways, or grooming a child in preparation for abuse.” (Cornwell & Isle of Scilly, 2021). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Defilement, popularly called child rape, is gender neutral but females between the ages of three (3) months old to seventeen years old are mostly the victims, and the perpetrators who are mostly men are between the ages of fifteen (15) years to eighty (80) years (Bortei-Doku & Kuenyehia 1998). According to Ghana Police Service (2015), between 1999 and 2014, about 14,658 defilement cases were reported. Hauffe and Porter (2009) assert that, cases of formal reports have always been an insignificant fraction of the number of incidences that happens in most countries. Yeboako (2010) and Ghana News Agency (2012) have opined that defilement is on the increase, and a study made by Morhe (2011) shows that, most girls who get pregnant as a result of defilement do not get justice. This is because, family members are unwilling to report such cases to warrant the arrest of the perpetrator, who they expect to take financial responsibility of the girl and unborn child. Therefore, the perpetrator pays an amount to the family as a fine, and is either forced to marry the girl or goes scot-free. 2.3.4. Indecent Assault Section 103 of the Criminal Offences Act spells out indecent assault of all forms. The provision mentioned at section 103(2) reads; a person commits the criminal offence of indecent assault if, without the consent of the other person that person (a) forcibly makes a sexual bodily contact with the other person or (b) sexually violates the body of the other person, in a manner not amounting to carnal knowledge or unnatural carnal knowledge. Section 103(1) formulates that “whoever indecently assaults any person shall be guilty of misdemeanor and shall be liable to the conviction to a term of imprisonment of not more than six months” Making inference from section 103(2), indecent assault include all physical, verbal and nonverbal sexual acts that do not amount to canal or unnatural canal knowledge, and as such are fondling, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 harassment, sexual comments, unwanted touches, forced to have sex and seductive behavior. Among them all, the act which is most likely to be unofficially reported is fondling and sexual harassment. Institute of Development Studies (IDS), Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) and Associates (2016) reported that eighteen (18%) percent of women and approximately twelve (12.1) percent of men, a little above fifteen (15.3) percent of women and ten (10) percent of men, and nine (9) percent of women and almost seven (6.9) percent of men in Ghana have been subjected to sexual comments, unwanted touches and unwarranted pressure to have sex respectively. The report further highlighted the fact that people living in urban centers are more likely to be subjected to sexual comments (19%), unwanted touches (16%) and to be physically forced to have sex (10.1%) as compared with people living in rural areas, 16.9%, 14.5% and 7.8% respectively. 2.3.5. Incest Incest is a criminal act, and just like defilement, consent from the victim cannot justify the act. The Criminal Offence Act 1960, section 90 categorically list