University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A STUDY ON HANDICRAFTS AS A PRO-POOR TOURISM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY IN FOUR CRAFT VILLAGES IN ASHANTI REGION, GHANA BY ALEXANDER YAO SEGBEFIA A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph.D) DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA LEGON AUGUST, 2009 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh S T U D Y O N H A N D I C R A F T S A S A P R O -P O O R T O U R IS M D E V E L O P M E N T S T R A T E G Y IN F O U R C R A F T V IL L A G E S IN A S H A N T I R E G IO N , G H A N A BY ALEXANDER YAO SEGBEFIA A THESIS SUBM ITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA. LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILM ENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AW ARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (Ph D) DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPM ENT DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND RESOURCE DEVELOPM ENT, UNIVERSITY OF GI IANA LEGON AUGUST, 2009 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh U f c University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION 1, Alexander Yao Segbefia, do hereby declare that this piece o f work is, to a great extent, the result of my own field investigations and analyses undertaken under supervision. 1 lowever, other people’s works have been consulted and have been duly acknowledged. This piece o f work is in no way a reproduction, in part or in whole, o f any work ever presented for the award o f a degree. b < z Date: Segbefia Thesis Supervisory Committee: Signed: frTT...................... Date: Principal Supervisor: Professor Alex Boakye Asiedu Department o f Geography and Resource Development, University o f Ghana, Legon Signed: Date: Supervisor: Dr. Samuel Charles K. Buame Business Schopl, University o f Ghana, Legon Signed:..\p.. a * _ 3 3 L - M : . ? ? . ! 0 Supervisor: Professor Paul W.fC. Yankson Department ofGeography and Resource Development, University o f Ghana, Legon University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To Dela. Afealetey, Dzidzienyo, Aku, Sladen, Christine and to the loving memory ol my grandmother I dedicate this thesis. At the same time, and no less sincerely, 1 dedicate this thesis to my siblings and all the hardworking artisans and crafts merchants o f Ghana. Alexander Yao Segbefia December 2008 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am deeply grateful to the directors o f the collaborative research on “The Changing Faces o f Poverty*' undertaken by the Department o f Geography, Norwegian University o f Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway: Department o f Geography and Resource Development, University o f Ghana. Logon; and Department o f Geography and Tourism, University o f Cape Coast funded by Norwegian Centre for International Cooperation in Higher Education (NUFU). I am indebted to all the senior members both in Norway and in Ghana for giving me the opportunity to be part o f this project, and for their constructive criticisms and contributions during presentation o f the proposal o f the study and preliminary findings at graduate seminars and project workshops. Nevertheless, it is appropriate to acknowledge that putting the original draft into its present shape drew heavily on the invaluable directions from my supervisors: Professor Alex B. Asiedu, Professor Paul W.K Yankson and Dr. Charles K. Buame. I also owe a great debt o f gratitude to Professor Michael Hitchcock, who accepted me in the International Institute for Culture, Tourism and Development (I1CTD), London Metropolitan University as a Visiting PhD Student. I appreciate the long discussions and constructive criticisms that have helped to upgrade the present draft. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my colleagues, especially. Charlotte Wrigley Asante, Kissah Korsah, James Eshun, Felix Asante and K wad wo Afriyie for their support and motivation. I am grateful for the encouragement and interest that Prof. Stig Jorgensen, Prof. Awusabo Asare, Prof. Ranghild Lund, Prof. Dei, Bjornar Sylvestad, Berit and Shahid Aktah showed in my work. The inestimable support and encouragement o f senior colleagues at the Department o f Geography and Rural Development, Kwame Nkrumah University o f Science and Technology n(KN£3^T^, is very much appreciated. Professor Dr. Dr. Daniel Buor. Professor S. K. Okleme, Dr. P^fe^Shene Kyei'^nd Dr. Eva Tagoe-Darko deserve special mention. I am grateful for financial assistance the K.NIJST including the Teaching and Learning Innovation Fund (TALIF) award. The completion stud-v \Votild have been further delayed without your generous support. I have had much assistance from so many people and institutions in the preparation of this thesis that it would be impossible to mention them all by name and give them due credit and to thank them adequately. However, special gratitude goes to Mr. Ben Nsiah o f Ghana Tourist Board, Miss Juliet King Malik o f the IICTD. London Metropolitan University, Mr. and Mrs. Anarfi, Mr. and Mrs. Atta Panin, and Mr. and Mrs. Tweneboa Kodua o f London. To Monica, Victor. Seth, Dzifa and Angelo, 1 say a big thank you for your friendship and support during my studies in London. To all those who gave advise and help in any form, but who are not mentioned specifically, I say a sincere thank you. 1 wish to make it clear that I am solely responsible for any errors o f fact, omission and misinterpretations that may appear in the thesis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT This study examines handicraft production and the effects o f local and global spatio-temporal changes on craft production and craft-based livelihoods in the Ashanti region o f Ghana. It also investigates the coping and survival mechanisms craftspeople have adopted to overcome production difficulties and poverty. The study is philosophically grounded in cultural geography (cultural globalisation). Using the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, Value Chain analysis. Participatory Wealth Ranking and CASHPOR House Index (CHI) in combination with some descriptive and inferential statistics, the study identified some o f the spatial and temporal changes that have occurred within craft villages, and their effects on the livelihoods and coping capacities o f different categories o f craftsmen and women. Focus group discussions and interviews were the main research instruments; however, these were supplemented with questionnaires administered to a hundred and thirty-eight craftspeople. Highlights of key findings, cross tabulations and chi-square were employed in the analysis o f qualitative and quantitative data respectively. The ‘pro-poor* focus o f the cultural, tourism and poverty reduction policy frameworks were found to be inadequate, and