FORENSIC SCIENCE 
AND THE 

FORENSIC BIOCHEMIST

GRACE KORKOR ABABIO



 
 

FORENSIC SCIENCE AND THE 
FORENSIC BIOCHEMIST 

 
 

ABABIO, GRACE KORKOR 
 



 2 

Title: Forensic Science and The Forensic Biochemist 
First Edition 
 
Forensic science has received more attention lately and this has led burgeoning of 
University courses being embedded with it. This book has new case studies with 
probable exams - oriented questions as well as uncovering the various activities of 
the forensic biochemist and the need for standardization of protocols. Target group 
for this book include undergraduates, postgraduates, researchers, and forensic 
practitioners.  
 
 
This electronic textbook was developed through funding from the University of 
Ghana Building Stronger Universities Programme III, Office of Research, Innovation 
and Development, University of Ghana, Legon, Accra Ghana. 
 
 
Copyright © Ababio, Grace Korkor 
 
 
Publisher 

Office of Research, Innovation and Development,  
University of Ghana, Legon, Accra Ghana. 
Under the auspices of the University of Ghana Building Stronger Universities 
Programme III (2023) 

 Contact: Prof. Richard Boateng.  Email: richboateng@ug.edu.gh 
 
Cover Design and Typeset:  

Prof. Richard Boateng  
Email: richboateng@ug.edu.gh  

 
Printed by:  

University of Ghana (2023) 
 
Author Contact: 

Grace Ababio PhD 
Email: gkababio@ug.edu.gh 

 
 
 
Ghana Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data  
 

Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist / Grace Korkor Ababio.  
— Accra: Research, Innovation and Development, University of Ghana, 2023. 1. 
Forensic Sciences 
I. Title 
DDC 363.25 - - dc 21  
ISBN: 978-9988-3-2844-3 (ebook)  
GLCN — 232  

 
 

mailto:gkababio@ug.edu.gh


 3 

 

To all Biochemists and Forensic Scientists Whose Contributions Are 
The Source of Information Presented Here 



 4 

Table of Contents 

 
Table of Contents .............................................................................. 4 
List of Tables ....................................................................................... 7 
List of Figures ...................................................................................... 8 
Preface and Acknowledgments ..................................................... 9 
Contributors ...................................................................................... 10 
Foreword .......................................................................................... 11 

CHAPTER 1: ........................................................................................ 15 

AT SCHOOL ....................................................................................... 15 

AT SCHOOL ........................................................................................................ 16 
Taking ‘SINGLE MAJOR’ Courses at the University of Ghana ................ 16 
In The Laboratory with The Demonstrator ............................................... 24 

SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 24 
CHAPTER REVIEW ................................................................................................ 25 

CHAPTER 2: ........................................................................................ 26 

SAMPLING: BEST PRACTICES .............................................................. 26 

SAMPLING: BEST PRACTICES ................................................................................. 27 
Techniques For Sampling in Forensic Investigations ............................... 29 

SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 33 
CHAPTER REVIEW: ............................................................................................... 33 

CHAPTER 3: ........................................................................................ 35 

INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE FORENSIC BIOCHEMIST .......................... 35 

INSTRUMENTATION FOR THE FORENSIC BIOCHEMIST ................................................. 36 
Principles: From Simple Equipment ........................................................... 36 
Chemistry Analyser (VITROS 5,1 FS) .......................................................... 39 
VITRO (Vitro 3600 Immunodiagnostic.) .................................................... 40 
ESCO THERMAL CYCLER (AERISTM THERMAL CYCLER) ............................. 41 
UV-TRANSILLUMINATOR (UV-transilluminator (biodoc-it® imaging 
system). ........................................................................................................ 41 
ABI 3130xL (Capillary electrophoresis using ABI 3130xL genetic 
analyzer.) ..................................................................................................... 42 

SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 46 



 5 

CHAPTER REVIEW ................................................................................................ 47 

CHAPTER 4: ....................................................................................... 50 

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS I ........ 50 

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES IN SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS .......... 51 
UNIQUE METHODOLOGIES ................................................................................... 53 

Serology (Fluids) .......................................................................................... 53 
Blood ............................................................................................................ 53 
Saliva ........................................................................................................... 55 
Seminal stains .............................................................................................. 55 
Vaginal Secretions - Menstrual blood ...................................................... 56 
Urine ............................................................................................................. 56 
Sweat ........................................................................................................... 56 
Other ............................................................................................................ 56 

IDENTIFYING PROTEINS ......................................................................................... 57 
Test for Poisons in Fluids and Other Biological Material ......................... 67 

SUMMARY  ........................................................................................................ 75 
CHAPTER REVIEW ................................................................................................ 76 

CHAPTER 5: ....................................................................................... 78 

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATIONS II ....... 78 

PROFILING .......................................................................................................... 79 
DNA profiles, direct PCR and STR amplification ..................................... 79 
Phosphoglucomutase polymorphism ...................................................... 80 
Paternity Testing ......................................................................................... 81 
Non-Human DNA Testing ........................................................................... 83 

HAIR MICROSCOPY ............................................................................................. 85 
SUMMARY .......................................................................................................... 86 
CHAPTER REVIEW ................................................................................................ 88 

CHAPTER 6: ....................................................................................... 91 

SKILLS, COMPETENCES AND CAREER ................................................ 91 

SKILLS AND COMPETENCES TO BE DEVELOPED ....................................................... 92 
Common Skills ............................................................................................. 92 

CAREER ORIENTED  ......................................................................................... 93 
Testimonials ................................................................................................. 94 

