Journal of Psychology in Africa
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Emotional labour influences on psychological
health: The moderating role of religiosity
Collins Badu Agyemang
To cite this article: Collins Badu Agyemang (2021) Emotional labour influences on psychological
health: The moderating role of religiosity, Journal of Psychology in Africa, 31:3, 261-266, DOI:
10.1080/14330237.2021.1927352
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Journal of Psychology in Africa, 2021
Vol. 31, No. 3, 261–266, https://doi.org/10.1080/14330237.2021.1927352
© 2021 Africa Scholarship Development Enterprize
Emotional labour influences on psychological health: The moderating role of religiosity
Collins Badu Agyemang 
Department of Psychology, College of Humanities, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana
Correspondence: cbagyemang@ug.edu.gh
The present study examined the direct association between emotional labour and psychological health, and the moderating 
role of religiosity among media practitioners in Ghana . Using a cross-sectional design, 336 media practitioners (female = 
31%) completed a survey on emotional labour (surface acting and deep acting), psychological health (general well-being 
and emotional exhaustion), and religiosity . Following hierarchical regression analyses, results showed that while surface 
acting significantly predicted psychological health, deep acting had no significant relationship with psychological health . 
Religiosity had a significant moderating effect on the influence of surface acting on psychological health, through reducing 
the negative effect of surface acting on well-being . These findings underscore the need for emotional management 
competence training and intervention for media practitioners to protect their psychological health . 
Keywords: emotional exhaustion, emotional labour, media practitioners, general well-being, religiosity, Ghana
Introduction people with surface acting report negative work-related 
At the heart of most service sector professional duties, attitudes (Adelmann, 1989; Kim et al ., 2013; Lartey et 
employees are required to be emotionally skilful due to al ., 2019; Wang et al ., 2016) . Therefore, either SA or DA 
the frequent interactions with customers, co-workers, and orientation could influence employee psychological health 
employers (Choi & Kim, 2015; Grande & Sayre, 2019) . (Grandey, 2003; Karim & Weisz, 2010; Lawtey et al ., 
Even though emotional intelligence is crucial within 2019) . For instance, Grandey (2003), Karim and Weisz 
service sector work, emotional labour is emerging as a (2010), and Wagner, Barnes and Scott (2014) reported 
way to understanding the emotional management skills higher emotional exhaustion and psychological distress 
of service sector workers (Chen et al ., 2019; Hochschild, with SA among service delivery employees . Additionally, 
2012; Mróz & Kaleta, 2016) . Emotional labour refers to Cheung and Tang (2010) observed age and sex effects on 
the intentional management and display of specific and emotional labour strategies, with older aged and female 
acceptable feelings by service professionals for their employees likely to express deep acting . However, the 
job roles (Hochschild, 1983) . Jobs which have direct relationship between emotional labour and job satisfaction 
interactions with clients (such as doctors, nurses, media dissipated after adjusting for the effects of job complexity, 
practitioners, teachers, airline staff, social service experts, control, and income (Adlemann, 1989) . Religiosity is a 
call centre employees, and salespeople) are among the well-known influence on how people deal with their life 
occupations with an intense emotional labour process situations, inclusive of work demands (Byrne et al ., 2011; 
(Dursun et al ., 2011; Lewig & Dollard, 2003; Rathi et al ., Harrowfield & Gardner, 2010). 
2013; Yoon & Kim, 2013) . Poor psychological health is 
increasingly being reported among media practitioners Religiosity, emotional labour, and psychological health
(Grandey 2003) and may vary by religiosity . However, Religiosity refers the extent to which individuals engage 
how emotional labour impact on psychological health and in specific religious beliefs and practices (Harrowfield 
the role religiosity plays in this association among media & Gardner, 2010) . It may serve as replenish resources 
practitioners from an African context requires further for managing emotional demands of professional duties 
investigation . This study addressed the knowledge gap (Byrne et al ., 2011; Harrowfield & Gardner, 2010) . For 
on how emotional labour influences psychological health instance, Harrowfield and Gardner (2010) suggested 
among media practitioners in Ghana, a developing country individual religiosity to enhance coping with work 
setting . stressors . Similarly, Turton and Francis (2007) and 
Byrne and colleagues (2011) found higher religiosity to 
Emotional labour: Its nature and significance lower the experience of work distress . This effect may 
Employees deploy two main emotional labour strategies in be from the instrumental role of religiosity revitalising 
the course of managing their emotions; surface acting and employee personal and social resources for coping with 
deep acting (Grandey 2003) . Surface acting (SA) is when work stressors (Day, 2005; Holman et al ., 2008) . Thus, 
employees hide or fake felt emotions . Deep acting (DA) is religiosity is a critical resource for buffering the negative 
when employees experience their genuine emotions . effect of surface acting on health and well-being (Byrne 
People with deep acting report higher job satisfaction et al ., 2011; Harrowfield & Gardner, 2010) . Religiosity 
(Agyemang et al ., 2015; Grandey, 2003; Wong & Law, may serve as a buffer in reducing employee stress and 
2002), perceptions of mutually satisfying relationships enhancing positive well-being (Alferi et al ., 1999), reduce 
with others (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993), and lower employee depression (Nguyen & Zuckerman 2016), 
turnover intentions (Agyemang et al ., 2015) . In contrast, increase life satisfaction, and reduced levels of anxiety 
Journal of Psychology in Africa is co-published by NISC (Pty) Ltd and Informa UK Limited (trading as Taylor & Francis Group) 
262 Agyemang
(Archer et al ., 2005) . Many employees draw strength Research on emotional labour has largely been 
from religiosity and its buffering role among Ghanaians conducted within the Western cultures and among service-
has been well emphasised (Anim, 2015; Oti-Boadi, 2015) . oriented industries (Nixon et al ., 2020) . This study was 
Religious and social coping are the most common and conducted to study media practitioners in a developing 
efficacious forms of resources in dealing with work-life country context where emotional labour is deemed a 
challenges (Osafo et al ., 2015) . Examining the moderating prominent stressor .