effective implementation was lacking in many cases. The production, survival, sustainability and authenticity o f cultural goods and associated livelihoods in the crafts villages were found to be susceptible to local and global ‘threats' and ‘opportunities’. Coping and survival capacities, however, varied from place to place, at different times and by gender. Few skilled artisans and many craft merchants were found in some o f the crafts villages. Merchants resorted to the use of cheaper child labour and migrant artisans. Truancy, low academic achievement and a high school drop­ out rate among the youth in craft villages; Inequalities and illiteracy prevented some artisans from deriving enhanced benefits, and were not able to participate in decision making in their communities and within the craft industry. Cultural goods were directed at tourists and the export market, with implications for authenticity, whilst factory produced imitations and issues o f intellectual property rights emerged. To secure craft-based livelihoods, reduce poverty and deal with local and global threa^&^^(Tpp8rf&ei^es, the i f f 'j'v A study recommends that Ghanaian cultural goods should be re-directed at the l^paV market. VMwrable craftspeople need to be provided with financial, marketing and technical su p p o m m cap ac ity R i d in g . Clustering, public-private linkages development, reorganization o f the production proces/ sA^--s-.-and education is seen as possible solutions to streamline the crafts sector, reduce poverty and to secure livelihoods. The study also proposes the adoption o f ‘community copyrights' as a way o f protecting intellectual property rights o f craftspeople in the craft villages. Finally, the study concludes that pro-poor craft development approaches hold the keys to successful development o f cultural goods and pro-poor tourism for poverty reduction. IV University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS Title Page................................................................................................................................................................Page Declaration.................................................................................................................................................................... i Dedication.................................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgement..................................................................................................................................................... iii A bstrac t....................................................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................................................... v List o f Tables................................................................................................................................................................ x List of Figures.............................................................................................................................................................xii List of Plates and Photographs..............................................................................................................................xiii List of B o xes ............................................................................................................................................................ xiv List o f Appendices.....................................................................................................................................................xv List of Abbreviations and A cronym s.................................................................................................................. xvi CHAPTER I: GENERAL INTRODUCTION Page 1.1 Background........................................................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 The Research Problem ....................................................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Objectives ............................................................................................................................................................. 7 1.4 Research Hypotheses and Propositions .......................................................................................................... 8 1.4.1 Hypotheses.........................................................................................................................................................8 1.4.2 Propositions .................................................................................................................................................... 10 1.5 Justification for the Study ............................................................................................................................... 10 1.6 Organisation o f C hapters................................................................................................................................. 11 1.7 Sum m ary............................................................................................................................................................. 12 CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 13 2.2 Literature Review ..............................................................................................................................................13 2.2.1 The Nature o f T ou rism ................................................................................................................................. 13 2.2.2 Tourism Development and Poverty Reduction ........................................................................................ 14 2.2.3 Approaches to Tourism Development....................................................................................................... 16 2.2.4 Pro-Poor Growth and Pro-Poor T ourism ...................................................................................................17 2.2.4.1 Pro-Poor Growth ................................................................................................................................... / 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.4.2 Pro-Poor Tourism .................................................................................................................................. 19 2.2.5 Importance o f Cultural Industries in Development..................................................................................22 2.2.6 I landicrafts and Poverty Reduction Potential............................................................................................26 2.2.7 Handicrafts, Tourism and Development.................................................................................................... 