CAREER AS A FORENSIC B IOCHEMIST  .......................................................... 97 



 6 

CONVEYING KNOWLEDGE FROM SCIENTISTS TO NON-SCIENTISTS  ............ 99 
SUMMARY ........................................................................................................ 101 
CHAPTER REVIEW ......................................................................................... 101 

CHAPTER 7: ...................................................................................... 103 

THE EXPERT: FORENSIC BIOCHEMIST ................................................ 103 

THE FORENSIC B IOCHEMIST  ......................................................................... 104 
PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT  .................................................................... 105 
PRESENTATION OF F INDINGS TO STAKEHOLDERS  ....................................... 106 
SCIENTIF IC EXPERT IN COURT  ...................................................................... 108 
PRESENTING THE FACTS  ............................................................................... 109 
GAP(S)  BETWEEN DATA AND OPINIONS  .................................................... 110 
WORKABLE F I LTERS :  EXPERT OPINIONS  ...................................................... 111 
SUMMARY  ...................................................................................................... 112 
CHAPTER REVIEW ......................................................................................... 113 

CHAPTER 8: ...................................................................................... 115 

M INIMIZ ING OBSERVER EFFECTS  ................................................................. 116 
THE WAY FORWARD ..................................................................................... 117 
SUMMARY  ...................................................................................................... 119 
CHAPTER REVIEW:  M INI  AFRICAN CASE  ................................................... 119 

WORKS CITED .................................................................................. 121 

APPENDICES .................................................................................... 135 

Appendix 1: Personnel(s) at the Refurbished Crime Laboratory at 
Kawu Kudi ................................................................................................. 135 
Appendix 2: Forensic Personnel inspecting the Toolkit at a Crime 
Scene ......................................................................................................... 136 

AUTHOR PROFILE ............................................................................. 137 
 
 



 7 

List of Tables 

Table 1: Records from the Ghana Police Service ....................................... 12 

Table 2:  Level 400 Semester 1 and 2 Chemistry Core and Electives. ........ 17 

Table 3: Level 200 Physics ......................................................................... 18 

Table 4: Level 300 Physics semester 1 and 2 ............................................. 18 

Table 5: Level 400 Physics semester 1 and 2 ............................................. 19 

Table 6: Level 200 Animal Biology ............................................................. 20 

Table 7: Level 300 Animal Biology semester 1 and 2 ................................. 20 

Table 8: Level 400 Animal Biology .............................................................. 21 

Table 9: Level 200 Biochemistry ................................................................. 22 

Table 10: Level 300 Biochemistry ............................................................... 22 

Table 11: Level 400 Biochemistry ............................................................... 23 

Table 12: Sampling techniques (Sampling techniques.) ............................... 29 

Table 13: Specimen conditions for transportation (Specimen conditions for 

transportation.) ........................................................................................... 30 

Table 14: Quantity of Specimen and Transportation conditions (Quantity of 

specimen and transportation conditions.) ................................................... 31 

Table 15: PCR amplicon length, primer sequences and concentrations of each 

target sequence included in Multiplex PCR assay (Degraded samples.) ..... 82 

Table 16: Racial Origin of Hair ................................................................... 85 

Table 17: Body Area where Hair could be found ........................................ 85 

Table 18: Domestic Animal Hair(s) (Appleyard HM., 1960) ......................... 86 

Table 19: Careers in Forensic Science ........................................................ 93 

Table 20: List of some African DNA Exonerations ................................... 119 

 

 
 
 
  



 8 

 

List of Figures 

Figure 1: Assay Scheme for Vitro 3600 Immunodiagnostic ........................ 41 

Figure 2: UV-Transilluminator ..................................................................... 42 

Figure 3: ABI 3130 Systems Workflow ...................................................... 43 

Figure 4: BioEdit Sequence Alignment Editor ............................................ 44 

Figure 5: Cycling Sequence ........................................................................ 45 

Figure 6: Hemastix and Luminol ................................................................. 54 

Figure 7: Preciptin ...................................................................................... 54 

Figure 8: An Electropherotogram of Haptoglobin Phenotypes ................... 60 

Figure 9: Esterase phenotyping. ................................................................. 63 

Figure 10:PGM3 Electropherotogram in a Polyacrylamide Gel Stained by 

Genefinder. ................................................................................................. 81 

Figure 11 Consanguineous relationship .................................................... 107 

Figure 12. Flow Diagram of the Charged and Convicted Female Homicide 

South African Cases (Weighted Figures in Brackets) .............................. 117 



 9 

Preface and Acknowledgments 

During the past few decades, forensic science has gained enormous 
attention in developed countries, while little data exists in developing 
countries like Ghana. With an increase in crime rates, rape cases, accident 
victims and other adverse instances that the task force and the police 
services face, there is a need to maximize efforts in teaching forensic science 
in tertiary institutions. Even though, there is no stand-alone upper-level 
offering of forensic science in UG, departments (like archaeology, biology, 
chemistry, biochemistry, biostatistics, criminal justice or law) that offer 
portions of it in varying subject areas could be empowered as well as their 
teaching materials standardized, till the set time for an accredited forensic 
science program at University of Ghana, Legon falls in place.  

In addition, a standardized teaching resource could offer students the 
opportunity to view unique practices for evidence collection, laboratory work 
and legal issues. In this book, the emphasis is on sample collection best 
practices, serology, DNA quantification and storage, non-human DNA testing, 
hair microscopy, paternity testing, short tandem repeat markers, degraded 
DNA issues, new frontiers - automation and software. By dwelling heavily on 
these expert areas, this book is hopeful in uncovering the challenging but 
rewarding Forensic Science as a career. The professional in this field should 
have an eye for detail as he/she applies science to answer legal questions. 
Being involved in a career-related internship is also, a sure way to develop 
one’s skill and experience. A student who has very good curriculum vitae, a 
major or an advanced degree in this field, is set to be employed as either a 
forensic researcher, a forensic criminalist, a forensic DNA analyst, a forensic 
anthropologist or a forensic biochemist. 