role of religiosity on the relationship between emotional 
labour and psychological health of employees will increase Method
our cross-cultural understanding of emotional labour as a Participants and setting
construct . A convenience sample of 336 media practitioners within 
the research triangle of Ghana (Ashanti, Greater Accra, 
The Ghanaian media industry: Its demands on and Western Regions) were participants (female = 31%; 
employees mean age = 29 .29 years; SD = 6 .47 years) . To be included 
With the established ambiguities in findings on emotional in the study, the media practitioners met the following 
labour (Brotheridge & Grandey, 2002; Nixon et al ., 2020), criteria: (i) either fulltime or part-time employees with 
context and cultural leanings may supply some valuable over one-year cumulative work experience in electronic 
answers to refine the concept of emotional labour . Industry media; and (ii) 18 years old and above . Most participants 
culture learning would predispose media practitioners to (87%) worked in private media organisations . Over a half 
assume the voices of others in curbing social challenges (56%) of the respondents worked with radio stations; 
and interrogating the tough questions from their work 36% worked with television stations, and the remaining 
assignments (Thomson, 2018) . Related work stressors and 8% respondents worked with both television and radio 
psychological health outcomes may depend on whether the stations . Most participants (71%) were full-time employees 
employees primarily utilised SA or DA . and self-identified as Christians (92%), Muslims (6 .8%), 
Media practitioners often deal with on-going and ‘other (including traditional African religion)’ (0 .6%) . 
trauma-centred cases, some from the aftermath of 
political upheavals . Trauma centred cases expose media Measures
practitioners to violence, accident scenes, unrest, and Participants completed the Emotional Labour Scale (ELS: 
verbal and physical assaults . For example, the UNESCO Brotheridge & Lee, 2003), General Health Questionnaire 
Report (2015) indicated that one journalist dies every (GHQ-6: Rao et al ., 1992), Maslach Burnout Inventory – 
five  days  from  work-related  events.  In  the  Ghanaian  General Survey (MBI-GS: Maslach & Jackson, 1986), and 
setting, like elsewhere, media practitioners put priority on the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS: Huber & Huber, 
reporting in real time as issues unfold, which places them 2012) .
in harm’s way directly or vicariously through digital image 
exposure (Nyarko & Akpojivi, 2017) . Emotional Labour Scale
However, little research attention has been given to The ELS is a 6-item measure of SA (3 items) and DA 
media practitioners’ work-related stressors, their social (3 items) . Items are scored on a five-point Likert scale 
resources to manage emotional labour experiences, and ranging from 1 = never, to 5 = always (Brotheridge & Lee, 
any potential psychological effects from an African 2003) . An example deep acting items is: “I work hard to 
perspective . Moreover, among Ghanaians, religion tends feel the emotions that I need to show as part of my job .” 
to be an instrumental tool for managing challenges of An example surface acting item is: “I just pretend to have 
life (Assimeng, 2010; Gyekye, 1996; Osafo et al ., 2015) the emotions I need to display for my job” . In this study, 
and media practitioners are no exemption . Thus, religion scores from the SA and DA scales achieved Cronbach’s 
tends to serve as a protective factor against the emotional alphas of 0 .72 and 0 .76, respectively . 
demands of professional duties of media practitioners . 
