University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LA DADE-KOTOPON MUNICIPALITY BY STEPHANIE K. DANQUAH (ID. NO. 10278590) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES DEGREE. INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH JULY, 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, STEPHANIE K. DANQUAH, hereby declare that except for reference to other people’s work which has been duly acknowledge, this dissertation is the result of my research carried out at the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER), University of Ghana under the supervision of DR. SIMON BAWAKYILLENUO. Stephanie K. Danquah ………………………. ……………………… (Student) (Signature) (Date) Dr. Simon Bawakyillenuo ………………………. ………………………… (Supervisor) (Signature) (Date) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The global campaign against the use of conventional energy sources due to its resultant harmful effects coupled with the erratic nature of power supply in Ghana, high-energy consumption of hotels as well as issues surrounding environment sustainability necessitated the study. The study examined the adoption perspectives of GETs in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality from 2010 to 2018, with focus on the types of adopted GETs, factors contributing to the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies and a review of the national policy frameworks in promoting the adoption of GETs. A census was conducted to study all the fifteen (15) registered hotels in the LADMA to assess the measures that were taken during the load shedding (dumsor) period with concentration on GET adoption. In addition, key resource persons were purposively selected and interviewed based on their roles in the promotion of GETs whilst private entrepreneurs were also interviewed to gain more perspective on some issues raised by the hotels. The findings of the research revealed that hotels largely adopted solar PVs due to their knowledge of the product and its availability on the market. Again, hotels adopted green energy technologies in order to cut down cost of electricity and to gain constant supply of electricity. However, the cost of the GETs coupled with lack of proper understanding of its associated benefits were the major reasons that led to the non-adoption of green energy technologies by some hotels. Furthermore, the country having laid down policies that can largely influence the adoption of GETs, has failed in implementing majority of its provisions. As a result of these findings, the study recommends an educational and awareness campaign for all hotels on GETs, granting of subsidizes on components of GETs, implementation of key provisions within the national policy framework and proper coordination between the regulatory bodies in charge of the activities of hotels to promote the uptake of GETs. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my family, my father Mr. Joseph Felix Danquah, my mother Mrs. Charlotte Adoley Danquah and my siblings Deborah, Jesseleen and Joshua and all my friends who through their support made this possible. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to God Almighty for His Grace and Favor through this journey and for seeing me through this course successfully. My deepest appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr. Simon Bawakyillenuo for his guidance in ensuring that I produce quality work. Without the advice, encouragement and financial support of my family, I would not have been able to complete this journey and for that, I am forever thankful. Finally to my friends and course mates who held my hands throughout, I say God bless you all. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................. x LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................................. xi CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of Study ................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Aim and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Research Questions ..................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Significance of the study ............................................................................................. 6 1.6 Organization of the chapters ........................................................................................ 7 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................. 8 LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................... 8 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 8 2.2 Perspectives on Green Energy ..................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Conceptual Understandings and Role of Green Energy ....................................... 8 2.2.2 Types or Sources of Green Energy ..................................................................... 10 2.2.3 Types of Green Energy Technologies ................................................................ 13 2.3 Overview of the Hotel Industry ................................................................................. 16 2.4 Landscape of Energy Sources in Ghana .................................................................... 17 2.5 Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Energy Technologies ............................ 20 2.5.1 Customer Expectation / Green Marketing .......................................................... 21 2.5.2 Information and Awareness ................................................................................ 21 2.5.3 Economic Restrictions ........................................................................................ 22 2.5.4 Policies Shaping Adoption of Green Energy Technologies ............................... 22 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 Gaps in Literature ...................................................................................................... 25 2.7 Theoretical Framework ............................................................................................. 26 2.8 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 28 2.9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 31 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 32 PROFILE OF STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................ 32 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 32 3.3 Sources of Data ......................................................................................................... 33 3.4 Methods of Data Collection....................................................................................... 33 3.4.1 Quantitative Method of Data Collection ............................................................. 33 3.4.2 Qualitative Method of Data Collection ............................................................... 34 3.5 Target Population ...................................................................................................... 34 3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure ....................................................................... 35 3.7 Data Processing and Analysis ................................................................................... 36 3.8 Profile of the Study Area ........................................................................................... 38 3.8.1 Hotel Industry in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly ........................... 38 3.8.2 Background Characteristics of LADMA ............................................................ 39 3.8.3 Location and Size................................................................................................ 39 3.8.4 Population Structure ........................................................................................... 40 3.8.5 Physical Characteristics ...................................................................................... 41 3.8.6 Economic Activities ............................................................................................ 42 3.8.7 Climatic Conditions ............................................................................................ 42 3.9 Study Limitations ...................................................................................................... 43 3.10 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 43 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 44 ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS .................................. 44 4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 44 4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. .................................................. 44 4.3 Economic Characteristics of Respondents. ............................................................... 45 4.4 Business Characteristics of Hotels ............................................................................ 46 4.5 Facilities and Services of Hotels ............................................................................... 48 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.6 Energy Consumption and Cost .................................................................................. 48 4.6.1 Sources of Electricity .......................................................................................... 48 4.6.2 Basic Uses of Electricity in Hotels ..................................................................... 49 4.6.3 Cost of Main Electricity Source and Category of Hotel ..................................... 50 4.6.4 Cost of Alternative Electricity Source and Category of Hotel ........................... 51 4.6.5 Measures of Energy Conservation ...................................................................... 52 4.7 Types and Knowledge on Green Energy Technologies (GETs) ............................... 53 4.7.1 Reasons associated with preference of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels . 55 4.7.2 Membership of Eco-friendly / Green Energy Convention, Commitment or Association................................................................................................................... 56 4.8 Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Energy Technologies ............................ 57 4.8.1 Level of Adoption of Green Energy Technologies ............................................. 57 4.8.2 Factors contributing to adoption of Green Energy Technologies ....................... 58 4.9 Factors Influencing the Non-Adoption of Green Energy Technologies ................... 59 4.10 Promotion of Green Energy Technologies in the Hospitality Industry. .................. 65 4.11 The role of the National Policy Framework in the promotion of Green Energy Technologies ................................................................................................................... 67 4.12 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 73 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 74 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................... 74 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 74 5.2 Summary of Key findings of the Study ..................................................................... 74 5.2.1 High Cost of Energy Consumption in Hotels ..................................................... 74 5.2.2 Solar PVs as the Main Type of Green Energy Technologies Adopted by Hotels ..................................................................................................................................... 75 5.2.3 High Cost of Electricity as a Driving Factor to the adoption of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels ............................................................................................... 76 5.2.4 High Initial Cost of Installation as the Main Factor influencing the non-adoption of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels .................................................................... 77 5.2.5 Lack of Implementation of government policies as a Hindrance to the Promotion of Green Energy Technologies in Hotels ..................................................................... 78 5.3 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 78 5.4 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... 80 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 82 APPENDICES .................................................................................................................... 93 APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HOTEL MANAGERS .................................... 93 APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ENERGY COMMISSION ........................... 99 APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR GHANA TOURISM AUTHORITY .......... 100 APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR LADMA MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY ....... 101 APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PRIVATE OPERATORS / ENTREPRENEURS ......................................................................................................... 102 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Installed Grid Electricity Generation Capacity operational as of December 2017. ................................................................................................................ 20 Table 3.1: Sample Determination for Selected Respondents .............................................. 36 Table 3.2: Linkages between research objectives, methods of data collection and analysis ............................................................................................................ 37 Table 4.1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents ............................................ 45 Table 4.2: Economic characteristics of respondents ........................................................... 46 Table 4.3: Characteristics of Hotel...................................................................................... 47 Table 4.4: Sources of Electricity ......................................................................................... 49 Table 4.5: Cost of Main Electricity Source and Category of Hotel .................................... 51 Table 4.6: Cost of Alternative Electricity Source and Category of Hotel ......................... 52 Table 4.7: Energy Consumption Reduction Measures ........................................................ 53 Table 4.8: Knowledge and Means of Information on Green Energy Technologies ........... 53 Table 4.9: Types of Green Energy Technologies familiar to Hotels .................................. 54 Table 4.10: Reasons for Solar PV and Solar Water Heaters as Preferred types of Green Energy Technologies. ...................................................................................... 56 Table 4.11: Association to Green Groups .......................................................................... 57 Table 4.12: The Use of Green Energy Technology ............................................................ 58 Table 4.13: Category of Hotel and Plans of Adopting Green Energy Technologies ......... 64 Table 4.14: Measures for Encouraging Green Energy Technology Adoption .................... 66 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework on Adoption and Non-Adoption Factors of Green Energy Technologies ....................................................................................... 29 Figure 3.1: Location of Hotels in La Dade-Kotopon Municipality .................................... 39 Figure 3.2: Location of La Dade-Kotopon Municipality in the Greater Accra Region ...... 40 Figure 4.1: Facilities in Hotels ............................................................................................ 48 Figure 4.2: Uses of Electricity ............................................................................................ 50 Figure 4.3: Green Energy Technologies Preferred by Hotels ............................................. 55 Figure 4.4: Factors for non-adoption of Green Energy Technologies. ............................... 62 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS °C Degree Celsius Btu British thermal unit cm Centimeter CSP Concentrating Solar Thermal DOI Diffusion of Innovation ECG Electricity Company of Ghana ECREEE ECOWAS Center for Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FiT Feed in Tariffs GET Green Energy Technology GHG Greenhouse gas GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda Gt CO2 Gigatonnes of Carbon dioxide GWH Gigawatt hours IEA International Energy Agency IGA International Geothermal Association IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change IPP Independent Power Producer IRENA International Renewable Energy Agency LADMA La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly LED Light-emitting diode NDPC National Development Planning Commission kW h/m2/day Kilowatt-hours per square meter per day xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh KWth Kilowatt thermal MW / MWp Mega Watt / Mega Watt peak REMP Renewable Energy Master Plan Solar PV Solar Photovoltaics SUNREF Sustainable Use of Natural Resource and Energy Finance TWh Terawatt-hour UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change VRA Volta River Authority xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study Energy has become one of the drivers of development in many countries around the world. The demand has increased worldwide as it is vital for sustenance of human life and economic activities and consumption is expected to increase in the future with no signs of a slowdown. The world is advocating for a shift towards the adoption of green energy technologies based on scientific studies that point to the effects of climate change which is mainly caused by emissions from fossil fuel consumption (McLauchlan & Mehrubeoglu, 2010). Globally, the most pressing environmental challenges emanating from the energy sector at present are the emissions of greenhouse gases (GHG) especially, carbon dioxide. This is referenced to increase from 27.1 Gt CO2 per year in 2008 to 40.4 Gt CO2 per year in 2030 (Kaygusuz, 2012). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) as cited by Al- zubaidy (2015), acknowledges that climate change does not only result from the natural processes of the earth, but also, from human activities. Thus, anthropogenic factors on the environment has contributed immensely to the rising global warming effects. Some of the drivers of greenhouse gas emissions through anthropogenic factors are rapid population growth, economic activity, drastic lifestyle changes, disturbance in land use patterns, rapid technology development and increasing energy use (IPCC, 2014). Unfortunately, the problems that are brought about from the excessive use of energy far outweighs the problems associated with the depletion of the energy reserves and fossil fuels (Xuchao, Priyadarsini, & Siew Eang, 2010). There is a drive for the actions of humans to be 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tailored towards the preservation of our natural resources for posterity to be able to meet their own needs (Bruntland, 1987). However, the current generation is also challenged with the immediate effects of excessive use of energy resources and natural resource depletion. Apart from the global implications of global warming, the local impacts on the health of humans and ecology cannot be ignored. Effects of land degradation from the exploration of coal, deforestation caused by mining and contamination of water bodies from the drilling of gas and onshore oil through the production of solid and liquid waste are all adverse effects of the present energy situation (Ngene, Tota-Maharaj, Eke, & Hills, 2016) Globally, the dominant sources of energy services are from the burning of coal, fossil fuels and natural gases which discharges tons of carbon dioxide into the environment resulting in global warming (Goiri et al., 2011). The call for de-carbonization of the energy industry has therefore been increasing. According to International Energy Outlook, 2009, as cited by Bilal Awan (2016 pg 1), “world energy consumption will increase from 472 quadrillion Btu in 2006 to 552 quadrillion Btu in 2015 and 678 quadrillion Btu in 2030 – a total increase of 44% over the projected period 2006–2030”. Green energy resources are abundant in nature with easy accessibility to meet human demands. They come in the form of solar, wind, geothermal, biomass, waves, tides and hydro. With the appropriate, and new technologies in motion, they can be harnessed to meet the growing energy demands of humans (Varun, Prakash, & Bhat, 2009). The hospitality industry has some of the highest consuming energy buildings among all the non-residential buildings, with the industry also providing free rein on energy consumption in rooms by occupants (Huang, Wang, & Wang, 2015). The industry is seen to be one of the fastest growing sectors in the global economy (Deloitte Development LLC, 2018). It has therefore become an integral part of human life on all scales as it offers one of the most 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenging and interesting career and guest experience (Boakye, Twenefour, & McArthur- Floyd, 2016) whiles accommodating and providing services to a vast number of people on daily basis. The high quality edifices and efficient service deliveries are linked to guest satisfaction and hotel patronage. The hospitality industry depends on energy for its operations, therefore, consuming substantial amount of the world’s resources with both direct and indirect impacts on the society, economy and environment raising the issue of sustainability. 1.2 Problem Statement It is undeniable that energy plays a major role in the growth and development of a country as many businesses rely on the uninterrupted flow of energy for production, consumption and distribution (Doe & Asamoah, 2014). The high demand for energy usage from conventional energy sources, however, has brought with it severe and adverse impacts such as the climate change issues that the world has been experiencing presently. It is essential to adopt alternative measures of energy such as green energy-based technologies that emits little or zero greenhouse gases and also promotes efficient means of energy production for consumption (Child, Breyer, Bogdanov, & Fell, 2017). Africa is a continent that abounds in sun resource and has potential for wind energy as well (Asumadu- Sarkodie & Owusu, 2016b). Ghana particularly, is endowed with green energy resources such as wind, solar, mini and small hydro, biogas and modern biomass that can be harnessed to serve its energy needs (Gyam, Modjinou, & Djordjevic, 2015). Boamah and Rothfuß (2018) gives a detailed description of Ghana’s energy situation since the construction of the Akosombo artificial hydro-power dam in 1965 expatiating that, the insufficient supply over the years, led to the introduction of thermal plants to salvage the 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh situation though it brought along high cost of operation. Over the years, there have been several agreements like the power-purchasing agreements with Independent Power Producers (IPPs) and measures by the Electricity Company of Ghana (ECG); however, there has not been consistent improvement in electricity supply and revenue collection. Ghana since 1982 has experienced interrupted and inconsistent electricity supply, which negatively affected both commercial and private (household) operations in the country as a result of insufficient generation of electricity (Doe & Asamoah, 2014). A number of factors accounted for the erratic power supply in Ghana including electricity demand exceeding supply, non-availability of fuels to power the power plants, challenges with distribution and transmission of electricity, huge sums of payment of arrears by both individuals and government, and illegal connection of power to household, etc. (Twerefou, 2014). These power blackouts popularly called ‘dumsor’ by the people of Ghana intensified during 2012 and became pervasive in the country with unreliable load shedding schedules (Hardy & Mccasland, 2019). The hospitality industry was not spared from the effects of these blackouts. The industry being among the fastest growing and expanding industries over the years, employs almost 9% of the working force of Ghana totaling over 47,000 of Ghanaians (Boakye, Twenefour, & McArthur-Floyd, 2016). The functions and operations of hotels are highly energy consuming in the provision of lighting, air conditioning, hot water, elevator transportation and cooking (Wang & Huang, 2013), thus, incurring huge operational costs on a daily basis. To ensure smooth operations and efficient delivery of services to its cliental, reliance on consistent supply of power is key. Therefore, the expensive and erratic nature of power during the dumsor era nearly crippled operations of most of the operators in the hospitality industry. Most of the operators therefore resorted to the use of generators, which requires large quantities of fuel that also emit carbon dioxide. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Previously conducted studies in relation to energy use in the hospitality industry in Ghana have concentrated on the broad issues that are associated with environmental sustainability in the operations of the hospitality industry. Mensah (2006) findings on environmental management practices amongst hotels in Greater Accra region was able to determine that hotels implemented environmental practices differently with larger hotels at the forefront and geared towards a more sustainable practice. A similar study also on determinants of hotels’ environmental performance concluded that size and class of hotels influenced their environmental performance in the region while factoring in all the various measures that hotels employ to be environmentally friendly (Mensah & Blankson, 2013). Although, there have been similar studies on energy consumption or use in the hospitality industries in Ghana, none has been conducted specifically on the adoption of green energy technologies in reference to the country’s energy challenges and climate change. Therefore, there is the need for this study in La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly as it hosts all the classes of the hotels in the Greater Accra Region. The study shall focus on the years between 2010 to 2018 because this is the period where the hotel industries were challenged with dumsor and had to resort to alternative sources of energy including the adoption of green energy technologies 1.3 Aim and Objectives The main aim of this study is to understand the adoption and non-adoption perspectives or issues of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry in La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly between 2010 and 2018 The specific objectives include: 1. To examine the types of green energy technologies being adopted by hotels between 2010 and 2018 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. To examine the factors influencing the adoption and sustainability of the green energy technologies in the hospitality industry between 2010 and 2018 3. To examine the factors influencing the non-adoption and / or lack of sustainability of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry between 2010 and 2018 4. To examine the national policy framework in the promotion of green energy technologies adoption in the hospitality industry in Ghana 1.4 Research Questions Based on the research objectives raised for the study, the following research questions are to be answered: 1. What are the types of green energy technologies that have been adopted by hotels between 2010 and 2018? 2. What are the factors that influenced the adoption and sustainability of green energy technologies between 2010 and 2018? 3. What are the factors that influenced the non-adoption and / or lack of sustainability between 2010 and 2018? 4. How is the national policy framework structured to promote green energy technologies adoption in the hospitality industry in Ghana? 1.5 Significance of the study This study is relevant for the expansion of knowledge on green energy resources and technologies and the various forms that are available for adoption in Ghana because this would serve as a reference document for interested stakeholders in the application of green energy technologies. In addition, the hospitality industry and other organizations that consume high amounts of energy in their operations can also apply the findings from the 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study in their operations. Findings from the study will also inform relevant stakeholders and institutions in the energy sector on the factors that influence the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry. Also, the study would contribute to existing knowledge on climate change, prevention and the role of organizations through adoption of green energy technologies. The findings will benefit organizations, environment and society who are likely to adopt green energy technology and also serve as basis for advocacy on environmental sustainability and alternative energy use for developing countries that are challenged with constant energy supply and distribution. The findings, recommendations and suggestions from this study, would also aid policy makers and the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) in incorporating ways through which the hospitality industry in particular and the industrial sector in general can be aided in adopting green energy technologies in the National Policy Framework on Climate Change. 1.6 Organization of the chapters The study is organized into five chapters. Chapter One covers the general introductory components of the study. These include the general introduction to the study, the problem that is being investigated, the main aim with the specific objectives of the study, the questions that would help address the objectives, the rationale behind the study and the chapters arrangement. Chapter Two covers the review relevant literature that support the study and development of a theoretical and conceptual framework to guide the entire study. Chapter Three embodies the methodology, consisting of the study design, the research tools, data management and analysis and an overview on the study area. Chapter Four covers discussions and analysis of research findings from the field. Chapter Five presents summary of the key findings, conclusions and recommendations that would be appropriate to the study. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW, THEORY AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents a review of relevant literature that touches on major themes within the field of green energy adoption and the theory and conceptual framework supporting this study. Specifically, this review begins with an exploration of the conceptual understandings and the role of green energy, the types and sources of green energy and the types of GETs. Also, an overview of the hotel sector and a review of the landscape of energy sources in Ghana are presented. Additionally, the factors and policies that shape the adoption of green energy technologies are discussed. Finally, the chapter examined the theoretical and conceptual underpinnings of the study as well as the literature gaps. 2.2 Perspectives on Green Energy 2.2.1 Conceptual Understandings and Role of Green Energy The world’s population is increasing rapidly, with expectations that by 2050, there will be close to 10 billion people on earth (FAO, 2017). This growing population will invariably put more pressure on finite energy resources to fuel economic activities. A further complication introduced by this trend is the volume of harmful gas emitted daily into the atmosphere through combustion of conventional energy resources (Al-Nassar, Neelamani, Al-Salem, & Al-Dashti, 2019). The 2015 Paris Agreement on Climate Change Mitigation in recognition of this problem obligated all countries to move towards the reduction of greenhouse gases by moving away from the use of conventional energy systems to green energy (Chung, 2018). Green energy encompasses energy resources that are domestic, clean and inexhaustible and able to emit 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh zero or almost zero amount of greenhouses gases and air pollutants (Demirbas, 2006). Green energy resources are in abundance, easily accessible and available, (Varun, Prakash & Bhat, 2009) and supplying about 24% of global energy demands (IEA, 2019). Green energy usage is geared towards the minimization of adverse effects on the environment, economy and society. It therefore promotes sustainability and clean energy use by the various sectors across the world including households and commercial operators (Midilli, Dincer, & Rosen, 2007). In comparison to conventional energy resources, green energy exploitation does not affect the ecosystem. According to Brown (2009), the decision to invest in the generation and production of green energy is a responsible call since it is a strategic move that can be implemented environmentally, nationally and economically. The contributions of green energy resources in meeting the global energy demands is said to have a positive correlation with sustainability. According to Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change special report (2011), the contributions of green energy to sustainable development are numerous; they include the provision of accelerated access to energy supply, reduced vulnerability to disruptions in energy supply, diminished volatility of the energy market, improved health and environmental outcomes (Kumar et al., 2011). Also, green energy technologies accounted for a third of global energy capacity as the end of 2018 (IRENA, 2019). The expectations is that dependence on fossil energy resources will become insignificant by 2100, with green energy technologies being the major contributor to global energy demands (Al-Nassar, Neelamani, Al-Salem, & Al-Dashti, 2019). Issues surrounding green energy has drawn major attention due to global challenges of climate change and reduction of carbon footprint. This is because the carbon footprint is rapidly rising across the globe. In addition, the use of fossil fuels has been discounted as a requirement for economic growth due to its association with carbon and toxic gas emissions. More so, fossil fuels are finite and distribution is spatially limited thereby rendering it 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unsustainable (Aslani, Naaranoja, & Zakeri, 2012). This has led to the debate on energy issues. The debate has been shaped by consumption of fossil fuels and climate change. Issues raised include scarcity brought about by the fast depletion of fossil fuels, uncertainties and increased prices of fossils on the international market and the adverse impacts on the environment (Owusu & Asumadu-Sarkodie, 2016; Pfeifer & Schuering, 1973). According to Martinot (2006), the application of renewable energy technologies in commercial and near-commercial usages have been grouped into four basic categories. They are used in the generation of electricity to power processes, hot water usages, heating and cooling, fuels for powering vehicles and heavy machinery and provision of electricity for rural (off grid) settings. Green energy technologies therefore are able to perform the same functions of conventional energy resources, but with less or zero adverse impacts on the environment and society. 2.2.2 Types or Sources of Green Energy The main sources of green energy globally are summarized in the works of Demirbaş (2006) & Panwar, Kaushik, & Kothari (2011) as hydropower, modern biomass, geothermal, solar, wind, waves and tides. Ghana is bestowed with a vast array of green energy resources. The location of the country and the spatial distribution of green energy resources in the country makes it easily accessible and favorable for utilization. The main types of green energy in Ghana are water, wind, solar, biomass, wave and tide (Hagan, 2015). 2.2.2.1 Water Hydro is an important energy resource as it has the potential of generating energy favorable to the environment, ecology and human health (Xue & Sun, 2018). The contributions of hydro is rather outstanding among all the green energy resources as it has been widely adopted (Penghao, Pingkuo, & Hua, 2019). As at the close of 2016, the installed global 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh capacity of hydropower was 1,064 GW and this was averaging 4% growth rate annually from 2005 to 2015 (World Energy Council, 2016). Hydropower contributions has achieved huge economic, social and ecological benefits (Li, Li, Ji, & Yang, 2015). This power is generated by damming rivers or streams (Balat, 2008). Although hydropower uses water as fuel in energy generation, there is no consumption of water in the process. It is also associated with low cost of production and has created employment avenues (Bildirici & Gökmenoğlu, 2017). With regards to greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) and climate change, hydropower energy sources are preferable alternative to fossil fuel sources due to the limited impact of hydropower generation on greenhouse gas emissions, (Soanes, Skinner, & Haas, 2016). 2.2.2.2 Geothermal Geothermal is the earth’s natural heat which is generated from molten magma in the inner core of the earth and the decomposition of radioactive materials in its crust (Wang, Yan, Li, Hu, & Li, 2016; IGA, 2010). This is estimated to be about 5,500°C at the core of the Earth. Geothermal energy is one of the green energy avenues for reducing GHGs and resultant global warming effects (Wang, Yuan, Ji, & Wu, 2018). Changes in seasons and the weather do not affect geothermal energy and electricity generation can be done at any time to avoid wastages that are associated with wind and hydropower energy sources (Hou, Cao, & Liu, 2018). 2.2.2.3 Wind The energy in wind since ages has been sourced for sailing, milling grains, pumping water (Stathopoulos et al., 2018) and many more. Kinetic energy from wind is used to produced clean forms of energy devoid of harmful emissions and contamination (Varun, Prakash, & Bhat, 2009). Amongst all the green energy sources, wind energy is the most utilized and advanced technologies that have been developed for power generation due to availability of 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the resources and the use of offshore installations where wind is strongest (Esteban, Diez, López, & Negro, 2011). In building wind turbines, it is important to consider the area for the installation. Areas with strong wind and abundance of space such as beaches and high seas are best utilized for the installation and production of wind energy especially in areas where there is insufficient land space (Esteban, Diez, Lopez & Negro, 2011). Installation of wind turbines require large space due to the sizes of the turbines rendering offshore installations the best option in generating higher energy output. 2.2.2.4 Solar Solar is the most available energy resource on earth (IEA, 2014) with the potential to solve the energy needs of our planet. This, however, can only be achieved if the right and appropriate technologies are employed to generate electricity from the energy harvested from the sun (Kabir, Kumar, Kumar, Adelodun, & Kim, 2018). The sun is known for its importance in sustaining life on earth and offers approximately 885 million TWh of its power to the earth’s atmosphere in a year. This is 6200 times the commercial primary energy consumed in 2008 and an estimated 4200 times the energy that is projected to be consumed by humankind by the year 2035 (IEA, 2011). Research has indicated that the power derived from the sun can solve approximately 1000 times the energy demands of the earth (Xia & Xia, 2010). The equatorial side of the world’s arid deserts have the most favorable regions with minimum radiation of 5 kW h/m2/day, annual rainfall not exceeding 25cm and over 3000 hours of sunshine, which is perfect for the applications of solar energy (Atsu, Agyemang, & Tsike, 2016). 2.2.2.5 Biomass Biomass is a broad term for materials derived from plants and animal byproducts and can take on different means like liquid forms, gas and solid forms (Demirbas & Demirbas, 2010). Biomass can be used in three ways: it can go through a burning process to generate 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh heat and electricity, it can also be transformed to a gaseous form and it can also be changed into liquid fuels called biofuels, which produce ethanol and methanol (Tewfik, 2004). The main sources of biomass include garbage, wood, waste, landfill gases and alcohol fuels. The largest source for biomass are woods, followed by waste materials (Prajapati & Barot, 2017). Utilization of energy from biomass has received considerable attention due to the negative concerns linked to fossil fuels utilization. These include promotion of energy security, reduction of vulnerability and promotion of trade balance as oil importing countries derive an avenue to produce internally, reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, rural development through income generation from demand for agricultural products, job creation and high commodity prices (De Fraiture, Giordano, & Liao, 2008). 2.2.2.6 Wave and Tide Wave and tidal energy has been recognized as another source of green energy with high potential that can contribute to meeting global energy demands (Frid et al., 2012). The waves produced by oceans are huge and strong making the oceans a good source of energy. Comparatively, the merits of wave and tidal energy sources outweigh that of the other green energy sources. In terms of energy density, sea waves and tides produce the highest among the other green sources. Also, the negative environmental effects from wave and tidal energy are minimal and hardly pose any impact to the ecosystem. The cost involved in the exploitation and utilization of wave and tidal energy is relatively less and also, energy loss during wave travel is less (Akar & Akdoğan, 2016). 2.2.3 Types of Green Energy Technologies 2.2.3.1 Hydroelectric Generating Plant Hydroelectric generating plants are some of the most utilized green energy technologies. Its utilization spans decades and has provided clean energy to satisfy the growing demands of energy globally. Hydroelectric generating plants work by harnessing the power from 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh running water (World Energy Council, 2016). Dams are usually constructed on rivers to enable retention of huge volumes of water (Ellabban, Abu-Rub, & Blaabjerg, 2014). This allows the water to pass through the installed turbines converting it into mechanical energy and then to electrical energy. Hydropower plants are grouped into different types according to the size and capacity of the plants. These classifications are Large-hydro, Medium-Hydro, Small-hydro, Mini-hydro, Micro-hydro, and Pico-hydro. Depending on the type of plants, they can be used either for charging batteries, supplying households or feeding into national grids. 2.2.3.2 Biomass Generating Systems Biomass resources can be converted into new forms to generate energy. Biomass is used to generate energy through combustion or gasification. A process of burning biomass produces steam that turns steam turbines and rotates its alternator to generates energy (Prajapati & Barot, 2017). A basic energy generation method of biomass is the conversion into biofuels through the use of thermal and thermochemical processes to produce heat and electricity (Klass, 2004). These biofuels can be stored for future use when there need be. Therefore, they are important for solving the rising energy demand especially during unforeseen crisis. Traditional biogas stoves have been designed for cooking which can be used for both domestic and commercial purposes with high performance levels (Grima-Olmedo, Ramírez- Gómez, & Alcalde-Cartagena, 2014). The use of biogas plants has been on the rise in the treatment of sewage and production of energy for various institutions including schools and hotels (Cudjoe Bensah & Brew-Hammond, 2010). 2.2.3.3 Geothermal Generating Plant Technologies have been developed to extract the natural heat of the earth in the production of energy for human use. The earth produces heat which can be in state of either dry steam or hot water. These are fed into turbines and plants used in production of energy (Renewable 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Energy World, 2019a). Three methods have been identified as ways of generating energy from geothermal. These are Dry steam requiring 150°C of geothermal steam; Flash steam also requiring 180°C of geothermal temperatures and Binary cycle which requires at least 57°C of water temperature (Ferry & Monoian, 2012). These are able to drive installed turbines thereby generation energy. Usage of geothermal energy have been classified under distinct areas: “direct use and district heating systems, electricity generation power plants and geothermal heat pumps” (Melikoglu, 2017 pg. 487). Although, geothermal generating plants have generally been used to provide baseload energy supply to national grids, there is also the option of small geothermal generating plants that can be used to serve smaller communities and households (Ellabban, Abu-Rub, & Blaabjerg , 2014). 2.2.3.4 Wind Turbine Generator To capture the power of wind for energy production, propeller-like blades that can easily rotate are designed so as the wind can pass over. This is then converted to mechanical energy and connected to generators that converts it to electricity (Alrikabi, 2013). The most common wind turbines are large, horizontal and usually built together on wind farms to produce energy. Wind turbines can serve as stand-alone applications, connected to national grid systems to serve large number of people and also, used by household and residence at locations with high wind intensity to supplement energy demands (Renewable Energy World, 2019b). Also, wind power can either be offshore or onshore. In 2017 a total of 52,552MW of wind turbines were installed, bringing global total installations to 539,291MW and contributing to 5% of global electricity demands (World Wind Energy Association, 2018). 2.2.3.5 Solar Photovoltaic (PV) / Solar Thermal Power Plants Applications of the use of solar energy include solar photovoltaics (PV), concentrating solar thermal power (CSP) and solar thermal heating and cooling (Nematollahi & Kim, 2017). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The energy from the sun can be transformed into electrical energy. This is done in photovoltaic cells which is one of the popular solar energy technologies done through the use of solar panels (Tucho, Weesie, & Nonhebel, 2014) and used mainly for heating and cooling in households. The solar panels/cells are connected to other modules to create power plants (Muneer, Asif, & Munawwar, 2005). Between the period of 2011 and 2016, there has been an increase in the use of Solar PV over fourfold and it is expected to increase rapidly in subsequent years (Letcher, 2018). Solar energy systems have been attributed to reduction in poverty and greenhouse gas emissions and increment in energy security in developing economies as it eases the burden of daily energy production (Shahsavari & Akbari, 2018). Solar energy technologies are widely adopted with solar PV and solar water heaters been used greatly in the hospitality industry (Vourdoubas, 2016). 2.3 Overview of the Hotel Industry The hotel industry is one of the fastest growing and revenue generating industries in the world. It provides employment and accommodation to millions of people all over the world as well as immigrants seeking employments (Backman & Klaesson, 2017). Adoption of environmentally friendly and green practices by hotels chains around the world have increased their image, productivity, performance and loyalty from both employees and customers. Large hotel chains such as Accor, Hilton and Marriot have incorporated green energy practices into their corporate social responsibility programs. These have earned them international awards and recognitions therefore improving the overall image of the hotel to their customers and employees (Kucukusta, Mak, & Chan, 2013). There have been an increase in hotel facilities in Ghana especially in the capital city of Greater Accra providing accommodation to the number of tourists that continue to visit the 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh country each year (Mensah & Blankson, 2013). Both foreign chains and local hotels operate in the country. The hotel industry alone is providing employment to about 9% of its citizens (Boakye, Twenefour, & McArthur-Floyd, 2016) engaging different people from several backgrounds in the running of the hotels. 