28 2.2.8 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMMEs) and Craft Entrepreneurs .......................................33 2.2.9 Cultural Enterprises and Creative Industries............................................................................................ 37 2.2.10 Commoditisation, Adaptation and Authenticity.....................................................................................41 2.3 Conceptualising Poverty and Crafts-Based Livelihoods............................................................................ 45 2.3.1 Poverty Perceptions and Experience ......................................................................................................... 45 2.3.2 Coping and Survival Mechanisms ..............................................................................................................53 2.3.3 Participation. Marginalisation and Exclusion........................................................................................... 54 2.4 Conceptual F ram ew ork ....................................................................................................................................55 2.4.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework ......................................................................................................... 56 2.4.2 Crafts Value-Chain Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 64 2.5 Cultural Globalisation ...................................................................................................................................... 65 2.6 Sum m ary............................................................................................................................................................. 66 CHAPTER III: STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Page 3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................................68 3.2 Geographical and Historical Background.....................................................................................................68 3.2.1 Geographical Background............................................................................................................................68 3.2.2 Historical Background ................................................................................................................................. 71 3.2.3 Ashanti Social Structure and Cultural Heritage .......................................................................................72 3.2.4 The Crafts of Ashanti ....................................................................................................................................73 3.2.4.1 Wood Carving ..........................................................................................................................................75 3.2.4.2 Kente Weaving.........................................................................................................................................81 3.2.4.3 Pottery.......................................................................................................................................................86 3.2.4.4 Bead m aking ............................................................................................................................................90 3.3 The Early Economy and Political Administration ......................................................................................96 3.4 Tourism in Ashanti ........................................................................................................................................... 97 3.5 The Study Area and Craft V illages..............................................................................................................100 3.5.1 Ahwiaa (Kwabre District Assembly)....................................................................................................... 102 3.5.2 Bonwire (Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly) .......................................................................................104 v i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.3 Asuolia-Asamang (Atvvima Nwabiagya District Assembly)............................................................... 104 3.5.4 Pankrono (Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly).......................................................................................... 105 3.6 Methods o f Data Collection and A nalysis..................................................................................................107 3.6.1 Data Collection.............................................................................................................................................112 3.6.1.1 Sources o f D a ta ............................................................................................................................... 112 3.6.1.2 Sample Design ................................................................................................................................. 114 3.6.1.3 Survey Instruments....................................................................................................................................118 3.6.2 Data Analysis................................................................................................................................................123 3.7 Problems of Data Collection .........................................................................................................................125 3.8 Sum m ary...........................................................................................................................................................127 CHAPTER IV: TOURISM, HANDICRAFTS AND POVERTY REDUCTION POLICIES IN GHANA 4.1 Introduction...................................................................................................................................................... 128 4.2 Development Policy and Planning in Ghana since 1945 ..........................................................................128 4.3 The Tourism Policy and Poverty .................................................................................................................133 4.3.1 Implementation o f the Tourism P o licy ....................................................................................................136 4.4 The Cultural Policy and Poverty ..................................................................................................................141 4.4.1 Implementation of the Cultural Policy ....................................................................................................142 4.5 The Nexus of Tourism, Culture and Poverty Reduction Policies...........................................................146 4.6 Sum m ary.......................................................................................................................................................... 149 CHAPTER V: LIVELIHOOD ASSETS, CRAFT PRODUCTION AND CONSTRAINTS 5.1..Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................151 5.2 Vulnerability Context and Natural Capital for Crafts Production ......................................................... 151 5.2.1 Local and Global Shocks and Trends ......................................................................................................152 5.3 Socio-Economic and Demographic Characteristics of Craftspeople..................................................... 154 5.3.1 Human C apital............................................................................................................................................. 154 5.3.2 Financial Capital..........................................................................................................................................169 5.3.3 Social Capital............................................................................................................................................... 178 5.4 The Craft Value Chain and Production Challenges ................................................................................. 181 5.4.1 Handicraft Design and Creation P h ase ....................................................................................................182 5.4.2 Production and Finishing P hase ................................................................................................................182 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4.2.1 Sources and Cost o f Raw Materials...................................................................................................... 182 5.4.2.2 Labour and Cost o f Production and F inishing ...................................................................................184 5.4.3 Exhibition, Marketing and Selling Phase ................................................................................................ 187 5.5 Other Craft Production Constraints .............................................................................................................189 5.6 Sustainability Issues ....................................................................................................................................... 190 5.7 Sum m ary........................................................................................................................................................... 191 CHAPTER VI: POVERTY, PER C EPTIO N S AND EXPERIENCES 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................193 6.2 Identifying the Poor and Vulnerable............................................................................................................193 6.3 Perceptions o f Causes o f Poverty ................................................................................................................198 6.4 Identifying the Rich/Wealthy and Secured.................................................................................................199 6.4.1 Wealth Ranking and Perceived B enefits .................................................................................................200 6.4.2 Perceptions of Efforts/Risks and Benefits...............................................................................................202 6.5 Cost o f Living in Crafts Villages .................................................................................................................203 6.6 Perception o f Own Poverty Status (Self Ranking)................................................................................... 205 6.7 Poverty Experience.........................................................................................................................................207 6.7.1 Duration of Poverty Experience................................................................................................................208 6.7.2 Living Conditions and the CASHPOR House In d ex ............................................................................ 209 6.7.2.1 Housing Situation and Tenure Security'............................................................................................... 209 6.7.2.2 Housing M aterials................................................................................................................................... 211 6.7.2.3 Social Amenities in Housing Units .......................................................................................................211 6.7.3.The CASHPOR House Index ...................................................................................................................213 6.8 Perceptions o f Poverty Reduction Efforts of District Assem blies......................................................... 215 6.9 Inequalities and Power Relations.................................................................................................................217 6.10 Sum m ary........................................................................................................................................................ 223 CHAPTER VII: C O PIN G W ITH PRODUCTION CHALLENG ES AND POVERTY 7.1 Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................224 7.2 Coping and Survival M echanism s...............................................................................................................224 7.2.1 Capacity to Cope ......................................................................................................................................... 224 7.3 Coping with Craft Production Constraints .................................................................................................226 7.3.1 Coping with Difficulties in Finding Raw M aterials.............................................................................. 226 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.3.2 Coping with Scarce Working Capital and Finance ................................................................................229 7.3.3 Coping with Skilled Labour Shortages.................................................................................................... 230 7.3.4 Coping with Marketing and Selling Constraints .................................................................................... 231 7.4.Coping with Poverty........................................................................................................................................234 7.4.1 Supplementary Incom e................................................................................................................................234 7.4.2 Borrow ing......................................................................................................................................................235 7.4.3 Disposal of Possessions...............................................................................................................................236 7.4.4 Remittances, Transfers and Donations .................................................................................................... 