 
This piece was the product of the labours of many people and the 

support of a caring family and friends. I am most grateful to my husband for 
his ongoing encouragement and tolerance of my early risings and times of 
distractions as I wrestled with the topic. For critics, my gratitude goes to 
your thoughtful reviews and helpful comments at various stages in the 
development of this book. 

 
  



 10 

 

Contributors 

Chapter(s) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9: Ababio, Grace K., PhD (UG SMD, Korle-
Bu) 

Chapter 2 Introduction: Tagoe, Emmanuel, PhD studentship, UG 

Chapter 3: Automated equipment: Yakubu Alhassan, MPhiL (Captain, 37 
Military Hospital) 

Chapter 4 Glyoxalase: Amanquah, Seth D., PhD (Retired, UG SMD) 

Chapter 4 Toxic substances determination Ataki, James (Forensic 
Practitioner, KNUST, Kumasi) 

Chapter 6 Testimonials: Narh, Grace Dede (BSc., GSA National Service 
Personnel); Kweku Ofosu-Asante (BSc., GSA National Service Personnel); 
Nelson Edu (BSc., Univ. of Ghana, WACCBIP); Barbara Yaa Bakoma (BSc., 
NMIMR, Noguchi, Legon) 

Chapter 6: Ataki, James (Forensic Practitioner, KNUST, Kumasi) 

Mini - Cases and questions: Ababio, Grace K., PhD (UG SMD, Korle-Bu) 

 
 
 

 



 11 

Foreword 

Forensic Science as a programme and profession is gradually gaining 
grounds in Ghana and the book, Forensic Science and the Forensic 
Biochemist by Dr. Grace Korkor Ababio with contributions from seasoned 
Biochemist and Toxicologist and some early practitioners of the field is timely 
and makes interesting reading. It walks the reader through the field of 
Forensic Science, introducing the reader to what happens in the Universities 
in Ghana and the relevant programmes or courses in the various Departments 
geared towards forensics and then takes up the important issue of sampling 
using best practices, and taps on case studies to illustrate the dangers of 
poor sampling. Chapter 3 deals with instrumentation.  

 
The learning objective is to understand the principles behind important 

equipment used in the laboratory. It provides up to date information and 
good case studies to reinforce learning. Qualitative and quantitative 
approaches in scientific investigations using the various samples and 
methods are dealt with.  

A dedicated chapter speaks to skills and competences that must be 
developed, career orientation and the importance of professionalism and the 
work of a forensic biochemist supported by case studies. This book adds on 
the integration of science and law, the scientific expert in court, which brings 
together all the science, skills and professionalism, again supported by the 
famous case studies. The book ends with Chapter 8, minimizing observer 
effects, and extensive references for further reading. It is an important good 
read for anybody venturing into forensics or interested in the many films, 
documentaries and investigative pieces on forensics.  

The hope of full undergraduate and postgraduate programmes in 
forensics in Ghana will be a fulfilment of the ideals of the author. 

Prof. Agyeman Badu Akosa 
Ghana Standards Authority 
 



 

 12 

Background 

Forensic Science, first coined as a science in 1936, is a developing field that 
owes its progression to advancements made in the laboratories (Jermyn, 
2013; Jobling and Gill, 2004; O'Handley and Green, 1972). It has gained 
attention lately, partly due to the fight against crime (Ribaux, Walsh, Margot, 
2006; Saks, Risinger, Rosenthal, Thompson, 2003; Tilley, 1996). Below are 
records of crime obtained from archives in Ghana (Table 1) from the periods 
2013, 2014 and 2015 (Records from the Police Service, Ghana). 

Table 1: Records from the Ghana Police Service 
From records 2013 2014 2015 
Murder 551 543 525 
Robbery 1,235 1,116 1,411 
Rape 484 514 451 
General Crime 4,845 4,738 4,715 

 
The discovery of forensics revolutionized the area of molecular biology and 
became a gateway for many key developments in the formation of databases 
such as DNA sub data. Elsewhere in developed countries, large databases 
(Gill, Fereday, Morling, Schneider, 2006; Gill, Werrett, Budowle, Guerrieri, 
2004; Martin, Schmitter, Schneider, 2001) exist unlike Ghana. 

In Ghana, forensic services have been provided to the Police Service by the 
Criminal Investigation Department (CID), Ghana Standards Authority (GSA) 
and the public hospitals. Ghana Forensic Science Department evolved from 
the Government Chemical Laboratory in 1973 where forensic examination of 
samples submitted by the law enforcement agencies, pathologists and police 
personnel formed part of the outfit since colonial times. 

In 1973, the Government Chemical Laboratory was absorbed by the Ghana 
Standards Board. Though forensic science services were not primarily 
standardizing activities, the activities of the department were retained by 
the new outfit to continue offering the services it had been doing since the 
colonial times. To date, the Forensic Science Department continues to 
provide support services to the Police and a host of government agencies. 

 

Current Activities Include: 

§ Drug analysis in seized material submitted by NACOB, BNI, GPS, 
CEPS 

§ Drug analysis in body fluids of suspects presented by GPS, The 
Armed Forces, the Prisons Services and other agencies.   