2.4 Landscape of Energy Sources in Ghana Ghana’s Energy Commission through the Energy Commission Act (Act 541) of 1997 is the statutory agency responsible for overseeing the energy resources in the country. This act spells out the energy demand and supply forecast in the country. The energy sources in the country includes electricity, crude oil, petroleum products, natural gas and biomass. According to the Energy Commission (2018) the total electricity generated and available for use in 2016 was 14,069 GWH, which is made of 39.9% hydro, 59.9% thermal and 0.2% solar power. This reveals that fossil fuel is the major source of electricity in Ghana in comparison with the green energy resources. Electricity generation in Ghana began initially with diesel powered generators owned by industries (Eshun & Amoako-Tuffour, 2016). Over the years, the country has mainly depended on hydropower for its energy demands. Currently, there are three hydroelectric dams operational in Ghana; the Akosombo dam, Kpong dam and Bui dam. The Akosombo dam was the first hydropower plant constructed in 1962. To supplement the growing energy demands, the Kpong dam was then constructed in 1982 and Bui dam in 2013. Growing population led to growing energy demands, therefore, Aboadze thermal plant was commissioned at Aboadze in 1997 in the Western Region of Ghana. A total of eleven (11) thermal plant stations have been commission across the country. These are; Takoradi Power Company (TAPCO), Takoradi Inter-Company (TICO), Sunon-Asogli Power (SAPP), Kpone Thermal Power Plant (KTPP), Tema Thermal Plant1 and 2 (TT1P and TT2P), 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CENIT Energy Limited (CEL), AMERI, Karpower and AKSA (Energy Commission, 2018). Volta River Authority (VRA) based on its commitment to green energy have made strides in the sector. It currently operates the VRA Navrongo Solar Plant in the Upper East Region with two additional solar PV plants soon to be constructed in the Upper West Region specifically Kaleo and Lawra. An additional Solar PV plant, BX Solar is operational under Independent Power Producers (IPPs) of electricity. VRA has also instituted plans to develop wind turbines together with Vestas and El Sewedy wind developers. Plans are underway to install the turbines at Anloga, Anyanui, Lekpogunu and Akplabany all in the southern region of Ghana where there are strong wind sources (Volta River Authority, n.d.). The consumption of electricity is grouped into four main categories. These are the residential sector, non-residential sector, industrial sector and finally the public lighting sector (Energy Commission, 2016). The industrial sector, which hosts the hospitality industry, is known to be the sector with the highest consumption of electricity in Ghana, followed by the residential and non-residential sectors. According to Energy Commission (2016), the consumption of electricity by the industrial sector increased by 84% from the year 2005 to 2014. This however dropped marginally in 2015 resulting from supply challenges in the country (Energy Commission, 2019). The hospitality industry mainly depends on electricity for its energy needs. Petroleum is another major source of energy in Ghana with high demands in the commercial and service sectors such as hotels, restaurants, hospitals, etc. (Energy Commission, 2018). In 2017, about 3.5 million tonnes of petroleum products were pumped into the Ghanaian market, which was higher than 3.3 million pumped in 2016. This reflects the increase in consumption of petroleum products from 2016 to 2017 (Energy Commission, 2018). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Petroleum products include gasoline, diesel, liquefied petroleum gas and jet fuel. The use of liquefied petroleum gas is high in the hospitality industry as it serves as fuel for the cooking equipment. Apart from electricity and petroleum as sources of energy in Ghana, biomass is another source of energy. The predominant type of biomass used is charcoal which serves both domestic and industrial cooking. This includes the hospitality industry where biogas systems are purposely used for cooking, heating and lighting (Embassy of The Kingdom of The Netherlands, 2016). Charcoal cookstoves are used in the hospitality industry for cooking and for charcoal grilling. The number of mini-bags or maxi-bags of charcoal used in Ghana is hardly known. The higher the price means that demand outweighs supply. According to the Energy Commission (2018b) between 2015 and 2016, the prices of min- bag increased by 20% while the maxi-bag increased by 8%. Therefore, when demand increases, prices go high implying that users of charcoal are increasing. The hospitality industry in recent time have made greater use of green energy technologies especially in the use of solar water heating. In 2015, the hospitality sector installed an estimated capacity of 435.6 kWth out of a total of 725.9 kWth (ECREEE, 2016). The use of solar water heating could be due to the rising electricity tariffs as a measure to augment the electric water heaters and to save cost. The Government of Ghana in 2015 decentralized solar PV installation where 70,000 solar lanterns with energy supply capacity of 10MWp were distributed to supply energy purposely for lighting, water pumping and powering of computers (Energy Commission, 2016). Table 2.1 presents the 2017 installed generation capacity of the various energy-generating plants in the country from state owned operators and private operators. The plants are also from conventional and green energy technologies. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2.1: Installed Grid Electricity Generation Capacity operational as of December 2017. Source: Energy Commission, (2018b) 2.5 Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Energy Technologies For deeper understanding into the adoption and non-adoption perspectives of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry, it is critical to review the factors that influence the decision to adopt or not to adopt. This section is devoted to the review of these factors. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.1 Customer Expectation / Green Marketing Global advancement of discussions surrounding climate change and sustainability have led to the growing numbers of people aligned to this movement associate themselves with businesses whose services are environmentally friendly (Rahman, Reynolds, & Svaren, 2012). The sustainability of the commercial facilities and the hospitality industry is largely dependent on customers that patronize the premises, as they remain the central focus of the organization. Out of 280 hotel customers surveyed in Australia, more than half of the respondents were willing to patronize hotels that adopt green energy practices although their intent to pay for those services were low (Dalton, Lockington, & Baldock, 2008). Such customers are likely to adopt suppliers that follow environmentally friendly operations especially based on their own perceptions and recommendations from people close by (Gerpott & Mahmudova, 2010). However, a study by Chan (2018) on eighteen hotels in Hong Kong indicated the satisfaction, comfort and general experience of customers in using green energy technologies is important in determining the intent of hotels in adopting new technologies. 2.5.2 Information and Awareness Information and awareness on issues pertaining to environmental sustainability is critical for the adoption of green behaviors (Novo-Corti, García-Álvarez, & Varela-Candamio, 2018). Availability of information on the appropriate technologies, methods, operations and benefits associated with usage of green energy technologies on the environment would enlighten consumers in making the decision to adopt (Hirmer & Cruickshank, 2014). Lack of information on the technology to be adopted lowers the confidence of consumers coupled with the time associated with fishing out information on the product (Reddy & Painuly, 2004). Also, information about the cost involved in implementation, the benefits as against conventional energy use to the organization, performance levels, short and long term 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh profitability, maintenance and machinery lifespan and so on being made readily available to consumers shapes the decision to adopt (Watt & Outhred, 2014). Therefore, information dissemination is a key factor to the adoption of technology in all sectors. A study on 158 hotels in Egypt identified that, chain and larger hotels have higher tendency to adopt green behaviors and technologies due to information sharing among the hotels chains whiles locally managed hotels are less likely to adopt new technologies due to lack of knowledge (Dief & Font, 2012). 2.5.3 Economic Restrictions High or insufficient capital to implement green energy technologies is a strong barrier to adoption. Initial installation cost usually associated with these technologies are extremely high with long payback time (World Bank, 2012) makes it difficult for industries to make the decision of adopting them. This is indicated in a study of 41 hotels in New Zealand where the major barriers to adoption of technologies were the cost of implementation and lack of support in the technologies (Ustad, 2010). Similarly, the cost of technologies for new and developing sectors is an economic challenge. Transfer of new technologies especially from already advanced countries to developing ones tend to be higher while older technologies for fossil fuels are much cheaper (Karakosta, Doukas, & Psarras, 2010). Lack of credit support for startups and firms for implementing green energy technologies also serve as financial barrier (Painuly, 2001). Users of green energy technologies after installation are further burdened with maintenance cost, lack of skilled personnel for operation and difficulty in acquiring needed parts for maintenance (Sonubi, Ogunjimi, & Adeyemo, 2015) adding to the economic burden on consumers. 2.5.4 Policies Shaping Adoption of Green Energy Technologies Policies plays a critical role in the adoption of new technologies and specifically for this study, green energy technologies and its contributions to global energy needs (Asumadu- 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sarkodie & Owusu, 2016a). Governments shows support to green energy by removing barriers that impede the adoption of green energy technologies, formulating policies that encourage the move toward more efficient energy usages and making budgetary allocations towards renewable energy (Hesselink & Chappin, 2019). Reduction in taxes, subsidies, discounts, promotions and awareness serves as incentives to the adoption of green energy technologies. Operations in unfriendly policy settings can stifle business and put strain on operations. Policies favor businesses that leads to profits maximization and value for the operations. Policies can be targeted at the provision of infrastructure, training facilities, accessibility to spare parts and introduction of technological supports (Sonubi et al., 2015). Schelly (2015) emphasizes the importance of policy measure in the promotion of green energy technologies. Polices also tackle bureaucratic and administrative hurdles against the adoption green energy technologies and provides support in information and training (Cherni, 2011 pg 25). Globally, governments have enacted laws and implemented policies to encourage the use and expand the share of green energy technologies. Canada is noted for being a leader in green energy due to the passing of the Ontario Green Energy Act in 2009 (White, Lunnan, Nybakk, & Kulisic, 2013). The Act introduced Feed-in-Tariffs (FiT) for the various green energy technologies. This greatly increased the share of green energy technologies and attracted more consumers due to the low rates associated with the use. Changing conditions and fundamentals in the energy sector has led to reviews of the Act in Canada to meet the demands of a larger share of consumers. The Ontario Green Energy Act is noted for expanding the share of Solar PV in Canada and with considerable benefits to businesses in the country including the hospitality sector. The United States of America as well has initiated several policies to support the use of green energy and encourage adoption among various consumers. Since 1992, the 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh government has issued fiscal incentives with different expectations and targets towards the deployment of green energy technologies. These include the Federal Renewable Energy Production Tax Credit (PTC), Federal Renewable Energy Investment Tax Credit (ITC) and the Residential Renewable Energy Tax Credit (RTC) (IEA, 2014). These fiscal incentives grant tax credits of up to 30% to producers and consumers of energy sourced from green energy sources. Notably, the country promotes green energy adoption by giving out 10% tax credits to businesses that procure solar equipment for their operations making them cost attractive (Watt & Outhred, 2014). The United Kingdom’s Renewable Obligation (RO) introduced by the government in 2002 required suppliers of electricity in the UK to increase their share of electricity from green energy. Issuance of green certificates known as the Renewable Obligation Certificates (ROCs) to suppliers and consumers of green energy guaranteed subsidies on operations (Brennand, 2004). Being unable to produce such certificate meant suppliers had defaulted and thus had to be fined. This was an initiative to encourage more consumers and businesses to buy into the use of green energy technologies and push the government into meeting its renewables targets. The UK as at 2017 had about 22% of energy mix from green energy technologies (Grubb & Newbery, 2018). Provision of energy in Africa is mostly done by the government, however, there is a shift towards private partnership through policy setting to increase energy access especially to rural communities (UNECA, 2018). Most of these policies are incorporated in the National Energy Plans (NEP) of the countries. Although these plans provide viable options for green energy utilization, provision and access, adoption and implementation of these documents have become an issue. Most of these countries have not been able to implement the drafted policies and thus becoming non-binding. These have been largely attributed to political and economic issues (IRENA, 2014). High fiscal deficits of most countries pose challenges to 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh implementation of policies due to limited government revenue vis a vis numerous policy demands. Despite these challenges, some countries like Algeria, Uganda, South Africa, Morocco, Egypt and Ghana have introduced Feed-in-Tariffs that encourage the adoption of green energy technologies in all sectors. Some of the regulator policies that are been used across the region includes feed-in-tariffs, electric utility quota, net metering, tradable renewable energy certificates, auctions, heat and biofuel obligation/mandate (IRENA, 2014). Specific countries employ one or more of these policy measures depending on the scope of policy in section. In 2011, Ghana enacted the Renewable Energy (RE) Act (Act 832) with responsibility towards the development, management and utilization of green energy resources. The act is to ensure an efficient and environmentally friendly process of energy production (Government of Ghana, 2011). Unfortunately, key provisions in the Act needed for full implementation is yet to be completed. Despite this, the policy environment allows for operation by private producers and suppliers. 2.6 Gaps in Literature The study has its central theme focused on issues of green energy technology adoption and non-adoption perspectives in the hospitality industry specifically at La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. Literature is limited on the adoption and non-adoption rate of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry especially in Africa. However, available studies revealed that, adoption of green energy technologies by hotels is usually based on specific challenges within the country. A study by Sonubi, Ogunjimi, & Adeyemo (2015) in Nigeria, examined the expensive nature of hotel accommodation in Lagos which had been ranked the 2nd highest after Moscow. This was attributed to the high cost of electricity. The study concluded that the introduction of green energy technologies would reduce room rates of 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the hotels making it more attractive for foreign tourists and increase patronage. Gitobu & Njoroge (2015) studied adoption and non-adoption of green marketing practices by hotels in Kenyan after the onset of stiff competition from other hotels in the sub-region for international market and also, local hotel against multinational chain hotels that have been established in the country. The study mainly focused on high cost of operations of hotel due to energy and water. Drivers and barriers to corporate use of green energy by hotels in Botswana were identified as well through case studies of two hotels. The study indicated that perceived financial gains, creation of a good corporate image and availability of technology were the main deciding factors that influenced the adoption of green energy technologies, while the lack of resources including financial and space limitation were the main barriers against adoption of green energy technologies by hotels in Botswana (Mahachi, Mokgalo, Pansiri, & Mahachi, 2015). In Ghana, although studies have been done in the area of green energy and hotels, these studies mainly focused on the general environmental practices being adopted by hotels in other to become green as indicated in the works of (Mensah, 2006; Mensah & Blankson, 2013). Also, there is yet to be a study on the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry. 2.7 Theoretical Framework Several factors shape the adoption of new technologies and inventions of different businesses. The adoption of a new technology usually happens after a decision making process that outlines the advantages and disadvantages associated with the technology and for the business (Hall & Khan, 2003). Everett Rogers developed the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) Theory to explain how a new idea, technology or product spreads to a specific 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh population or social system in the course of time (Rogers, 1995). It is one of the oldest and most used theory in the social sciences to describe adoption of innovations. There are four main elements in the diffusion of a new technology; innovation, communication channel, time and social system. For this study, the innovation under study are the various green energy technologies used by the hospitality industry and the communication channel refers to the means through which knowledge of the technologies are acquired and shared. The time dimensions and processes involved in the adoption of green energy technologies are important to the study and the social system takes into consideration all relevant persons whose roles seeks to promote the accomplishment of the technology. Also, the rate of adoption of an innovation is based on the attributes of the technology as perceived by the users which are compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability (Rogers, 1995). This study adopts the DOI theory to explain adoption and non-adoption perspectives of hotels to green energy technologies. The theory however explains that for an innovation to spread or take root, certain factors must influence the diffusion. From Literature, some applicable factors to adoption of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry includes green marketing, policy and regulatory support, information and awareness, business philosophy and economic restrictions. For an idea (green energy) to be accepted and implemented, Rogers (1995), outlined five necessary stages that can be applied to the study in hotels as: Knowledge stage – hotels would first have to identify and be informed about the various forms of green energy technologies that can be utilized, the processes it entails, uses and benefits for the organization. Persuasion stage – based on the knowledge acquired, hotels form an opinion about the various types of green energy technologies. Decision stage – this stage determines 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh whether hotels would or would not adopt green energy technologies. Implementation stage – after the decision making process, the type of green energy technologies that have been decided on, is adopted. Confirmation stage – a constant assurance of the implemented green energy technology through information gathering in order to continue use of the technology. The theory also categorizes adopters of technologies under five (5) groups based on the time dimension involved in the adoption of the technology after it has been diffused into a target population or social system. These are innovators, early adopters, early majority, late majority and laggards in the order of the earliest to adopt and the latest to adopt within the target group. This is necessary in assessing the categories of hotels and their intent to adopt green energy technologies based on the difference in their time of adoption. 2.8 Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study is informed by a study on adoption of green electricity by small and medium-sized enterprises in Germany by Rahbauer, Menapace, Menrad, & Decker (2016), supported by extensive literature search on adoption and non- adoption perspectives by hotels and relevant components from the DOI theory. The framework identifies several factors that influences the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies by hotels and further categorizes these factors under two broad areas. The influencing factors therefore serves as a guide to identifying the underlying factors that directly or indirectly shape the decision of adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies by hotels. This is necessary in understanding the adoption rate of hotels and serve as a guide in addressing the identified factors. More so, the concepts can shape policy in the promotion of the adoption of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry. The conceptual framework is illustrated in Figure 2.1. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework on Adoption and Non-Adoption Factors of Green Energy Technologies PURCHASE / TYPES SALES Policy & Regulatory Support Green Techni cal systems Marketing  System reliability Hotel’s customers Adoption and Econom ic aspects Non-adoption Factors Information and Awareness  Price of technology  Capital Acquired Knowledge on GETs Hotel’s characteristics  Size of Establishment  Hotel’s energy intensity  Business philosophy  Space Source: Adapted and Modified from Rahbauer, Menapace, Menrad, & Decker, (2016) based on Rogers (1995) and literature. Several factors have been identified as shaping the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies in relation to the hospitality industry. These factors identified are related to the benefits that hotels would derive from the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies. These benefits are associated with the purchase and types of the technology and increase in sales of the service rendered by the hotels as illustrated in Figure 2.1. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Associated with purchase-related factors of adoption are several determinants. Policies and regulations on green energy in a country either would positively or negatively affect decisions taking by hotels. A policy that supports and promotes the use of alternative technologies lays a friendly ground to venture into new areas and creates favorable business environment that encourages adoption of new technologies. This serves as an underlying factor to the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technology. Also, the perceived reliability of technical systems of green energy technologies in supporting the energy demands of hotels shapes their adoption and non-adoption perspectives. The lack of technical support to operate the technology could serve as a disincentive to purchasing that technology. The quality of the technology or system to be purchased should be trusted by hotels to shape the confidence in the use of that system. The economic aspect depends on the perceived price of the technologies as against the financial soundness of the hotel and the financial benefit that would be accrued from either adopting or not adopting the technology. Cost benefit analysis is therefore necessary to firm up this decision. Also, pressure from competitors in the industry that may have migrated to green energy systems would be related to purchase influencers. The characteristics of hotels depending on the size, space, intensity of energy consumption, and business philosophy regarding greening could shape its decision of adoption or non-adoption. Issues related to increase in sales also serves as influencing factors to the adoption of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry. Hotels customers whose ideologies are aligned to green movements and environmental sustainability may possibly serve as an incentive to push hotels to move towards the adoption of green energy technologies especially in this era where issues of sustainability and greenhouse gas emissions are being strongly debated and promoted globally in all industries. Such customers are likely to be influenced in patronizing hotels whose operations are environmentally friendly and 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contribute toward their course and ideology. The hotels therefore do not lose out on those groups of customers. The perceived environmental image that hotels project to the world contributes to the adoption or non-adoption of green energy technologies. Additional, the information that is made available to hotels on green energy can drive their sales strategy in attracting new customers as well as influencing their decision on the appropriate technologies that would serve their demands. 