University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh NUTRITIONAL EVALUATION OF BROWSE-BASED AND CASSAVA PEELS-BASED PELLETED DRY SEASON SUPPLEMENTS FOR GOATS BY EMMANUEL AMPONG (10491467) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL IN ANIMAL SCIENCE DEGREE NOVEMBER, 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to the Almighty God who has protected and brought me this far. This work is also dedicated to my family for their love and support. Finally, to my supervisors who were very supportive and always available to assist me whenever the need be. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AKNOWLEDGEMENT My greatest appreciation goes to the Almighty God for the gift of life and his sustaining grace that has brought me this far. My profound gratitude goes to my supervisors, Prof. Frederick Yeboah Obese and Dr. Leonard Kofi Adjorlolo for their fatherly guidance, help and the many things that they have taught me within this period of study. To my sweet mother Mrs. Akoma Joyce and siblings; Oforiwaa, Amofa, Dwamina and Naomi, I say thank you for your undying support and guidance. I am most grateful. I also express my sincerest gratitude to the rest of the teaching and non-teaching staff of the Department of Animal Science, University of Ghana especially Dr. Raphael A. Ayizanga for helping with the statistical analysis. I thank Dr. Eric Timpong-Jones, the Head of Livestock and Poultry Research Centre, Dr. Felix Sarkwa, Mr. Amos Nyarko, Sir Julius, Mr Solomon Boadu, Madam Princess, Mr Nunoo and Mr. Bashiru Mohammed. Without them, this work would not have been a success. Finally, to Mr. Mark Nsoh and all friends and loved ones, thank you for helping me in diverse ways. God bless you all. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS AACC American Association for Clinical Chemistry ADF Acid Detergent Fibre ADFI Acid Detergent Fibre Intake ADL Acid Detergent Lignin AGD Average Daily Gain ALMS Acacia Leaf Meal-Based Supplement ANF Antinutritional factor ANOVA Analysis of Variance BW Body Weight CDC Centres for Disease Control and Prevention CP Crude Protein CPMS Cassava Peel Meal-Based Supplement CPI Crude Protein Intake DM Dry Matter DMI Dry Matter Intake EE Ether Extract FCR Feed Conversion Ratio FLMS Ficus Leaf Meal-Based Supplement Hb Haemoglobin HCN Hydrogen Cyanide IVDMD In Vitro Dry Matter Digestibility IVDOM In Vitro Digestibility of Organic Matter K3.EDTA Tripotassiumethelyne Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid LIPREC Livestock and Poultry Research Centre LSD Least Significant Difference MCH Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin MCHC Mean Corpuscular Haemoglobin Concentration iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh MCV Mean Corpuscular Volume MoFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture MS Mean Square NDF Neural Detergent Fibre NDFI Neutral Detergent Fibre Intake NFE Nitrogen Free Extract NRC National Research Council OM Organic Matter PCV Packed Cell Volume PPR Peste des petits ruminants RBC Red Blood Cells SEM Standard Error of Mean SLMS Samanea Leaf Meal-Based Supplement TC Total Cholesterol WADG West African Dwarf Goat WBC White Blood Cells v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION .......................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................................ ii AKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................................. iii LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................................................................. vi LIST OF TABLES ........................................................................................................................................ x LIST OF FIGURES ..................................................................................................................................... xi ABSTRACT ..............................................................................................................................................xii CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION OF THIS STUDY .................................................................... 1 1.2 Main objective ........................................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Specific objectives ...................................................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER TWO......................................................................................................................................... 4 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................................... 4 2.1 Small ruminant production in Ghana .......................................................................................... 4 2.1.1 Importance and constraints associated with small ruminant production in Ghana ................... 4 2.1.2 The West African Dwarf goat ................................................................................................... 6 2.2 Supplementation in ruminant nutrition ...................................................................................... 7 2.2.1 The use of pelleted feed as supplements for small ruminants ....................................... 9 2.2.2 The use of tree and shrub leaves as supplements to low quality basal diets in small ruminants ........................................................................................................................................................ 9 2.2.3 Palatability and acceptability of browses by small ruminants................................................. 11 2.2.4 Effects of anti-nutritional factors on nutrient digestibility and utilisation in small ruminants . 12 2.2.5 Effects of feed processing on anti-nutritional factor levels..................................................... 14 2.3 Samanea saman – general description and nutritional value .................................................... 15 2.3.1 Chemical composition of Samanea saman leaves .................................................................. 17 2.3.2 Effects of Samanea saman leaf and pod meals on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants ...................................................................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Ruminant performance on Samanea saman leaf and fruit meals ........................................... 18 2.4 Acacia auriculiformis- distribution and nutritional and health importance ................................ 19 2.4.1 Chemical composition of Acacia auriculiformis leaves ........................................................... 21 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.2 Effects of Acacia auriculiformis leaf meals on feed intake and digestibility in animals ............ 21 2.5 Ficus exasperata – description, distribution and nutritional importance ................................... 21 2.5.1 Chemical composition of Ficus exasperata leaves .................................................................. 23 2.5.2 Effects of Ficus exasperata leaf meals on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants ..... 23 2.5.3 Small ruminant performance on Ficus exasperata leaf meal .................................................. 25 2.6 Cassava peel meal as supplement for small ruminants ............................................................. 25 2.6.1 Chemical composition of cassava peels ................................................................................. 26 2.6.2 Effects of cassava peels supplementation on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants 27 2.6.3 Small ruminant performance on cassava peel meal ............................................................... 27 2.7 Some haematological parameters in WAD goats ...................................................................... 28 2.7.1 Haemoglobin......................................................................................................................... 29 2.7.2 Packed cell volume (PCV) ...................................................................................................... 29 2.7.3 Erythrocytes (red blood cells) ................................................................................................ 30 2.7.4 Total leucocyte count (WBCs) ................................................................................................ 30 2.7.5 Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) .......................................................................................... 31 2.7.6 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) ................................................................................. 32 2.7.7 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC)......................................................... 32 2.8 Some blood biochemistry in West African Dwarf goats............................................................. 32 2.8.1 Serum Proteins...................................................................................................................... 33 2.8.2 Glucose ................................................................................................................................. 34 2.8.3 Cholesterol............................................................................................................................ 35 2.8.4 Blood urea ............................................................................................................................ 36 2.8.5 Triglycerides .......................................................................................................................... 36 2.8.6 Minerals (total sodium and potassium) ................................................................................. 37 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................................... 38 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................................................................................... 38 3.1 Location and duration of experiment ....................................................................................... 38 3.2 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels ............................................... 38 3.2.1 Experimental animals and their management ....................................................................... 38 3.2.2 Preparation of experimental diets ......................................................................................... 39 3.2.3 Acceptability study ................................................................................................................ 41 3.2.4 Voluntary feed intake and growth studies ............................................................................. 42 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.5 Digestibility study .................................................................................................................. 43 3.2.6 Analysis of the chemical constituents in feed and faeces ....................................................... 44 3.3 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of dietary supplementation on the haematological and blood biochemical parameters of west african dwarf goats ..................................................................... 44 3.3.1 Blood sampling...................................................................................................................... 44 3.3.2 Haematological Parameters .................................................................................................. 45 3.3.2.1 Determination of PCV ......................................................................................................... 45 3.3.2.2 Haemoglobin determination .............................................................................................. 46 3.3.2.3 Determination of Total blood cell counts (RBC and WBC) ................................................... 47 3.3.2.4 Red Blood Cell Indices Determination ................................................................................. 48 3.3.2.5 White Blood Cell differential counts determination ............................................................ 48 3.3.3 Blood Biochemistry Parameters ............................................................................................ 48 3.3.3.1 Measurement of cholesterol .............................................................................................. 49 3.3.3.2 Measurement of total protein ............................................................................................ 49 3.3.3.3 Determination of albumin concentration............................................................................ 49 3.3.3.4 Determination of glucose concentration ............................................................................ 50 3.3.3.5 Determination of urea concentration ................................................................................. 50 3.3.3.6 Determination of triglyceride concentration ....................................................................... 50 3.3.3.7 Determination of sodium concentration ............................................................................. 51 3.3.3.8 Determination of potassium concentration ........................................................................ 51 3.4 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats ....................................................................................................................... 52 3.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSES............................................................................................................. 52 CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................... 53 4.0 RESULTS....................................................................................................................................... 53 4.1 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels ............................................... 53 4.1.1 Chemical composition of Grass hay, Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals and Cassava peel meal .............................................................................................................................................. 53 4.1.2 Chemical composition of the experimental supplements fed to West African Dwarf goats .... 54 4.1.3 Preference of West African Dwarf goats for the pelleted supplements .................................. 55 4.1.4 Effect of supplement on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats .......................... 56 4.1.5 Effect of supplements on the digestibility of nutrients by West African Dwarf goats .............. 58 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.6 Effect of pelleted supplements on growth parameters of West African Dwarf goats .............. 59 4.2 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of Dietary Supplementation on the Haematological and Blood Biochemical parameters of West African Dwarf goats .................................................................... 60 4.2.1 Haematological parameters in West African Dwarf goats ...................................................... 60 4.2.2 Serum Biochemical Parameters in West African Dwarf goats ................................................. 63 4.3 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats ....................................................................................................................... 68 CHAPTER FIVE........................................................................................................................................ 69 5.0 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................................................. 69 5.1 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels ............................................... 69 5.1.1 Chemical composition of Grass hay, Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals, and Cassava peel meal .............................................................................................................................................. 69 5.1.2 Preference for the dietary supplements by West African Dwarf goats ................................... 71 5.1.3 Effect of supplement on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats .......................... 71 5.1.4 Effect of supplement on digestibility in West African Dwarf goat ........................................... 72 5.1.5 Growth performance of West African Dwarf goats fed dietary supplements.......................... 74 5.2 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of Dietary Supplementation on the Haematological and Blood Biochemical parameters of West African Dwarf goats .................................................................... 75 5.2.1 Haematological parameters in West African Dwarf goats ...................................................... 75 5.2.2 Serum biochemical indices in West African Dwarf goats ........................................................ 76 5.3 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats ....................................................................................................................... 77 CHAPTER SIX.......................................................................................................................................... 79 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................... 79 6.1 Conclusions .............................................................................................................................. 79 6.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 80 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................................... 81 APPENDICES ........................................................................................................................................ 