§ Post mortem toxicological analysis to assist forensic pathologists 
involved in coroners’ inquests 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 13 

§ testing samples collected from victims or accused in scene of crime  

In general, the GSA can be described as a laboratory that comprises of 
scientists analysing evidence in the following disciplines: toxicology, trace 
evidence, biology (excluding DNA), and controlled substances. Queried 
documents, firearms, tool marks, latent prints or crime scene examination 
are not included in the protocol of activities. More recently, a number of 
individuals have requested the laboratory to include specialized areas such 
as DNA analyses and Digital evidence. The quality and capacity of the 
contemporary forensic system have caught the glimpse of Government, the 
media and the courts. The clamour for the use of forensics have intensified 
due to the vast increment of acquittals and exonerations resulting from the 
absence of DNA analysis in a majority of cases. 
On a broader note, the GSA Laboratory offers Services to Clients on: 

• Controlled Drugs 

• Drug Quality 

• Forensic Toxicology 

• Scene of Crime Samples 

 
However, the refurbished crime laboratory at Kawo Kudi (Exhibit 1 - see 
appendix; Personnel at Kawo Kudi.), Accra, seemed to be the only forensic 
laboratory serving all the 651 police stations across the regions in Ghana. 
Other key challenges are the lack of short tandem repeats (STR) and 
fingerprint database as well as quality control. There is therefore the need 
to intensify training and or education in that regard. 

Even though University of Ghana has no stand-alone upper-level offering 
forensic science as compared to Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and 
Technology (postgraduate forensic degree) and University of Cape Coast 
(BSc Forensic degree); departments offering portions of forensic science in 
varying subject areas, could be empowered. Standardization of teaching 
resources could go a long way by helping students view unique practices for 
medico - legal issues. In this book, emphasis will be on sample collection 
best practices, serology, DNA quantification and storage, non-human DNA 
testing, degraded DNA issues and short tandem repeat (STR) markers. 

DNA degradation is one of the major problems encountered as it cannot be 
analysed by restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) (Reynolds, 
Sensabaugh, Blake, 1991) techniques due to exposure to humidity, heat and 
or other contaminants. As a result, longer regions of DNA are interrupted 
and band shift is seen as DNA fragments moves across the electrophoresis 
gel at different speeds. This, thereby makes it difficult to defend two pieces 
of DNA as a match if the patterns were slightly different. Hence, single 
tandem repeat (STR) assays remains the best bet in instances like this.  One 



 

 14 

unique alternative to STR is single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). However, 
SNP requires a large amount of DNA template and polymerase chain reaction 
(PCR) product. SNPs have much smaller amplicons (Butler, Coble, Vallone, 
2007; Dixon, Dobbins, Pulker, Butler, Vallone, et al., 2006; Romanini, Catelli, 
Borosky, Pereira, Romero, et al., 2012), yet, the bi - allelic nature of SNP 
makes it arduous to interpret results from a mixed sample, thus, a balanced 
assay is required. Standardization of protocols is needed to analyse the 
diversity of DNA samples for consistent results. 

By dwelling heavily on these expert areas, this book envisages to uncover 
the challenging but rewarding Forensic Science as a career for the student 
and or the professional biochemist as well. Forensic biochemist in this field 
would therefore have an eye for detail as he/she brings his/her expertise 
to bear. 

 
 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 15 

 
 
 

 
 

Chapter 1:  
At School 

 
 

Learning Objective 

To Receive Intense Training on Forensics at Tertiary Level 
 

 



 

 16 

At School 

The available science option at the University is enough to set one’s 
pace in a useful career as a lecturer, a scientist, a pharmacist, a 
chemist, a physicist, a biologist, a researcher etc., even if a student 
never gets medicine or dentistry as expected, due to his/her grades. 
In this way, the stress of a particular course or the fear of inadequacy 
of support are handled in a quite unique manner. Departments like 
biology, chemistry, biochemistry at the University of Ghana for 
example, do offer multidisciplinary subject fields, for example portions 
of forensic science in varying subject areas. It is about time that 
methodologies are standardized for effectiveness and consistencies.  
In this chapter, a student’s major, his/her time with the demonstrator 
would be dealt with extensively. 

Taking ‘SINGLE MAJOR’ Courses at the University of Ghana 

Getting acclimatized to one’s major or any advanced degree at the 
University could be daunting. Setting the alarm, eating a decent 
breakfast, double checking one’s schedule, creating one’s own study 
timetable or organizing the study routine around one’s classes, 
charging the necessary devices, printing out official documents and 
packing the essentials (ID card, textbooks campus map etc.) normally 
prepares students ahead of time. Courses for a basic science student 
geared towards forensics at the University of Ghana are shown in 
table 2. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 17 

Table 2:  Level 400 Semester 1 and 2 Chemistry Core and Electives. 
 (University of Ghana single major, chemistry.) 

 

  

 

 

Level 400 1st Semester (Core) Electives 
Project 

Kinetics 

Thermodynamics II 

Kinetics 

Natural Products 

Group Theory, Symmetry, 
Applications  

 

 

 

 

Level 400 Semester 2 (Core) 

Project 

Surface Chemistry and Colloids 

Quantum Chemistry 

Instrumental Methods of Chemical 
Analysis 

Transition Metal Chemistry 

A 

X-ray Crystallography 

Organometallic  

Nuclear Chemistry 

 

B 

Mineral Processing 

Polymer Chemistry and Technology 

Pulp and Paper Chemistry and Technology 

Petroleum Chemistry and Technology 

 
Electives 

Photochemistry 

Textile Chemistry and Technology 

Molecular Spectroscopy 

Industrial Chemistry 

Elements of Forensic Chemistry 

Medicinal Chemistry 

Solid state Chemistry 

Environmental Chemistry 



 

 18 

 
Table 3: Level 200 Physics 

(University of Ghana single major, physics.) 
Level 200 1st Semester  2nd Semester 
Calculus II 