238 7.4.5 Use of Unpaid Family and Child Labour and N eglect.......................................................................... 238 7.4.6 Readjustment o f Consumption H ab its ..................................................................................................... 239 7.5 Local Structures and Processes.....................................................................................................................241 7.6 Sum m ary........................................................................................................................................................... 242 CHAPTER VIII: Page SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, POLICY IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 8.1 Summary o f Key Findings ............................................................................................................................ 239 8.2 Discussion of Findings and Conclusions....................................................................................................244 8.3 Policy Implications........................................................................................................................................ 249 8.4 Recommendations .......................................................................................................................................... 251 8.4.1 Policy Making ..............................................................................................................................................251 8.4.2 Strengthening Crafts Production for Wealth Creation .........................................................................252 8.4.3 Areas for Further Research ....................................................................................................................... 253 Bibliography ...........................................................................................................................................................255 IX University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table Page 3.1 Sources o f Primary Data and Methods ot Data Collection......................................................................112 3.2 Location and Distance o f Craft Villages from K um asi............................................................................ 115 3.3 Research Instruments and Sample S ize....................................................................................................... 118 5.1 Craft Worker Categories in Selected Craft Villages .................................................................................154 5.2 Employment Status o f Craft Workers across Study Communities..........................................................155 5.3 Place o f Interview by Craft Community......................................................................................................156 5.4 Gender o f Respondents ................................................................................................................................. 157 5.5 Employment Status o f Crafts Workers by Gender.....................................................................................157 5.6 Age Cohorts o f Respondents........................................................................................................................ 158 5.7 Marital Status o f Craft Entrepreneurs by Locality.....................................................................................160 5.8 Household Sizes by Locality and Worker Category................................................................................. 161 5.9 Participation of Migrant Craftspeople in Craft Production......................................................................162 5.10 Native Language o f Respondents...............................................................................................................163 5.11 Educational Background o f Craft Entrepreneurs.....................................................................................164 5.12 Surviving and Declining Handicrafts in the Ashanti Region................................................................. 165 5.13 Work Experience o f Crafts Workers......................................................................................................... 166 5.14 Crafts Skills o f Entrepreneurs..................................................................................................................... 167 5.15 Number of Years Spent Learning Craft Skills ........................................................................................167 5.16 Mode of Skill Acquisition...........................................................................................................................168 5.17 Place o f Skill Acquisition............................................................................................................................159 5.18 Sources of Credit and Finance....................................................................................................................170 5.19 Number of Craftspeople with Second Jobs.............................................................................................. 170 5.20 Percentage o f Income from Crafts Activities........................................................................................... 171 5.21 Employment Status by Level o f Benefits Derived from Crafts Business........................................... 172 5.22 Chi-Square Tests for Employment Status and Benefits Derived...........................................................172 5.23 Additional Sources of Income ...................................................................................................................173 5.24 Nature o f Employment and Status of Craft Workers.............................................................................. 173 5.25 Employment Status of Artisans and Crafts Merchants...........................................................................174 5.26 Job Creation in Selected Craft Villages and Within the Crafts Industry..............................................174 5.27 Level of Job Creation by Status o f Craft Workers...................................................................................175 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.28 Use o f Family Labour...................................................................................................................................176 5.29 Mode o f Payment for Labour.......................................................................................................................176 5.30 Level of Satisfaction with Craft Earnings.................................................................................................177 5.31 Employment Status and Level o f Job Satisfaction...................................................................................177 5.32 Levels of Satisfaction by Gender and Marital Status.............................................................................. 