115 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Feeding materials and their ranks by respondents 38 Table 3.2: Ingredient composition of supplements for the acceptability trial 39 Table 4.1: Chemical composition of Gamba grass hay, Samanea, Acacia, Ficus leaves and cassava peels 52 Table 4.2: Chemical composition of the dietary supplements 53 Table 4.3: Acceptability of supplements fed to West African Dwarf goats 53 Table 4.4: Effect of supplements on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats 54 Table 4.5: Effect of supplementation on the digestibility West African Dwarf goats 55 Table 4.6: Effect of supplementation on feed intake and growth parameters in West African Dwarf goats 56 Table 4.7: Haematological parameters in serum of West African Dwarf goats fed basal diet of Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements 57 Table 4.8: Serum biochemical parameters in West African Dwarf goats fed basal diet of Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements 61 Table 4.9: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights (% of slaughter weight) in West African Dwarf goats 65 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 4.1: Changes in haemoglobin concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 58 Figure 4.2: Changes in PCV concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 59 Figure 4.3: Changes in RBC concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 60 Figure 4.4: Changes in total protein concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 62 Figure 4.5: Changes in albumen concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 63 Figure 4.6: Changes in potassium concentrations in West African Dwarf goats 64 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Goats grazing natural pasture are challenged with seasonal variation in pasture availability and nutritive value. Therefore, improving the nutrition of goats through supplementary feeding during periods of pasture or nutrient deficit is necessary for improved productivity. This study was undertaken to assess the effects of supplementary feed based on three browses (Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis, and Ficus exasperata) and cassava peels on the performance of West African Dwarf goats, on a basal diet of Andropogon gayanus (Gamba grass) hay. An acceptability study revealed that the goats accepted all the four supplements but had a significant (P<0.05) preference for cassava peel meal-based and Samanea saman leaf meal-based supplements over Ficus exasperata leaf meal-based and Acacia auriculiformis leaf meal-based supplements. Although there was no marked difference in dry matter intakes across the four supplements (P>0.05), intake of crude protein was significantly higher (P<0.05) in goats fed ficus leaf meal- based than those fed cassava peel meal-based supplement. All the haematological parameters tested did not show significant (P>0.05) differences across experimental diets. Also, all the serum biochemical parameters tested were not affected, except blood urea concentration which was higher (P<0.05) in goats fed Samanea saman leaf meal-based supplement. The growth and the carcass parameters were also not affected (P>0.05) by the dietary treatments. It was therefore concluded that, Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata leaf meals and cassava peel meal-based pelleted supplements are acceptable to goats and have similar nutrient composition, hence, they could be fed to goats on low quality forages during the dry season with no negative influence on feed intake and utilisation, growth, carcass quality, physiology and health of goats. Keywords: WAD goats, Supplementation, Blood parameters, Carcass parameters, Dry season xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND AND JUSTIFICATION OF THIS STUDY Small ruminant (sheep and goat) production is carried out mainly by smallholder farmers in the Accra Plains using mainly the indigenous breeds West African Dwarf sheep or goat and occasionally, crossbreds (long-legged Sahelian x West African Dwarf). The animals are grazed extensively on natural pasture with little or no feed supplementation coupled with minimal health care (Baiden and Obese, 2010; Ampong et al., 2019). A major limitation in this production system is the scarcity of quality fodder especially during the dry season with reduced levels of essential nutrients especially protein and minerals (Amankwah et al., 2012; Adjorlolo et al., 2016). The inadequate intake of nutrients relative to metabolic demands contributes to low birth weight, weight losses, lowered resistance to disease and poor reproductive performance causing economic loss to farmers (Annor et al., 2007; Konlan, 2010). This adversely affects the livelihood of the resource poor ruminant livestock farmers. According to Osafo et al. (2013), due to the naturally insufficient nutrients in local grasses and cereal crop residues, which are the principal feed materials avaliable in Ghana, such feed resources are not able to sustain effective animal production when animals are fed on such feeds only. The feeding challenge is worsened by the need to confine animals due to increasing cropping close to human settlements and urbanisation of hitherto rural or peri-urban areas (Adjorlolo et al., 2016). Provision of supplementary feedstuffs which are suitable would be a crucial means to enhance ruminant productivity so far as agro-pastoral and smallholder production systems are concerned in Ghana. The need for the development of good supplementation packages, with agro -industrial 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh by-products and leguminous forages which are cost effective and can supply substantial amounts of livestock energy, protein and mineral needs is therefore key. In the past, research projects in Ghana aimed at developing feed supplementation packages as means of combating dry season feeding problems yielded minimal results. This was mainly due to lack of involvement of the farmers in the development of the packages at the inception of the r ese arc h projects and the use of materials which were not readily available in the farmers’ localities. Currently, very few farmers practice supplementary feeding which in most cases involves the use of one feed ingredient. For instance, feeding of cassava peels which is not fortified with any other nutrient source is very common. Variations in nutrient values of the local feed resources necessitate the combination of two or more of the feed resources in order to optimize feed quality and utilisation. This study therefore sought to develop feeding packages based on locally available feed resources (agro-industrial by-products and leguminous fodder plants) that can easily be produced by farmers to improve productivity of small ruminants. With the increase in productivity, it is hoped that the nutrition of the farm family will improve directly through increased consumption o f animal produce or indirectly through increased income. Nsoh (2019) in a recent study identified some common feed resources used as supplements in small ruminants in five districts in the Accra plains in the Coastal Savannah Zone of Ghana. Among these were three browses Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata and cassava peels which were used to develop multi-nutrient supplements and tested in sheep. The 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh effects of the supplements on the growth, physiology and carcass characteristics of goats have not been documented. This study therefore sought to develop multi-nutrient feed supplements based on three browses (Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata) and cassava peels and to evaluate their effect on growth rate, metabolism, physiology and carcass characteristics of the West African Dwarf goat. 1.2 Main objective The main objective of this study was to assess the effects of supplementary feed meals based on three browses (Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis, and Ficus exasperata) and cassava peels on performance of the West African Dwarf goat in the Accra Plains of Ghana. 1.3 Specific objectives The specific objectives were to: i. Determine the acceptability of pelleted supplements based on each of the three browse species and cassava peels by West African Dwarf goats. ii. Assess the effect of pelleted supplements based on three browse species and cassava peels on voluntary feed intake, digestibility and weight gain in West African Dwarf goats. iii. Determine the effect of pelleted supplements based on three browse species and cassava peels on some haematological and blood biochemical parameters of the West African Dwarf goat. iv. Evaluate the effect of pelleted supplements based on three browse species and cassava peels on some carcass parameters of the West African Dwarf goat. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO 2. 0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Small ruminant production in Ghana Small ruminant (sheep and goat) production in Ghana is carried out mostly by smallholder farmers using indigenous breeds (West African Dwarf) and crossbreds such as the West African Long-Legged and Sahelian types. As a result of their relatively small size, small ruminants have shown to be of great benefit to farmers with limited access to land for production and who often have no refrigerators to keep their meat (Ayizanga et al., 2018). Their fast reproductive, fast growth rates and shorter gestation length helps in early return on investment (Oppong-Anane, 2008). The animals are grazed extensively on natural pasture with little or no feed supplementation coupled with minimal health care (Okantah et al., 2006; Baiden and Obese, 2010; Ampong et al., 2019). This leads to low productivity depicted by low birth weight, slow growth rate, delayed puberty, poor conception rates, extended calving and lambing interval (Oppong-Anane, 2013). 2.1.1 Importance and constraints associated with small ruminant production in Ghana Small ruminants have the ability to convert plant carbohydrates and proteins into available nutrients for human use, making otherwise unusable land productive (Lombardi, 2005; Rinehart, 2006). Sheep and goats provide essential resources such as meat, milk, skin and hide for human use, provide manure for fertilizing crop fields as well as employment opportunities (Oppong- Anane, 2013). They also serve as security and a store of wealth for farmers by providing ready 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cash when sold (Karbo and Agyare, 2002; Konlan, 2018). Moreover, small ruminants are also used for socio-cultural purposes including the celebration of festivals, marriage, naming and funeral ceremonies (Karbo and Agyare, 2002; Oppong-Anane, 2008; Konlan, 2018). Although small ruminants provide numerous products that improves the livelihood of smallholder farmers and the economy of Ghana in general, their production is faced with a number of constraints. The major constraint is the scarcity of quality fodder especially during the dry season with reduced levels of essential nutrients especially protein and mineral (Amankwah et al., 2012; Baah et al., 2012; Adjorlolo et al., 2016). The inadequate intake of nutrients relative to metabolic demands contributes to low birth weight, weight losses, lowered resistance to disease, poor reproductive performance causing economic loss to farmers (Obese, 1994; Annor et al., 2007; Konlan, 2010). According to Osafo et al. (2013), due to the naturally insufficient nutrients in local grasses and cereal crop residues, which are the principal feed materials avaliable in Ghana, are not able to sustain effective animal production when animals are fed on such feeds only. Moreover, the difficulty in securing capital from financial institutions and the considerably low government budget allocation for livestock development are constraints that small ruminant production is faced with (Baah, 1994; MoFA, 2010; Oppong-Anane, 2010; Baah et al., 2012). This has led to an average importation of 50% livestock and/or its products to satisfy Ghana’s domestic requirements since only 30% of Ghana’s meat requirements are produced locally (Oppong-Anane, 2011). According to Sadat (2015), the heavy encroachment on farmlands by people in the neighbouring communities for other human activities such as real estate development among others is also a 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh major constraint facing ruminant production, as this reduces the size of pasture lands resulting in a decrease in the available feed for use by small ruminants. This consequently leads to decreased productivity in terms of weight loss, delay in the resumption of the ovarian activity and conception in female animals (Sadat, 2015). In addition to the above challenges are health issues such as annual disease and pest outbreaks with examples being Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) (Baah et al., 2012; Mahama, 2012). An estimated annual economic loss of US$50 million in Ghana has been associated with health problems in ruminant production in Ghana (MoFA, 2012 cited by Nsoh, 2019). Adequate knowledge on the health, feeding behaviours and nutrient needs of small ruminants is vital for managing their overall wellbeing as well as contributing to the livelihoods of people that depend on them (Araújo et al., 2010). Therefore, provision of supplementary feedstuffs which are suitable would be a crucial means to enhance ruminant productivity so far as agro-pastoral and smallholder production systems are concerned in ghana. 2.1.2 The West African Dwarf goat The West African Dwarf (WAD) goat is a predominant local breed found in West and Central Africa (Chiejina and Behnke, 2011; Birteeb et al., 2015; Chiejina et al., 2015). They are mostly reared extensively (Adedeji et al., 2011), or are raised in small herds on mixed farms (Chiejina et al., 2015). The WAD goat has an average matured weight of 30 kg and 20 kg for males and females respectively, measures 50 cm in height and the coat colour varies from white, brown, black and 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh various combinations of these colours (Adedeji et al., 2011; Ayizanga et al., 2018). They reach sexual maturity within 3 – 6 months (National Research Council, 1991). The WAD goat provides a broad range of products such as meat, milk, skin, cash income and manure for crop production, as well as plays socio-economic roles in our society (Peacock, 2005; Chiejina and Behnke, 2011; Ampong et al., 2019). Their shorter gestation length, fast growth and reproductive rates help in early return on investment (Oppong-Anane, 2008). They are acknowledged for their high fertility, prolificacy, trypanotolerance, hardiness and suitability for year-round breeding (Koney, 2004; Oppong-Anane, 2008; Karnuah et al., 2018). 2.2 Supplementation in ruminant nutrition Tropical grasses and fibrous fodder crops in general are poor sources of fermentable nitrogen as their crude protein is below the level required by rumen microorganisms for microbial activities (Nurfeta, 2010; Anderson, 2017; Anya and Ozung, 2018). These low-quality grasses and fodder crops are also low in readily degradable carbohydrates, minerals and other nutrients required to balance the products of digestion to requirements. All these result in limited intake, poor rumen function, increased methane emission and low animal productivity (Kosgey and Okeyo, 2007; Nurfeta, 2010; Anya and Ozung, 2018). Nurfeta, (2010) has however reported that, when these tropical grasses are supplemented with concentrates, their intake and digestibility are improved. Nevertheless, such interventions are not often practiced by smallholder livestock farmers because these farmers consider concentrates to 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh be scarce and expensive to use. To solve these challenges associated with inadequate nutrient intake, there is a need to look for alternative protein sources that farmers can produce on their own farms without incurring much additional cost (Anderson, 2017). The use of alternative nonconventional protein and carbohydrate feed resources to close the feed deficit, reduce feed cost and sufficiently tackles seasonal fluctuations in forage quality and quantity has been well documented in the studies of other authors (Anderson, 2017; Konlan, 2018; Nsoh, 2019; Adjorolo et al., 2020). Supplements are feedstuffs that are used as fillers to a diet deficient in some nutrients in the livestock feed to improve production (Feed Supplements Market Business Opportunities, 2019). The commonly known types of supplements include energy concentrates (grains, cereals and molasses), protein concentrates (soybean meal, cotton seed cake and groundnut cake), non-protein nitrogen and minerals. Supplementation with high nitrogen feeds help enhance the rumen ecosystem by providing energy and nitrogen to rumen microbes. This enables rumen microbes to break down forages that are low in nitrogen, and high in fibre thereby improving the animal’s ability to digest fibrous portions of these forages (Preston and Leng, 1987). The supplementation of low quality feeds with dietary supplements have been reported to enhance the productivity of ruminants (Ondiek et al., 2013; Lawa et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2018; Adjorlolo et al., 2020). 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.1 The use of pelleted feed as supplements for small ruminants Pelleted feeds have been used successfully as supplements for small ruminants. The use of pelleted feeds as supplements has numerous benefits, some of which include: Selective feeding is avoided on those ingredients in the formulation which are more palatable and thus more desirable to the animal; segregation of individual constituents in animal feeds due to varying size and density is prevented; provision of higher bulk density, which has advantages both for transporting and handling, resulting in maximum load efficiency and reduced storage requirements; and improvement in nutrient utilization thereby increasing the feed conversion rate (Wanapat et al., 2013; Ishaq et al., 2019; Song et al., 2021). It has also been documented that pelleting improves the acceptability, density and keeping quality of feedstuffs for small ruminants (Trinh and Wanapat, 2012). Generally, pelleted feeds are produced in an extrusion-type thermoplastic melding operation in which finely divided particles of a feed ration are formed into compact, easily-handled pellets. Binder additives may be used to improve the strength and shelf-life of pellets and to reduce the release of fines during the pelleting process. Preferably, nutritive binder additives are used which also provide essential nutrients such as magnesium, calcium, potassium and/or sulfur to the feed (Wanapat et al., 2013). 2.2.2 The use of tree and shrub leaves as supplements to low quality basal diets in small ruminants The seasonal changes in both quality and quantity of animal feed, particularly native grass and crop residues, is a major challenge to ruminant production in the tropics and calls for exploration 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of some varieties of multipurpose trees and shrubs which maintain their quality and are available throughout the year in order to ascertain their suitability for ruminant feeding (Okpara et al., 2014; Lawa et al., 2017; Brown et al., 2018). As a result of the decreased availability of pasture lands, focus is now being given to tree leaves and shrubs for feeding small ruminants in many parts of the world (Okpara et al., 2014). Multipurpose tree and shrub fodder are important feed resources that can be used to solve the seasonal deficit in feed quantity and quality as they increase metabolizable energy and nitrogen intake and improve animal performance (Kaitho, 1997). Rahman et al. (2015) observed higher weight gain, digestibility and nitrogen balance in goats supplemented with green trees than goats fed on only grasses. Leaves of tree legumes contain high protein and minerals and could be used to supplement grass- based diets in order to improve the productivity of ruminants especially during the dry season (Traiyakun et al., 2011; Ondiek et al., 2013; Muir et al., 2014). Lawa et al. (2017) indicated that leaves of leguminous species contained 25 to 50% more crude protein than non-leguminous plants because they have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. During the dry season, local goat in Timor Island fed native grass supplemented with acacia had an increase in feed intake, maintained their body weight gain better than goats fed only native grasses (Fuah and Pattie, 2013). The improvement in intake, digestibility and general performance of small ruminants when fodder trees and shrubs were used as supplements to low quality diets have been demonstrated by several researchers (Baah, 1994; Damptey et al., 2014; Obese et al., 2018; Adjorlolo et al., 2020). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.3 Palatability and acceptability of browses by small ruminants According to Baumont (1996) and Van (2006), palatability or acceptability often indicates those features of a feed that incite a sensory response in small ruminants, and is considered to be the consequence of the animal’s appetite for the feed. Daly, (2009) defined palatability as plant characteristics or conditions which invoke a response in herbivorous animals as to whether they select or avoid a plant. Palatability is determined by both plant and animal factors (Osuga et al., 2008; Kalio et al., 2012). Factors such as plant age, plant parts, presence of protein, sugar, fat and volatile oils contents, physiological responses from animals, animal memory, an animal’s pursuit to maintain and update rumen microflora and fauna, presence of lignin, crude fibre, tannins and nitrate contents tend to influence palatability in small ruminants (Owen-Smith and Cooper, 1987; Rinehart, 2006; Osuga et al., 2008; Daly, 2009; Lamidi and Ologbose, 2014). Ruminant livestock are particularly known to consume a wide range of browse foliages and are reported to select those that meet their nutritional needs and avoid those that can be toxic (Osuga et al., 2008). Ruminants seek sweetness in their feed, probably because sweet is an indicator of soluble carbohydrates, the most critical dietary element for animals. On the other hand, ruminants tend to reject plants containing terpenes and tannins which are known to have strong odours and astringent taste (Rinehart, 2006; Daly, 2009; Kalio et al., 2012). These reduce voluntary feed intake (Tedeschi et al., 2019) and consequently reduce the growth and performance of ruminants (Lamidi and Ologbose, 2014). Also, ruminant livestock generally prefer and accept less matured and fresh succulent grasses and browse foliages, as matured ones have high lignin content (Lamidi and Ologbose, 2014). 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.4 Effects of anti-nutritional factors on nutrient digestibility and utilisation in small ruminants Anti-nutritional factors are chemical substances that are present in ruminant feed materials prominently in tree and shrub foliages. They serve as defence mechanism against herbivores (Rogosic et al., 2008). Anti-nutritional factors such as essential oils, alkaloids, tannins, saponins and terpenes, have been extensively documented to limit feed intake, digestion and utilisation of nutrients (Daly, 2009). According to Harborne (1993), the presence of these chemical substances in high quantities in feed can be toxic to animals. An animal`s performance is significantly influenced by the digestibility and utilisation of the feed it consumes (Lamidi and Ologbose, 2014). Small ruminants however, often encountered the challenge of feeding on forages which contain high levels of anti-nutritional factors such as tannins, saponins and terpenes (Rogosic et al., 2008). These anti-nutritional factors tend to hinder the animal`s ability to effectively digest and utilise the nutrients available in these forages to promote optimum performance. Tree fodder intake and utilisation by small ruminants are influenced by the chemical substances present in the plant and the physiological capacity of the animal to manage the nutrients or compounds in the feed. Cooper and Owen-Smith (1985) reported that plants that contained more than 5% proanthocyaninidins were rejected by goats as feed during the wet season. The presence of tannins has been reported to be associated with lower nutritive value and lower biological availability of macromolecules like proteins and carbohydrates (Sharifi et al., 2013). Lawa et al. (2017) observed a decrease in intake of nutrients due to the increase of white kabesak leaves level in the concentrate feed and attributed it to the increase of anti-nutritive factors (phenolic compound) and crude fibre. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Abdu et al. (2012) stated that the presence of anti-nutritive factors especially condensed tannin in some tree leaves decreased feed intake and livestock performance, mainly when the tree leaves are fed in large quantity. Digestibility gives a relative measure of the extent to which ingested feed and its nutrients have been digested and absorbed by the animal (Madalla, 2008). The presence of certain chemical and physical substances in forages develop barriers between nutrients and digestive enzymes thereby decreasing digestion. Antinutritional factors such as saponins, tannins and phytates have been shown to form poorly digestible complexes with nutrients (Madalla, 2008). Saponins are capable of inflicting damage on the intestinal mucosa thereby impeding the digestion process (Bureau, 1998). Tannins are complex polyphenolic substances that bind to proteins within the rumen making the bound protein indigestible (Makkar, 2003). Tannins can reduce the rate of digestion; causing livestock to eat less feed, which can reduce animal production (Makkar 2003; Osuga et al., 2008; Daly, 2009). However, ingesting small amounts of tannins can be beneficial. Small amounts of tannins in livestock diets can increase the efficiency of microbial protein synthesis in the rumen (Makkar 2003; Daly, 2009) and increase the amount of essential amino acids entering the small intestine and consequently absorbed into the blood stream (Rogosic et al., 2008; Daly, 2009). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.5 Effects of feed processing on anti-nutritional factor levels Generally, unprocessed legume leaves and other plant materials are known to contain far higher levels of anti-nutritional factors (ANFs) than their processed forms; therefore, processing is necessary before the addition of them into animal diets (Madalla, 2008; Adebowale and Maliki, 2011; Luo and Xie, 2013). The efforts to improve the use of legumes and other plant materials have led to a wide range of processing techniques including cooking, roasting, soaking, dehulling, autoclaving, fermentation, and recently extrusion cooking (Habiba, 2002; Adebowale and Maliki, 2011; Luo and Xie, 2013; Mondal and Payra, 2015). It has been documented that some ANFs like trypsin inhibitor, α-amylase inhibitor, and lectin were greatly reduced by heat, but soaking and dehulling caused a slight decrease or increase in the levels of these compounds (Habiba, 2002; Wang et al., 2009). Soaking is a domestic technological treatment that has been widely used to significantly reduce phytate, trypsin inhibitor activity and tannins in diets (Duhan et al., 2002; Mubarak, 2005, Vijayakumari et al., 2007). It has been observed in previous studies that soaking of leucaena leaf meal in water eliminated all or most of the mimosine, a toxic non–protein amino acid which causes the poor performance of this material (Hassan and Roy, 1994; El-Sayed, 1999; Madalla, 2008). During fermentation, micro flora may produce proteolytic enzymes which may be responsible for the increase in protein digestibility. Also, the elimination of phytic acid contributes to the improvement in protein digestibility of fermented products (Adebowale and Maliki, 2011; Olanipekun et al., 2015). Plant material fermentation appreciably reduced the ANFs and fibre content and increased the plant’s nutritional values (Bairagi et al., 2002; Mondal and Payra, 2015). 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bairagi et al. (2002) reported that fermentation of Lemna leaf meal resulted in a significant decrease in the levels of crude fibre and the antinutritional factors, tannin and phytic acid, whereas, there was increase in the levels of free amino acids and fatty acids. Mukhopadhyay and Ray (2005) also reported that the anti-nutritional factor (phytic acid from linseed meal) could be decreased by fermentation with lactic acid bacteria. In addition to the processes listed above, the inclusion of activated charcoal, polyethylene glycol, and calcium hydroxide to shrubs (Quercus ilex, Arbutus unedo, and Pistacia lentiscus) which contained high levels of secondary compounds such as tannins, saponins, and terpenes was seen to positively influence feed intake, ruminal degradation and fermentation, and utilization when they were fed to ruminants (Van, 2006; Rogosic et al., 2008). 2.3 Samanea saman – general description and nutritional value Samanea saman commonly called rain tree is native to north Southern America, and now naturalized throughout the tropics (Hagan, 2013). The tree is a naturally tall and fast growing tropical tree that can reach a height of 25 meters with a large trunk of about 1 to 2 meters in diameter (Staples and Elevitch 2006; Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012; Banakar et al., 2017). The tree has a wider upper part that is supported by horizontal branches and it has a characteristic dome- shaped canopy in an open environment with feathery leaves (Staples and Elevitch, 2006). The leaves which are 20 to 40 centimetres long and 10 to 34 centimetres in width, are quite sensitive to sunlight and close up in the night (Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012; Delgado et al., 2016). Staples and Elevitch (2006) reported that the leaves contain 22 to 27% crude protein. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Samanea saman tree flowers from January to May and culminates in April and May, however, it varies as results of the area where it grows. The flowering peak occurs in April and May. Flowers are of light pink color arranged in umbels The Samanea saman tree`s pod is straight, non-shedding, a bit fleshy, measures about between 15 to 20 cm long and 2 cm wide, with ellipsoidal and red seeds (Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012). The bark of the tree is characterized with an uneven, grayish brown with horizontal lines (Staples and Elevitch 2006; Schmidt 2008). A matured tree can produce 550 kg leaves on dry matter basis and 500 to 600 kg pods in a year (Idowu et al., 2006; Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012; Banakar, et al., 2017). The effect of replacing corn with Samanea saman pod meal on weight gain and general performance of broiler chickens has been reported by Hagan (2013). In his study, weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion efficiency improved (De la Cruz., 2003 cited by Hagan, 2013). S. saman pods are nutritious with 12 to 18% protein, 40% digestibility and are commonly consumed by small ruminants such as sheep and goats (Staples and Elevitch, 2006). Samanea saman pods are potential supplement for ruminants as they have beneficial effect of increasing metabolizable energy, nitrogen intake, feed efficiency, and improve animal performance (Osuji et al., 1995; Hagan, 2013). A study in Ghana on Samanea saman pods showed that it could be used as protein and energy supplement for ruminant livestock during the dry season (Tagoe, 2011). Also, an increase in dry matter digestibility, nitrogen intake and growth performance were observed when Napier grass supplemented with Samanea saman pods was fed to Djallonke sheep during the dry season (Addey, 2011; Offoh, 2011). . 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.1 Chemical composition of Samanea saman leaves The Samanea saman foliage has been reported to have a mean crude protein concentration between 20-29 %, calcium and phoshorous levels between 0.2-1.3 % and 0.1-0.3 % respectively (León et al., 2012; Delgado et al., 2016; Banakar et al., 2017). The leaves have also been documented to contain 46.3 % NDF, 33.2 % ADF and 14.8 % lignin (Ojeda et al., 2012; Delgado et al., 2016) and high energy value (Delgado et al., 2016). Aside the above mentioned chemical composition of Samanea saman foliage, the foliages also contain secondary compounds (especially saponins, steroids, alkaloids, flavonoids, tannins and resins) that produce substances which serve as defense against herbivores (Jiménez et al., 2003; Delgado et al., 2016). Although they are mainly considered harmful, lower concentrations could be beneficial for ruminants (Delgado et al., 2016). Some researchers have documented that when saponins are consumed, the population of protozoa in the rumen is reduced and this helps nitrogen utilisation especially in poor quality feeds (Hu et al. 2005; Delgado et al., 2016). According to Escobar (1972), the seeds and leaf extract of the rain tree are toxic, as a result of the presence of pitecolobina in them, which is a toxic alkaloid with abortion-inducing properties. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.2 Effects of Samanea saman leaf and pod meals on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants The primary limitation to ruminant production improvement in the tropics is dry matter intake, especially in the dry season. The supplementation with ground leaves and pods of Samanea saman has been reported to increase dry matter intake and digestible energy consumption, without negatively affecting forage intake (Delgado et al., 2016). However, Barcelo and Barcelo (2012) reported a low feed intake of goats fed 100% Samanea saman pods and attributed it to the presence of ANFs in Samanea saman species. Some Samanea saman species contain albuminoid substances and tannins which could lower feed intake and nutrient utilization (Lesseps and Chipanda, 1995 cited by Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012). The leaves of Samanea saman have been reported by Pedraza et al. (2003) to have low ruminal degradability of DM (44.7 %) and OM (47.4 %). They also reported in vitro intestinal digestibility of 34.8 % nitrogen in Samanea saman which was less when compared to Gliricidia and Leucaena which recorded 69.4 and 65.7 % respectively (Pedraza et al., 2003). 2.3.3 Ruminant performance on Samanea saman leaf and fruit meals Several researchers have observed and reported that the use of Samanea saman leaves and fruits as feed supplements to basal diets influenced animal performance positively. The inclusion of 10 and 20 % of the fruits of Samanea saman in the diet of heifers did not affect the development in heifers (Thole et al. 1992). Samanea saman supplementation up to 15 or 30 % with ground or whole fruits in the diet of beef and dairy cows, under grazing, resulted in a weight increase of 4.1 to 5.1 % and milk production increased between 0.5 to 1.1 L per cow per day (Delgado et al., 2016). Roncallo et al. (2009) reported that milk of cows supplemented with 30 % of ground fruits 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh showed higher contents of total solids (1.38 %), butterfat (1.01 %) and protein (0.59 %). Higher pregnancy (16.6 %) was recorded in animals supplemented with raintree fruits compared to the other experimental groups (Roncallo et al. 2009). Navas et al. (2001) opined that the good outcome observed in animal performance and the efficiency of nutrient utilisation when different animals are supplemented with rain tree pods may be due to its effect on the balance between the glucogenic and acetogenic short chain fatty acids and the increase between protein and energy in the nutrients absorbed. It is also possible to use S. saman foliages for the preparation of silages, pre-dried hays, in multi-nutritional blocks and for the preparation of integral rations for ruminants and other species. Chumpawadee and Pimpa (2009) documented in their study that the inclusion of Samanea saman leaf meal increased consumption from 1.9 to 2.6 % liveweight and feeding performance improved as well in beef cattle. The inclusion of 10-30% Samanea saman foliages to diets increased weight gain and milk production in dairy cows and other productive species (Roncallo et al. 2009 cited by Delgado et al., 2016). Barcelo and Barcelo, 2012 reported that the inclusion of 25 % of Samanea saman pods in feeds for goats was the optimum level as the feed conversion efficiency was best in goats fed with 25% Samanea saman pods in combination with 75% Pennisetum purpureum. 2.4 Acacia auriculiformis- distribution and nutritional and health importance Acacia auriculiformis commonly referred to as Earleaf Acacia or Northern Black Wattle is a leguminous, evergreen, fast growing tree which produces abundant foliage and it is able to reach a height of 30m and belongs to the family Fabaceae (Keir et al., 1997; Starr et al., 2003; Eunice and Olamiposi, 2019). A. auriculiformis is native to Australia, Papua New Guinea and 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Indonesia. They are naturally distributed in Asia, Africa, North America, Central America, the Caribbean, South America and Oceania (Boland et al., 1990; Gilman and Watson, 2010; PROTA, 2016). The foliage of Acacia auriculiformis is composed of 91.30 % DM, 20.16% CP and 4.50% ash (Devendra and McLeroy, 1982). Hassan and El-Dayem (2019) reported that acacia leaf meal contains an adequate percentage of CP and Nitrogen Free Extracts content, which implies that it has potential values to supply protein and readily available carbohydrates for livestock. A. auriculiformis has the ability to improve rumen microbial activities such as feed degradation and utilisation since its crude protein content (20.16%) surpasses the 7-8% crude protein recommended for rumen microbes of tropical livestock below which there will be a deficiency in performance (Minson, 1990; Norton, 1994). The leaf, stem, bark and root extracts of Acacia auriculiformis plant have shown antioxidant benefit on living organisms (Singh et al., 2007). The bark extract was used to treat rheumatism by the Aborigines of Australia (Girijashankar, 2011). Several researchers have reported that acacia effectively fights against helminths, filariasis and microbial diseases (Mandal et al., 2005; Ghosh et al., 1993; Eunice and Olamiposi, 2019). According to Eunice and Olamiposi (2019), the root extract could be used to treat aches, pains and sore eyes in humans. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.1 Chemical composition of Acacia auriculiformis leaves According to Reddy and Elanchezhian (2008), Acacia auriculiformis leaves contains 15.50 % CP, 93.95 % DM, 92.5 % OM, 7.53 % ash, 22.1 % crude fibre, 36.94 % NDF, 30.08 % ADF, 14.13 % lignin, 0.90 % Calcium and 0.52% Phosphorous. Acacia auriculiformis contains high levels of galactose, glucuronic acid, rhamnose methylglucuronic acid and arabinose (Anderson et al., 1988). The phenols and polyphenols found in Acacia auriculiformis apply their protective effects through different media such as killing filarial worms and inhibiting the formation of carcinogens from precursor substances by behaving as blocking agents or suppressing agents (Lesca, 1983; Tatsuta et al., 1983; Garai and Mahato, 1997). However, Garai and Mahato (1997) documented that Acacia auriculiformis leaf has central nervous system – depressant and spermicidal activities due to the tannins and triterpenoid saponins found in it. 2.4.2 Effects of Acacia auriculiformis leaf meals on feed intake and digestibility in animals Hassan and El-Dayem (2019) observed increase in feed intake when levels of acacia leaf meal was fed to broilers. They also reported that the addition of Acacia leaf meal improved the digestion coefficients of CP, CF and NFE. Giridhar et al. (2018) reported an in vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) and in vitro organic matter digestibility (IVDOM) values of 64.95 and 32.52 % respectively for A. auriculiformis 2.5 Ficus exasperata – description, distribution and nutritional importance Ficus exasperata which is commonly called sandpaper fig tree or white fig tree in English is a terrestrial tropical shrub. It can attain a height of about 20 meters. Ficus exasperata has scabrous 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and ovate leaves which are about 3-20 by 2-12cm in size (Berg, 1989; Berg and Wiebes, 1992). The leaves have 3 to 5 pairs of lateral veins with the basal pair branched and reaching a margin at or above middle of the lamina (Ahmed et al., 2012). The petiole is about 0.5 to 4cm long while the stipules range from 0.2 to 0.5m long. The figs are found either solitary or in pairs in the leaf axils and rarely on older wood. The figs often appear in pairs in the leaf axils. The bark is smooth, grayish cream with brown streats and it exudes gummy sap (Ahmed et al., 2012). Ficus is extensively distributed in tropical Africa, from Mozambique, Zambia, and northern Angola to Senegal and Ethiopia and also in the southern part of the Arabian Peninsula and India (Ahmed et al., 2012). The ficus plant also grows well in the rain forest regions of West Africa (Gbile and Adesina, 1986 cited by Nsoh, 2019). The leaf extract has been documented to have several medicinal benefits, which include treating haemostative, ophthalmia, hypertensive patients, coughs and haemorrhoids (Ayinde et al., 2007; Odunbaku et al., 2008; Ahmed et al., 2012; Nsoh, 2019). Ficus leaves could be used to scratch skin parts affected by ringworm. The grounded leaves could also be used to treat boils (Okoli et al., 2007; Ahmed et el., 2012). The leaves are also used in the stabilization of palm oil to enhance keeping qualities through the elimination of saponins and the foaming tendency and enhancement of carotenoid levels in the oils, thereby resulting in reduced free fatty acids, acid value and peroxide value (Ahmed et el., 2012). The young leaves are prescribed as a common anti-ulcer remedy (Adebayo et al., 2009; Ahmed et el., 2012). Anti-diabetic, lipid lowering and anti-fungal activities have been reported for Ficus exasperata (Sonibare et al., 2006; Nsoh, 2019). According to Odunbaku et al. (2008), the leaves are used as supplement to basal diets and acts as antimicrobials. In Ghana, the sap is used to stop bleeding (Abbiw, 1990). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The root bark is reported to have been used in the treatment of high blood pressure (Lawal et al., 2009). The boiled bark liquid has been observed to quicken the expulsion of the after birth in cows and hasten childbirth in women (Hallan, 1979; Ahmed et el., 2012) The scraped bark is used to embrocate the body in Southern Africa (Burkill, 1985) 2.5.1 Chemical composition of Ficus exasperata leaves Ficus leaves have been reported to contain 89.78 % DM, 83.8% OM, 13.65% CP, 2.9 % nitrogen, 7.12 % EE, 43.9% NDF, 36.5% ADF, 7.4% hemicellulose, 31.1% cellulose, 2.0% ADL, 6.44% ash, 4.4% calcium and 0.19% phophorous (Dike, 2009; Baah et al., 2011). According to Ijeh and Ukwemi (2007), antinutritional facors such as alkaloids, tannins, saponins and cyanogenic glycosides are present in Ficus exasperata. These ANFs have been reported to negatively affect nutrient utilisation and consequently, the general performance in animals (Ijeh and Ukwemi, 2007). 2.5.2 Effects of Ficus exasperata leaf meals on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants Annan (1998) in a previous study reported mean daily dry matter and organic matter intake ranges from 51.47 to 88.13 g/kgw°75 and 48.02 to 77.42 g/kg W°75 respectively, when sheep were fed cassava peels supplemented with ficus exasperata leaves. He observed that the mean daily dry matter and organic matter intake per unit metabolic body size were significantly influenced by ficus supplementation, and that the values increased with increasing level of supplementation. However, the DM and OM digestibilities decreased with increasing level of supplementation. Baah 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh et al., (1999) reported that Djallonké lambs fed cassava peels as total diet lost weight, however, ficus leal meal improved weight gain (from 44 to 58 g w0.75/d) and dry matter intake of cassava peels. When only the ficus supplement was fed to the sheep ad libitum, the DM and OM digestibilities were 226.0 and 75.5 g/kg DM respectively. Apori et al. (1998) reported a range of 71.8 to 83.4 % and 76.3 to 89.9 % for in vitro dry matter and protein degradability respectively for Ficus exasperata leaves. Baah (1994) reported that ficus leaves had in sacco dry matter disappearance of 48 % and 64 % at 24 and 48 h respectively. There was significant increase of the potentially degradable fraction of the dry matter in cassava peels incubated in animals when ficus leaf was used as supplement. In an earlier study, Ngodigha and Oji (2009) reported that F. exasperata had the highest degradable fraction (73.53g/ 100g DM) among the browse plants studied. The other browse plants which included Dactyledania barteri, Newbouldia laevis, Microdesmis puberula, Manniophyton fulvum and Palisota hirsute had degradable fractions of 38.93, 44.20, 61.56, 41.96 and 20.57 g/ 100g DM respectively. F. exasperata also had the highest predicted voluntary dry matter intake (VDMI) and digestible dry matter intake (DDMI) of 6.5 and 3.7 kg/day respectively. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5.3 Small ruminant performance on Ficus exasperata leaf meal The leaves have been widely used as feed for ruminants. The leaves of Ficus exasperata contain CP levels of 14 % even in the dry season, therefore feeding it as a sole meal or as a supplement would improve the performance of small ruminants (Sarkwa et al., 2011; Adjorlolo et al., 2014; Nsoh, 2019). Baah (1994) observed an increase in live weight gains in sheep fed cassava peel- based diets supplemented with varying levels of ficus leaves. A feed conversion efficiency range of 0.02 to 0.04 kg gain/kg feed and a predicted growth rate of 0.75 g/day have been reported in previous studies where ficus was used (Annan, 1998; Ngodigha and Oji, 2009). Ficus exasperata leaf meal significantly improved the nutritive value of cassava peels fed to sheep (Baah et al., 2011). According to Ijeh and Ukwemi (2007), the presence of ANFs in ficus could negatively affect nutrient utilisation and general performance in animals. Antinutritiona factors that have been reported include alkaloids, tannins, saponins and cyanogenic glycosides (Ijeh and Ukwemi, 2007). 2.6 Cassava peel meal as supplement for small ruminants Cassava peel is the main agro-industrial by-product from the processing of cassava roots to obtain products such as starch and ‘gari’ for human and industrial use (Baah, 1994; Baiden and Obese, 2010; Anya and Ozung, 2018). The peels are important source of energy in ruminant diets and they have been extensively utilised as either the sole meal or as supplement to feed small ruminants (Baiden and Obese, 2010). Cassava peel is rich in metabolizable energy (3.03 Mcal/Kg DM) but low in nitrogen (Anya and Ozung, 2018). In a study in Cameroon, sheep fed increasing levels of cassava peels as replacement for Pennisetum purpureum, with cottonseed cake as the protein source, improved weight gain (Okeke and Oji, 1988; Heuzé et al., 2016). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.1 Chemical composition of cassava peels Cassava peels have been reported to contain 87.4 % DM, 82.4% OM, 5.25 CP, 1.0 % nitrogen, 57.4% NDF, 28.4% ADF, 5.8% ash, 29.0% hemicellulose, 20.8% cellulose, 5.0% ADL, 0.7% calcium and 0.1% phosphorous (Baah, 1994; Heuzé et al., 2016). According to Tewe (2004) and Oboh (2006), cassava peels have phytates and high quantities of cyanogenic glycosides, they should therefore be processed to lower the contents of cyanogenic glycosides and phytate, and to maintain its nutrient quality (Oboh, 2006; Heuzé et al., 2016). Several processes have been employed by some researchers to effectively reduce the cyanogenic glycoside contents. These processes include ensiling, soaking and sun-drying. These processes have produced acceptable outcomes (Tewe, 1992; Salami and Odunsi, 2003; Heuzé et al., 2016). There are two cyanogenic glycosides present in cassava, these are linamarin (80% of total glycosides) and lotaustralin (20% of total glycosides) (Heuzé et al., 2016). Linamarin and lotaustralin are converted to hydrogen cyanide (HCN), that is harmful to animal. The breakage of the cell wall through eating or processing releases HCN. Cassava peels that have been well processed normally have 50 mg/kg levels of HCN or below (Osei and Twumasi, 1989; Nwokoro et al., 2005; Heuzé et al., 2016). (Oboh, 2006). a high phytase level of up to 1% DM could be present in cassava peels (Ubalua, 2007), and a reduction of this level to 0.7% could be achieved through fermentation 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.2 Effects of cassava peels supplementation on feed intake and digestibility in small ruminants Cassava peels have high digestibility of 78% DM and 81% OM of total tract digestibility (Baah et al., 1999; Heuzé et al., 2016). Smith (1992) reported a dry matter degradability value of 70% for cassava peels. According to Fomunyan and Meffeja (1987), DMI, digestibility and growth rate went up linearly with rising cassava peels content in feed. Okeke and Oji, (1988) reported that ensiled mixture of grass-legume (Guinea grass and tropical kudzu Pueraria phaseoloides), in 60:20:20 proportions, poultry excreta and cassava peels fed to west african dwarf goats positively influenced intake and digestibility, as well as normal rumen and blood metabolites. Baah (1994) reported that cassava peels had dry matter disappearance of 43% and 53% at 24 and 48 h respectively. 2.6.3 Small ruminant performance on cassava peel meal In ruminant nutrition, cassava peels can be used as a roughage and as an energy feed source in ruminant diets to achieve optimum performance (Smith, 1992; Heuzé et al., 2016). However, the provision of cassava peels as a sole diet is not recommended as the nutrients present in them is not adequate to improve rumen function and productivity (Heuzé et al., 2016). Optimal utilization of cassava peels can be achieved through the supplementation of readily fermentable protein and by- pass protein, as well as micronutrients (sulphur, phosphorus, and vitamin B). Cassava peels are important source of feed to ruminants if fed in a balanced diet (Smith, 1992; Heuzé et al., 2016). 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Ghana, Larsen and Amaning-Kwarteng (1976) reported weight gains of 0.29 or 0.33 kg/day (vs. 0.07 kg/day for the control diet) in crossbred grazing bullocks supplemented with dried or ensiled cassava peels while those without supplementation recorded 0.07 kg/day. According to Azevêdo et al. (2011), cassava peels can partly replace about 30% of total DMI of energy concentrates, with no influence on the intake, digestibility, microbial efficiency, and nitrogen retention. 2.7 Some haematological parameters in WAD goats Haematological values are of importance in diagnosing many haemoparasitic infections in food animals (Anosa and Isoun, 1980; Daramola et al., 2005; Onasanya et al., 2015) and determining the health status of ruminants (Adedeji et al., 2011; Adjorlolo et al., 2020). Any haematological changes observed through blood analysis are used to determine the body status or health condition, metabolic profile, production patterns and to assess the impact of environmental, nutritional and pathological stresses on the animal (Hagan, 2013). Haematological parameters provide valuable information on the immune status of animals (Kral and Suchy, 2000) as well as serve as indicators of physiological state of animals (Chowdhury et al., 2005; Hagan, 2013). Knowledge on haematological parameters could also aid in formulating breeding programmes. According to Hagan (2013), haematological analysis could help determine the normal physiological values under local conditions for improve feeding, breeding, management, prevention and treatment of diseases. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7.1 Haemoglobin Haemoglobin is generally a large complex, biomolecule which constitute four polypeptide chains. Each polypeptide chain is bound by an iron-containing porphyrin known as haem. The function of the haem is to transport oxygen in the body (Baker et al., 1981; Nsoh, 2019). Located in the erythrocytes is a pigment called haemoglobin which transports oxygen from the lungs to the cells and tissues in the body (Frandson, 1986). The normal physiological values of haemoglobin in goats ranged from 8 to 12 g/dL (Merck Manual, 2012). According to Aseme et al. (2020), high concentrations of haemoglobin may result from infection or stress whereas low concentration below normal indicates anaemia. 2.7.2 Packed cell volume (PCV) Packed cell volume (haematocrit counts) is a measure of a given unit of blood that is made up of cells. According to Frandson (1986), the levels of erythrocyte counts are associated with PCV. Heat stress increases haematocrit counts which can be explained by an increase in the number of red blood cells (Borges et al., 2003; Adedeji et al., 2011). Frandson (1986) also reported that high PCV values result in a condition called haemoconcentration, where the proportion of red blood cells to fluid in the blood is higher than normal. This condition is primarily caused by excess loss of water due to diarrhoea or low intake of water. Factors such as season, sex, breed, and physiological state of small ruminants have been documented to have influence on PCV levels (Turkson and Ganyo, 2015). Frandson (1986) stated that, PCV values are associated with high red blood cell count, which implies that adequate oxygen 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is available to tissues for oxidation to supply energy. The normal physiological values of PCV in goats ranged from 22 to 38 % (Merck Manual, 2012). According to Aseme et al. (2020), high concentrations of PCV may result from infection or stress whereas low concentration indicates anaemia. 2.7.3 Erythrocytes (red blood cells) They are cells that are round or oval and biconcave in appearance. RBCs lack nuclei but contain haemoglobin (Nsoh, 2019). During the process of respiration, the haemoglobin in them transport oxygen from the lungs to the tissues whereas carbon dioxide is carried from the tissues to the lungs for expulsion (Etim et al., 2014; Ocheja et al., 2016). Transportation of low oxygen or carbon dioxide levels to the tissues or the lungs respectively, is an indication of a decrease in the red blood cell counts (Ugwuene, 2011). The normal physiological range of red blood cells concentration reported for goats is 8 to 18 x 1003 μl (Merck Manual, 2012). Normal RBCs levels indicate the transportation of high oxygen levels to tissues and the absence of anaemic condition in animals (Fajemisin et al., 2010; Ocheja et al., 2016). 2.7.4 Total leucocyte count (WBCs) White Blood Cells (WBCs) serve as the defense mechanism which mainly fight against diseases and other harmful foreign materials that enter the body. They contain nuclei and consist of two main types (Nsoh, 2019). These are agranulocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes) and granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils). The neutrophils are phagocytic and attack bacteria or any foreign materials that enter the body; normal neutrophils level may suggest the absence of bacterial 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh infection or inflammatory disease (Naskalski et al., 2007; Konlan et al., 2012). Basophils encompass heparin; the anti-coagulant that is released in inflammatory areas to hinder blood clotting and staticity of blood and lymph (Schalm et al., 1975; Nsoh, 2019). The presence of normal basophil levels implies the absence of hypersensitivity reactions in animals. The eosinophils detoxify toxic substances that enter the body; normal eosinophils levels may indicate the absence of parasitic infections (AACC, 2011). The monocytes are also phagocytic that engulf bacteria and other foreign matter. The function of lymphocytes is to produce antibodies in the blood in response to antigen to protect the body against infections and diseases (Frandson, 1986). Normal lymphocyte levels in the blood indicate that the immune system is not impaired, whereas normal monocyte levels may mean the absence of infections (AACC, 2011). The normal physiological range of values reported for white blood cells, neutrophils, lymphocytes, monocytes, eosinophils and basophils concentration for goats are 4-13 x 109/L, 30-48 %, 50-70 %, 0-4 %, 1-8 %, 0-1 % respectively (Merck Manual, 2012). 2.7.5 Mean corpuscular volume (MCV) MCV is a laboratory value that measures the mean size and volume of a red blood cell. MCV aid in determining the causes of anaemia (Maner and Moosavi, 2020). MCV is also used for red blood cell distribution width calculation. The MCV is a ratio of the mean red blood cell size to the standard complete blood count. MCV within normal range indicates normocytic anaemia, MCV above normal range indicates macrocytic anaemia whiles MCV below normal range indicates 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh microcytic anaemia (Maner and Moosavi, 2020). The normal physiological range is 16 to 25 fL for goats (Merck Manual, 2012). 2.7.6 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin (MCH) MCH quantifies the amount of hemoglobin per red blood cell. The normal values for MCH are 29 ± 2 picograms (pg) per cell (Sarma, 1990). The ratio of the mean mass of haemoglobin to red blood cell in a sample of blood gives the mean corpuscular haemoglobin. Reported normal physiological MCH range for healthy goats is 5.2 to 8 pg (Merck Manual, 2012). 2.7.7 Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration (MCHC) Huang and Hu, (2016) defined MCHC as the average hemoglobin level in a red blood cells. The ratio of haemoglobin concentration to a given volume of packed red blood cells gives the MCHC. Normal physiological range of values of MCHC for goats is 30 to 36 g/dL (Merck Manual, 2012). Decreased production of hemoglobin could lower MCHC (Hill et al., 2009). 