Atomic Physics and Quantum Phenomena 

Practical Physics III 

Electro - magnetism I 

Select one course 

Algebra 

Statistical Methods 

Practical Physics IV 

Mathematical Methods I 

Oscillations and Waves 

Computational Methods in 
Physics I 

Nuclear Physics I 

Introduction to Physics of 
Materials 

 
 

Table 4: Level 300 Physics semester 1 and 2        
Level 300 Semester 1 (Core) 2nd Semester 
Optics 

Physics of Solids I 

Large Systems I 

Practical Physics V 

Electro — magnetism II 

Electives  

Electronics I 

Physics of the Atmosphere 

Physics of the Ocean 

Practical Physics VI 

Mathematical Methods II 

Mechanics and Fields 

Special Relativity 

Quantum Mechanics I 

Electives  

Computational Methods in Physics II 

Principles and Applications of Neutron 
Activation Analysis 

Principles of Applied Geophysics 

Design of Experiments 

 

 

 

 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 19 

Table 5: Level 400 Physics semester 1 and 2 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Level 400 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Project 

Physics of Solids III 

Seminar I 

Physics of Large Systems II 

 

Electives  

Electronics II 

Principles of Radioactive Dating 

Energy Systems 

Principles of Telecommunications 

Project 

Particle Physics 

Seminar II 

Nuclear Physics II 

Contemporary Physics 

Quantum Mechanics II 

 

Electives  

Basic Meteorology 

Introduction to Cosmology and 
Astrophysics 

Physics of the Nanoscale 



 

 20 

Table 6: Level 200 Animal Biology 
(University of Ghana Animal Biology Courses) 

Level 200 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Writing II (Academic) 

Principles of Evolution 

Zoological Techniques 

 

Vertebrate Anatomy 

Introductory Animal Ecology 

Introductory Cell Biology and 
Genetics 

Introduction to African Studies 

Introductory Biometry 

 
 

Table 7: Level 300 Animal Biology semester 1 and 2 
Level 300 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Comparative Chordate Biology 

Principles of Genetics 

Animal Ecology 

Venomous Animals 

Behavioural Ecology 

Systematics 

Comparative Animal Physiology Practical 

Microbiology and Immunology 

Comparative Chordate Biology Practical 

Comparative Animal Physiology 

General Entomology Practical 

Zoological Field Studies 

Principles of Conservation Science 

Zoogeography 

Aquatic Biology 

Public Health Zoology 

Public Health Zoology Practical 

General Entomology 

 

Electives: Westland Ecology 

Terrestrial Invertebrates 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 21 

Table 8: Level 400 Animal Biology 
(University of Ghana single major, biochemistry.) 

Level 400 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Freshwater Biology 

Applied Statistics for Biologists 

Environmental Physiology 

Research and Project Management 

Marine Biology 

Conservation Biology 

Animal Behaviour 

Electives: Limnology 

                 Population Ecology 

                 Evolutionary Principles 
(Application) 

Projects 

Field Trips and Reports 

 

Electives: Innovations and Business Plan for 
Biologists 

Epidemiology of Tropical Diseases 

               Applied Entomology 

Vertebrate Biology 

              Fishery Biology and Marine 
Ranching 

Petroleum Ecology 

Molecular Genetics and Biotechnology 

Wildlife Management 

Radiation Biology and its Applications 

Wetland Ecology and Management 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  



 

 22 

 
 

Table 9: Level 200 Biochemistry 
Level 200 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Physical Chemistry I   

Organic Chemistry I                                                            

 

Principles of Biochemical Techniques 

Structure and Function of Biomolecules 

 

Analytical Chemistry I   

Academic Writing II 

Enzymology 

Practical Biochemistry I 

Introduction to African Studies 

Cell Biology I 

Inorganic Chemistry I (S-Block Elements)  

Spectroscopic and radio isotopic 
Techniques 

Organic Chemistry II                                                          

 

Electives 
Candidates could choose from other departments electives to assure the 
limited work load per semester. 

Table 10: Level 300 Biochemistry  
Level 300 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Principles of Lab. Organization & 
Management 

Biochemistry of Hormones               

Molecular Biology I            

Intermediary Metabolism 

Data Handling & Interpretation       

Chemistry of Aromatic Compounds 

Practical Biochemistry II        

Electives 

 Industrial Microbiology 

Biochemistry of Viruses                                                  

Cell & Molecular Biology Practical I 

Integration and Control of Metabolism        

Molecular Biology II          

Cell Biology II    

Bioenergetics        

Molecular Rearrangement Reactions 

Membrane Biochemistry 

Reactions of Carbanions  

 

    

Candidates could choose electives from other departments to assure the 
limited work load per semester. 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 23 

Table 11: Level 400 Biochemistry  
Level 400 Semester 1  2nd Semester 
Seminar Presentation and Scientific Writing 

Cell Signalling                       

Molecular Biotechnology & Applications 

Protein Chemistry I 

Cell & Molecular Biology Practical II            

Electives 

 Biochemistry of Parasites 

Xenobiotic Metabolism 

Clinical Biochemistry 

Entrepreneurship for Innovations in 
Biosciences           

Immunology and Immunochemistry              

Protein Chemistry II 

Research Project 

Molecular Genetics 

 

Electives 

Insect Biochemistry & Chemical 
Ecology 

Bioremediation 

Plant Biochemistry 
 

Universities offering Forensic degrees in different 
countries 

Forensics in the Western world have sophisticated equipment that 
they utilize to teach and train students. These countries (e.g., sixty — 
nine United Kingdom institutions, a hundred and five USA institutions 
and the like) have well-structured and accredited forensic courses that 
run from bachelors, masters (MSc.), postgraduate (Diploma) level and 
even PhD (University of Copenhagen, Denmark). 