General well-being
Goal of the study The GHQ-6 consists of 6 questions on a four-point Likert-
The present study aimed to examine emotional labour type scale ranging from 1 = better than usual or not at 
influences on psychological functioning employees in the all or more so than usual, to 4 = much less than usual 
Ghanaian media industry . Accordingly, the study sought or much more than usual . Sample items on this subscale 
to address the following hypotheses in the Ghanaian media include “Lost much sleep over worry”, and “Felt capable 
context: of making decisions about things” (Rao et al ., 1992) . In 
• Surface acting orientation will decrease psychological the current study, scores from the GHQ-6 achieved a 
health (general well-being and emotional exhaustion) . Cronbach’s alpha of 0 .63 .
• Deep acting orientation will increase psychological 
health (general well-being and emotional exhaustion) . Emotional exhaustion
• Religiosity will significantly moderate the relationship Five items from the MBI-GS- assess emotional exhaustion 
between emotional labour (surface acting and deep (Maslach & Jackson, 1986) . The items on the scale are rated 
acting) and psychological health (general well-being on a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = never, 
and emotional exhaustion), augmenting deep acting to 5 = every time . Sample items on the scale include: “I 
effects . feel emotionally drained from my work”; and “I feel used 
up at the end of the workday” . Higher scores indicate greater 
Emotional labour influences on psychological health 263
emotional exhaustion . In the present study, scores from the emotional labour) significantly positively correlated 
MBI-GS yielded a Cronbach’s alpha of 0 .92 . with psychological health variables namely emotional 
exhaustion (r = 0 .14, p < 0 .05) and general well-being 
Religiosity (r = −0.15,  p < 0 .01) . Religiosity was significantly 
The CRS consists of 15 items with five subscales of associated with DA asset (r = 0 .17, p < 0 .01), suggesting it 
three items per subscale (Huber & Huber, 2012) . The to be a workplace coping mechanism .
five subscales are intellect, ideology, experience, private 
practice, and public practice . Items are scores on a Likert Predicting employee well-being from emotional labour
Scale ranging from 1 = never, to 5 = very often . In the As shown in Table 2, the demographic factors collectively 
present study, the Cronbach’s alpha for scores from the contributed 1% of the changes in the employee well-
total scale was 0 .92 . being [R2 = 0 .01, p < 0 .05], which suggests that the 
demographic factors only weakly predicted well-being . 
Procedure Being a female was a significant positive predictor of well-
The study protocol was approved by the Humanities Ethics being [β = −0.16, p < 0 .05] . At step 2, surface acting and 
Committee of the University of Ghana (Protocol number deep acting collectively contributed 3% of the changes 
ECH 099/15-16) . The various media houses in Ashanti, in employee well-being [R2 = 0 .03, p < 0 .01], indicating 
Western, and Greater Accra Regions granted permission that emotional labour is a weak predictor of employee 
for the study . Participants individually consented to the well-being in this setting . Surface acting was a significant 
study . Participants were informed that participation in the negative predictor of employee psychological well-being 
study was voluntary and that their data would be treated [β = −0.18, p < 0 .05], confirming Hypothesis 1 (Surface 
with confidence . The self-administered surveys took acting orientation will decrease psychological health: 
about 30 minutes to complete . The data was collected over general well-being and emotional exhaustion) . However, 
a period of 10 weeks and all key ethical principles were religiosity did not significantly moderate the relationship 
adhered to throughout the data collection process . between emotional labour (surface acting and deep 
acting) and general psychological well-being, contrary to 
Data analysis Hypothesis 3 (Religiosity will significantly moderate the 
Data were analysed using IBM SPSS software version 24 . relationship between emotional labour and psychological 
First, the Pearson product moment correlation coefficients health, augmenting deep acting effects) .
were computed to examine the relationship among study 
variables in the study . Next, a series of hierarchical Predicting emotional exhaustion from emotional labour
regression analyses was implemented to predict employee As indicated in Table 3, surface acting and deep acting 
well-being from emotional labour, as well as to test for the contributed 2% of the change in emotional exhaustion 
moderation effect of religiosity on the relationship between scores (R2 = 0 .02, p < 0 .05), indicating that emotional 
emotional labour and psychological health . The regression labour collectively influenced emotional exhaustion . 
analysis involved three steps: (i) entry of control variables However, surface acting was the only significant predictor 
into the regression equation (age, fulltime employment, of emotional exhaustion (β = 0 .15, p < 0 .05) (Consistent 
and female); (ii) entry of predictors (surface acting, deep with Hypothesis 1, and contrary to Hypothesis 2) . 
acting, and religiosity); and (iii) entry of the moderators Further, the moderating role of religiosity was only 
(surface acting * religiosity, and deep acting * religiosity) . significant in the relationship between surface acting and 
Multicollinearity checks among the predictors using emotional exhaustion (β = 0 .17, p < 0 .01), suggesting that 
tolerance values and variance inflation factors indicated religiosity attenuated emotional exhaustion, if combined 
low levels; allowing the regression analysis (Tabachnick with low work engagement (contrary to Hypothesis 3) .