2.8 Some blood biochemistry in West African Dwarf goats Blood metabolite profiles provide key information on the nutritional, physiological and health status of animals and could be used in evaluating the normal nutritional, physiological and health status in animals (Adjorlolo et al., 2019). Variations in the levels of blood components of ruminants have been employed as a medium for studying metabolic disturbance, toxicity and used 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as a standard of nutrient status and nutrient value of feeds (Church and Gilbert, 1984; Puoli et al., 1992). Blood chemistry involves the study of the chemical constituents in the blood. Proteins, glucose, calcium, sodium, potassium, triglycerides, cholesterol, urea, alkaline phosphatase and glutamic oxaloacetic transaminase are some of the chemical constituents in the blood. Factors such as age, breed and sex of animal, seasonal differences, nutrition and physiological status are some of the factors that influence blood biochemical components (Nsoh, 2019). 2.8.1 Serum Proteins The components of plasma proteins involve globulin, albumen and fibrinogen (Coles, 1967). The intravenous administration of plasma proteins can efficiently provide the required nitrogen needed by fasted animal (Breazile, 1971). According to Ikhimioya and Imasuen, (2007), serum total proteins aid in osmotic and other cellular activities regulation, immunity and transport of several substances (hormones, lipids, enzymes, vitamins and metals) in the animal’s body. High serum total protein value is associated with the presence of high quality protein in the body of an animal (Tewe, 1985). According to Obese et al. (2018), higher concentrations of total protein in the blood could be attributed to the availability of adequate nitrogen for improved microbial protein synthesis and lower concentrations could be due to low amino acid profile of feeds (Iwuji et al., 2017). Serum concentrations of total protein, albumin and globulin could be used to evaluate the protein status in animals (Ndlovu et al., 2007; Adjorlolo et al., 2020). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Moreover, circulating concentrations of globulin often suggests the immune state of an animal and its ability to defend itself against diseases and infections (Kapale et al., 2008). The liver and the immune system are known to secret globulins. Certain globulins are known to form complexes with haemoglobin to enable them transport iron in the blood stream as well as help prevent infections (Rastogi, 2008). Higher globulin values may suggest the presence of infections and energy deficiencies. Circulating concentrations of globulin are often high during parasitic infections (Kapale et al., 2008; Adjorlolo et al., 2019). Albumin, which is a component of serum proteins maintains the pressure of plasma and regulates the normal supply of water between tissue and the blood as well as transport materials such as macromolecules (Rastogi, 2008). Albumin also prevents the blood from leaking out of the blood vessels. The protein status of an animal is determined by albumin concentration in the blood; high concentrations of albumin in the blood indicate sufficient nitrogen availability for enhanced microbial protein synthesis whiles a decrease in the levels indicate protein deficiency (Agenäs et al., 2006; Obese et al., 2018). A concentration of albumin below 2g/100ml could results in a condition known as oedema (Rastogi, 2008). The normal physiological range of serum total protein, globulin and albumin values reported for goats are 61 to 75 g/L, 2.7 to 4.4 g/dL and 2.3 to 3.6 g/dL respectively (Merck Manual, 2012). 2.8.2 Glucose Blood glucose concentration is an important indicator of dietary energy intake as it reflects energy status in animals (Damptey et al., 2014). Hassan et al. (2015) identified high condensed tannin intake as a cause of low serum glucose concentration in the body of ruminants, as condensed 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tannins decreased feed intake and hence reduce available energy to animals. The normal physiological range of glucose values reported for goats is 2.7-4.2 mmol/L (Merck Manual, 2012). 2.8.3 Cholesterol Cholesterol is an organic molecule which is biosynthesized by all animal cells. It is an essential structural component of animal cell membranes which is predominantly produced in the liver. Cholesterol serves as a precursor for the biosynthesis of steroid hormones, bile acid and vitamin D (Hanukoglu, 1992). It usually occurs as lipoproteins. These lipoproteins are of two types namely, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) (CDC, 2017). LDL, sometimes called “bad” cholesterol, makes up most of the body’s cholesterol. High levels of LDL could result in heart disease and stroke. HDL (high-density lipoprotein), or “good” cholesterol, absorbs cholesterol and carries it back to the liver. The liver then flushes it from the body. High levels of HDL cholesterol can lower the risk of contracting heart disease and stroke CDC (2017). Knowledge on triglycerides and cholesterol together with lipoproteins of low and high density aid in the detection of many conditions associated with metabolic disorders of high risk (Nsoh, 2019). Normal range of total levels of cholesterol stated for healthy goats is 64.6 to 136.4 mg/dL (Merck Manual, 2012). According to Damptey et al. (2014), lower cholesterol values may imply low energy requirements and lower degree of adipose tissue breakdown in the animals. Lower serum cholesterol level is preferable in the production of lean carcass as fat is undesirable to consumers of meat due to the occurrence of cholesterol-related diseases (Salami and Odunsi, 2017). 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8.4 Blood urea Urea is the nitrogenous end product of ammonia metabolism. It is the primary metabolite derived from dietary protein and tissue protein catabolism (Hosten, 1990). High blood urea concentration is associated with impairment of renal functions such as uremia (Coles, 1967; McDonald et al., 2002). Low soluble carbohydrates in feed which prevent proper formation of keto acids and high levels of rumen degradable nitrogen due to increased urease activity have been documented to cause high blood urea concentration (Haliburton and Morgan, 1989). Poor protein quality as well as poor protein utilization in animals could amount to an unusually high urea value (Anya and Ozung, 2018). Normal blood urea value for healthy goats ranges from 4.5 to 9.2 mmol/L (Merck Manual, 2012). According to Hassan et al. (2015), low dietary protein level or hepatic chronic disease causes a decline in blood urea nitrogen concentration while renal failure or body dehydration causes an increase in blood urea nitrogen concentration. Urea concentrations in the blood are increased when there is energy deficiency in animals limiting microbial protein synthesis (Belewu and Ogunsola, 2010; Obese et al., 2015). 2.8.5 Triglycerides A triglyceride is an ester that is obtained from glycerol and three fatty acids (Gunasundari, 2018). They are the primary components of body fat in humans and other vertebrates (Lehninger et al., 2005) Triglycerides in the blood permit adipose fat and blood glucose transference from the liver (Lampe et al., 1983). High levels of triglycerides in the bloodstream have been associated with stroke, atherosclerosis and heart disease (Singh and Afroz, 2017). Normal triglyceride value for a clinically healthy goat ranges from 2.88 to 28.83 mg/dL (Merck Manual, 2012). The age, breed, type of diet fed and physiological state of the animal used may account for the differences. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.8.6 Minerals (total sodium and potassium) According to Adedeji et al. (2011), electrolytes are chemicals that breakdown into their ionic constituents. They function to maintain the body acid base balance. Sodium and potassium are the essential ions for the maintenance of osmotic prssure and acid-base balance of the body fluids. Potassium is involved in antagonism, nervous conduction, excitement, muscle contraction, synthesis of tissue proteins, and maintenance of intracellular homeostasis, enzymatic reactions, osmotic and acid-base balance. Serum sodium and potassium levels are affected by heat stress. Potassium and sodium concentration decrease as temperature rises (Borges et al., 2003). Higher sodium level may be attributed to cellular dehydration characterized by haemo-dilution (Ikhimioya and Imasuen, 2007). The normal physiological serum sodium and potassium range values reported for goats are 140.3-153.9 mmol/L and 3.8-5.7 mmol/L respectively (Merck Manual, 2012). 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Location and duration of experiment This study was conducted at the Livestock and Poultry Research Centre (LIPREC) of the school of Agriculture, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon from November, 2019 to February, 2020. LIPREC lies within latitude 05040’N and longitude 00016’W in the Coastal Savannah zone of Ghana. The rainfall pattern is bi-modal (major and minor season). The major rainy season spans between April and July and the minor rainy season occurs from September to November. The average annual rainfall is between 128 – 1709 mm, and an average monthly temperature of 26.90c. The vegetation cover of the area consists of natural grassland of medium tussock growth with widely-spaced fire-resistant trees and shrubs (Osei-Amponsah, 2010; GSS, 2014). 3.2 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels 3.2.1 Experimental animals and their management In this experiment, 18 growing West African Dwarf goats (comprising of 8 males and 10 females) with a mean liveweight of 10.9 ± 2.07 kg, were used. The animals were kept under intensive system of management in separate pens with good ventilation and cemented floors. The housing unit was roofed with corrugated iron sheets. The pens were 3m x 1.5m in dimension. The pens, feed and water troughs were well cleaned and disinfected before the animals were introduced into them. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Individual pens had two plastic troughs, one for water and the other for the supplement and a wooden feeding trough for the basal diet. The feeding trough was made in a form to minimise feed spillage. The animals were externally treated against parasites with pour-on acaricide and dewormed with Albendazole (10%), a broad-spectrum anthelmintic. 3.2.2 Preparation of experimental diets The leaves of three browse plants namely Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata and cassava peels fed by farmers to their small ruminants in five districts surveyed (Ga East, Ga West, Ga Central, Shai Osu-Doku and Ada West districts) in the Accra Plains were used (Nsoh, 2019). The leaves of the browse plants were harvested from trees around LIPREC. The method of processing the leaves of browse plants and cassava peels to form test diets for feeding the West African Dwarf goat followed that in an earlier study by Nsoh (2019). Briefly, the leaves were shade dried for 9 days under an erected shed and then ground with in a hammer mill (1-mm screen) to form the browse plant leaf meals (Samanea leaf meal, Acacia leaf meal and Ficus leaf meal). Cassava peels were bought from cassava processors, sun-dried and ground in a hammer mill (1-mm screen) to form cassava peel meal. The peels were intentionally chosen to serve as energy source and as a control to the leaf meal diets. Conventional feed ingredients and micro-nutrients were added to the cassava peels and the three leaf meals and pelleted to form four experimental diets, which were used in the acceptability, feed intake and growth, digestibility and haematological and blood biochemistry studies. All experimental diets were isonitrogenous. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.1: Feeding materials and their ranks by respondents Forage used Rank Frequency Ficus exasperate 1 33 Samanea saman 2 25 Acacia auriculiformis 3 49 Cassava peels 4 16 Mistletoe leaves 5 20 Moringa lucida 6 20 Grewia spp 7 12 Albizzia lebbek 8 18 Mango leaves 9 16 Plantain leaves 10 28 Leucaena leucocephala 11 8 Neem leaves 12 8 Securinega virosa 13 8 Avocado leaves 14 12 Khaya senegalensis 15 12 Pawpaw leaves 16 21 Palm fronds 17 4 Andropogon gayanus 18 9 Panicum maximun 19 3 Wheat bran 20 11 Maize bran 21 11 Cowpea haulms 22 3 Corn milling wastes 23 9 Source: (Nsoh, 2019) 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.2: Ingredient composition of supplements for the acceptability trial Supplements Ingredients: (g/kg) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Maize 159 124 165 0 Wheat bran 120 135 108 650 Mineral salt 5 5 5 5 Dicalcium phosphate 5 5 5 5 Sulphate of ammonia 5 5 5 5 Urea 6 26 12 15 Cassava peels 0 0 0 320 Samanea saman 700 0 0 0 Acacia auriculiformis 0 700 0 0 Ficus exasperate 0 0 700 0 Total (kg) 1000 1000 1000 1000 CP (calculated) 160.6 160.1 160.7 160.7 SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 3.2.3 Acceptability study The acceptability study was carried out using five (three males and two females) West African Dwarf (WAD) goats with 11.7 ± 2.4 kg average live weight. The animals were housed separately and provided with fresh and clean drinking water ad libitum. At 08:00 hours each day, the four supplements were given to each animal and was permitted to select for an hour. At 09:00 hour, the leftover supplements were subtracted from the offer to ascertain the quantity of each supplement 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ingested. The basal diet (Andropogon gayanus hay) was then given to the animals without restriction. The animals were allowed 14 days to adapt to the supplements and actual data was taken for seven days after the adaptation period. Table 3.2 shows the ingredient composition of supplements used in the acceptability study. 3.2.4 Voluntary feed intake and growth studies The voluntary feed intake and growth studies were carried out using 18 WAD goats (comprising of 8 males and 10 females) with an initial average liveweight of 10.9 ± 2.07 kg. The WAD goats were allocated randomly to four experimental diets in a completely randomized design with treatments one and three having five replicates (five goats per treatment) and treatments two and four having four replicates (four goats per treatment). The animals were offered Andropogon gayanus grass hay as basal diet and either of the three browses or cassava peels supplements (concentrate) as shown below; TREATMENT EXPERIMENTAL DIET Treatment 1 (T1) Samanea leaf meal-based supplement + grass hay Treatment 2 (T2) Acarcia leaf meal-based supplement + grass hay Treatment 3 (T3) Ficus leaf meal-based supplement + grass hay Treatment 4 (T4) Cassava peel meal-based supplement + grass hay The goats were housed individually and clean drinking water was offered ad libitum. At 08:00 hours each day, a measured amount of supplement corresponding to one-third of each animal’s body weight (nearly 25% of voluntary intake) was offered and after each goat has consumed all 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the supplement provided, the basal diet (grass hay) was then offered ad libitum. Daily feed intake of the grass hay was ascertained by deducting refusal from offer. The animals were allowed 14 days to adapt to the diet and actual data was taken for 83 days after the adaptation period. Body weights were taken every two weeks and feed intake was calculated on daily basis during the study. Feed intake was determined as: Weight offered – Weight of refusal. Final weight of goat−Initial weight of goat Average daily gain was determined as: Number of days of study Feed intake (g) Feed conversion ratio was calculated as: (Tadesse et al.,2016) Weight gained (g) 3.2.5 Digestibility study For the digestibility studies, total collection of faeces was performed using a male goat from each of the four test diets. Faecal collection bags were used to collect faecal samples from four male goats for six consecutive days, starting from 6:30 in the morning and keeping over 24 hours. The faeces were collected after spontaneous defecation, weighed and packed in polyethylene containers. Approximately 10% of the total faeces was sampled for each animal on each day and stored in a refrigerator at -20°C (Sampaio et al., 2011). The faecal nutrient composition was determined by defrosting the faecal samples at room temperature and oven dried at 55℃ for 72 hours. The dried faeces were ground using a laboratory miller of 1mm sieve and were assigned identities with respect to the animals involved. The samples were then subjected to analysis of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), ash, neutral detergent fibre (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) (Silva Inácio et al., 2017). 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The apparent digestibility (%) of dry matter, crude protein, neutral detergent fibre, acid detergent fibre, and organic matter were obtained using the following equation: 𝑁𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑘𝑔)−𝑁𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑎𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠(𝑘𝑔) Apparent digestibility of nutrient (%) = × 100 𝑁𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛(𝑘𝑔) (Silva Inácio et al., 2017) 3.2.6 Analysis of the chemical constituents in feed and faeces The AOAC (2004) method for chemical analyses was used to determine the CP, DM and ash for the feed and faecal materials. The difference between the DM and total ash contents gave the organic matter content in the samples (AOAC, 2004). The neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin were determined according to Van Soest et al. (1991). ADF was deducted from NDF to determine the hemicellulose component in the samples. 3.3 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of dietary supplementation on the haematological and blood biochemical parameters of west african dwarf goats 3.3.1 Blood sampling 10 ml blood samples were taken every two weeks (week 1, 3, 5, 7 and 9) between 7.30 and 8.00 hours from the jugular vein of each goat in Experiment one. First, 5 mls of the 10 ml of blood taken was transferred into a glass vacutainer tube containing the anticoagulant tripotassiumethelyne diamine tetra acetic acid (K3.EDTA). An ice box containing ice cubes was loaded with the tubes and taken instantly to the laboratory for analyses of haematological 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh parameters (Hb, PCV, total RBC and total WBC and their differentials). The other 5 mls of the blood was also transferred into glass vacutainer tubes containing clot (Gel) activator and immediately sent to the laboratory where it was centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes at 4 0C using the Centaur 2 centrifuge. After centrifugation, the sera acquired were carefully collected into Eppendorf tubes. They were then stored in a refrigerator at -20 0C until analysed for biochemical indices including glucose, total protein, albumin, total cholesterol, triglycerides, urea, sodium and potassium. 