In Africa, there had been a gradual progress in forensics, with great 
progress seen in South Africa’s institutions. When the DNA Project 
was enacted in South Africa (SA), no clear course outline existed for 
DNA analysts at various institutions. The intertwined DNA Project - 
Justice System Review Task Team led academicians to develop a 
qualification scheme aimed at forensic DNA analysis. 

Now, University of the Free State, SA, offers four (4) year structured 
and accredited forensic course.  

However, in sister countries like Nigeria and Benin, barely few 
institutions run undergraduate and postgraduate forensic course.  

A well-structured forensic course with tutored-laboratory sessions, 
will enable students meet increasing academic competence and 
research. 



 

 24 

 
In The Laboratory with The Demonstrator 

Undergraduates and Postgraduates normally have laboratory 
encounters with the laboratory demonstrator and or their thesis 
supervisor. From the field or the ward or a scene to the laboratory 
could be real fun, encouraging and interesting, especially when one is 
getting the desired results. 
 
The demonstrator and the supervisor as well, are keen on training 
students how to sample, how to label each specimen, how to package 
specimen and transport specimen to the laboratory taking 
precautionary measures. A wide range of specimens could be 
collected for investigative purposes. Depending on the nature of 
substance or compound one is interested in e.g., protein or DNA of 
a suspect; sites of sampling, selection of specimens, and the sampling 
procedures are important. Nowadays, forensic experts (Exhibit 2 - see 
appendix; Personnel at a crime scene) are noted securing scenes, 
separating witnesses, scanning scenes, viewing or seeing the scene, 
sketching the scene, searching for evidence, packaging evidence and 
analyzing the evidence. Notwithstanding the added input, whether the 
evidence needed is trace or direct or circumstantial, the exchange it 
bears is normally a silent witness to prove or disprove hypothetical 
suspect.’ 

 
 
 
 
 
 

Summary 

In multidisciplinary system, the tension and or the fear of inadequacy 
of support are handled in unique manner. Courses embedded in these 
systems at tertiary institutions are enough in setting one’s pace in 
life. All that you need to do is to be acclimatized to your subject area, 
learn hard and follow all protocols. In this chapter, student’s major 
geared towards forensics and time with the demonstrator were dealt 
with. It is worth noting that a well-structured and tutored-laboratory 
sessions in forensics, facilitate the increasing demands in academia 
with regards to competence and research. In the next chapter we will 
explore forensic sampling practices. 

 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 25 

Chapter Review 

 
Question 

1. In institutions not having a dedicated forensic department, 
what major or combine major could help a student who so 
desires to be a forensic analyst?  



 

 26 

 
 

 

 
 
 
 

Chapter 2:  
Sampling: Best 

Practices 
 

Learning Objective 
 

To Access Best Sampling Protocols 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 27 

Sampling: Best Practices 

For any laboratory investigation, information and material sampling is 
crucial warranting standard methods and best practices. In forensic 
investigation, safeguarding the scene and minimizing contamination 
are the surest way to maintain samples integrity. The two main 
sources of information for forensic studies are the documentary 
records (statement from witness or knowledgeable individuals) and 
measurements from the field (Petrisor, 2005). A reliable sample and 
information for forensic investigation largely depend on divergent 
skills and knowledge, combining multiple sampling techniques from 
several fields of study including biology, chemistry, geology, 
biochemistry and physics as well as legal consideration. The varying 
environmental contamination especially in developing countries poses 
challenges to best practices in forensic sampling and gathering of 
information. 
 
Without reliable sample or field information there is no forensic case 
and one cannot prove the existence or non-existence of crime (Hana, 
Freitas, Oliveira, and Flávio -Bortolozzi, 2008).  Availability of sample 
from a scene contributes a greater percentage to initial preparation 
to commence forensic analysis. The question is what happens if the 
sample is not reliable or non-representative or contaminated due to 
inappropriate sampling techniques? This is a clear indication that 
availability of sample is not a guarantee of accurate forensic report. 
Best practices are followed in acquisition of samples from crime scene 
or the environment forensic study. 
 
Upon arrival at the crime scene, the first responding investigator is 
required to get medical assistance for injured victims, detain potential 
suspect, secure the scene (boundary) and restrict movement of people 
in and out from the scene, (Technical Working Group on Crime Scene 
Investigation, 2000) call for additional personnel, keep a detailed log, 
sketch or search the scene for evidence collection, photograph or 
videotape the scene and survey the scene. Outdoor crime scene 
samples are more susceptible to contamination than samples from 
indoor crime scene, but appropriate measures and best sampling 
methods ensure reliable samples. 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 



 

 28 

Evidence For Forensic Investigations (Vince and Sherlock, 2005) 
 
Types of Evidence: 

• Prima facie (Testimonial) 

• Physical: hair, imprints, indentations, soil, glass, tool marks, blood, 
fingerprints, documents 

• Physical evidence from rape victims 

• Blood sample 

• Urine specimen 

• Pubic combings 

• Vaginal swabs and smear 

• Pubic hair standard/reference sample 

• Head hairs 

• Oral swabs & smear 

• External genital dry-skin areas 

• Cervix swab 

• Fingernail scrapings 

• Rectal swabs and smear 

• All clothing 

• Transient evidence: Odour (perfume), urine, explosives, smoke, 
gasoline, putrefaction, coffee, water, cadaver, car hood 

• Biological: sweat, saliva, feces, insects, blood, semen, tears, urine, 
hair, bone, animal material, bacteria, botanical, fungal 

• Chemical: Glass, soil, drugs, paints, plastics, cosmetics, lubricants, 
metal, mineral, fiber, fertilizer 

• Miscellaneous: voice analysis, vehicle identification, stress evaluation, 
laundry marks. 