2.9 Conclusion This chapter has broadly reviewed useful information on themes around green energy technologies. Literature on energy sources and supply mix in Ghana as well as factors and policies shaping the adoption and non-adoption perspectives of green energy technologies have been reviewed. A theoretical basis for the study was highlighted, anchored on the Diffusion of Innovation (DOI) theory and a conceptual framework developed to depict the influencing factors for green energy adoption and non-adoption. Finally, the gap that the study seeks to fill was identified. The literature is therefore relevant to underpinning the focus of the study. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE PROFILE OF STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the research methodology and profile of the study area for the research. The research methodology focuses on the research design, sources of data and collection methods, target population, sampling procedures and techniques, and analysis and processing of the data. 3.2 Research Design The research design describes the ways in which the research problem is addressed. The study adopts a mixed methodological approach; consisting of both quantitative and qualitative approaches of research. Using a mixed methodology is helpful in making up for the limitations and biases that are associated with exclusive use of either of the two research approaches (Creswell, 2003). Thus, the two methods used together complement the strengths of each other and makes up for their weaknesses. The quantitative data was generated from a survey that examines practices related to green energy technology adoption in the hotels in the study area. This method and data outlined the current adoption or non-adoption levels of hotels as well as helped understand the factors that influenced adoption or non-adoption. On the other hand, a qualitative in-depth interview was used to understand the underlying reasons that shape the decision of adoption of green energy technologies by hotels and to assess expert knowledge and attitudes of hospitality industry authorities on green energy technologies adoption and use within the sector. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Sources of Data Data for the study was sought from both primary and secondary sources. Primary data was obtained through questionnaires and interview guides that were administered to study participants. The study participants included the hotel’s decision makers and key government officials in the municipality, green energy technology entrepreneurs and private operators, the energy sector and the hospitality sector. This was done to get clear picture of the policies and strategies that authorities in these relevant sectors have put in place to ensure that the consumers of energy in the hospitality industry can successfully migrate their systems onto a more efficient means of energy use. Secondary data was obtained from published journals, publications, library materials as well as internet sources related to green energy utilization. Policy documents on green energy technologies in the country was also reviewed extensively to ascertain the position of the state on the utilization of green energy technologies and identify incentives or obstacles in its adoption. 3.4 Methods of Data Collection 3.4.1 Quantitative Method of Data Collection The survey method adopted in this study was carried out with the aid of a semi-structured questionnaire (Appendix A). These were administered to respondents from the various hotels within the study area; La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. The targeted respondents were the main decision makers (hotel manager) in the hotels. The questionnaires contained both close-ended and open-ended questions. Questionnaires were divided into various sections to allow for easy organization of data collected. The sections captured the socio- demographic details of the respondents, the characteristics of the hotel, the energy consumption levels of the hotel, knowledge and types of green energy technologies, factors 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that shape the decision of adoption of green energy technologies and the adoption levels of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry. 3.4.2 Qualitative Method of Data Collection The qualitative data was collected through in-depth interviews with the aid of interview guides (Appendix B, C, D and E). The in-depth interviews was done face-to-face to allow for possible observation of non-verbal cues. These were recorded and later transcribed. The interview guide addressed themes relating to the knowledge and attitudes of relevant government officials on green energy technology adoption and use within the hospitality industry. The officials were from the Chief Programme Officer of Energy Commission, Principal Research of Ghana Tourism Authority and the Head of Works at LADMA. The guide also explored the initiatives, policies, institutional support provided for green energy technology promotion as well as the challenges encountered in this quest. Also, the views of GET entrepreneurs and private operators were elicited to understand some of the issues surrounding the adoption and non-adoption perspectives of hotels gathered from the field. 3.5 Target Population In this study, the population for the study encompassed all the hotels in the La Dade- Kotopon Municipal Assembly. Hotels in this study referred to all facilities that were duly registered as and recognized by the Ghana Tourism Authority as operating accommodation facilities and offering guest services. The La Dade-Kotopon municipality is one of the few administrative zones in the capital city that hosts hotels from all categories. This has been attributed to the strategic location of the municipality and its proximity to the international airport of the country. The municipality also host several multinationals and international organizations that patronize the services of the hospitality industry. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Data from the Ghana Tourism Information Center indicates that fifteen (15) hotels are operating in the municipality. Hotels are classified according to their level of ranking. There are Five Star Hotels, Four Star Hotels, Three Star Hotels, Two Star Hotels and One Star Hotel and also Budget hotels. All the hotels in the municipality were sampled for the study. Meanwhile, the population for the in-depth interview were six (6) persons. These included three (3) resource persons, one each from the La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Planning Office, Ghana Tourism Authority and Energy Commission and three (3) green energy technologies entrepreneurs and private operators. 3.6 Sample Size and Sampling Procedure The study adopted a census sampling technique to include every hotel in the municipality due to the relatively small number of the population. This was done in order to gather data based on all the categorizations and characteristics that differentiate the hotels and how these could influence their intent to adopt or not to adopt green energy technologies. Also, to gain much insight into the study subject, the key decision makers (hotel managers) of the participating hotels were the target of the questionnaire to be administered. This is because hotel managers are directly involved in the day-to-day running of the hotel and have influence on the hotel management. To begin with, the total population of hotels within La Dade-Kotopon Municipality were grouped into six strata. These strata conformed to the six major hotel ratings used by the Ghana Tourism Authority. Out of these hotels, one (1) is categorized as a 5-Star hotel. There were two (2) hotels each in the 4-, 3-, 2-, and 1-Star hotel strata. Finally, ‘Budget Hotels’ had the most number with six (6) hotels. All the fifteen (15) hotels representing the various stratum in the industry were interviewed to reflect the views of the entire population. The sample determination is presented in Table 3.1. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Six (6) persons were purposively sampled for the in-depth interviews. Out of the six (6), three (3) were resource persons with each selected from the Municipal Assembly, the Ghana Tourism Authority and the Energy Commission. This was done due to the key role they play in monitoring and streamlining the activities of hotels and their use of green energy technologies. The other three (3) were green energy technologies entrepreneurs and private operators whose views were important in explaining some of the issues that came across from the hotels and in understanding their position in the uptake of green energy technologies. Table 3.1: Sample Determination for Selected Respondents Class of No. in Hotel District 1 5-Star 1 2 4-Star 2 3 3-Star 2 4 2-Star 2 5 1-Star 2 6 Budget Hotel 6 Total 15 Source: Author’s own construct (2019) 3.7 Data Processing and Analysis Quantitative data from the field was coded and analyzed using STATA statistical analysis software. This was done with descriptive statistics to derive the frequencies and percentages and were depicted with bar charts and pie charts. Cross tabulations, frequency tables and chi-squares were also generated to establish relationships between variables. The qualitative data obtained was also transcribed and categorized to derive information to support the data from the quantitative analysis and relevant to the study. These were presented in the forms of quotes. Table 3.2 depicts the linkages between the research objectives, methods of data collection and analysis. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.2: Linkages between research objectives, methods of data collection and analysis OBJECTIVES RESEARCH TYPE OF SAMPLING METHOD OF UNIT OF DATA ANALYTICAL QUESTIONS DATA METHOD DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE COLLECTION To examine the What are the Primary data Census Semi- Hotel Manager / Descriptive types of green types of green Structured Owner Statistics energy energy questionnaire technologies technologies being adopted by that have been hotels between adopted by 2010 and 2018 hotels between 2010 and 2018? To examine the What are the Primary data Census and Semi- Hotel Manager / Descriptive factors factors that Purposive Structured Owner, Statistic and influencing the influenced the Sampling questionnaire Municipal Content adoption and adoption of and Interview Planning officer Analysis sustainability of green energy guide Ghana Tourism the green energy technologies Authority, Energy technologies between 2010 between 2010 Commission, and 2018 and 2018? GETs Entrepreneurs To examine the What are the Primary data Census and Semi- Hotel Manager / Descriptive factors factors that Purposive Structured Owner, Municipal Statistics and influencing the influenced the Sampling questionnaire Planning officer Content non-adoption and non-adoption of and Interview Ghana Tourism Analysis / or lack of green energy guide Authority, Energy sustainability technologies Commission, between 2010 and 2018 between 2010 GETs and 2018? Entrepreneurs To examine the How is the Secondary Purposive Document Energy sector Content national policy national policy data Sampling review documents and Analysis framework in the framework publications, promotion of structured to policies. green energy promote green technologies energy adoption in the hospitality technologies industry in Ghana adoption in the hospitality industry in Ghana? Source: Author’s own construct (2019) 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8 Profile of the Study Area 3.8.1 Hotel Industry in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly The hospitality industry in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality1 is one of the districts with diverse classes of hotels in the regional capital. Users of the industry therefore are not limited in their choices of hotel for either business, pleasure or both. Hotels are classified according to the International Hotelstars rating system adopted by the Ghana Tourism Authority. The highest class of hotels in Ghana are the 5-Star hotels with the lowest being the 1-Star hotels. However, other hotels are not stared and therefore classified as Budget hotels. Budget and 1-Star hotels usually provide only accommodation facilities whiles 5- Star hotels provide flawless services with all the necessary and luxurious facilities that are deemed high class. In the classes of 4-, 3-, and 2-Star hotels are found different levels of services, facilities and comfort, however all classes of hotels are expected to give off the best guest experience and service. One out of the only two 5-Star Hotels in Ghana is located in this municipality i.e. the La Palm Royal Beach Hotel. The location of the municipality in the commercial and business center of the country also boosts the activities of the hospitality industry. The presence of the Kotoka International Airport also make also puts the hotels in the municipality at an advantage due to proximity (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Figure 3.1 shows the various hotels and their specific locations in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. 1 This information was gotten from the Administrative officer at the Ghana Tourism Information Centre on 24/05/2019 as part of enquires made for this study. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.1: Location of Hotels in La Dade-Kotopon Municipality Source: Author’s Own Construct, 2019. 3.8.2 Background Characteristics of LADMA In June 2012, the La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly was carved out of the Accra Metropolitan Assembly as part of six Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies through the Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462) with Legislative Instrument 2133 as applied to all District Assemblies. This is in accordance to government’s objective of deepening decentralization and grassroots development by bringing larger Metropolitan, Municipals and District Assemblies to manageable sizes (LADMA, 2014). 3.8.3 Location and Size LADMA is located within the south-western sector and about 15km to the north-east of Greater Accra, the Regional Capital of Ghana. It is bounded by two other districts and the Gulf of Guinea. To its west and north is the Accra Metropolitan Assembly, to the East is the 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal Assembly and to the south is the Gulf of Guinea. The geographical land space of coverage is approximately 36sqkm and representing almost 1.1% of the total land size of Greater Accra Region. It lies between Latitudes 5°32"50' N and Longitudes 0°11"15' W and Latitudes 5°38"0' N and Longitudes 0°7"50' W. Figure 3.2: Location of La Dade-Kotopon Municipality in the Greater Accra Region Source: MLGRD, (2017) 3.8.4 Population Structure Per Statistics from the 2010 Population and Housing Census, the total population of LADMA is 183,528 A breakdown indicates majority are female (52.7%) with males representing the minority class (47.3%). The area is 100% urban with a youthful population of children under 15 years’ forming the majority group and at the peak of the population age groups within 20-24 which are 11% and 25-29 being 10.9% with the lowest age groups constituting 90-94 and 95-99 representing 0.1 percent each. The Municipality has a total household population 51,154 with a total number of 179,251 houses. The average household size in the municipality is 3.6 persons per household. Children constitute the largest 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh proportion of the household accounting for 35.2 percent while grandchildren consist of 5.1 percent of household population (LADMA, 2015). 3.8.5 Physical Characteristics In terms of Geography, there are a series of resistant rock outcrops, platforms and sandy beaches near the mouth of the Kpeshie lagoon and coastline. Severe coastal erosion is prevalent due to the exposure of the coastline and the close proximity of the continental shelf and strong coastal wind action. Also, tidal flow is restricted as a result of the siltation or the construction of embankments on the lagoon system which is relatively small and flushing (LADMA, 2014). The soils in the municipality have been categorized into three classes: drift materials resulting from deposits by windblown erosion; alluvial and marine muted clays of comparatively recent origin derived from underlying shale; residual clay and gravel derived from weathered quartzite, gneiss and schist rocks, and lateritic sandy clay soils derived from weathered Accraian sandstone bedrock formations (LADMA, 2014). The municipality has a vegetation consisting of dense clusters of small trees, shrubs and grasses. The grasses are a mixture of species found in the undergrowth of forest, short and rarely grow beyond one meter. Mangroves are found in the tidal zone of all estuaries and sand lagoons. These are comprised of two dominant species. The grassland which cover the area around the lagoon is salt tolerant and are important for providing nutrients for the prawns and juvenile fish in the lagoon system (LADMA, 2014). Although the soil in the municipality are mostly infertile, there are areas within the communities that are used to grow vegetables and vegetable on small-scale levels for consumption and commercial purposes. Agriculture activities is however challenged by the increasing construction of houses, roads and infrastructure development (LADMA, 2014). 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8.6 Economic Activities The economically viable age for people in Ghana are from 15 years. According to the 2010 population census, 91% of the economically active population was employed while 9.0% was unemployed. There was also a slight difference between employed males and females with males constituting 92.1% while females constituted 90.8% in the municipality. Also about half (50.7%) of the number of population that that were not within the economic bracket were in full time education with the sick and disabled constituting 2.8%. The location of the municipality with its southern boundary being the Gulf of Guinea and the Kpeshie Lagoon provides an avenue for fishing for the indigenes of the area. About 60% of the population are self-employed. The men are usually into public transport operation locally termed trotro while the women trade in petty items and owns small kiosks and containers as well as hawking. Other economic activities include food vending, mechanical works, hairdressing, tailoring and carpentry. There are also major commercial centers, financial institutions, the Kotoka International Airport, the Ghana International Trade Fair Center as well as Luxurious hotels in the municipalities. The Accra Shopping Mall, Koala Shopping Mall and Marina Shopping Mall are all situated in the municipality (LADMA, 2014). 3.8.7 Climatic Conditions La Dade-Kotopon Municipality lies in the Coastal Savannah zone with two rainy season. The assembly experiences its first rains between May and mid-July while mid-August and October is when they experience second part of the rainy season. Average rainfall which are primarily during the two rainy seasons is about 730mm however there are cases when rain showers and thunderstorms are experience in November and December. Due to the intensive and short form of storms coupled by blocked drains in the municipality, the assembly usually experience local flooding. Variation in temperature is little within the entire year. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh August is the coolest while March is the hottest with mean monthly temperature ranging from 24.7°C and 28°C respectively with an annual average of 26.8°C. Daylight hours are practically uniform due to the closeness of the area to the equator (LADMA, 2014). 3.9 Study Limitations The hotels were generally unresponsive to the field interviews due to the busy schedules of the managers and hotel owners. Several trips had to be made to the hotels before appointments could be secured for the interviews. Added to that, some of the hotels preferred to survey the instruments beforehand in order to identify the appropriate respondent. This process increased the time and resources the researcher spent in gathering the data from the field. In addition, the number of hotels in the municipality were small (15), therefore, sub-sampling a number of them was not going to enhance generalization of the results. In order to address this, efforts were made to ensure that all the 15 hotels in the municipality were interviewed. 3.10 Conclusion This chapter focused on methodology and profile of the study area for this research. The research methodology detailing the research design, data sources, data collection methods, sampling method and technique and research design have been outlined. The study adapted a mixed method and used both primary and secondary data. The profile of the study area La Dade-Kotopon Municipality with brief information on the background, location and size, population structure and some physical characteristics have also been presented. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR ANALYSIS OF RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS OF FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the analysis of the data and discussion of findings from the field. The discussions in the chapter are grouped under socio-demographic characteristics of respondents; economic characteristic of respondents; characteristics of hotels; energy consumption and cost; types and knowledge on green energy technologies; factors influencing the adoption of green energy technologies; factors influencing the non-adoption of green energy technologies and the role of the National Policy Framework in the promotion of green energy technologies. The chapter is then summarized and concluded. 4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents. The studied targeted decision makers in the hospitality industry in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. The age distribution, sex and level of education of the respondents are presented in Table 4.1. Majority of the respondents fell between the ages of 30 – 39 years representing one-third (33.33%) of the entire population. The least number of respondents on the other hand fell between the ages 60 – 69 years representing 6.67%. This gives an indication of a youthful population of hotel managers in the study area. The males among the respondents dominated the population with a percentage of eighty (80%), while the other respondents (20%) were females indicating a gender gap within managerial roles in hotels at the study area. The level of education indicated that the industry employs educated personnel to manage the hotels. A little over half the population of managers (53.3%) have attained a first Degree Certificate, about a quarter of the respondents (26.6%) have also attained Diploma Certificates, while 20% have Master’s Degrees. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Characteristic Frequency Percentage Age 20-29 3 20.00 30-39 5 33.33 40-49 4 26.67 50-59 2 13.33 60-69 1 6.67 Sex Male 12 80.00 Female 3 20.00 Level of Education Diploma 4 26.67 First Degree 8 53.33 Master's Degree 3 20.00 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.3 Economic Characteristics of Respondents. From Table 4.2, majority of the respondents (66.67%) have been working in their present hotel for a period of 1 – 5 years. A little over six percent (6.67%) each of the respondents have worked in their respective hotels for periods between 6 -10 years, 11 – 15 years and 16 – 20 years, while two (2) of the respondents (13.33%) have worked in their hotels for a period of 26 – 30 years. Of the fifteen (15) respondents, majority were general managers and chief engineers, comprising of 5 (33.33%) each to give a cumulative figure of 10 (66.67%). Four (4) of the respondents were also the owners of the hotels, representing 26.67% while 1 respondent (6.67%) was in charge of Human Resources and Administration. Apart from the four (4) respondents interviewed who were the owners of the hotel (26.67%), nine (9) of the respondents representing 60% of the population, were employed directly into their position while the other two (2) (13.33%) were promoted from a previous role to the management position. About 60% of the participants interviewed were in charge of the management of the hotel, 33% were also in charge of the maintenance and safety of equipment and machinery of the hotel whiles a little below 7% were in charge of the staff and administration of the hotel. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Economic characteristics of respondents Number of Working Years Frequency Percentage 1-5 10 66.67 6-10 1 6.67 11-15 1 6.67 16-20 1 6.67 26-30 2 13.33 Position Human Resource 1 6.67 Chief Engineer 5 33.33 General Manager 5 33.33 Hotel's Owner 4 26.67 Position Acquisition Promotion 2 13.33 Direct Employment 9 60.00 Hotel Owner 4 26.67 Duties Maintenance and Safety 5 33.33 Staff and Administrative Issues 1 6.67 Management of Hotel 9 60.00 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.4 Business Characteristics of Hotels The hotels have been categorized into different levels and classes based on the international hotelstars rating system criteria used by the Ghana Tourism Authority, the regulatory body in charge of hotels. From Table 4.3, majority of the hotels interviewed were budget hotels and represent 40% of the total hotels in the district whiles a five-star hotel representing 6.67% was the only hotel in that category in the district. However, there were equal representation of one-star hotel, two-star hotel, three-star hotel and four-star hotel, with each representing a little over 13% of the population. In relation to the operational years of the hotels, about one-third (33%) of the hotels have been in operation for 20 years and above. Also, about a quarter (26.7%) of these hotels have been in operation between 1 – 4 years. Additionally, twenty percent 20%; 13.3%; and 7% 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have also been in operation between 5 – 9 years, 10 – 14 years; and 15 – 19 years respectively. Majority of the hotels representing 40% had 50 or more rooms, 20% had 1 – 9 rooms and another 20% had between 10 – 19 rooms. Thirteen percent (13%) had between 20 – 29 rooms and a hotel (6.67%) had between 30 – 39 rooms representing the least percentage. Private local entrepreneurs owned majority of the hotels representing a little above two- thirds (70%) of the entire population, while private-foreign entrepreneurs and the state owned an equal proportion of 13.33% each of the entire population. This gives an indication of the high level of local entrepreneurs in the hospitality industry. Table 4.3: Characteristics of Hotel Category of Hotel Frequency Percentage Budget 6 40.00 One-star 2 13.33 Two-star 2 13.33 Three-star 2 13.33 Four-star 2 13.33 Five-star 1 6.67 Number of Years of Hotel 1 – 4 4 26.67 5 – 9 3 20.00 10 – 14 2 13.33 15 – 19 1 6.67 20 years and above 5 33.33 Number of Hotel Rooms 1 – 9 3 20.00 10 – 19 3 20.00 20 – 29 2 13.33 30 – 39 1 6.67 40 – 49 0 0 Above 50 6 40.00 Hotel Ownership Private-Local 11 73.33 Private-Foreign 2 13.33 State-Owned 2 13.33 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Facilities and Services of Hotels Figure 4.1 displays the various facilities operated by the hotels apart from accommodation, which is the basic facility for all hotels. Majority (80%) of the hotels operate restaurants on their premises. Provision of laundry services is available in a little over half (53.3%) of the hotels in the municipality. Forty percent (40%) of the hotels also provide conference facilities and have gym and fitness centers on site while about a quarter (26.7%) of the hotels have business centers, and salons and spas. However, about 13% of the hotels did not have any other facilities and services apart from accommodation. Figure 4.1: Facilities in Hotels Facilities 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.6 Energy Consumption and Cost 4.6.1 Sources of Electricity Hotels in the municipality largely depend on the National Grid for their source of energy as indicated in Table 4.4. However, fourteen (14) of the hotels interviewed representing over 90% of the population, had other alternative sources of energy to support the national grid electricity source. According to the hotels, these alternative sources of electricity were 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh acquired due to the erratic nature of electricity supply in the district and for that matter the entire country between the year 2010 and 2018. Only one (6%) hotel out of the total population surveyed did not have any form of electricity source apart from the national grid. All the fourteen (14) hotels that had alternative electricity sources relied on generators as their primary source of alternative electricity supply during power outages to support its operations whiles three (3) of the hotels representing 20% of the population had both generators and solar systems. Table 4.4: Sources of Electricity Characteristic Frequency Percentage Main Electricity Source National Grid 15 100 Use of Alternative Electricity Source Yes 14 93.33 No 1 6.67 Generator (Primary) Yes 14 93.33 No 1 6.67 Solar System (Secondary) Yes 3 20.00 No 12 80.00 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.6.2 Basic Uses of Electricity in Hotels Hotels are known for their high consumption of electricity due to the services that they provide for their guests (Oluseyi, Babatunde, & Babatunde, 2016). Most of their services demand the continuous use of energy on a daily basis. From Figure 4.2, the survey of some of the energy consuming facilities that are operated by hotels in the study area indicated that, the dominant use (100%) of electricity in all the hotels was for lighting. This is followed closely by cooling facilities (80%) which was attributed to the use of air-conditioners in the 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh rooms that is fast becoming a basic service in the hospitality industry. A little over 70% of the hotels interviewed also provided water heating to their guest. These results are in sync with Said, Youssef, & Waheed (2017) findings that lighting, cooling and water heating are the major uses of energy among hotels. Various machines and gadgets used in the provision of services to guests also use energy. Some of these machines and gadgets include lifts, television sets, radio sets, iron, hair dryer, kettle, pumps, etc. About 50% of the hotels confirmed that they use energy for the operation of machineries. Almost half of the hotels representing 46.7% also make use of electricity for cooking. Figure 4.2: Uses of Electricity Uses of Electricity in Hotels 100 80 60 40 20 0 Lighting Cooling Machine Cooking Water operation heating Use of Energy Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.6.3 Cost of Main Electricity Source and Category of Hotel Due to the high consumption of energy in the operations of hotels, its associated cost also tends to be high. Hotels are categorized by the number of rooms and facilities, with five- star hotels being the highest and budget hotels as the lowest. From Table 4.5, budget hotels and one-star hotels, which together constitute the majority (53.33%) of hotels, spend averagely between GH¢1,000.00 and GH¢4,999.00 on electricity monthly while 6.67% spend between GH¢5,000.00 and GH¢9,999.00 monthly and was made up of two star hotels. About 13% of the hotels also constituting two-star and three-star hotels spend between 50 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GH¢50,000.00 and GH¢99,999.00 and a little over a quarter (26%) of the hotels, constituting three-star, four-star and five-star hotels spends above GH¢100,000.00 on electricity monthly. Table 4.5: Cost of Main Electricity Source and Category of Hotel Cost of Main Electricity Source (GH¢) Category of 1,000- 5,000- 50,000- Above Hotel 4,999 9,999 99,999 100,000 Budget 100 0 0 0 One-star 100 0 0 0 Two-star 0 50 50 0 Three-star 0 0 50 50 Four-star 0 0 0 100 Five-star 0 0 0 100 Total 53.33 6.67 13.33 26.67 Source: Field Survey, 2019. This variation in the cost of energy is in support of findings of Vourdoubas (2015), that energy consumption of the hotels varies and are associated with the size of the hotel, number of rooms, classification, types of services, etc. 4.6.4 Cost of Alternative Electricity Source and Category of Hotel As presented in Table 4.6, an analysis of the relationship between the cost of alternative electricity source and category of hotels showed that half of the hotels (50%) interviewed spent between GH¢100.00 and GH¢499.00 per month on electricity during the “dumsor” period. These hotels fell in the category of budget and one-star hotels. Half of the two-star hotels constituting about 7% of the population also spend on average between GH¢500.00 and GH¢999.00 a month on electricity. A little above one quarter (28.6%) of the hotels, comprising of two-star, three-star and five-star hotels on average spend between GH¢1,000.00 and GH¢2,999.00 monthly on electricity while the four-star hotels on an 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh average spend above GH¢3,000.00 monthly on electricity constituting about 14% of the population. Table 4.6: Cost of Alternative Electricity Source and Category of Hotel Cost of Alternative Electricity Source (GH¢) Category of Hotel 100-499 500-999 1,000-2,999 Above 3,000 Budget 100 0 0 0 One-star 50 0 0 0 Two-star 0 50 50 0 Three-star 0 0 100 0 Four-star 0 0 0 100 Five-star 0 0 100 0 Total 50.00 7.14 28.57 14.29 Pearson Chi square (20) = 42.0536 P-value = 0.003 Source: Field Survey, 2019 4.6.5 Measures of Energy Conservation From Table 4.7, about 80% of the hotels use light-emitting diode (LED) lights as a means of conserving energy. Almost half (46%) of the hotel conserve energy by manually switching off lights, air-conditions, gadgets and machines that are not in use. Timers are used also to automatically regulate energy usages and this constitute 40% of the hotels while one-third (33%) of the hotels have installed daylight and motion sensors to automatically regulate the use of energy. Twenty percent (20%) of hotels also have compact fluorescent lamps and fluorescent bulbs as a means of reducing the consumption levels of energy. These support a similar study conducted by Pieri, IoannisTzouvadakis, & Santamouris (2015) that indicated hotels adopt various means of conserving energy with the majority adopting energy saving light bulbs and room keycard systems / timers. Also the use of LED lights were high in a study of hotels in Hong Kong by Chan, Okumus, and Chan (2017). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7: Energy Consumption Reduction Measures Measures Percentage Compact Fluorescent Lamp 20 Fluorescent Bulb 20 LED Lights 80 Daylight Sensors 33 Timers 40 Switching Off Gadgets 46 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.7 Types and Knowledge on Green Energy Technologies (GETs) In assessing the types of green energy technologies adopted by hotels, data was gathered to assess the knowledge based of respondents on GETs. From Table 4.8, out of the sample population, majority (86.7%) of the respondents had knowledge on GETs while the rest of the respondents (13.3%) had no knowledge on them. Out of the total respondents that have some of knowledge on green energy technologies, 38.46% of them acquired this information through advertisement. Another 38.46% also received information on green energy technologies through product pitching and marketing of the technologies by companies. However, about 23% of them through personal research obtained information about green energy technologies. Table 4.8: Knowledge and Means of Information on Green Energy Technologies Characteristic Frequency Percentage Knowledge of Green Energy Technology Yes 13 86.67 No 2 13.33 Means of Information Advertisement 5 38.46 Product Pitching / Marketing 5 38.46 Research 3 23.08 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As shown in Table 4.9, majority of respondents (86.67%) were familiar with Solar PV. About 47% of the respondents were familiar with solar water heater. Another 47% were also familiar with wind turbines. In relation to bioenergy and solar lanterns, an equal representation of respondents (40%) were also familiar with them. Almost 28% of respondents representing the least category were familiar with the use of hydroelectric plants by hotels. Table 4.9: Types of Green Energy Technologies known to Hotels Familiar Technologies Percentage Solar PV 86.67 Hydroelectric Plants 26.67 Wind Turbines 46.67 Bioenergy 40.00 Solar Water Heaters 46.67 Improved Cookstoves 33.33 Solar Lanterns 40.00 Source: Field Survey, 2019. Out of the various types of GETs that were familiar to the hotels, majority (86%) of them preferred to implement solar PV to the other technologies whiles the other 14% preferred solar water heater as depicted in Figure 4.3 below. The preference of solar PV and solar water heaters to the other GETs can be attributed to its usefulness in provision of some of the basic services provided by hotels. These includes hot water for showers, catering, laundry and swimming pool, which greatly reduces the cost of energy by hotels as indicated in the findings of Vourdoubas (2016). 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.3: Green Energy Technologies Preferred by Hotels Preferred Green Energy Technologies 14% Solar PV 86% Solar water Heaters Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.7.1 Reasons associated with preference of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels Various reasons accounted for the choice of solar PV and solar water heaters to the other green energy technologies. From Table 4.10, out of the 86.67% of respondents who had knowledge of green energy technologies, over 30% of them believed that the technologies would help reduce the high cost of energy. Also 26.67% of the respondents chose the technologies because they were familiar with their uses and operations. About 13% of the respondents had the notion that due to the abundance of sun in the locality, implementing solar PVs and solar water heaters were the best choice. In another brief, a respondent also based his argument on the structural design and location of the hotel noting that installation of solar PV would be a viable investment for the hotel. Another respondent also based his choice on the line of climate change mitigation; implying that the technology would be able to help reduce the carbon footprint of the hotel. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.10: Reasons for Solar PV and Solar Water Heaters as Preferred types of Green Energy Technologies. Reason for Preferred Choice Frequency Percentage Cost Reduction 5 33.33 Structural Design 1 6.67 Abundance of Resource 2 13.33 Familiarity 4 26.67 Climate Change Mitigation 1 6.67 Total 15 86.67 Source: Field Survey, 2019. The types of technologies preferred by hotels and their associated reasons could be attributed to some works of the Energy Commission of Ghana in the promotion of solar water heaters and solar PVs. According to the Energy Commission, great lengths have been covered in the past in the promotion of solar water heaters and solar PVs although they faced certain challenges.; “…we have promoted solar water heaters in the past but we have not had major funding to push unlike the solar PV where from 2016, we ran a Solar Rooftop Programme for residential facilities. We provided capital subsidies to individuals who were interested in going solar so they get 5000 watts peak panels, they buy all the other components, and they enjoy from the renewable energy system. We have not been able to do same for solar water heaters but in terms of promotion, in the past we have engaged with the hotels and we have introduced some of the benefits to them” (Chief Programme Officer, Energy Commission) 4.7.2 Membership of Eco-friendly / Green Energy Convention, Commitment or Association In response to hotel’s participation in associations committed to green energy agenda, none of the hotels interviewed belonged to any association. This was attributed to lack of information on the existence of such groups by about 73% of the hotels, while the other 27% did not have any reason for not belonging to any green commitment. Further checks revealed 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that such associations are non-existent in the hospitality industry and thus, the need to draw attention to that area in order to encourage its members in the adoption of green practices. Table 4.11: Association to Green Groups Characteristic Frequency Percentage Green Energy Association / Convention Yes 0 0 No 15 100 Reasons Lack of Information 11 73.33 No Reason 4 26.67 Source: Field Survey, 2019. 4.8 Factors Influencing the Adoption of Green Energy Technologies 4.8.1 Level of Adoption of Green Energy Technologies Out of the total hotels interviewed, only 3 (20%) had installed green energy technologies. This indicates that the use of green energy technologies by hotels is yet to be a priority with such a low adoption rate. Hotels that have installed green energy technologies adopted solar PV, which mainly serves as an alternative source of energy to the main national electricity grid and basically used for lighting. Similarly, findings of Vourdoubas (2015) supports that majority of hotels make use of solar energy technologies out of all the various GETs. Between the period 2010 and 2018, out of the hotels that have adopted green energy technologies, one (33%) of the hotels adopted the solar PV in 2011 while the other two (67%) adopted their solar PV in the year 2018. The results are in conformity with Mahachi, Mokgalo, & Pansiri's (2015) findings that the use of green energy technologies by hotels in Botswana is insignificant and negligible, proving that the hospitality industry in Africa is yet to appreciate the use of green energy technologies. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: The Use of Green Energy Technology Characteristic Frequency Percentage Installation Yes 3 20 No 12 80 Types Installed Solar PV 3 100 Year 2011 1 33 2018 2 67 Place Greater Accra Region 3 100 Source: Field Survey, 2018 In an interview with GETs entrepreneurs and private operations, this is what one of them had to say about the rate of adoption of green energy technologies by hotels: “…it has been quite low though it can be better and it stems from the lack of understanding and the lack of appreciation of what the technologies really does. Some of them do not even believe that solar can power air-conditioners and things like that so the uptake has been quite low” (GETs Entrepreneur A). 4.8.2 Factors contributing to adoption of Green Energy Technologies In assessing the factors that influence the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels, all three hotels cited high cost of energy during the period of ‘dumsor’ as the reason for their adoption of solar PV. Further probe into this reason elicited the following responses: “The cost of electricity is very high which is damaging our businesses. Patronage has also been very low with lots of guesthouses springing up with no form of licenses. The one I could afford was the solar PV for the lights that is why I purchased it” (Hotel Owner). In addition, GET entrepreneurs and operators had similar views as the hotels interviewed; “Mostly hotels will buy green energy technologies because of two reasons: they want to either reduce the cost of electricity or they want to ensure that they have constant 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh power supply. They do not want any interruptions from the national grid or both” (GETs Entrepreneur B). In assessing the efficiency and use of the solar PVs, all the hotels are still using the technology especially as two of the hotels have installed them in just the previous year. The other hotel that adopted the solar PV in 2011 however complained about the economic challenged faced in replacing the worn out batteries therefore making it impossible to store back-up energy for the evenings when the sun sets. However, all the three (3) hotels unanimously stated the availability of solar PV in the market as being the reason for their choice over other GETs. The hotels therefore made the option to choose solar PV because they faced limited choice and dominance of the product in the market. However, the hotels also believed that the particular choice was what was best suited for the need at the period when erratic power supply was at the maximum. Most of the GET entrepreneurs and private operators traded in solar systems, which explains the use of solar PVs by the hospitality industry. 4.9 Factors Influencing the Non-Adoption of Green Energy Technologies The twelve (80%) hotels gave varying reasons to explain why they have not adopted any form of green energy technology. From Figure 4.4, these factors are cost of the technology, lack of regulatory support, lack of space, internal restructuring, size of facility and cost of maintenance. Majority of the hotels (66.67%) attributed the non-adoption to the high initial cost of the technologies. This is validated by a study on barriers to environmental technologies adoption in hotels by Chan (2018) where hotels indicated that the cost of technologies coupled with the long period of payback was a reason for the non-adoption of the technology. From the study, hotels were not ready to wait for a long time before attaining 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the financial benefits associated with the use of technologies. In addition, they did not have the financial standings to be able to invest in the technicalities that are associated with the use of the technologies including training of staff in order to derive the maximum benefits associated with the adoption of the technologies. In relation to cost, some of the hotels were also of the view that due to the investment in fossil-fuel powered generators during the peak of the erratic power supply, they did not have adequate financial standing to be able to make new investments in green energy technologies although they had the interest in. Another hotel was of the view that running a large hotel requires many solar panels that was rather expensive to acquire therefore their non-adoption. Lack of regulatory support was an issue for some of the hotels (26.67%) as they did not see the role of the authorities in instituting by-laws and policies that would encourage the use of green energy technologies. The hotels are of the view that they needed more encouragement from the government and the authorities in charge to serve as a motivation. In addition, as the hotels were not bound by any by-laws or regulations that require them to use green energy technologies as an alternative source of energy, they did not feel obligated or the need to adopt the technologies. In an interview with a personnel from the Ghana Tourism Authority, which is the regulatory body for all hotels, this is what he had to say; “…we do not have any documented policy on this green energy technology that we can also sell to or educate our clients in the tourism industry, so that is the issue now. If the there is a policy, there is a guideline, there is a framework, then we can decide to embark on workshops and education on the need of using it to serve as an alternative, but we don’t have anything now” (Principal Researcher, Ghana Tourism Association). This statement by the Ghana Tourism Authority was however in contrast with that of the key informant interviewee at the Energy Commission as he outlined some policies and 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measures such as Renewable Energy Act 832, the promotion of solar PVs and solar water heaters and the introduction of the Renewable Energy Master Plan that are designed towards the promotion of GETs by hotels. It could be concluded that coordination between key stakeholders in implementing the policies that promote the uptake of GETs seems non- existent. The study by Chan (2018), also indicated that government had a role to play to ensure that hotels adopt green technologies. According to the findings of the study, hotels complained about the lack of support and the inconveniences that are associated with the installations of the technologies posed by the government. This serve as a disincentive to adopt green technologies and confirms the results for this study. About 13% of the hotels also attributed the lack of space as a reason for the non-adoption of solar PV, which is their preferred type of green energy technology. The structures of their buildings do not have enough space on the roofs and in the compound that can enable the hotels install the technology. Limitations in the physical environment leads to the non- adoption of green energy technologies. Even though hotels may be interested in the adoption of green energy technologies, limited space for the installation of machinery / technology poses as a challenge. One of the key respondents in one of the hotels noted: “…the area that is available is too small to install the solar panels. The hotel has an internal policy that is committed to a green course so we have had several people come to check to see how best it can be done but for now, there have not been any solutions. I know that in other countries, you can have the solar panels at a different location and connected to facility but it is not so here” (Chief Engineer of a Hotel). This is confirmed in the study by Chan (2018), where some of the hotels did not have enough space to install solar panels and an area large enough to accommodate the installation of bigger technologies. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Internal restructuring was one of the factors that was preventing the adoption of green energy technologies. According to the hotel (6.7%), although there have been plans to install green energy technologies, there have been delays in the approval and decision making process. As a state-owned hotel, there were processes that needed completion before any major implementations can be carried out. In addition, there are organizational changes that had been ongoing, therefore the delay in adoption. Others were of the view that the small size of the hotel did not require any form of alternative source of energy. Only few rooms were operational so did not see the need to spend on a green energy technology. Another hotel (6.7%) had not implemented any green energy technologies due to the cost of maintenance. Figure 4.4: Factors for non-adoption of Green Energy Technologies. Reason for Non-adoption of GETs 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Factors Source: Field Survey, 2019. 62 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These results were supported by the views of the key informant interviewee at the Energy Commission of Ghana: “I think the barriers have got more to do with financial. That is what I see to be the biggest barrier to the uptake of green energy technologies by companies. Usually when it comes to the solar PV and solar water heaters, the upfront cost is the problem. You put in the initial investment and reap over a long period of time and that is the major problem for them” (Chief Programme Officer). Green energy technologies entrepreneurs and private operators, however, were also of the view that there is a misconception about the financial issues surrounding the uptake of GETs that needed to be cleared. This is contained in the statement below; “…hotels have the idea that it is expensive and of course it is, but it’s an investment and that’s what they fail to see that it’s an investment that last for at least 20 years. You would be making money over the years unlike if you were paying money into the national grid. The awareness must be increased because many people are misinformed that they will pay a lot of money to build it and in quote it is like a waste but it is actually not a waste of money. It’s an investment” (GETs Entrepreneur C). In addition, some of the GET entrepreneurs had put in place measures to address the financial challenges and to increase the patronage of GETs by their clients even though the hotels were yet to take advantage of them. These measures are articulated below by some of the entrepreneurs interviewed. “…we have a power purchase agreement or a lease agreement. With the power purchase agreement, we own the asset and our job is just to sell to you the power. Whatever amount of energy you consume at the end of the month, you are billed accordingly. With the lease agreement, you would eventually own the asset. So we pre-finance, we agree on the period of payment and the schedules which could be monthly, quarterly, etc.” (GETs Entrepreneur A). “…we found out that it would be best if people are making monthly payments towards the cost of the equipment. So our whole business model is to make our 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh customers have the flexibility to make monthly payments and once they have paid off the cost of the equipment then they can have free energy”. (GET Entrepreneur B). In assessing the intentions of hotels to adopt green energy technologies, out of the twelve (80%) of hotels that had not adopted any form of green energy technology, about 47% gave a positive feedback on their intention to adopt green energy technologies in the future. The other 33% however were not optimistic in their intent to adopting green energy technologies. Table 4.13: Category of Hotel and Plans of Adopting Green Energy Technologies Plans for Adoption Category of Hotel Yes No Budget 33 33 One-star 100 0 Two-star 50 50 Three-star 50 0 Four-star 50 50 Five-star 0 100 Total 47 33 Source: Field Survey, 2019. Hotels consider different reasons in order to make a decision on whether to adopt green energy technologies or not. This is what a respondent from one of the hotels had to say about why they had not yet made plans to adopt GETs: “…the hotel has already spent a lot of money in acquiring a huge plant to serve as a backup during power black-outs. We are not in a position to further spend any more in acquiring a green energy technology” (Hotel General Manager). This view was confirmed in an interview with the private entrepreneurs and operators of GET in the statement below; “I think financing is key because for most of these hotels have these stand by generators that they have already installed so the need for GETs does not become a 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh priority but once they have the financing bit then their interest goes up” (GETs Entrepreneur A). Other respondents also did not consider it needful to adopt green energy technology, as they were quite satisfied with their current situation. 4.10 Promotion of Green Energy Technologies in the Hospitality Industry. In assessing the views of hotels on possible ways of promoting the adoption of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry, various suggestions were gathered. About two thirds (66.67%) of the hotels were of the view that the government had a role to play in subsidizing the prices of green energy technologies in the country and putting in place waivers on some of the products. This confirms the position of most of the hotels that the initial high cost of installation of green energy resources is a major factor to the non-adoption of the technologies. Another 26.6% also suggested a more rigorous approach of embarking on education by organizing seminars and creation of awareness on the use and benefits associated with the adoption of green energy technologies by the relevant stakeholders. This position as well also support findings of Zografakis, Gillas, Pollaki, Profylienou, Bounialetou & Tsagarakis (2011) where it was stressed that information gap must be addressed in decision making processes. The importance of constant training sessions and campaigns for industry members on their use of energy and its associated effects on the environment would lead to a positive attitude toward the adoption of green energy technologies. Another 13% also called for the purchase of green energy technologies by the district assembly and commission on behalf of the hotels and drafting agreements for payments in installments. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.14: Measures for Encouraging Green Energy Technology Adoption Measures Percentage Subsidies and Waivers 66.67 Seminars and Awareness Creation 26.67 High Purchase Agreements 13.33 Source: Field Survey, 2019. In response to how the adoption of green energy technologies can be promoted by the assembly, this is what they had to say; “…the government should be looking at how to conserve energy, we should be looking at giving some tax holidays for those specialized materials so that we can encourage more people to go into that green technology and by so doing, it will help our environment and the very people that they are using and then also save cost”. (Head of Works Department, LADMA) However, the Energy Commission pointed out strives that have been made in assisting the hotels in terms of their use of energy. Although, they are yet to implement specific support mechanism in order to promote the use of green energy technologies specifically among hotels. Some of the measures instituted as stated by the energy commission includes; “…we have what we call Energy Efficiency Measure or Support that we provide to them in other to reduce their consumption or reduce wastage and therefore make savings on that. We have introduced what we called Capacitor Banks where companies and industries can improve on their power factors. Once you do that, you reduce your electricity wastage and make huge savings. The other forms of supports is getting them linked to financial institutions. Last three weeks, we signed an agreement under the SUNREF Programme where the AFD (Agence Francaise De Development) are supporting us with 30 million Euros. This will provide funding for ten to twenty years; we will kick start the program and some of these supports will be given to the hotels”. (Chief Programme Officer, Energy Commission). However, private operators and entrepreneurs of GETs had a different idea on how patronage can be increased among the hotels. One of the key issues that came across from 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh all the interviews had to do with the implementation of the net metering system which they believed had taken too long even though there was a policy on it. “…with the hotels, because we do not have the net metering system in place in Ghana, it sometimes become difficult to sell to hotels. The policy is there but the implementation has delayed. Most of their operations are at the nighttime when people come to sleep and they run a lot of air-conditioning, so without the net metering system in place, it is not feasible to have a solar system for hotels since storing the energy produced during the day for nighttime is expensive… If the net metering is finalized, green energy technologies for the hotels will become a big business but it might take a while because the national grid is not stable for that now…” 4.11 The role of the National Policy Framework in the promotion of Green Energy Technologies There are various policy interventions in the energy sector in Ghana. Some of the policies are purposely for the promotion and utilization of green energy technologies while others have specific aspects directed at the promotion of GETs. This is in line with the Sustainable Development Goal seven (7), which aims at ensuring access to affordable, reliable, and modern energy for all by 2030. Also, in order to ensure a much cleaner environment, address issues of energy security and help mitigate climate change, the government of Ghana has incorporated green energy into the national policy framework (Energy Commission, 2019). The policy frameworks under review includes National Energy Policy, Renewable Energy Act, Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan and Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan. National Energy Policy, 2010 Ghana’s Energy Policy is from the stipulations in Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA), which focuses on increasing the proportion of renewable and other energy sources in the energy supply mix of Ghana specifically solar, wind, mini-hydro and waste-to-energy. The GSGDA also entails the promotion and design of energy efficient and 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh renewable energy technologies in public and private buildings (Republic of Ghana, 2015). The National Energy Policy is the key policy that guides the development and management of Ghana’s Energy sector. The Government of Ghana in the National Energy Policy has specific responsibilities towards renewable energy (Solar, Wind and Mini Hydro) by:  “Promoting the exploitation and use of mini hydro, solar and wind energy resources.  Supporting indigenous research and development aimed at reducing the cost of renewable energy technologies.  Providing tax incentives for all the importation of equipment used for the development of renewable energy projects.  Supporting the use of decentralized off-grid alternative technologies (such as solar PV and wind) where they are competitive”. (Ministry of Energy, 2010 pg 20,21) Governments over the years however have not been able to fully implement certain provisions that would have served as an encouragement to the uptake of GETs by both private and public buildings including hotels. Thus, the hospitality industry is yet to benefit from this policy. The policy sought to address the financial challenges associated with GETs by providing tax incentives and through research; however, cost is still a major challenge that impedes the adoption of GETs by hotels. According to the Energy Commission, the National Energy Policy is being reviewed with plans in place to activate the various provisions therein in order to derive its maximum benefits. Renewable Energy Act, 2011 In 2011, Ghana enacted the Renewable Energy (RE) Act (Act 832) with responsibility towards the development, management and utilization of renewable energy resources. The 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh act is also to ensure the production of energy in an efficient and environmentally sustainable manner. The Act stipulates that there should be an attainment of 10% of green energy utilization in the overall energy generation mix of the country by 2020. Embedded in the Act are provisions for safeguarding energy security by promoting the use of renewable energy technologies to all users of energy in their businesses, homes and communities in order to make electricity more accessible. Specifically, the Act seeks to provide a framework of support, an enabling environment, improved access, education and regulation of the use of renewable energy. The Act spells out the responsibility of relevant stakeholders in the energy sector, matters surrounding licensing, and requirements for electricity generation, funding, and miscellanies. The major provision in the Act is the Feed-in-tariffs scheme which was meant to provide preferential tariffs to enable investors, companies, etc. to come into the country utilizing the various renewable energy resources, produce electricity, sell to the national grid and get paid at premium rate. Another provision is the connection of the renewable energy systems to the national grid. It initially was difficult to get renewable energy connected because the prices of renewable energy, especially solar energy was high as compared to the conventional power plants. However, the Act is able to address such challenges and makes it possible to undertake such connections. Another provision in the Act was the establishment of the Renewable Energy Fund which when established would support commercial facilities that adopt green energy technologies financially which has come across as a major challenge in the sector. Specific provisions in the Act such as the Net Metering System and Renewable Fund, which could address some of the issues that prevent the adoption of GETs by hotels have however 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not yet been fully implemented. Although the Energy Commission admits plans are underway to ensure that these provisions are operational, it has delayed. The net metering scheme is a major provision would have benefited hotels by allowing them to feed in their excess energy into the national grid which, can then be gained back when needed since hotels consume electricity throughout the at all times. Additional, the Renewable fund would have addressed the financial challenges associated with the initial cost of installation by providing hotels with the financial support needed. These include capital subsidies, financial incentives and production subsidies stipulated by the fund. Ghana Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan – SE4ALL, 2012. The United Nations General Assembly declared 2012 as the International Year of Sustainable Energy for All (SE4ALL). Due to this, a global initiative was launched to achieve SE4ALL by 2030 and all member states of the United Nations to address issues related to energy sustainability. The United Nation system was therefore urged as a call of duty to promote energy related issues on international, regional, national and local levels. The key objectives underpinning this initiative are; ensuring universal access to modern energy services, doubling the rate of improvements in energy efficiency and doubling the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix (Energy Commission, 2012). In line with this, Ghana per the direction has also outlined its key areas to address energy issues with specific emphasis on renewable energy. Remote communities in the country have been targeted for the implementation of Off-Grid electrification generated from green energy resources, a shift towards modern and decent ways of using energy for cooking and productive ways of using energy efficiently. The exploitation of solar resources for electricity generation, cultivation of crops for both solid and liquid biofuels on the vast land 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh available in Ghana are also outlined in the Act. The plan also addresses the barriers and difficulties in the utilization of renewable energy. Although, the hospitality industry could have benefited greatly in terms of the use of solar for electricity generation and decent cooking methods, the implementation of the plan has been targeted at residential facilities and remote communities. The Solar Rooftop program which grants free solar panels to residential facilities can be expanded to include hotels and other commercial facilities that consume substantial amount of electricity. Also, the promotion of biogas systems have been targeted at public institutions such as schools, hospitals, prisons, etc although the hospitality industry could also benefit if included due to the amount of waste they produce and their high levels of energy consumption. Renewable Energy Master Plan, 2019. Renewable Energy Master Plan (REMP) is a document that is to be implement in the year 2019 after an approval from parliament. It will cover a period between 2019 and 2030. It is targeted at ensuring the development of renewable energy in the energy sector and transformation of Ghana’s expertise in the renewable energy. REMP is to enhance economic growth, social life and mitigate climate change using renewable energy resources. The specific objectives of REMP is to;  “Increase the proportion of renewable energy in the national energy generation mix from 42.5 MW in 2015 to 1363.63 MW (with grid connected systems totaling 1094.63 MW)  Reduce the dependence on biomass as main fuel for thermal energy applications  Provide renewable energy-based decentralized electrification options in 1000 off- grid communities.  Promote local content and local participation in the renewable energy industry” (Energy Commission, 2019 pg 3). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REMP critically outlines the various challenges in the adoption of green energy technologies and strategies that are being implemented to promote the use of the green energy technologies. The technologies that have been assessed have been grouped under the various green energy resources present in Ghana. Technologies under solar includes solar water heaters, solar lanterns, solar crop dryers, utility scale solar, solar home systems, solar street / public lighting, solar traffic signals, and solar irrigation systems. Wind technologies are wind irrigation systems, standalone wind systems, and utility scale wind. Technologies for biomass are charcoal production for local consumption and export, woodlot cultivation, briquetting and pelleting, energy efficient improved domestic cookstoves, and energy efficient improved institutional cookstoves. Mini-grids based on solar, wind, biomass, biofuels, hydro, etc. are also outlined as well as waste-to-energy technologies such as municipal waste, biogas from agricultural and industrial organic waste, domestic and institutional biogas. REMP can be described as an improvement on all the various energy frameworks with detailed analysis and processes of achieving the visions and goals of promoting the adoption of green energy technologies in Ghana. The plan was also drafted to make up for the inefficiency in the delivery of the other policies, which has been presented to parliament for approval. It is the hope that unlike previous Acts and plans that could not be implemented, the provisions in the REMP would be fully implemented, which should greatly increase the rate of adoption by hotels and other commercial facilities. Specific provisions such as creation of awareness and installation of solar water heaters are purposely for hotels. Again, the plan has a target of reaching the Ghana Hoteliers Association nationwide and providing them with the requisite education on GETs so that it can be promoted to all their members. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, the role of the national policy framework in the promotion of GETs in the hospitality industry have been minimal. Although the country has invested in several policy documents with provisions necessary for the adoption of green energy technologies, most of these provisions remain unimplemented. The few provision that have been implemented were targeted at certain sections of the population such as residential facilities, remote communities and public institutions ignoring the hospitality industry and other commercial facilities that are high energy consuming. 4.12 Conclusion This chapter has examined issues in relation to the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. The socio-demographic and economic characteristics of respondents, business characteristic, facilities and energy consumption of hotels have been presented. In addition, an assessment of the level of knowledge and types of green energy technologies used in the hospitality industry have been identified. The chapter has also analyzed the level of adoption of green energy technologies by hotels and the factors influencing the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies. Finally, the national policy framework was reviewed to identify its role in the promotion of green energy technologies especially in the hospitality industry. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Introduction This chapter presents the summary of the key findings of the study in relation to the objectives of the study. It also draws conclusions and makes recommendations based on the findings from the study. 5.2 Summary of Key findings of the Study The study examined the adoption of green energy technologies by the hospitality industry between 2010 and 2018. Based on the objectives of the study, the conceptual framework and literature supporting the study, the study has examined the knowledge and types of green energy technologies used by hotels in the study area. The various issues contributing to the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies by the hotels are outlined, and an examination of the national policy framework in the promotion of green energy technologies was undertaken. The study used both quantitative and qualitative research methods where semi-structured questionnaires and interview guides were administered to collect data in order to gain insights into some of the issues surrounding the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies by hotels in the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. The key findings from the study are discussed in the sub-sections below. 