3.3.2 Haematological Parameters 3.3.2.1 Determination of PCV The Hawksley Micro-haematocrit Reader was used to determine the PCV by following the Microhaematocrit protocol (Samour, 2006). About three-quarters portion of a plain micro- capillary tube was filled with the blood sample of each goat after mixing it well. Plasticine was used to cover one end of each filled tube. Afterwards, the filled micro-capillary tubes with the covered ends directed towards the rim gasket, were arranged in the numbered grooves of the microhaematocrit rotor. The microhaematocrit tubes were spun at 12,000 g for 5 minutes using the micro-capillary centrifuge In the tubes were seen three different strata after spinning; the plasma stratum, the buffy coat and the red cell stratum. The demarcation between the sealant and the red column was made to be on the zero mark (base line) by properly placing individual tubes in the slider slots. The mark on the top of the plasma column was ensured to be in line with the top line (100 mark) by sliding the tube 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh holder. The knob was then set up in a way to ensure that the centre line run through the top of the RBC column. The PCV was determined on the scales on the right corresponding to the middle line on the Hawksley Micro-haematocrit reader (Hawksley, London). 3.3.2.2 Haemoglobin determination Haemoglobin concentration was determined out using the Cyanmethaemoglobin method (Gillet et al., 2009). A chemical solution having a pH 9.6 called Drabkin’s solution was used for the determination. A pipette was used to draw five millilitres of the above-mentioned solution and then transferred into an empty test tube with assigned identities. In a dilution ratio of 1:250, a pipette was used to fetch and transfer 20 µL of whole blood into the test tube that was already having Drabkin’s solution in it. The resulting content in the test tube were properly mixed and made to stand for about 5 minutes. The spectrophotometer was zeroed out using a blank and the absorbance values were taken on a CECIL1000 Series Spectrophotometer (Cecil Instruments, England) at a wavelength of 540 nm. The haemoglobin was estimated from A standard graduation curve was employed to measure the haemoglobin concentration. Four Cyanmethaemoglobin standards solutions having values matching blood haemoglobin concentrations 5.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 20.0 g/dL were acquired from Randox Laboratories Limited (Co. Antrim, U.K) and used in making the graduation curve. The absorbance of these standard solutions was read against distilled water at room temperature at a wavelength of 540 nm. The blood haemoglobin concentrations (g/dL) were ascertained by plotting the absorbance values against haemoglobin concentration. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.2.3 Determination of Total blood cell counts (RBC and WBC) The formol citrate solution and Tuerks solution were utilized in finding the RBC and WBC counts respectively (Baker et al., 1981). Whole blood (20 µl) was suck out with a micropipette and transferred into tubes with the help of a pipette. The chambers of the enhanced Neubauer haemocytometer were gently filled and permitted to stand for five minutes to enable the cells settle down. A light compound microscope at x40 objective magnification was employed to count the cells. The nuclei of the large oval RBCs were stained violet, and the cytoplasm-stained light. The RBCs was counted in the four squares at the corners of the haemocytometer. N Total RBC count was calculated using the formula given by Samour (2006): RBC (1012 /L) = 100 Where: L= Litre N = Number of cells counted in 160 small squares Cells found in the four outer large squares of the haemocytometer was counted and the total WBC counts was determined with the formula given by Campbell, 1995: 9 N x 10 x 200WBC (10 /L) = 9 Where: L= litre N = number of cells counted in nine small squares 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.2.4 Red Blood Cell Indices Determination The formulas given by Reece and Swenson (2004), were used in determining the RBC indices: 𝑃𝑉𝐶 MCV (fL) = ( ) x 10 𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝐻𝑏 MCH (pg) = ( ) x 10 𝑅𝐵𝐶 𝐻𝑏 MCHC (g/dL) = ( ) x 100 𝑃𝐶𝑉 3.3.2.5 White Blood Cell differential counts determination Microscope slides were properly cleaned with ethanol to ensure there were no dirt or grease on their surfaces. Blood samples were obtained from venipuncture and thin smears of it were made on these cleaned microscope slides. They were air-dried, fixed in absolute methanol and stained with Giemsa stain. An oil immersion objective at 1000X magnification was used to study the stained slides. Neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils lymphocytes and monocytes proportions were estimated based on observation of 200 WBC per film. 3.3.3 Blood Biochemistry Parameters The Mindray BA -88A Semi-Auto Chemistry Analyser was used in determining the concentrations of the following blood biochemical indices in the sera that were collected into Eppendorf tubes and refrigerated; total cholesterol, urea, total sodium, total potassium, glucose, total proteins, albumin and triglycerides. The concentrations of the serum biochemical indices were determined against the concentration of the standard and the blank set in the Mindray BA -88A Semi-Auto Chemistry Analyser. The difference between total protein and albumin concentrations gave the globulin concentration (Hsu et al., 2006). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.3.1 Measurement of cholesterol A mixture of 10 µl of serum sample with 1000 µl of the reagent were incubated for 10 minutes at 370C. The absorbance of the standard (AS) and the sample (AT) were measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 505 nm and cholesterol concentration was determined using the formula: AT Cholesterol (mg/dl) = x concentration of the standard AS Where AT = Absorbance of the sample AS = Absorbance of the standard. 3.3.3.2 Measurement of total protein The serum sample (20 µl) was added to 1000 ul of the reagent and incubated for 10 minutes at 20 to 250C. The measurement of total protein was done against the standard and the blank at a wavelength of 540 nm and concentration of the protein was ascertained using the equation below: AT Total protein (g/dl) = x concentration of standard AS 3.3.3.3 Determination of albumin concentration A mixture comprising of 5 µl of the serum sample and 1000 µl of the reagent were incubated for 5 minutes at room temperature. The absorbance of the sample (AT) and standard (AS) was measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 620 nm. The equation below was used in determining the albumin concentration. AT Albumen (g/dl) = x concentration of the standard AS Where AT = Absorbance of the sample AS = Absorbance of the standard. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3.3.4 Determination of glucose concentration A mixture of 10 µl of serum sample and 1000 µl of the reagent was incubated for 5 minutes at 370C. The absorbance of the sample (AT) and that of the standard (AS) was measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 505 nm. The concentration of glucose was measured from the formula: AT Total glucose (mg/dl) = x Concentration of the standard AS Where AT = Absorbance of the sample AS = Absorbance of the standard. 3.3.3.5 Determination of urea concentration The serum urea was determined by measuring the absorbance of sample (AT) and the absorbance of the standard (AS) against reagent blank at a wavelength of 578 nm. The formula below was employed to measure the concentration of urea in the serum. AT Urea (mg/dl) = x Concentration of the standard AS Where AT = Absorbance of the sample AS = Absorbance of the standard. 3.3.3.6 Determination of triglyceride concentration A mixture of 10 µl of serum sample with 1000 µl of the reagent were incubated for 5 minutes at 370C. The absorbance of the standard (AS) and the sample (AT) were measured against the reagent 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh blank at a wavelength of 505 nm. The concentration of triglyceride was determined using the formula below: AT Triglyceride (mg/dl) = x concentration of the standard (Bucolo and David, 1973) AS 3.3.3.7 Determination of sodium concentration The serum sodium concentration was determined by incubating a mixture of 10 µl of the serum sample and 1000 µl of the reagent at room temperature for 5 minutes. The absorbance of the standard (AS) and the sample (AT) were measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 630 nm. The formula below was employed to measure the concentration of sodium in the serum. AT Sodium (mmol/L) = x Concentration of the standard (Tietz, 1976) AS Where AT = Absorbance of the sample AS = Absorbance of the standard. 3.3.3.8 Determination of potassium concentration A mixture of 20 µl of serum sample with 1000 µl of the reagent was incubated for 5 minutes at room temperature. The absorbance of the standard (AS) and the sample (AT) were measured against the reagent blank at a wavelength of 630 nm. The concentration of potassium was determined using the formula below: AT Potassium (mg/dl) = x concentration of the standard (Hillman et al., 1967) AS 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats At the end of the experimental period two goats were randomly selected from each treatment diet and slaughtered at the LIPREC slaughterhouse. After the animals were slaughtered and skinned, visceral parts of each goat such as kidney, heart, liver, lung and spleen were dressed and measured. Dressing percentage was calculated as proportion of hot carcass weight to slaughter and empty body weights. Dressing percentage based on slaughter weight was calculated as; Dressing percentage = (Hot carcass weight (kg)) x 100/ (Slaughter weight (kg)) (Hassen and Ali, 2019). 3.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSES A Completely Randomized Design was used to obtain data from the preference, digestibility, growth, and carcass characteristics studies. The data were subjected to a one-way Analysis of variance procedure (ANOVA) of GenStat Release 12th Edition (VSN International, 2009), whilst that of the feed intake and blood parameters were analysed using repeated measures analysis of variance procedure of GenStat (VSN International, 2009). The Least significant difference procedure of GenStat was used to separate the means at 5% level of significance. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS 4.1 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels 4.1.1 Chemical composition of Grass hay, Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals and Cassava peel meal Table 4.1 shows the chemical composition of the three browses (Acacia auriculiformis, Samanea saman, Ficus exasperata), cassava peel meal and Andropogon gayanus hay that were used in this study. The Andropogon gayanus hay which is the basal diet, cassava peels and the leaves of the three browses had similar dry matter contents (ranged from 88.3 to 91.4%). The contents of crude protein, organic matter, NDF, ADF, lignin and total ash ranged from 5.2 to 22.6%, 81.1 to 85.3%, 46.9 to 72.2%, 28.7 to 47.8%, 3.8 to 7.1% and 5.1 to 11.4% respectively. The leaves of the three browses (Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata) had the highest crude protein contents compared to the grass hay and cassava peels. The NDF content in the grass hay was the highest (72.2%) while that of cassava peels had the lowest (46.95%) in this study. The Acacia auriculiformis leaves had the highest ADF content (47.8%) among the ingredients used while cassava peels had the lowest (28.7%). The grass hay and Acacia auriculiformis leaves had the same but higher lignin content compared to the other ingredients. The cassava peels recorded the lowest total ash content while the grass hay recorded the highest. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1: Chemical composition of Andropogon gayanus grass hay, Samanea, Acacia, Ficus leaves and cassava peels Fraction (%) Feed Ingredients (%) Grass hay Samanea leaf Acacia leaf Ficus leaf Cassava peel Dry Matter 91.4 90.9 90.7 89.8 88.3 Crude Protein 6.2 22.6 14.5 14.4 5.2 Organic Matter 81.1 84.6 83.2 85.3 82.9 NDF 72.2 53.8 62.1 54.4 46.9 ADF 43.5 36.6 47.8 42.5 28.7 Lignin 7.1 5.5 7.1 5.8 3.8 Total ash 11.4 6.5 8.5 6.4 5.1 NDF = Neutral detergent fibre; ADF = Acid detergent fibre 4.1.2 Chemical composition of the experimental supplements fed to West African Dwarf goats The chemical constituents of the dietary supplements are detailed in Table 4.2 In this study, the DM contents of the four dietary treatments were alike (ranged from 89.7 to 90.8%). The contents of CP, OM, NDF, ADF and lignin ranged from 15.9 to 22.3%, 82.4 to 85.2%, 42.9 to 49.1%, 19.4 to 33.8%, 3.9 to 5.3% respectively. Among the three browse leaves, Acacia leaf-based supplement had the highest CP (22.3%) and NDF (49.1%) contents. Cassava peels-based supplement recorded the lowest values in both CP and NDF contents. Ficus leaf-based supplement had the highest lignin content while cassava peels-based supplement had the least. The highest ADF content was recorded in the Acacia leaf-based supplement while the ficus leaf-based supplement recorded the lowest. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Chemical composition of the dietary supplements Fraction (%) Supplement (%) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Dry Matter 89.9 90.4 90.8 89.7 Crude Protein 19.1 22.3 21.7 15.9 Organic Matter 85.2 84.1 82.4 84.1 Neutral detergent fibre 46.5 49.1 46.3 42.9 Acid detergent fibre 28.5 33.8 19.4 31.8 Lignin 4.1 4.4 5.3 3.9 SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 4.1.3 Preference of West African Dwarf goats for the pelleted supplements Table 4.3 shows the details of the preference of goats for the four pelleted supplements. All the pelleted supplements were accepted by the goats however cassava peel meal - based and Samanea leaf meal-based supplements were the most preferred, while the Ficus leaf meal-based supplement was the least preferred. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3: Acceptability of supplements fed to West African Dwarf goats Supplements (%) Means of intake (g) SLMS 168.80b ALMS 93.96c FLMS 48.26d CPMS 190.36a SEM 0.928 P-value <0.001 Means in the same column with different superscript are significantly different (p < 0.05) SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 4.1.4 Effect of supplement on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats The total intakes of DM, CP, OM, NDF, ADF and lignin are shown in Table 4.4. Crude protein intake of 45.0 to 54.23 g/day were observed among the treatments. The crude protein intake was higher (P<0.05) in goats fed FLMS than those fed CPMS. Acid detergent fibre intake was higher (P<0.05) in goats fed SLMS, ALMS and FLMS than those fed CPMS. The ADF intake ranged from 25.54 to 41.43 g/day. The DM, OM, NDF and lignin intakes were similar (P>0.05) across dietary treatments. The values ranged from 306.25 to 388.68, 281.66 to 353.26, 54.31 to 68.97 and 11.02 to 31.41 g/day for DM, OM, NDF and lignin intakes respectively. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.4: Effect of supplements on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats Parameters(g/day) Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Dry matter intake 321.15 306.25 388.68 361.90 74.16 24.45 0.084 Crude protein intake 47.31ab 50.32ab 54.23a 45.01b 8.63 2.84 0.011 Organic matter intake 297.27 281.66 353.26 334.31 68.15 22.47 0.109 NDF intake 54.31 55.56 68.97 58.54 17.08 5.63 0.212 ADF intake 36.85a 40.01a 41.43a 25.54b 10.92 3.59 < 0.001 Lignin intake 27.85 31.41 30.21 21.04 11.02 3.63 0.119 Means in the same row with different superscript are significantly different (p < 0.05); SEM = Standard error of mean; LSD= Least significant difference; NDF = Neutral detergent fibre; ADF =Acid detergent fibre; SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.5 Effect of supplements on the digestibility of nutrients by West African Dwarf goats Digestibility of DM, OM, CP, NDF and ADF were all influenced by the type of supplement fed (Table 4.5). Dry matter digestibility was similar for SLMS, ALMS and FLMS but higher (P<0.05) than CPMS. The dry matter digestibility ranged from 47.72 to 62.67%. CP and NDF digestibilities also followed a similar tend to that of dry matter digestibility. Organic matter digestibility was higher (P<0.05) for goats fed SLMS (52.44%) and FLMS (58.60%) than those fed CPMS (43.14%). The crude protein and neutral detergent fibre digestibility ranged from 38.65 to 47.18% and 30.68 to 40.16% respectively. Also, the acid detergent fibre digestibility in goats fed SLMS (33.40%) or ALMS (34.16%) were higher (P<0.05) than those fed (26.84%) Table 4.5: Effect of supplementation on nutrient digestibility in West African Dwarf goats Fraction (%) Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Dry matter digestibility 57.47a 56.79a 62.67a 47.72b 8.417 2.853 <0.012 Organic matter digestibility 52.44a 51.15ab 58.60a 43.14b 9.134 3.096 <0.018 Crude protein digestibility 46.40a 47.18a 46.45a 38.65b 4.018 1.362 <0.001 NDF digestibility 38.44a 40.16a 36.24a 30.68b 3.966 1.344 <0.001 ADF digestibility 33.40ab 34.16a 29.51bc 26.84c 4.049 1.372 <0.004 Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05); SEM = Standard error of mean; LSD = Least significant difference; NDF = Neutral detergent fibre; ADF =Acid detergent fibre; SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.6 Effect of pelleted supplements on growth parameters of West African Dwarf goats In this study, the average daily weight gain and feed conversion ratios of the goats fed the three browse leaf meal-based supplements and the cassava peel meal-based supplements were not significantly (P>0.05) different (Table 4.6). The values ranged from 9.64 to 13.55 g/day and 27.86 to 50.72 for ADG and FCR respectively (Table 4.6). Table 4.6: Effect of supplementation on feed intake and growth parameters in West African Dwarf goats Parameter Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Initial weight (kg) 10.90 9.75 12.00 10.75 2.89 1.33 0.436 Final weight (kg) 11.80 10.63 12.80 11.88 2.62 1.23 0.399 ADG (g/day) 10.84 10.54 9.64 13.55 6.34 2.96 0.612 Feed intake (g) 321.15 306.25 388.68 361.90 70.32 32.79 0.084 FCR 33.57 35.12 50.72 27.86 27.26 12.71 0.330 ADG = Average daily gain; FCR = Feed conversion ratio; SEM = Standard error of mean; LSD= Least significant difference; SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of Dietary Supplementation on the Haematological and Blood Biochemical parameters of West African Dwarf goats 4.2.1 Haematological parameters in West African Dwarf goats Present in Table 4.7, are the effects of the pelleted supplements on haematological parameters observed in this study. There was no significant treatment effect (P˃0.05) on all the haematological parameters measured. Ranges of 10.00-10.31g/dL), 23.12 to 26.72 %, 11.62 to 13.63X1012g/L, and 11.47 to 11.98x109g/L were recorded for haemoglobin and PCV concentrattions, RBC and WBC counts respectively. Table 4.7: Haematological parameters in serum of West African Dwarf goats fed basal diet of Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements Parameters Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Haemoglobin (g/dL) 10.31 10.05 10.00 10.12 0.369 0.122 0.265 PCV (%) 26.72 24.55 23.12 24.90 4.604 1.518 0.350 RBC (x1012g/L) 13.63 12.18 11.62 12.53 2.624 0.865 0.351 WBC(x109/L) 11.70 11.98 11.94 11.47 0.904 0.639 0.934 Neutrophils (%) 50.84 48.55 45.44 43.95 7.421 2.447 0.189 Lymphocyte (%) 46.88 50.05 51.64 53.00 8.001 2.638 0.360 Eosinophils (%) 0.60 0.90 1.84 1.40 1.129 0.372 0.091 Monocytes (%) 1.68 0.50 1.08 1.15 1.455 0.480 0.372 Basophils (%) 0 .00 0.00 0.00 0.00 - - - MCHC (g/dL) 39.21 41.83 44.85 41.27 6.939 2.288 0.317 MCV (fL) 19.96 20.37 20.56 20.10 2.127 0.701 0.910 MCH (pg) 7.85 8.47 9.23 8.30 1.772 0.584 0.344 SEM = Standard error of mean; LSD = Least significant difference; MCV=Mean corpuscular volume; MCH=Mean corpuscular haemoglobin; MCHC=Mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration; PCV= Packed cell volume, RBC= Red blood cell; WBC=White blood cell; SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Generally, the concentrations of most of the haematological parameers determined remained relatively stable and showed similar trends across dietary treatments during the period of study (Figures 4.1 to 4.3). 