 
 
 
 
 
  



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 29 

Techniques For Sampling in Forensic Investigations 

Standard laboratory procedures apply here. See table 12. 
 

Table 12: Sampling techniques (Sampling techniques.) 
Site Material Equipment Sampling instructions 
Blood DNA Appropriate tube Collect 5 - 10mL venous blood  

Drugs Appropriate tube Collect 5 -10mL venous blood 

Clothing Blood, semen, fibres, 
hair 

Paper bags Bag wet items separately, 
place clothing in paper bags 

Asshole Semen Microscopic slides, 
cotton swabs 

Use swabs and slides to 
gather and plate specimen, 
moisturize instrument with 
water 

Emollient (Lubricant) Cotton swabs Dry swabs after collection 

Groin Semen Microscopic slides, 
cotton swabs 

Use swabs and slides to 
gather and plate specimen, 
moisturize instrument with 
water 

Hair Comparison of hair 
found at scene 

Germ - free container Cut 20 hair strands and place 
in germ - free container 

Mouth Semen Cotton swabs, germ - 
free container 

Clean several sites with one 
or more swabs for oral 
cleaning, wash mouth with 
10mL H2O and collect in germ 
- free container 

DNA (victim) Cotton swabs 

Urine Drugs Germ - free container Collect 100mL urine 
Skin Semen Cotton swabs Clean areas where semen 

might be present 
Blood, saliva Cotton swabs Dry swab after collection 

Foreign material Cotton swabs and 
tweezers 

Place material in germ - free 
container 

Nails Blood, Skin, fibres Germ - free toothpick or 
nail scissors or nail 
clippers 

Use toothpick to assemble 
specimen from under the nails 
or the nails could be trimmed 
and the clippings collected in 
a germ - free container 

Hygienic 
pads or 
tampons 

Blood, hair, semen Germ - free container Collect if used during or after 
oral or vaginal penetration 

 
Avoiding Crime Scene Contamination: Safety Procedures 
Disposable forceps, gloves and sanitized equipment reduce contamination. 
Unbreakable containers with pressure lids are good points for glass, fibers, 
hairs, and or other types of trace evidence. Also, screw-cap glass vials, 
cardboard pillboxes or manila envelopes are good trace evidence containers 
obtained at crime sites. 
 
Routine mailing envelopes have powders and or fine particles that might leak 
out when used in airtight containers as evidence containers, cumulation of 
moisture might stimulate the growth of mold, which could spoil the evidential 
value when biological materials are stored in them. The introduction of 



 

 30 

foreign DNA through coughing, sneezing or incorrectly placing items beside 
each other during packaging introduces contamination especially in DNA 
analysis. To prevent DNA contamination, the evidence collector must use 
disposable gloves, wear a laboratory coat, work with disposable forceps and 
put on a face mask, when gathering evidence that may contain DNA. 
 
Maintaining Samples Integrity in Forensic Studies 
Adhering to standard methodologies with regards to the location of 
evidence, proper labelling of evidence and adequately completing submission 
forms of evidence for laboratory analysis is critical to the chain of custody. 
 
A crime scene police personnel collects information, labels it, places it in an 
evidence bag, and signs off to an investigator who also signs it over to the 
lab technician who performs the necessary tests. After performing the 
necessary test, the technician signs it over to the custodian of evidence. 
From there it will be signed over to the prosecuting attorney for presentation 
in court. 
 
 
Transportation of Samples from Crime Scene  
The current policy being followed for transporting samples states that certain 
samples need to be dispatched in the frozen state and that no specimen 
should ever be sent by post. Stool, cerebrospinal fluid and sputum also need 
to be transported at room temperature. Urine, skin samples, swabs, water 
and food samples should be transported quickly at room temperature, but if 
it is impossible, these samples should be preserved in refrigerator. 
 
 
 
 
Table 13: Specimen conditions for transportation (Specimen conditions for 

transportation.) 

Specimen Container Refrigeration Transport 
Faeces Stool specimen 

container (blue topped) 
Yes, but it depends on 
the organisms one is 
interested in; normally 
refrigerate immediately 
within 1 - 2 hrs after 
taking sample 

As soon as 
possible within 24 
hrs 

Blood Specific container 
depending on the test 

No As soon as 
possible 

Vaginal 
swabs 

Vaginal swabs No As soon as 
possible within 
4hrs 

Midstream 
urine 

Universal container Yes - overnight only As soon as 
possible within 
24hrs 

 
 
 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 31 

 
Table 14: Quantity of Specimen and Transportation conditions (Quantity of 

specimen and transportation conditions.) 
Specimen      Ideal Amount            Suitable analysis Transport 

temperature 
Urine 100 mL Drug, ethanol analyses 2-8°C 

Blood 
                                                                      
 

40mL 
 

Drug and Glycated 
Haemoglobin (HbA1c) 
analyses (Gray-top tube) 
                                                                 
Green-top tube blood for 
 carboxyhaemoglobin 
(HbCO), 
                                                                      
blood cyanide (CN-) 
                                                                 
 

2-8°C 
 

Vitreous 
humour 

2 mL 
 

Glucose and ethanol analyses 
 

2-8°C  
 

Spinal Fluid  Drug and ethanol analyses 2-8°C 
Gastric 
contents 

100gm 
 

Need-based drug analysis 
 

2-8°C 
 

Spleen 150gm Drug and ethanol analyses Frozen 

Liver 500gm Drug and ethanol analyses Frozen 

Muscle   300gm Drug and ethanol analyses Frozen 

Kidney 100gm Drug and ethanol analyses Frozen 

Blood 
 

100gm 
 

 Drug and ethanol analyses  Frozen 
 

Lungs 100gm                      Drug and ethanol analyses                            
Frozen 