& Fidell, 2019) . The  significant  moderation  effect  of  religiosity  in 
the relationship between surface acting and emotional 
Results exhaustion is presented in Figure 1 .
Descriptive statistics 
Table 1 presents the data on the relationship among Discussion 
variables . Psychological health was positively associated Results indicate that surface acting significantly 
with emotional exhaustion (r = 0 .19; p < 0 .01) but predicted general well-being and emotional exhaustion . 
negatively associated with surface acting (r  =  −0.15;  However, deep acting did not significantly predict any 
p < 0 .01) . Moreover, surface acting (portending lower of the psychological health variables namely, emotional 
Table 1: Relationship among the study variables 
Variables Mean SD 1 2 3 4
1 General well-being 18 .85 3 .21 –
2 Emotional exhaustion 14 .37 3 .55 0 .19** –
3 Surface Acting 10 .34 2 .21 −0.15** 0 .14* –
4 Deep Acting 8 .15 2 .34 0 .05 0 .02 0 .26** –
5 Religiosity 61 .24 9 .38 0 .06 −0.07 0 .08 0 .17**
Note . *p < 0 .05; **p < 0 .01
264 Agyemang
Table 2: Emotional labour (surface acting and deep acting) as predictors of employee well-being
Beta t p R2 F change
Step 1: 0 .01*
Female 0 .16 2 .89 0 .02
Age 0 .09 0 .58 0 .560
Fulltime 0 .08 1 .02 0 .311
Step 2:
Female 0 .08 1 .13 0 .08
Age 0 .05 0 .49 0 .65
Fulltime 0 .03 0 .09 0 .45
Surafce acting −0.17 −3.11 < 0 .00 0 .03** 5 .26
Deep acting 0 .09 1 .64 0 .10
Religiosity 0 .06 1 .09 0 .28
Step 3: 0 .04 0 .433
Female 0 .05 0 .08 0 .95
Age 0 .03 0 .36 0 .73
Fulltime 0 .02 0 .06 0 .54
Surafce acting −0.17 −3.00 < 0 .00
Deep acting 0 .09 1 .53 0 .13
Religiosity 0 .06 1 .16 0 .25
Surface acting × religiosity −0.04 −0.69 0 .49
Deep acting × religiosity −0.02 −0.29 0 .77
Note . *p < 0 .05, **p < 0 .01 
Table 3. Emotional labour (surface acting and deep acting) as predictors of emotional exhaustion
Beta t p R2 F change 
Step 1: 0 .02* 3 .33
Surafce acting 0 .14 2 .55 0 .01
Deep acting −0.02 −0.31 0 .76
Step 2: 0 .03 2 .29
Surface acting 0 .15 2 .60 0 .01
Deep acting −0.00 −0.05 0 .96
Religiosity −0.08 −1.51 0 .13
Step 3: 0 .05* 3 .95
Surface acting 0 .14 2 .40 0 .02
Deep acting −0.02 −0.26 0 .80
Religiosity −0.10 −1.81 0 .07
Surface acting × religiosity 0 .17 2 .80 0 .01
Deep acting × religiosity −0.06 −0.95 0 .34
Note . *p < 0 .05
5 Moderator
4.5
Low religiosity
4 y = 1.476x + 0.749
3.5 High religiosity
3 Linear (Low
2.5 religiosity )
y = –0.768x + 4.189
2 Linear (High
religiosity )
1.5
1
Low surface acting High surface acting
Figure 1. Moderation effect of religiosity on the relationship between SA and EE
Emotional exhaustion
Emotional labour influences on psychological health 265
exhaustion and general well-being . The finding on the religiosity may be a resource for managing emotional 
predictive strength of surface acting over deep acting labour demands among media industry practitioners . The 
suggests that employees in the media industry may be emotional labour demands explained a small proportion of 
less personally engaged and prefer to use their persona to the variance in employee psychological health . Therefore, 
manage their work situations (see also Lewig & Dollard, media owners should adopt workplace strategies to 
2003; Rathi et al ., 2015) . minimise risks to employees from work-related emotional 
Media practitioners preferred to surface act most of the labour . 
time as they shoulder their work role (see also Lewig & 
Dollard, 2003; Rathi et al ., 2013) . What this means is that ORCID iD
media practitioners in Ghana adopt an outward demeanour Collins Badu Agyemang – https://orcid .org/0000-0003-0490-9193
to  professionally  accepted  displays.  This  finding  is 
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