5.2.1 High Cost of Energy Consumption in Hotels In relation to the consumption and cost of energy by hotels, it emerged that the hotels were overburdened by the high cost of electricity due to the nature of services rendered, which requires high-energy consumptions. Majority of their operational activities demand the continuous and intensive use of electricity leading to their high consumption levels. Again, because of the erratic nature of electricity supply in the country during the period of 2010 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to 2018, majority of the hotels were compelled to adopt other alternative sources of electricity to complement the power supply from the national grid, which remains the largest and the primary source of electricity used by hotels in the study area. As a result, hotels have made budget provisions to cover for the extra cost of operating and fueling standby generators that supply electricity during periods of power cuts. It also emerged that the operating cost of electricity by hotels was related to the variation in the categorization of the hotels. This was based on several reasons amongst which were the size of the hotel, the number of rooms, the available facilities on the premises and the nature of service being rendered. The hotels have however employed various measures to reduce their energy consumption in other to cut down on their cost of electricity consumption. Majority (80%) of the hotels made use of LED lights, which emerged as the most dominant form of energy conservation measure. 5.2.2 Solar PVs as the Main Type of Green Energy Technologies Adopted by Hotels From the study, majority (86.7%) of the respondents had some degree of information on green energy technologies and therefore, it was less cumbersome to identify the familiar types, pick out their preferences and give reasons to support their preferences. The information about green energy technologies were acquired through advertisement (38.5%), product pitching and marketing (38.5%), and through personal research (23%) by respondents on the technologies. The various types of green energy technologies that respondents were familiar with included solar PV, solar water heaters, solar lantern, bioenergy, improved cookstoves, wind generators and hydroelectric plants. However, the most common technologies that was preferred by the hotels were solar PV and solar water heaters. The hotels that have adopted green energy technologies had all installed solar PV. Knowledge and information was identified as key to the adoption process as was described in the findings of Dief and Font (2012). 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.3 High Cost of Electricity as a Driving Factor to the adoption of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels The study identified high cost of electricity as the main reason that influenced decisions by hotels in adopting green energy technologies. The country in general faced power cuts, which intensified between 2010 and 2018 thereby affecting the operations of commercial and industrial facilities. Due to the nature of service provision, hotels resorted to alternative means of electricity supply to meet the needs of their guests and ensure smooth service delivery. This is in sync with a similar study undertaken by Gitobu and Njoroge (2015). The familiarity, availability and dominance of a technology is also a factor that influences the choice of technology being adopted. This is so because all the hotels specifically chose solar PVs because they had knowledge on it and it was available on the market. The Energy Commission had also promoted the use of solar PV and solar water heater, thereby contributing to the decision by hotels to adopt these technologies. Majority of the hotels that were yet to implement any form of green energy technology were however positive in their decision to adopt in the near future. About 47% out of the 80% of the hotels that had not adopted any form of green energy technology had plans of doing so. Some of the factors that the hotels believed would influence their decision to adopt green energy technologies included the provision of subsidies and waivers on components of GETs to reduce the high cost of installation. Others were of the view that there was the need for more education and awareness on the benefits of adopting green energy technologies while others also suggested the involvement of governments through the institution of hire purchases / lease agreements to enable hotels to adopt and pay in installments after the acquisition of the technologies. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2.4 High Initial Cost of Installation as the Main Factor influencing the non- adoption of Green Energy Technologies by Hotels In assessing the factors influencing the non-adoption of GETs, initial cost of installation of GETs was the main factor influencing the non-adoption of the technologies. Most of the hotels were unable to meet the high initial cost involved in investing into green energy technologies and again attributed their decision to the long payback period they believed was associated with the technologies. This however was noted as a misconception since the hotels were yet to understand the overall financial benefits associated with investing in GETs especially in the long term. Also, the hotels were yet to take advantage of certain measures such as power purchase agreements and lease agreements that were being rolled out by some GETs entrepreneurs and private operators. Other factors that were also associated with the non-adoption of green energy technologies included lack of regulatory support, lack of space, cost of maintenance, size of facility and internal restructuring in some hotels. In relation to the lack of regulatory support, it was discovered that there are several policies within the energy sector that have specific provisions directed at increasing the adoption rate of green energy technologies. However, these have not yet been implemented or partially implemented. Also, coordination between the regulators and key stakeholders seemed non-existents as reflected in the disconnection in the information from the key informant interviews. Some of the hotels also did not have the space for the installation of the technologies whiles other believed that their facilities were too small and therefore did not see the need to adopt alternative energy technologies. Again, the perception that the operational cost of maintenance of the green energy technologies was high resulted in discouraging its adoption 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in some hotels while other hotels had internal issues that had prevented them from adopting green technologies. 5.2.5 Lack of Implementation of government policies as a Hindrance to the Promotion of Green Energy Technologies in Hotels A review of the national policy framework identified the Renewable Energy Act as the mother law for promoting green energy technologies in Ghana and ensuring the sustainable management of green energy resources. The Act spells out provisions that specifically promote adoption in the hospitality industry such as the responsibilities of regulatory institutions, licensing, feed-in-tariffs and establishment of renewable energy fund. Other policies that have specific provisions tailored towards the promotion of green energy technologies are the National Energy Policy, Sustainable Energy for All Action Plan and the Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan. A review of these policies revealed that although there are brilliant stipulations and provisions that can address most of the factors identified as influencing the adoption and non-adoption of green energy technologies by hotels, these provisions remain unimplemented or partially implemented therefore defeating their purposes. 5.3 Conclusion The study set out to examine the adoption of green energy technologies as an alternative source of energy in the hospitality industry between 2010 and 2018. The erratic power supply in Ghana coupled with the high-energy consumption of hotels as well as issues surrounding environment sustainability necessitated the study. Various green energy technologies that are used in the hospitality industry were identified. Out of the types that were identified, solar PV and solar water heaters were the most preferred technologies. This was in association with their role in providing the basic energy needs of hotels that were 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh identified: lighting, cooling and water heating. Again, there had been earlier promotions of these technologies and they were readily available on the market. The study revealed that the high cost of electricity and the need for constant supply of electricity were the major factors that influenced the adoption of green energy technologies. It was noted that hotels are cautious about their financial standings; therefore, they considered financial benefits in making decisions. Furthermore, awareness creation, granting of subsidies and waivers on GETs and provision of hire purchase services were proposed by the hotels to encourage the adoption of green energy technologies. An assessment of the factors that influence the non-adoption of green energy technologies revealed that hotels were not interested in making huge investment into technologies that had a long payback period. In addition, the structure and size of the hotels are key in making decisions about the adoption of GETs and the effectiveness of policies and regulations were instrumental in the decisions making process. A review of the national policy framework however revealed that though there are provisions designed specifically to promote adoption of GETs, the benefits are yet to be realized due to lack of implementation. The findings of the study therefore reveal that there are high prospects of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry. The relevant regulatory bodies, however, have a joint task of ensuring that the provisions in the national policy framework promoting the adoption of green energy technologies are duly implemented and the barriers to the adoption of green energy technologies are removed. These findings from the study were consonant with those that were identified in the adoption and non-adoption factors of green energy technologies by hotels, as can be seen in the conceptual framework. The factors were necessary in determining the type of technology that hotels would adopt and also influence their decision on whether to adopt or not to adopt 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh green energy technology. Similarly, the need for effective and efficient policy and regulatory support is necessary for influencing the adoption of new technology as identified in the framework. 5.4 Recommendations  Education and Awareness Creation There is the need for increased education and awareness creation on green energy technologies for hotels to address their energy challenges. This is because, even though there is high level of knowledge about green energy technologies in general, the hotels are yet to be educated on the benefits associated with the use of green energy technologies. Also, the hotels have a fair idea about the types of technologies available, however, they have limited information on the types of technologies available on the market, their operation as well as some of the measures being rolled out by GETs entrepreneurs and private operators to assist them financially. Education on all these opportunities will therefore increase the rate of adoption of green energy technologies by hotels.  Subsidization of Components of Technologies Due to the initial high cost of installation of green energy technologies which is a major barrier to the adoption of green energy technologies, the government should grant subsidies on the components of the GETs to make the prices attractive to hotels and other commercial facilities. This will encourage more hotels to consider adopting green energy technologies thereby reducing their cost of operation and produce a cleaner environment.  Implementation of Policies and Net Metering System Given the crucial role of policy in influencing the adoption of technologies, existing policies and laws supporting the adoption of green energy technologies should be fully implemented. The various provisions in the National Energy Policy, the Renewable Energy Act, 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Sustainable Energy for All Plan and the Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan that promote the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels must be revisited and implemented to ensure that they meet the purposes for which they were originally set. The implementation of the net metering system should also be hastened in order for the hotels to take advantage of the system so as to save energy and cost for the future.  Streamlining of coordination between institutions There should be proper coordination between the various regulatory bodies whose responsibilities include overseeing the operations of hotels. The Energy Commission, Ghana Tourism Authority and the District Assemblies should work together with common purpose to ensure that there is proper implementation of the various policies that promote the adoption of green energy technologies in the municipality. Their lack of collaboration at present does not instill confidence as well as create any incentive for the hotel industry to adopt the GETs. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Akar, S., & Akdoğan, D. A. (2016). Environmental and Economic Impacts of Wave Energy. In Handbook of Research on Green Economic Development Initiatives and Strategies (pp. 285–309). Al-Nassar, W. K., Neelamani, S., Al-Salem, K. A., & Al-Dashti, H. A. (2019). Feasibility of offshore wind energy as an alternative source for the state of Kuwait. Energy, 169, 783–796. Al-zubaidy, M. S. K. (2015). Green Energy : Examining Their Effects on Heritage Sites and Climate Change Mitigation. Open Journal of Civil Engineering, 5(3), 39–52. Alrikabi, N. K. M. A. (2013). Renewable Energy Types. Journal of Clean Energy Technologies, 2(1), 61–64. Aslani, A., Naaranoja, M., & Zakeri, B. (2012). The prime criteria for private sector participation in renewable energy investment in the Middle East (case study: Iran). Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., & Owusu, P. A. (2016a). A review of Ghana’s energy sector national energy statistics and policy framework. Cogent Engineering, 3(1). Asumadu-Sarkodie, S., & Owusu, P. A. (2016b). The potential and economic viability of wind farms in Ghana. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects, 38(5), 695–701. Atsu, D., Agyemang, E. O., & Tsike, S. A. K. (2016). Solar electricity development and policy support in Ghana. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 23(1), 792-800 Backman, M., & Klaesson, J. (2017). Innovation in the hospitality industry : Firm or location ? Tourism and Hospitality Management, 23(8), 1591–1614. Balat, H. (2008). Contribution of green energy sources to electrical power production of Turkey: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 12(6), 1652-1666. Bilal Awan, A. (2016). Renewable Energy: A Solution to Hazardous Emissions. Journal of Energy and Natural Resources, 5(1), 6. Bildirici, M. E., & Gökmenoğlu, S. M. (2017). Environmental pollution, hydropower energy consumption and economic growth: Evidence from G7 countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 75, 68–85. Boakye, N. A. B., Twenefour, F. B. K., & McArthur-Floyd, M. (2016). The Impact of Power Outage “ Dumsor ” on the Hotel Industry : Evidence from Ghana. Journal of Energy Technologies and Policy, 6(8), 39–47. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Boamah, F., & Rothfuß, E. (2018). From technical innovations towards social practices and socio-technical transition? Re-thinking the transition to decentralised solar PV electrification in Africa. Energy Research and Social Science, 42(3), 1–10. Brennand, T. P. (2004). Renewable energy in the United Kingdom: policies and prospects. Energy for Sustainable Development, 8(1), 82-92. Brown, S. (2009). A case for green energy manufacturing. New Solutions : A Journal of Environmental and Occupational Health Policy : NS, 19(2), 135–137. Bruntland, G. (1987). Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development : Our Common Future. United Nations General Assembly document A/42/427. Chan, E. S. W. (2018). Barriers to Environmental Technology Adoption in Hotels. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 42(5), 829–852. Chan, E. S. W., Okumus, F., & Chan, W. (2017). The Applications of Environmental Technologies in Hotels. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, 26(1), 23-27 Child, M., Breyer, C., Bogdanov, D., & Fell, H. J. (2017). The role of storage technologies for the transition to a 100% renewable energy system in Ukraine. Energy Procedia, 135, 410–423. Chung, M. H. (2018). Potential analysis of a target area selection for photovoltaic-based distributed generation in cases of an existing city in Korea. Sustainable Cities and Society, 41, 341-348 Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. (2nd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Cudjoe Bensah, E., & Brew-Hammond, A. (2010). Biogas technology dissemination in Ghana: history, current status, future prospects, and policy significance. Energy and Environment, 1(2), 2076-2909. Dalton, G. J., Lockington, D. A., & Baldock, T. E. (2008). A survey of tourist attitudes to renewable energy supply in Australian hotel accommodation. Renewable Energy, 33(10), 2174–2185. De Fraiture, C., Giordano, M., & Liao, Y. (2008). Biofuels and implications for agricultural water use: Blue impacts of green energy. Water Policy, 10(1), 67–81. Deloitte Development LLC. (2018). 2018 travel and hospitality industry outlook. Retrieved from https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/us/Documents/consumer- 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh business/us-cb-2018-travel-hospitality-industry-outlook.pdf Demirbas, A. (2006a). Electrical power production facilities from green energy sources. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy, 1(3), 291–301. Demirbaş, A. (2006b). Global Renewable Energy Resources. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization, and Environmental Effects, 28(8), 779–792. Demirbas, T., & Demirbas, A. H. (2010). Bioenergy, green energy. biomass and biofuels. Energy Sources, Part A: Recovery, Utilization and Environmental Effects, 32(12), 1067-1075. Dief, M. El, & Font, X. (2012). Determinants of Environmental Management in the Red Sea Hotels: Personal and Organizational Values and Contextual Variables. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research, 36(1), 115–137. Doe, F., & Asamoah, E. S. (2014). The Effect of Electric Power Fluctuations on the Profitability and Competitiveness of SMEs: A Study of SMEs within the Accra Business District of Ghana. Journal of Competitiveness, 6(3), 32–48. ECREEE. (2016). Regional Progress Report on Renewable Energy, Energy Efficiency and Energy Access in ECOWAS region. Cape Verde. Retrieved from www.ecreee.org Ellabban, O., Abu-Rub, H., & Blaabjerg, F. (2014). Renewable energy resources: Current status, future prospects and their enabling technology. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 39, 748–764. Embassy of The Kingdom of The Netherlands. (2016). Business Opportunities for Renewable Energy in Ghana. Accra. Energy Commission. (2012). Ghana Sustainable Energy For All Action Plan. Retrieved from http://energycom.gov.gh/files/SE4ALL-GHANA ACTION PLAN.pdf Energy Commission. (2016). 2016 Energy (Supply and Demand) Outlook for Ghana Final. Accra. Retrieved from http://energycom.gov.gh/files/Energy Commission - 2016Energy Outlook for Ghana_final.pdf Energy Commission. (2018). 2018 Energy (Supply and Demand) Outlook for Ghana. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0304-3932(02)00208-8 Energy Commission. (2019). Ghana Renewable Energy Master Plan. Accra. Retrieved from http://www.energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable-Energy-Masterplan-February- 2019.pdf Eshun, M. E., & Amoako-Tuffour, J. (2016). A review of the trends in Ghana’s power sector. Energy, Sustainability and Society, 6(1), 9. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Esteban, M. D., Diez, J. J., López, J. S., & Negro, V. (2011). Why offshore wind energy? Renewable Energy, 36(2), 444–450. FAO. (2017). The future of food and agriculture: Trends and challenges. Rome. Retrieved from www.fao.org/publications Ferry, R., & Monoian, E. (2012). A Field Guide To Renewable Energy Technologies Land Art Generator Initiative. Retrieved from http://www.landartgenerator.org/LAGI- FieldGuideRenewableEnergy-ed1.pdf Frid, C., Andonegi, E., Depestele, J., Judd, A., Rihan, D., Rogers, S. I., & Kenchington, E. (2012). The environmental interactions of tidal and wave energy generation devices. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 3(1), 133-139. Gerpott, T. J., & Mahmudova, I. (2010). Determinants of green electricity adoption among residential customers in Germany. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 34(4), 464–473. Ghana Statistical Service. (2014). La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. Retrieved from www.statsghana.gov.gh. Gitobu, J. K., & Njoroge, J. M. (2015). Adoption of Green Marketing Practises by Hotels in Mombasa County , Kenya . African Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Leisure Studies, 1(1), 2–18. Goiri, Í., Beauchea, R., Le, K., Nguyen, T. D., Haque, M. E., Guitart, J., … Bianchini, R. (2011). GreenSlot: Scheduling Energy Consumption in Green Datacenters. In Super Computing ’11, 1. Government of Ghana. (2011). Renewable Energy Act 832. Retrieved from http://energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable Energy Act 2011 (ACT 832).pdf Grima-Olmedo, C., Ramírez-Gómez, Á., & Alcalde-Cartagena, R. (2014). Energetic performance of landfill and digester biogas in a domestic cooker. Applied Energy, 134, 301–308. Grubb, M., & Newbery, D. (2018). UK Electricity Market Reform and the Energy Transition: Emerging Lessons. Retrieved from http://ceepr.mit.edu/files/papers/2018- 004.pdf Gyam, S., Modjinou, M., & Djordjevic, S. (2015). Improving electricity supply security in Ghana — The potential Re-engineering Domestic Septic Tanks into Biogas Tanks, 43, 0–1. Hagan, E. Ben. (2015). Renewable Energy Policy Review, Identification of Gaps and Solutions in Ghana. Accra. Retrieved from http://energycom.gov.gh/files/Renewable 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Energy Policy and Regulatory Gap Analysis Final(2015).pdf Hall, B. H., & Khan, B. (2003). Adoption of New Technology. NBER Working Paper No. 9730. Hardy, M., & Mccasland, J. (2019). Lights Off, Lights On The Effects of Electricity Shortages on Small Firms. Retrieved from http://www.worldbank.org/prwp. Haselip, J., Nygaard, I., Hansen, U., & Ackom, E. (2011). Diffusion of renewable energy technologies:case studies of enabling frameworks in developing countries. Technology Transfer Perspectives Series, UNEP. Riso Centre, Denmark. Retrieved from http://tech-action.org Hesselink, L. X. W., & Chappin, E. J. L. (2019). Adoption of energy efficient technologies by households – Barriers, policies and agent-based modelling studies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 99, 39-41. Hirmer, S., & Cruickshank, H. (2014). Making the deployment of pico-PV more sustainable along the value chain. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 30, 401-411 Hou, J., Cao, M., & Liu, P. (2018). Development and utilization of geothermal energy in China: Current practices and future strategies. Renewable Energy, 125, 401–412. Huang, K. T., Wang, J. C., & Wang, Y. C. (2015). Analysis and benchmarking of greenhouse gas emissions of luxury hotels. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 51, 56–66. IEA. (2019). Renewables 2018 - Market analysis and forecast from 2018 to 2023. Retrieved March 4, 2019, from https://www.iea.org/renewables2018/ IEA. (2014). Energy Policies of IEA Countries - The United States 2014, 284. Retrieved from https://www.iea.org/countries/membercountries/unitedstates/ IEA. (2014). Technology Roadmap: Solar Thermal Electricity. Paris. Retrieved from http://www.solarconcentra.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/06/Technology-Roadmap- Solar-Thermal-Electricity-2014-edition-IEA-1.pdf IEA. (2011). Solar energy perspectives (Vol. 9789264124). https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264124585-en International Geothermal Association. (2010). Geothermal a natural choice. Retrieved from www.geothermal-energy.org IPCC. (2014). Climate Change 2014: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh [Core Writing Team, R.K. Pachauri and L.A. Meyer (eds.)]. Geneva, Switzerland. IRENA. (2019). Renewable Energy Now Accounts for a Third of Global Power Capacity. Retrieved April 2, 2019, from https://www.irena.org/newsroom/pressreleases/2019/Apr/Renewable-Energy-Now- Accounts-for-a-Third-of-Global-Power-Capacity IRENA. (2014). A Renewable Energy Roadmap Report. Irena, (June), 173. Retrieved from www.irena.org/remap Kabir, E., Kumar, P., Kumar, S., Adelodun, A. A., & Kim, K. H. (2018). Solar energy: Potential and future prospects. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82(October 2017), 894–900. Karakosta, C., Doukas, H., & Psarras, J. (2010). Technology transfer through climate change: Setting a sustainable energy pattern. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 14(6), 1546-1557. Kaygusuz, K. (2012). Energy for sustainable development: A case of developing countries. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(2), 1116–1126. Klass, D. (2004). Biomass for Reneweable Energy and Fuels. Encyclopedia of Energy, 1, 193–212. Kucukusta, D., Mak, A., & Chan, X. (2013). Corporate social responsibility practices in four and five-star hotels: Perspectives from Hong Kong visitors. International Journal of Hospitality Kumar, A., Schei, T., Ahenkorah, A., Caceres Rodriguez, R., Devernay, J.-M., Freitas, M., … Liu, Z. (2011). Hydropower: IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation, (September), 437–496. LADMA. (2015). The Composite Budget of the La Dade-Kotopon Municipal Assembly for the 2015 fiscal year. Accra. LADMA. (2014). Medium Term Development Plan for LADMA, 2014-2017. Accra. Letcher, T. M. (2018). Why Solar Energy? A Comprehensive Guide to Solar Energy Systems. Durban: Elsevier Inc, 3-16. Li, Y., Li, Y., Ji, P., & Yang, J. (2015). The status quo analysis and policy suggestions on promoting China’s hydropower development. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 51, 1071-1079. Mahachi, D., Mokgalo, L. L., & Pansiri, J. (2015). Exploitation of Renewable Energy in the Hospitality Sector: Case Studies of Gaborone Sun and the Cumberland Hotel in Botswana. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 16(4), 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 331–354. Martinot, E. (2006). Renewable energy gains momentum: Global markets and policies in the spotlight. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 48(6). McLauchlan, L., & Mehrubeoglu, M. (2010). A survey of green energy technology and policy. IEEE Green Technologies, (x), 1–6. Melikoglu, M. (2017). Geothermal energy in Turkey and around the World: A review of the literature and an analysis based on Turkey’s Vision 2023 energy targets. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 76, 485–492. Mensah, I. (2006). Environmental management practices among hotels in the Greater Accra region. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25(3), 414–431. Mensah, I., & Blankson, E. J. (2013). Determinants of hotels’ environmental performance: Evidence from the hotel industry in Accra, Ghana. Journal of Sustainable Tourism. Midilli, A., Dincer, I., & Rosen, M. A. (2007). The role and future benefits of green energy. International Journal of Green Energy, 4(1), 65–87. Ministry of Energy. (2010). National Energy Policy: Republic of Ghana. Retrieved from http://www.petrocom.gov.gh/assets/national_energy_policy.pdf Ministry Of Local Government And Rural Development (MLGRD). (2017). Construction of Institutional Sanitation Facilities - Environmental And Social Management Plan (ESMP). Accra. Retrieved from www.salconsultgh.com Muneer, T., Asif, M., & Munawwar, S. (2005). Sustainable production of solar electricity with particular reference to the Indian economy. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 9(5), 444–473. Nematollahi, O., & Kim, K. C. (2017). A feasibility study of solar energy in South Korea. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 77(2), 566–579. Ngene, S., Tota-Maharaj, K., Eke, P., & Hills, C. (2016). Environmental and Economic Impacts of Crude Oil and Natural Gas Production in Developing Countries. International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment, 1(3), 64–73. Novo-Corti, I., García-Álvarez, M. T., & Varela-Candamio, L. (2017). The importance of environmental education in the determinants of green behavior: A meta-analysis approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 170, 1565-1578. Oluseyi, P. O., Babatunde, O. M., & Babatunde, O. A. (2016). Assessment of energy consumption and carbon footprint from the hotel sector within Lagos, Nigeria. Energy and Buildings, 118, 106–113. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Owusu, P. A., & Asumadu-Sarkodie, S. (2016). A review of renewable energy sources, sustainability issues and climate change mitigation. Cogent Engineering, 3(1). Painuly, J. P. (2001). Barriers to renewable energy penetration: A framework for analysis. Renewable Energy, 24(1), 73-89. Panwar, N. L., Kaushik, S. C., & Kothari, S. (2011). Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 15(3), 1513–1524. Penghao, C., Pingkuo, L., & Hua, P. (2019). Prospects of hydropower industry in the Yangtze River Basin: China’s green energy choice. Renewable Energy, 131, 1168- 1185. Pieri, S. P., IoannisTzouvadakis, & Santamouris, M. (2015). Identifying energy consumption patterns in the Attica hotel sector using cluster analysis techniques with the aim of reducing hotels’ CO2 footprint. Energy and Buildings, 94, 252–262. Prajapati, K., & Barot, A. (2017). Biomass Energy Source , Review study. International Journal of Engineering Development and Research, 5(1), 651–657. Rahbauer, S., Menapace, L., Menrad, K., & Decker, T. (2016a). Adoption of green electricity by small- and medium-sized enterprises in Germany. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 59(1), 1185–1194. Rahbauer, S., Menapace, L., Menrad, K., & Decker, T. (2016b). Adoption of green electricity by small- and medium-sized enterprises in Germany. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 59(1), 1185-1194. Rahman, I., Reynolds, D., & Svaren, S. (2012). How “green” are North American hotels? An xxploration of low-cost adoption practices. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 720–727. Reddy, S., & Painuly, J. P. (2004). Diffusion of renewable energy technologies-barriers and stakeholders’ perspectives. Renewable Energy, 29(9), 1431-1447. Renewable Energy World. (2019a). Geothermal Power and Electricity Production. Retrieved March 30, 2019, from https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/geothermal-energy/tech/geoelectricity.html Renewable Energy World. (2019b). Wind Energy, Wind Power, Wind Farm and Wind Turbine. Retrieved April 1, 2019, from https://www.renewableenergyworld.com/wind-power/tech.html Republic of Ghana. (2015). Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda: Volume 1 Policy Framework. Retrieved from http://www.un-page.org/files/public/gsgda.pdf 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rogers, E. M. (1995). Diffuison of Innovations. In Elements of Diffusion. New York: The Free Press (Fourth Edition). Said, D., Youssef, K., & Waheed, H. (2017). Energy efficiency opportunities in Hotels. Renewable Energy and Sustainable Development, 3(1), 99–103. Schelly, C. (2015). Frameworks for Understanding and Promoting Solar Energy Technology Development. Resources, 4(1), 55–69. Shahsavari, A., & Akbari, M. (2018). Potential of solar energy in developing countries for reducing energy-related emissions. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 90(6), 275–291. Soanes, M., Skinner, J., & Haas, L. (2016). Sustainable hydropower and carbon finance. International Institute for Environment and Development. Retrieved from https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/resrep02667.pdf?refreqid=search%3A2b20a03cc116 68d47a4792e7db162d8d Sonubi, O. K., Ogunjimi, A. A., & Adeyemo, A. I. (2015). Adoption of renewable energy technologies (RET) in tourism industry - (A case of Osogbo and Olorunda local government areas in Osun state, Nigeria). International Journal of Research - Granthaalayah, 3(11). Stathopoulos, T., Alrawashdeh, H., Al-Quraan, A., Blocken, B., Dilimulati, A., Paraschivoiu, M., & Pilay, P. (2018). Urban wind energy: Some views on potential and challenges. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 179(6), 146–157. Tagotra, N. (2017). The Political Economy of Renewable Energy: Prospects and Challenges for the Renewable Energy Sector in India Post-Paris Negotiations. India Quarterly, 73, 99-113. Tewfik, S. R. (2004). Biomass Utilization Facilities and Biomass Processing Technologies. Energy Education Science and Technology, 4, 1–19. Tucho, G. T., Weesie, P. D. M., & Nonhebel, S. (2014). Assessment of renewable energy resources potential for large scale and standalone applications in Ethiopia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 40, 422–431. Twerefou, D. K. (2014). Willingness to Pay for Improved Electricity Supply in Ghana. Modern Economy, 5(5), 489–498. UNECA. (2018). Policy Brief #18: Achieving SDG7 in Africa. Retrieved from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/17565PB18.pdf 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ustad, B. H. (2010). The adoption and implementation of environmental management systems in New Zealand hotels: the managers’ perspective. Auckland University of Technology. Retrieved from https://openrepository.aut.ac.nz/handle/10292/840 Varun, Prakash, R., & Bhat, I. K. (2009). Energy, Economics and Environmental impacts of renewable energy systems. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13(9), 2716–2721. Volta River Authority. (n.d.). 54th Annual Report And Accounts 2015. Retrieved from http://www.vra.com/resources/annual_reports/54th Annual Report and Annual Accounts 2015.pdf Vourdoubas, J. (2015). Creation of hotels with zero CO2 emissions due to energy use: A case study in Crete-Greece. Journal of Energy and Power Sources, 2, 301-307. Vourdoubas, J. (2016). Energy Consumption and Use of Renewable Energy Sources in Hotels: A Case Study in Crete, Greece. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Manage,Ment, 4(2), 2372–5133. Wang, J. C., & Huang, K. T. (2013). Energy consumption characteristics of hotel’s marketing preference for guests from regions perspective. Energy, 52, 173–184. Wang, K., Yuan, B., Ji, G., & Wu, X. (2018). A comprehensive review of geothermal energy extraction and utilization in oilfields. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 168(12), 465–477. Watt, M. E., & Outhred, H. R. (2014). Strategies for the Adoption of Renewable Energy Technologies, (December). White, W., Lunnan, A., Nybakk, E., & Kulisic, B. (2013). The role of governments in renewable energy: The importance of policy consistency. Biomass and Bioenergy, 57, 97–105. World Bank. (2012). Inclusive Green Growth: The Pathway to Sustainable Development. Washington DC. World Energy Council. (2016). World Energy Resources Hydropower | 2016. World Wind Energy Association. (2018). Wind Power Capacity reaches 539 GW, 52,6 GW added in 2017. Retrieved January 18, 2019, from http://wwindea.org/blog/2018/02/12/2017-statistics/ Xia, X., & Xia, J. (2010). Evaluation of potential for developing renewable sources of energy to facilitate development in developing countries. In Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference, APPEEC. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Xuchao, W., Priyadarsini, R., & Siew Eang, L. (2010). Benchmarking energy use and greenhouse gas emissions in Singapore’s hotel industry. Energy Policy, 38(8), 4520– 4527. Xue, B., & Sun, Z. (2018). Economics of hydropower energy: A critical assessment. Energy Sources, Part B: Economics, Planning and Policy, 13(1), 33–36. Zografakis, N., Gillas, K., Pollaki, A., Profylienou, M., Bounialetou, F., & Tsagarakis, K. P. (2011). Assessment of practices and technologies of energy saving and renewable energy sources in hotels in Crete. Renewable Energy, 36(5), 1323–1328. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A: QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HOTEL MANAGERS INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) MASTER’S OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (2018/2019) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON FOR HOTEL MANAGERS Questionnaire number………………… Name and category of hotel: ………………………………………………………… “EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LADMA” This questionnaire is for a research study concerned with adoption of green energy technologies as an alternative source of energy for hotels within the La Dade-Kotopon Municipality (LADMA). The research is purely for academic purpose and all information provided will be treated with the utmost confidentiality. Thank you. You have been selected as the manager or part of the management body of your hotel to participate in this study and I will like to know your willingness to participate in this interview. 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] Please tick the appropriate option and fill in where required. Section 1: Socio-demographic characteristics 1. Age (Years old): 1. 20 – 29 [ ] 2. 30-39 [ ] 3. 40-49 [ ] 4. 50-59 [ ] 5. 60-69 [ ] 6. 70 and above [ ] 2. Gender: 1. Male [ ] 2. Female [ ] 3. Level of Education: 1. Senior High School [ ] 2. Diploma [ ] 3. Tertiary [ ] 4. Master’s Degree [ ] 5. Ph.D. [ ] 6. Others (Please Specify) ……………………….. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section 2: Economic characteristic 4. How long have you been working for this hotel (years)…………………………… 5. What position are you holding in this hotel? ……………………………………….. 6. How did you rise through the ranks to hold this position or you were employed at this position? ……………………………………………………………………….. 7. Can you please briefly explain your role in this current position………………....... ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… Section 3: Characteristics of Hotel 8. How long has this hotel been in operation? 1. 1 – 4 years [ ] 2. 5 – 9 years [ ] 3. 10 – 14 years [ ] 4. 14 – 19 years [ ] 5. 20 years and above [ ] 9. What is the lodging capacity of the hotel (Number of beds)? 1. 1 – 9 [ ] 2. 10 – 19 [ ] 3. 20 – 29 [ ] 4. 30 – 39 [ ] 5. 40 – 49 [ ] 6. 50 and above [ ] 10. Hotel Ownership: 1. Private-Local [ ] 2. Private-Foreign [ ] 3. Corporate- owned [ ] 4. State-owned [ ] 11. Apart from accommodation, what other types of energy consuming operations are provided by this facility? (Please tick as many as applicable) 1. Restaurant [ ] 2. Business Center [ ] 3. Salon & Spa [ ] 4. Laundry [ ] 5. Gym & Fitness Center [ ] 6. Conferences [ ] 7. Others (Please Specify) …................................................. Section 4: Energy Consumption 12. What is the main source of energy for this hotel? 1. National Grid [ ] 2. Fossil Fuel-powered Generators [ ] 3. Solar Systems [ ] 13. Do you have other sources of energy apart from the main source? 1.Yes [ ] 2. No [] 14. If yes, please indicate ………………………………………………………………. 15. What are the basic uses of energy in this facility? (Please tick as many as applicable) 1. Lighting [ ] 2. Cooling [ ] 3. Operation of Machinery [ ] 4. Cooking [ ] 5. Water Heating 6. Others (Please specify) ………………………………… 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16. How much do you spend, averagely, on your main source of energy? ……………………..………… 17. How much do you spend, averagely, on your alternative source of energy if any? ………………………………………… 18. Have there been any measures to save or reduce energy usage? 1. Yes[ ] 2. No [ ] 19. If yes, what are some of these measures? (Please tick as many as applicable) 1. Compact Fluorescent lamp [ ] 2. Fluorescent bulbs [ ] 3. LED lighting [ ] 4. Daylight Sensors [ ] 5. Timers [ ] 6. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………………………… 20. Can you please explain further why you have implemented such measure(s)? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 21. Apart from Electricity and LPG, do you have any other source of energy for cooking, such as gas from Biodigester? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 22. If Yes, which type(s) and what informed your decision on this technology? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… …………………......................................................................................................... Section 5: Types of Green Energy Technologies 23. Do you know about green energy technologies? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 24. If Yes, Please describe the ones that you know ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 25. If Yes, how did you get to know about it? 1. Advertisement [ ] 2. Conference [ ] 3. Product Pitching/Marketing [ ] 4. Others (Please Specify) …………………………………………………. 26. Which of these types of Green Energy Technologies are you familiar with? 1. Solar PV [ ] 2. Hydroelectric plants [ ] 3. Wind Generators [ ] 4. Bioenergy [ ] 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Solar Water Heaters [ ] 6. Improved Cookstoves [ ] 7. Solar Lanterns [ ] 8. Others (Please Specify) …………………………………. ………………………. 27. In your view, which of these technologies is mostly preferred in this Hotel? 1. Solar PV [ ] 2. Hydroelectric plants [ ] 3. Wind Generators [ ] 4.Bioenergy[ ] 5. Solar Water Heaters [ ] 6. Improved Cookstoves [ ] 7. Solar Lanterns [ ] 28. Why the reason for the choice(s)? ……………………………….……………….… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 29. Has the company (hotel) signed on to any Eco-friendly/Green Energy Convention or Commitment/Association? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 30. Please give reasons to your answer………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… Section 6: Underlying reasons for adoption or non-adoption of Green Energy Technologies 31. Has the hotel installed any Green Energy Technology? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 32. If Yes, please state type(s) …………………………………………………………. 33. What year was the installation done ……………………………………………….. 34. Can you please state the place of purchase and the installer………………………… ...............…………………………………………………………………………… 35. What influenced your decision to adopt this Green Energy Technology/technologies (please tick as many as applicable) 1. Business Outlook [ ] 2. Cost Saving [ ] 3. System Efficiency [ ] 4. Environment consciousness [ ] 5. Policy [ ] 6. Education [ ] Others (Please Specify) ……………. ……………………………… 36. How did the various choices contribute to your decision? ……………….………... ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37. What informed your choice of the particular technology/technologies over the others?.......................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... ……………………………………………………………………………………… 38. Is the hotel still using these technology/technologies? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 39. Can you explain in detail your answer in question 34? …………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 40. If No to question 32, why have you not adopted any? (please tick as many as applicable) 1. Cost of Technology [ ] 2. Intermittency of system [ ] 3. Lack of Regulatory Support [ ] 4. Access to Spare Parts [ ] 5. Cost of Maintenance [ ] 5. Size of establishment [ ] 5. Others (Please specify) ………………………………………………… 41. How do these factors specifically affect your decision to adopt? ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 42. Do you have any plan of adopting a green energy technology? 1. Yes [ ] 2. No [ ] 43. If yes, which specific one(s) are you considering? 1. Solar PV [ ] 2. Hydroelectric plants [ ] 3. Wind Generators [ ] 4.Bioenergy[ ] 5. Solar Water Heaters [ ] 6. Improved Cookstoves [ ] 7. Solar Lanterns [ ] Others (Please specify) ………………………………………………………. 44. Kindy give reason(s) for that particular choice(s) ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………… 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45. In your own views, how do you think the adoption of green energy technologies can be encouraged? ..................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................................... THANK YOU FOR TAKING TIME TO PARTICIPATE 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ENERGY COMMISSION INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) MASTER’S OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (2018/2019) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR RESOURCE PERSON AT THE ENERGY COMMISSION “EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LADMA” 1. What is your position in this organization? 2. What are the types of types of green energy technologies used in Ghana? Kindly throw more light on each of the types used. 3. What are the importance of green energy technologies in Ghana? 4. Are there policies and laws that deal with green energy technologies promotion in Ghana? If there are, kindly throw more light on them. 5. If there are policies and laws, on green energy technologies, how they being enforced? 6. Kindly give me an education on the level of patronage of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry. 7. How does the authority promote green energy technologies in Ghana? 8. What support mechanisms does your organization give to hotels interested in adopting various green energy technologies? 9. Kindly expatiate on some of the issues that discourage the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels 10. What are the institutional barriers to green energy technology adoption in the hospitality industry? 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR GHANA TOURISM AUTHORITY INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) MASTER’S OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (2018/2019) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR RESOURCE PERSON AT THE GHANA TOURISM AUTHORITY “EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LADMA” 1. What is your position in this organization? 2. What is your understanding on green energy technologies? Kindly throw more light on this. 3. Kindly give me an education on the level of patronage of green energy technologies in the hospitality industry in La Dade-Kotopon Municipality. 4. What measures has the authority put in place to promote green energy technologies in the hospitality industry in Ghana? 5. Kindly expatiate on some of the issues that discourage the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels. 6. What should be done to enhance the adoption of these technologies by hotels? 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX D: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR LADMA MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) MASTER’S OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (2018/2019) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR RESOURCE PERSON AT THE MUNICIPAL ASSEMBLY “EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LADMA” 1. Position ……………………………… 2. What is the energy situation in this municipality? 3. What is the role of the municipal assembly in addressing the energy situations in the hospitality industry? 4. How often does the assembly advocate for the adoption of green technology to complement conventional energy technologies? 5. Is there any policy on green energy technology promotion in the municipality especially, within the hospitality industry? If yes, elaborate on the rationale behind it, and if no, why so? 6. What are the opportunities and challenges for the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels in the municipality? 7. What are of the key issues that should be tackled to enhance green energy technologies adoption in the hospitality industry in the municipality? 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX E: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PRIVATE OPERATORS / ENTREPRENEURS INSTITUTE OF STATISTICAL, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC RESEARCH (ISSER) MASTER’S OF DEVELOPMENT STUDIES (2018/2019) UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PRIVATE OPERATORS OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES “EXAMINING THE ADOPTION OF GREEN ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN THE HOSPITALITY INDUSTRY FROM 2010 TO 2018 IN LADMA” 1. Kindly take me through the background of your set-up in terms of when it was established, why it was established and how it was established. 2. How has the business fared over time in relations to growth in operations? 3. Who are your major clients and why? 4. Generally, what is the state of adoption of GETs by the hotel industry in Ghana? 5. Please, describe the demand of GETs by hotels from your set-up and the supply services you render to them. 6. Between 2010 and 2018 (“dumsor” period) describe the nature of patronage of GETs from your outfit by the hotel industry in LADMA. 7. What factors informed the patronage of the GETs by the hotel industry from your outfit between 2010 and 2018? 8. As a business set-up, what measures did you and other GETs enterprises undertake to increase the patronage of GETs by the hotel industry between 2010 and 2018? 9. What roles should entrepreneurs in GETs play to influence the uptake of green energy technologies by the hotel industry in Ghana? 10. What should be done in general to increase the adoption of green energy technologies by hotels in Ghana? 102