Heart 50gm Drug and ethanol analyses Frozen 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



 

 32 

Cataloguing, Evidence Retention and Destruction of Biological 
Evidence 
Inventory taking or cataloguing system is highly important as it augments the 
available storage space. Retention schedule for unsolved biological evidence 
is 40years. In convicted cases, retention schedule stays up until the inmate 
dies, is released on parole or is executed or the defendant is rather convicted 
of capital felony. Sample letter giving notice of intent of destruction of 
biological evidence: 
 
RE: INTENT TO DESTROY BIOLOGICAL EVIDENCE 
[Date] 

To Whom it May Concern 
Pursuant to Act ………… Code of ……………… I hereby notify your prestigious 
office that ………………. Intends to destroy the biological evidence listed 
below: 
This evidence would be destroyed within ………… days as this letter gets 
into your custody unless a written objection is received. 
Your candid written objection should have: 
Victim’s name…………………..                Defendant’s name…………………. 
Evidence items……………………….            Convicted date………………………… 
Offenses………………………………..             Court………………………………….. 
Case number……………………………… 
Yours faithfully, 
Name, contact details 
 
 
 
 
 
Challenges of Forensic Sampling in Developing World 
More often than not, developing countries are faced with culture clashes and 
nomenclature challenges in forensics. Many laboratories in developing 
countries are somewhat incapable of coping with the complex mixture of low 
template poor quality touch samples. Only a few scientists have technical 
knowledge of the statistical approaches used in genotyping. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 33 

Summary 

Securing the scene to minimize contamination maintains samples 
wholeness in forensics. Documentation and adhering to benchmark 
procedures are also critical to the chain of custody. In this chapter, 
best sampling protocols were accessed. The chapter identified the 
techniques involved as far as sample’s integrity is concerned. In the 
next chapter important equipment used by the forensic biochemist 
and the principles behind such equipment were explained. 

 
 

Chapter Review:  

Question 1 
1. The first thing a Crime Scene Investigator need to do at a 
crime scene is………. 

A. Retain suspects 
B. Collect evidence 
C. Preliminary examine the scene 
D. Solicit medical assistance for the injured 
E. None of the Above 
 

 
From South Africa’s archives 

a. Disappearances (Disappearances of an adult.) 
b. Pistorius case (Oscar Pistorius case.) 

 
Case study 
 
Contaminated DNA (Contaminated DNA evidence strikes three (3) cases.) 
Somewhere in Applied Biosystems Inc., California, a supplier of plastic test 
tubes, an unmasked female worker coughed. This set off series of events 
that led to queries on DNA evidence in three (3) local crime cases in USA. 
DNA analysts at the Police Department crime lab at Tucson, who worked on 
the match profile of a suspected man of attacking seven (7) women between 
May 2004 and February 2005 identified the unknown woman’s DNA in three 
(3) unrelated cases: an assault, a murder and a rape. 
 
Presenting facts in court seemed shaky. Deputy County Attorney Shawn 
Jensvold said the hearing hanged importantly on the credibility of the DNA 
evidence, and the dangerous situation is the probability to delude the jury to 
be convinced of the credibility of DNA results. This same profile turned up 
in two (2) more crime labs in Florida on homicide issue(s). 
 



 

 34 

 
 
This was definitely discovered because of rigorous quality control. For now, 
Tucson analysts have halted the use of sets of possibly contaminated 
supplies and have apprised other analysts and/or investigators around the 
country to sanitize any equipment that could not be certified as DNA-free 
using ultraviolet light (UV). 
 

Question 2 
What happens when an evidentiary sample is contaminated? 



Forensic Science and the Forensic Biochemist — Grace K. Ababio 

 35 

 
 
 

 
 

 
 
 
 

Chapter 3:  
Instrumentation for 

The Forensic 
Biochemist 

 

Learning Objective 
 
 

To Understand the Principles Behind Important 
Equipment used in the Laboratory



 
 
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AUTHOR FOR A FULL 

COPY OF THIS E-
BOOK 

 
 

THE AUTHOR’S 
DETAILS ARE 

LOCATED AT THE 
COPYRIGHT PAGE 



During the past few decades, forensic science has gained enormous attention in
developed countries, while little data exists in developing countries like Ghana.
With an increase in crime rates, rape cases, accident victims and other adverse
instances that the task force and the police services face, there is a need to
maximize efforts in teaching forensic science in tertiary institutions. Even
though, there is no stand-alone upper-level offering of forensic science in UG,
departments (like archaeology, biology, chemistry, biochemistry, biostatistics,
criminal justice or law) that offer portions of it in varying subject areas could be
empowered as well as their teaching materials standardised, till the set time
for an accredited forensic science program at the University of Ghana, Legon
falls in place. In addition, a standardised teaching resource could offer
students the opportunity to view unique practices for evidence collection,
laboratory work and legal issues. 

In this book, the emphasis is on sample collection best practices, serology, DNA
quantification and storage, non-human DNA testing, hair microscopy, paternity
testing, short tandem repeat markers, degraded DNA issues, new frontiers -
automation and software. By dwelling heavily on these expert areas, this book
is hopeful of uncovering the challenging but rewarding Forensic Science as a
career. 

Dr. G.K. Ababio is a well-focused, diligent and dynamic young lady who has a
keen interest in advancing herself in Academia and in Science. Her interest is in
BIOMARKERS AND DISEASES. She lectures at the University of Ghana and has a
broad background in medical biochemistry. 

As a research fellow at the University and elsewhere e.g. University of
Botswana and University of Namibia, she trained young researchers on DNA
extraction and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) techniques. As a PI, she laid the
groundwork for some of her proposed research. In addition, she has successfully
administered projects (e.g. staffing) collaborated with other researchers.