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 1 3 5 7 9 Period of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.1: Changes in haemoglobin concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 61 Haemoglobin(g/dL) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 1 3 5 7 9 Peroid of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.2: Changes in PCV concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 62 PCV (%) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 3 5 7 9 Period of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.3: Changes in RBC concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 4.2.2 Serum Biochemical Parameters in West African Dwarf goats The results showed that dietary treatment did not significantly (P˃0.05) influence most of the serum biochemical parameters measured except serum urea concentrations which was higher (P< 0.05) in goats fed SLMS than those fed ALMS, FLMS and CPMS (Table 4.8). Urea concentration ranged from 5.74 to 9.39 mmol/L. Generally, the concentrations of most of the serum biochemical parameers determined remained relatively stable and showed similar trends across dietary treatments during the period of study (Figures 4.4 to 4.6). 63 RBC(×1012/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.8: Serum biochemical parameters in West African Dwarf goats fed basal diet of Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements Parameters Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Total protein (g/dL) 6.00 5.57 5.56 5.94 0.558 0.26 0.145 Albumen (g/dL) 2.98 2.93 2.87 2.81 0.260 0.09 0.519 Globulin (g/dL) 3.06 2.64 2.69 3.13 0.680 0.22 0.291 TC (mg/dL) 55.32 54.44 64.56 68.99 13.98 4.61 0.097 Sodium (mmol/L) 162.3 154.1 158.6 155.5 14.03 4.62 0.568 Potassium (mmol/L) 5.97 6.18 6.17 6.09 0.879 0.29 0.937 Triglyceride(mg/dL) 26.02 24.15 24.87 26.79 4.546 1.50 0.601 Urea (mmol/L) 9.39a 5.74 b 6.51b 6.17 b 2.469 0.81 0.016 Glucose (mmol/L) 1.200 1.375 1.500 1.485 0.378 0.13 0.261 Means in the same row with different superscripts are significantly different (p < 0.05); TC = Total cholesterol; SEM = Standard error of mean; LSD = Least significant difference; SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 Period of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.4: Changes in total protein concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 65 Total protein conc(g/dL) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 Period of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.5: Changes in albumen concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 66 Albumen conc(g/dL) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 3 5 7 9 Period of sampling (weeks) SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Figure 4.6: Changes in potassium concentrations in West African Dwarf goats SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 67 Potassiuml conc(mmol/L) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats There were no significant (P > 0.05) differences in the relative organ weights of goats fed the the three browse leaf meal-based and the cassava peel meal-based supplements in this study. The dressing percentage of the goats on the pelleted supplements were also not significantly (P > 0.05) different (Table 4.9). Numerically, goats on Samanea leaf-based meal (55.30%) had the highest dressing percentage, while those on Acacia leaf-based meal (48.8%) had the lowest. Table 4.9: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights (% of slaughter weight) in West African Dwarf goats Organs (%) Treatments LSD SEM P-value SLMS ALMS FLMS CPMS Heart 0.507 0.544 0.514 0.546 0.34 0.087 0.982 Kidney 0.451 0.542 0.500 0.457 0.38 0.096 0.086 Spleen 0.133 0.168 0.191 0.183 0.23 0.060 0.900 Liver 1.721 1.890 1.627 1.632 0.67 0.170 0.691 Lungs 1.437 1.453 1.287 1.489 0.63 0.161 0.823 Dressing percentage 55.30 48.8 52.2 54.9 12.69 3.23 0.526 SLMS = Samanea leaf meal-based supplement; ALMS = Acacia leaf meal-based supplement; FLMS = Ficus leaf meal-based supplement; CPMS = Cassava peel meal-based supplement 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE 5.0 DISCUSSION 5.1 EXPERIMENT ONE: Preference, intake, digestibility and growth response of West African Dwarf goats fed Andropogon gayanus hay and supplements comprising of Acacia auriculiformis leaves, Samanea saman leaves, Ficus exasperata leaves and cassava peels 5.1.1 Chemical composition of Grass hay, Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals, and Cassava peel meal Apart from cassava peels all the leaf meals of the three browses had higher CP than Gamba grass hay. Also, all the leaf meals of the browses and cassava peel-meal had lower neutral detergent fibre and lignin contents than Gamba grass. This suggests that they could be used as supplements to provide the nutrients that may be deficient in the basal diet of the Gamba grass hay The dry matter of the feed ingredients in this study ranged from 88.30 - 91.40% and these values favourably compared with the range of values (94.38 - 95.86%) reported by Asaolu et al. (2012) for WAD goats fed Moringa oleifera, Gliricidea sepium and Leuceana leucocephala dried leaves as supplements to Cassava peels. Njidda et al. (2018) also reported similar DM values (88.90- 92.10%) for red Sokoto goats fed Daniellia oliveri foliage. The crude protein content of the browse species (Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaves) was observed to be higher than that of the grass hay and cassava peels. This finding is in consonance with the reports of Njidda et al. (2018) that browse forage species tend to have higher crude protein content which remains all year round making them suitable supplements for goats. The crude protein content in the present study compares favourably with the values of 21.9%, 16.4% and 15.9% for 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaves respectively (Adjorlolo et al., 2020). The level of crude protein in the browse species is higher than the 7-8% crude protein recommended for rumen microbes of tropical livestock below which there will be a deficiency in performance of microbes in the rumen (Minson, 1990; Norton, 1994). This suggest that the inclusion of Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals in animal feeds will supply adequate protein to rumen microbes and consequently lead to an increase in digestibility of the feed and productivity in animals. The cassava peels recorded the lowest crude protein value (5.2%). This was comparable to the values of 3.93% and 3.22% reported by Baiden and Obese (2010) and Anya and Ozung (2018) but higher than the value of 2.1% (Adjorlolo et al., 2020) and 2.63% (Akpabio et al., 2012) obtained for cassava peels. Factors including differences in soil quality where they were grown, varietal differences, stages of harvesting and processing methods may account for the differences. The mean organic matter content obtained for Samanea leaf meal (84.6%), compared favourably to the values of 92.03% reported for Samanea pods (Hassan et al., 2015). The mean NDF and ADF values for the Samanea leaf meal was similar to the values of (59.8% and 39.7%) reported for Samanea leaves (Adjorlolo et al., 2020). The mean NDF and ADF values obtained for Acacia leaf were comparable to the values of 60.7% and 49.50% reported for the same species (Adjorlolo et al., 2020). The cassava peel meal had the least NDF and ADF mean values. The mean NDF and ADF values for cassava peel meal compared favourably to the NDF and ADF values of (46.30% and 21.6%) reported by Niayale (2017). The lignin contents obtained for Samanea leaf (5.5%), Acacia leaf (7.1%), Ficus leaf (5.8%) and cassava peel (3.8%) meals compared favourably to the range of 6-14% reported by Juárez et al. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2004) for tree legumes. The total ash values recorded were comparable to the values (6.36, 6.43 and 6.40%) reported for West African Dwarf bucks fed raw and processed cocoa pod husk meal- based diets in the humid high rainforest zone of Nigeria (Anya et al., 2018). 5.1.2 Preference for the dietary supplements by West African Dwarf goats The four dietary supplements were accepted by the goats with CPMS having the highest preference followed by SLMS and ALMS. The FLMS was the least preferred. Other studies (Obour et al., 2015; Mamer, 2017; Okoruwa, 2019) have showed that increase or decrease in preference could be due to condensed tannin contents, toxin content, smell, palatability, texture of diets and nutritional needs of the animals. The FLMS being the least preferred dietary supplement in this study is in agreement with what was reported by Adjorlolo et al. (2016) in a previous study in sheep. High crude protein content has been observed to increase preference and intake of forages (NRC, 2000), although this observation was not established in this study. 5.1.3 Effect of supplement on voluntary feed intake in West African Dwarf goats The dry matter intakes were comparable among the dietary treatments and this could have resulted in the similar extents of the basal diet consumption in spite of the varying crude protein levels. These observations were in accordance with the previous finding by Adjorlolo et al. (2020). The significantly higher crude protein intake in goats fed the Ficus leaf meal-based supplement compared to those fed the cassava peel meal-based supplement could be attributed to the higher crude protein content of the Ficus leaf meal-based supplement resulting from the higher crude protein content of the Ficus leaf meal used (14.4%) compared with values as low as 6.9% reported by Bello et al. (2014). The lowest crude protein intake observed in goats on the cassava peel meal- 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh based supplement could be ascribed to the low concentration of crude protein in that supplement fed to the goats. The similar NDF and lignin intakes in the goats on the dietary treatment could be attributed to their similar levels in the feed and also the similar dry matter intakes. The higher ADF intake in goats fed the three browse-based supplements than those fed the cassava peel-based supplement may be due to the moderate levels of antinutritional factors present in them which could not have negatively affected the rumen environment but helped in ADF digestion hence increasing the intake of ADF (Obasi et al., 2010). The lower ADF intake in the cassava peel meal-based supplement could be attributed to the high levels of cyanogenic glycosides in the dried cassava peel meal supplement which might have adversely affected the rumen environment inhibiting ADF digestion thereby reducing the intake of ADF. 5.1.4 Effect of supplement on digestibility in West African Dwarf goat The lower dry matter digestibility in goats fed Cassava peel meal-based supplement compared to the other treatments could be attributed to lower crude protein intake of this supplement. This suggest that for goats on grass hay nitrogen is the more limiting nutrient for the rumen microbes, compared with starch which is high in the cassava peels. Also, anti-nutritional factors such as cyanogenic glycosides in the cassava peels might have slowed down microbial action and thereby decreased dry matter digestibility. Anti-nutritional factors are known to interfere with normal digestion, metabolism and absorption of nutrients (Gilani et al., 2005). Crude protein and neutral detergent fibre digestibility also followed a similar trend to that of dry matter digestibility. 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The higher crude protein intake of goats fed Samea leaf meal, Acacia leaf meal and ficus leaf meal- based supplements over the Cassava peel meal-based supplement could have enhanced the digestibility of crude protein and neutral detergent fibre in these supplements than the Cassava peel meal-based supplement. The leaves of trees and shrubs are high in readily degradable nitrogen and some by-pass protein. Inclusion of such browses in ruminant diets will cause faster fermentation rate and substrate degradation hence increasing dry matter intake. The dry matter and crude protein digestibility obtained were comparable to the 54.7 to 68% and 44.0 to 59.0% respectively reported when Red Sokoto goats were fed elephant grass (Pennisetum purpereum) ensiled with varying proportions of cassava peels (Olorunnisimo, 2011). The high organic matter digestibility for Acacia leaf meal-based and Ficus leaf meal-based diets than the Cassava peel meal-based diet could be due to the provision of adequate nutrients to the rumen microbes with consequent improvement in organic matter intake whilst higher levels of cyanogenic glycosides in Cassava peel meal-based adversely affected rumen microbial activity resulting in lower organic matter digestibility. Also, the lower crude protein digestibility in goats fed the Cassava peel meal-based diet may account for their lowest organic matter digestibility. The neutral detergent fibre digestibility was higher for Samanea leaf meal-based and Ficus leaf meal- based supplement than Cassava peel meal-based supplement probably due to moderate concentrations of secondary metabolites in the Samanea, Acacia and Ficus leaf meals that might have had positive influence on rumen microbes in accordance with some reports that low or moderate concentrations of secondary metabolites positively impacts rumen fermentation (Salem et al., 2006; Jiménez-Peralta, 2011). The low crude protein level in Cassava peel meal-based supplement could have inhibited rumen activity thus decreasing digestibility of neutral detergent fibre of goats fed that diet. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1.5 Growth performance of West African Dwarf goats fed dietary supplements Similarity in weight gain for goats on Cassava peel meal-based supplement to the other treatments, in spite of the differences in digestibility, may suggest similar metabolisable energy intake due to higher level of digestible starch in cassava peels. Daily weight gain ranged from 9.64 to 13.55 g/day and feed conversion ratio ranged from 27.86 to 50.72. The average daily weight gains were comparable to the 10.4 to 18.7 g/day obtained when Philippine native goats were fed concentrates with different inclusion levels of Samanea Saman (Morais et al., 2018) but lower than in other studies when goats were fed grass hay basal diets or grass and silage diets supplemented with browse tree leaves or leguminous tree foliage (Okoruwa, 2020; Okoruwa and Ikhimioya, 2020). The mean FCR values recorded were comparable to the values (21.16-23.34) reported for West African Dwarf goats fed Agro-industrial by-products and Pennisetum purpureum hay as dry season feed (Obe and Yusuf, 2017), but were poorer than the 8.0-26.8, 17.0-28.0 and 14.94-19.39 g/day values reported by Mukandiwa et al. (2010), Trinh et al. (2009) and Asaolu et al. (2012) respectively. The variations in the FCR values could be due to differences in breeds used and intake. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2 EXPERIMENT TWO: Effect of Dietary Supplementation on the Haematological and Blood Biochemical parameters of West African Dwarf goats 5.2.1 Haematological parameters in West African Dwarf goats Blood indices serve as useful indicators of nutritional, physiologic, metabolic and health status of farm animals (Mirzadeh et al., 2010; Onasanya et al., 2015) and hence essential in evaluating the suitability of introduced feed resources. The non-significant but similar concentrations of haematological parameters recorded (Table 4.7) suggest similar ability of the dietary treatments in enhancing the production of haemoglobin for efficient transportation of gases, normal synthesis of RBCs and production of enough WBCs to adequately defend the body against infections. The inclusion of the supplement diets not adversely affect the health of the goats indicating that the quality of the supplementary diets were good to help sustain growth of goats during periods when animals rely on poor quality fodder. Most of the levels of the haematological parameters measured were within the normal physiological ranges reported for goats (Merck Manual, 2012) and were also comparable to the values reported by Baiden et al. (2007) when West African Dwarf goats were fed varying levels of cassava pulp as a replacement for cassava peels. The elevated serum MCH values (8.30-9.23 pg) in goats fed Acacia leaf meal-based supplement, Ficus leaf meal based supplement and Cassava leaf meal-based supplement, and MCHC values (39.21 to 41.83) in the three browse-based supplements and cassava peel-based supplement than normal MCH (5-8 pg) and MCHC (30-36 g/dL) may suggest the presence of macrocytic anaemia usually related to vitamin B12 and folic acid deficiency (Latimer et al., 2003). However, goats on 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh these diets were apparently healthy. Goats fed Samanea leaf meal-based supplement had lower lymphocyte level than the normal physiological range due their very high percentage of neutrophils. 