177 5.33 Religious Background..................................................................................................................................178 5.34 Membership o f Craft Associations.............................................................................................................179 5.35 Employment Status and Membership of Associations............................................................................ 180 5.36 Value Chain in Craft Villages..................................................................................................................... 181 5.37 Sources o f Raw Materials and Other Inputs............................................................................................. 183 5.38 Prices of Raw Materials and Inputs........................................................................................................... 184 5.39 Easy to Make Craft Items.............................................................................................................................186 5.40 Difficult to Make Craft Items...................................................................................................................... 186 5.41 Production Capacity and Rate of Turnover............................................................................................. 187 5.42 Summary o f Challenges to Crafts Production and Livelihoods.............................................................189 6.1 Summary o f Perceptions of Poverty............................................................................................................ 196 6.2 Summary o f Perceptions o f Wealth and Well-being................................................................................ 201 6.3 Summary o f Perceptions o f Craft W orkers with Most Difficult Tasks..................................................202 6.4 Summary o f Perceptions o f Craft Workers Deriving Greatest Benefits.................................................203 6.5 Estimated Monthly Cost o f Living per Person in Craft Villages.............................................................204 6.6 Perceived Ideal Minimum and Maximum Monthly Income................................................................... 204 6.7 Craft Workers Perceptions o f their Own Poverty Status..........................................................................206 6.8 Employment Status and Self Poverty Ranking.......................................................................................... 206 6.9 Poverty Experience..........................................................................................................................................207 6.10 Duration of Poverty Experience..................................................................................................................208 6.1 I Type o f Dwelling U nit................................................................................................................................. 209 6.12 Housing Status by Craft Worker.................................................................................................................210 6.13 Room Occupancy Levels ............................................................................................................................210 6.14 Cashpor Housing Index................................................................................................................................ 214 6 .15 Comparing Self-Ranking and 011 Outcomes to Determine Poverty Status.......................................215 6.16 Suggested Pro-Poor Interventions............................................................................................................. 218 6 .17 Perceptions on I low to Enhance Earning Opportunities........................................................................219 X I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.18 List o f Craft Associations............................................................................................................................. 220 6.19 Perceptions on Decision-Making and Participation in Craft Business and Trends............................ 221 7.1 Challenges in Finding Reliable Raw M aterials......................................................................................... 226 7.2 Most Pressing Problems o f Crafts W orkers................................................................................................233 7.3 Food Insecurity and Coping Strategies........................................................................................................ 235 7.4 Emergency Financial Needs and Coping Strategies..................................................................................236 7.5 Bereavement/Funeral Expenses and Coping Strategies............................................................................ 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Fram ew ork..............................................................................................................58 2.2 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Poverty Reduction......................................................................60 3.1 Map o f Ghana Showing Ashanti Region....................................................................................................... 70 3.2 Map of Ghana Showing National Tourism Structure P lan......................................................................... 98 3.3 Map o f Ashanti Region Tourism Zone........................................................................................................ 100 3.4 Map of Ashanti Region Showing Study Districts......................................................................................101 3.5 Map o f Study Districts Showing Craft Villages......................................................................................... 103 5.1 Place o f Interview.............................................................................................................................................156 5.2 Gender and Crafts Production....................................................................................................................... 157 5.3 Marital Status o f Craft Workers.................................................................................................................... 