5.2.2 Serum biochemical indices in West African Dwarf goats The higher serum urea concentrations in goats fed Samanea leaf meal-based supplement than those fed Acacia leaf meal-based supplement, Ficus leaf meal-based supplement and Cassava peel meal- based supplement (Table 4.8) might be due to the higher crude protein levels in the Samanea leaf meal than the Acacia and Ficus leaf meals and the cassava peel meal. Also, the slightly higher concentration of urea than the normal range in goats fed SLMS may be due to inefficient utilization of protein leading to increased catabolism of proteins (Oduye and Adadevoh, 1976). Most concentrations of the serum biochemical indices determined were, however within the normal physiological range reported for goats (Merck Manual, 2012) suggesting that feeding the supplements did not have adverse effects on the physiology of the West African Dwarf goats. The concentration of the biochemical parameters recorded compared favourably to the values obtained by Hassan et al. (2015) when they fed some forage shrubs made up of Acacia, Leucaena and Moringa to goats during the dry season. The low feed intake of the goats on the various diets may account for their lower glucose and protein concentrations than the normal physiological ranges. It is reported that higher cholesterol concentrations of goats may suggest hepatic disease (Özsoy et al., 2013; Salami and Odunsi, 2017). The cholesterol levels in goats fed Samanea leaf meal-based supplement, Ficus leaf-meal based supplement and Cassava peel meal-based supplement were higher than the normal ranges. However, goats on these diets were normal and did not display any symptoms of liver disease. The 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh serum cholesterol values obtained were comparable to the reported values (58.0-60.67 mg/dL) for goats (Özsoy et al., 2013) but lower than the values (87.03-108.47 mg/dL) reported for West African Dwarf goats fed some browse species supplemented with a concentrate diet (Amina et al., 2020) The higher serum sodium concentrations than the normal physiological range in goats fed Samanea leaf meal-based supplement and Ficus leaf meal-based supplement may be due to kidney disease or dehydration however the goats on these treatments were apparently normal. Generally higher sodium level may be attributed to cellular dehydration characterized by haemo-dilution (Ikhimioya and Imasuen, 2007). 5.3 EXPERIMENT THREE: Effect of supplements on dressing percentage and organ weights in West African Dwarf goats The dressing percentages and organ weights obtained in this study were not significantly different across the dietary treatments. This is an indication that the dietary supplements were well utilized by the goats without any adverse effects on their organ development (Tadesse et al., 2016; Omachi et al., 2019; Gboshe and Ukorebi, 2020). The internal organs such as the liver and heart would vary by enlargement if the diets contained poisonous substances. The non-significance in the values for kidney which is an excretory organ across the test diets indicate that the kidney was not overburdened, thus the excretory functions of the goats were not negatively affected (Ocheja et al., 2016). An increase in metabolic activities is usually associated with an increase in the size of the liver during detoxification and it is a common practice in feeding trials to use weights of liver and kidney as indicators of toxicity in feed (Akinmutimi, 2007; Anya and Ozung, 2018). The use of feed 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh samples containing toxic elements in feeding trials results in abnormalities in the weight of organs and these abnormalities arise due to increased metabolic rate of the organs in an attempt to reduce these toxic elements to nontoxic elements (Bone 1979; Anya and Ozung, 2018). The simiar dressing percentages and organ weights obtained in this study confirm earlier findings by Anya and Ozung (2018) who observed no significat difference in organ weights for the same breed fed cassava peel meal-based diets supplemented with African Yam Bean concentrate. Studies by Devendra and McLeroy (1982) and Gboshe and Ukorebi (2020) indicated that most small ruminants in the tropics on balanced diets dress out at 40-50%. The values for dressing percentage obtained in this study were within the general range of 45 - 52% reported by Nuru (1985) for West African Dwarf goats. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Conclusions Based on this study, it can be concluded that: i. The pelleted cassava peel meal-based and Samanea leaf meal -based supplements were preferred by the West African Dwarf goats relative to the Acacia and Ficus leaf meal- based supplements. ii. Feeding the three (Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata) pelleted browse leaf meal-based supplements and Cassava peel meal-based supplement influenced feed intake and growth performance to similar extents. iii. The four pelleted supplements did not adversely affect the physiology and health of the goats since the concentration of the haematological and serum biochemical indices were within acceptable physiological ranges reported for goats. iv. Inclusion of the three pelleted browse leaf meal-based supplements and Cassava peel meal -based supplement in the diet of West Afrrican Dwarf goats did not adversely influence their carcass parameters. v. All the four dietary supplements could be fed to confined goats on roughage especially in the dry season to overcome the adverse effects of seasonal fluctuation in feed quality on growth and health of goats. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.2 Recommendations i. Further studies should be conducted to determine the concentrations of anti-nutritional factors in Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata leaf meals and cassava peel meal in order to ascertain their optimum level of inclusion in goat`s diets without any adverse effect on their feed intake, digestion, growth, physiology and health. ii. Further research should be conducted to determine the effect of Samanea saman, Acacia auriculiformis and Ficus exasperata leaf meal-based supplements and cassava peel meal- based supplements on rumen environment and function in goats. This will provide knowledge on how the supplements influence rumen microbial population and function with respect to feed degradation and fermentation, rumen pH, production of volatile fatty acids and ammonia which may provide a key to improving animal production. iii. Studies to determine the above supplements on meat quality and reproductive performance of goats should be undertaken. 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Influence of cooking and dehulling on nutritional composition of several varieties of lentils (Lens culinaris). LWT-Food Science and Technology, 42(4): 842-848. 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix 1: Analysis of variance for acceptability studies Source of variation d.f s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 912968.19 304322.73 10102.29 <0.001 Residual 276 8314.26 30.12 Total 279 921282.45 Appendix 2: Analysis of variance for dry matter intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 1620603.9 540201.3 2.72 0.084 Residual 14 2778809.1 198486.4 248.91 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 2948801.3 35961.0 45.10 <.001 Time. Treatment 246 417175.2 1695.8 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 915424.1 797.4 Total 1493 8680813.6 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 3: Analysis of variance for organic matter intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 1220744.6 406914.9 2.43 0.109 Residual 14 2346544.9 167610.3 247.58 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 2503467.4 30530.1 45.10 <.001 Time. Treatment 246 354172.5 1439.7 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 777174.9 677.0 Total 1493 7202104.3 Appendix 4: Analysis of variance for crude protein intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 43807.787 14602.596 5.44 0.011 Residual 14 37594.502 2685.322 876.06 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 11335.192 138.234 45.10 <.001 Time. Treatment 246 1603.621 6.519 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 3518.890 3.065 Total 1493 97859.992 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 5: Analysis of variance for neutral detergent fibre intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 53800 17930 1.70 0.212 Residual 14 147300 10520 253300 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 153.6 1.874 45.10 <.001 Time.Treatment 246 21.73 0.08835 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 47.69 0.04154 Total 1493 201300 Appendix 6: Analysis of variance for acid detergent fibre intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 177600 59180 13.76 <.001 Residual 14 60200 4300 284800 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 55.82 0.06808 45.10 <.001 Time. Treatment 246 7.898 0.03210 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 17.33 0.01510 Total 1493 237800 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 7: Analysis of variance for lignin intake Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 30590 10200 2.33 0.119 Residual 14 61390 4385 290500 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.0683 Time 82 55.82 0.6808 45.10 <.001 Time. Treatment 246 7.898 0.03210 2.13 0.014 Residual 1148 17.33 0.01510 Total 1493 92060 Appendix 8: Analysis of variance for dry matter digestibility Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 693.66 231.22 4.73 0.012 Residual 20 977.01 48.85 Total 23 1670.67 Appendix 9: Analysis of variance for organic matter digestibility Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 726.91 242.30 4.21 0.018 Residual 20 1150.47 57.52 Total 23 1877.38 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 10: Analysis of variance for crude protein digestibility Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 288.74 96.25 8.65 <0.001 Residual 20 222.66 11.13 Total 23 511.41 Appendix 11: Analysis of variance for neutral detergent fibre digestibility Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 264.40 88.13 8.13 <0.001 Residual 20 216.90 10.85 Total 23 481.30 Appendix 12: Analysis of variance for acid detergent fibre digestibility Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 213.15 71.05 6.29 <0.004 Residual 20 226.03 11.30 Total 23 439.18 Appendix 13: Analysis of variance for initial body weight Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 11.425 3.808 0.97 0.436 Residual 14 55.200 3.943 Total 17 66.625 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 14: Analysis of variance for final body weight Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 10.525 3.508 1.06 0.399 Residual 14 46.475 3.320 Total 17 57.000 Appendix 15: Analysis of variance for average daily gain Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 36.29 12.10 0.62 0.612 Residual 14 272.17 19.44 Total 17 308.46 Appendix 16: Analysis of variance for feed conversion ratio Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 1345.1 448.4 1.25 0.330 Residual 14 5031.3 359.4 Total 17 6376.4 Appendix 17: Analysis of variance for dressing percentage Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 54.59 18.20 0.87 0.526 Residual 4 83.57 20.89 Total 7 138.16 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 18: Analysis of variance for Spleen Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 0.0040 0.0013 0.19 0.900 Residual 4 0.029 0.0071 Total 7 0.033 Appendix 19: Analysis of variance for Lungs Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 0.047 0.016 0.30 0.823 Residual 4 0.209 0.052 Total 7 0.256 Appendix 20: Analysis of variance for Liver Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 0.091 0.030 0.52 0.691 Residual 4 0.232 0.058 Total 7 0.323 Appendix 21: Analysis of variance Kidney Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 0.0137 0.0046 0.25 0.860 Residual 4 0.0741 0.0185 Total 7 0.0878 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 22: Analysis of variance for Heart Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s v.r. F. pr. Treatment 3 0.002 0.001 0.05 0.982 Residual 4 0.061 0.015 Total 7 0.064 Appendix 23: Analysis of variance for haemoglobin Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 1.304 0.435 1.47 0.265 Residual 14 4.132 0.295 8.82 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.6559 Time 4 26.262 6.566 196.19 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 0.700 0.058 1.74 0.122 Residual 56 1.874 0.033 Total 89 34.273 Appendix 24: Analysis of variance for PCV Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 164.070 54.690 1.19 0.350 Residual 14 645.230 46.088 6.51 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.6773 Time 4 216.778 54.194 7.65 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 85.902 7.159 1.01 0.455 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Residual 56 396.520 7.081 Total 89 1508.500 Appendix 25: Analysis of variance for RBC Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 53.220 17.740 1.19 0.351 Residual 14 209.578 14.970 5.15 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7382 Time 4 150.602 37.650 12.96 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 68.301 5.692 1.96 0.071 Residual 56 162.648 2.904 Total 89 644.347 Appendix 26: Analysis of variance for WBC Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 3.429 1.143 0.14 0.934 Residual 14 114.451 8.175 2.03 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7355 Time 4 659.677 164.919 40.95 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 67.288 5.607 1.39 0.224 Residual 56 225.543 4.028 Total 89 1070.389 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 27: Analysis of variance for Neutrophils Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 655.48 218.49 1.82 0.189 Residual 14 1676.22 119.73 2.05 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.4705 Time 4 587.40 146.85 2.52 0.103 Time. Treatment 12 443.32 36.94 0.63 0.693 Residual 56 3264.48 58.29 Total 89 6626.90 Appendix 28: Analysis of variance for Lymphocytes Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 484.25 161.42 1.16 0.360 Residual 14 1948.15 139.15 2.54 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.4815 Time 4 247.49 61.87 1.13 0.336 Time. Treatment 12 355.71 29.64 0.54 0.767 Residual 56 3070.00 54.82 Total 89 6105.60 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 29: Analysis of variance for Eosinophil Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 21.829 7.276 2.63 0.091 Residual 14 38.760 2.769 1.68 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.5655 Time 4 39.622 9.906 5.99 0.005 Time. Treatment 12 23.038 1.920 1.16 0.352 Residual 56 92.540 1.653 Total 89 215.789 Appendix 30: Analysis of variance for Monocytes Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 15.570 5.190 1.13 0.372 Residual 14 64.430 4.602 1.52 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.5940 Time 4 6.511 1.628 0.54 0.618 Time. Treatment 12 14.769 1.231 0.41 0.893 Residual 56 169.120 3.020 Total 89 270.400 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 31: Analysis of variance for MCHC Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 405.04 135.01 1.29 0.317 Residual 14 1465.47 104.68 5.71 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7112 Time 4 1396.82 349.20 19.04 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 260.94 21.75 1.19 0.331 Residual 56 1026.91 18.34 Total 89 4555.19 Appendix 32: Analysis of variance for MCV Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 5.217 1.739 0.18 0.910 Residual 14 137.727 9.838 1.48 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.6285 Time 4 91.606 22.901 3.45 0.033 Time. Treatment 12 125.081 10.423 1.57 0.172 Residual 56 371.436 6.633 Total 89 731.068 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 33: Analysis of variance for MCH Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 24.694 8.231 1.21 0.344 Residual 14 95.535 6.824 3.96 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.6457 Time 4 101.226 25.306 14.69 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 35.915 2.993 1.74 0.125 Residual 56 96.461 1.723 Total 89 353.830 Appendix 34: Analysis of variance for Total protein Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 4.2767 1.4256 2.11 0.145 Residual 14 9.4655 0.6761 4.12 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7328 Time 4 1.6762 0.4191 2.56 0.070 Time. Treatment 12 1.3078 0.1090 0.66 0.732 Residual 56 9.1800 0.1639 Total 89 25.9062 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 35: Analysis of variance for Albumin Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 0.350 0.117 0.79 0.519 Residual 14 2.064 0.147 7.80 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7791 Time 4 0.808 0.202 10.69 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 0.670 0.056 2.95 0.007 Residual 56 1.058 0.019 Total 89 4.950 Appendix 36: Analysis of variance for Globulin Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 4.145 1.382 1.37 0.291 Residual 14 14.072 1.005 5.82 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7561 Time 4 0.922 0.230 1.33 0.276 Time. Treatment 12 2.296 0.191 1.11 0.378 Residual 56 9.666 0.173 Total 89 31.101 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 37: Analysis of variance for Cholesterol Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 3254.29 1084.76 2.55 0.097 Residual 14 5944.09 424.58 8.42 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.7714 Time 4 804.02 201.01 3.99 0.013 Time. Treatment 12 686.73 57.23 1.13 0.360 Residual 56 2824.67 50.44 Total 89 13513.81 Appendix 38: Analysis of variance for Sodium Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 897.2 299.1 0.70 0.568 Residual 14 5987.1 427.7 2.40 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.6315 Time 4 42985.5 10746.4 60.36 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 1798.0 149.8 0.84 0.568 Residual 56 9970.6 178.0 Total 89 61638.3 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 39: Analysis of variance for Potassium Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 0.686 0.229 0.14 0.937 Residual 14 23.492 1.678 1.47 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.4701 Time 4 99.246 24.811 21.70 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 4.649 0.387 0.34 0.902 Residual 56 64.037 1.144 Total 89 192.110 Appendix 40: Analysis of variance for Triglyceride Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 86.30 28.77 0.64 0.601 Residual 14 628.86 44.92 2.76 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.5887 Time 4 1296.23 324.06 19.91 <.001 Time. Treatment 12 412.73 34.39 2.11 0.069 Residual 56 911.50 16.28 Total 89 3335.62 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 41: Analysis of variance for Urea Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 193.797 64.599 4.87 0.016 Residual 14 185.551 13.254 8.55 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.5736 Time 4 87.962 21.990 14.19 <0.001 Time. Treatment 12 35.332 2.944 1.90 0.103 Residual 56 86.790 1.550 Total 89 589.432 Appendix 42: Analysis of variance for Glucose Source of variation d.f. s.s m.s. v.r. F. pr Subject stratum Treatment 3 1.388 0.463 1.49 0.261 Residual 14 4.351 0.311 0.47 Subject. Time stratum d.f. correction factor 0.5960 Time 4 8.394 2.099 3.18 0.046 Time. Treatment 12 8.486 0.707 1.07 0.403 Residual 56 36.952 0.660 Total 89 59.571 131