160 5.4 Educational Background o f Craft W orkers.................................................................................................164 5.5 Craft Workers with Second Jobs................................................................................................................... 171 5.6 Percentage o f Income from Crafts Work.....................................................................................................172 5.7 Job Creation by Craft W orkers..................................................................................................................... 174 5.8 Membership o f Craft Associations...............................................................................................................179 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF PLATES AND PHOTOGRAPHS Plate/Photograph Page 3 .1 Stool Carvers at W ork....................................................................................................................................... 76 3.2 Ahvviaa Contract Carvers at Work...................................................................................................................77 3.3 Carving Tools used by Ahvviaa Carvers.........................................................................................................78 3.4 Finished Stools and Other Wooden Sculptures on Display........................................................................79 3.5 Carvers Operating from the Forest (Bush).................................................................................................... 81 3.6 Ashanti Kente on Display at the Export Production Village Shed, Bonwire.......................................... 83 3.7 W eavers at the Loom in the Export Production Village Shed, Bonwire.................................................. 84 3.8 Migrant Ewe Weavers at their Looms under a Shed....................................................................................85 3.9 Traditional Method o f Pot Making at Pankrono.......................................................................................... 87 3.10 Pottery Ware on Display at Pankrono......................................................................................................... 88 3.11 Pot Making Tools.............................................................................................................................................89 3.12 Abandoned Bead Making Materials at Asam ang......................................................................................90 3.13 Asamang Beads on Display...........................................................................................................................91 3.14 Horizontal and Vertical Moulds for Making Powder Glass Beads.........................................................92 3.15 Cassava Stems in a Vertical Mould Ready to be Filled with Powdered G lass.....................................93 3.16 Traditional Grinding Stone for Making Beads at Asamang.....................................................................95 3.17 Traditional Firewood Kiln and a Modern Gas-Powered K iln ................................................................. 96 xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF BOXES Box Page 6.1 Identifying the Poor in the Crafts Communities..........................................................................................194 6.2 Identifying the Causes o f Poverty in the Crafts Villages...........................................................................198 6.3 Additional Causes o f Poverty........................................................................................................................ 199 6.4 Difficulties o f Forming Vibrant Craft Associations................................................................................... 220 X V University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page 1. Handicrafts Workers Questionnaire.............................................................................................................. 270 2. Questionnaire for Tourist Board, Metro and District Assemblies and other Stakeholders.................. 285 3. Panel Discussion Guide with District Assemblies and Crafts Communities......................................... 291 4. In-Depth Interview Guide with Policy Makers, CBOs and District Assemblies...................................294 5. In-Depth Interview Guide with Community Members not Involved in Crafts...................................... 295 6. Focus Group Discussion Guide with Crafts Workers.................................................................................296 X V I University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB African Development Bank ADF African Development Fund AFE Action for Enterprise AGOA African Growth and Opportunities Act AIRD Associates for International Resources and Development ANDA Atwima Nwabiagya District Assembly ATAG Aid to Artisans Ghana ATZ Ashanti Tourist Zone AU African Union BDS Business Development Services CHI Cashpor Housing Index Cl FOR Centre for International Forest Research CNC Centre for National Culture CWIQ Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire DA District Assembly DFID Department for International Development DI IS Demographic and Health Survey DWM 3 1 December Women’s Movement ECOWAS Economic Community o f West African States EDIF Export Development and Investment Fund EIA Environmental Impact Assessment EJMA Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly EPA Environmental Protection Agency EPC Export Promotion Council EPV Export Production Village ERP Economic Recovery Programme EU European Union FAO Food and Agricultural Organisation FGD Focus Group Discussion GDP Gross Domestic Product GLSS Ghana Living Standards Survey XVll University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh GOG Government o f Ghana GPRS I Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy I GPRS II Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II GSS Ghana Statistical Service GTB Ghana Tourist Board GTDC Ghana Tourism Development Corporation HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Country Initiative I CRT International Centre for Responsible Tourism ICTs Information and Communications Technologies IDI In Depth Interview IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development 11 ED International Institute for Environment and Development ILO International Labour Organisation IMF International Monetary Fund INDC International Network for Cultural Diversity INTDP Integrated National Tourism Development Plan KDA Kwabre District Assembly KMA Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly KNUST Kwame Nkrumah University o f Science and Technology LDCs Least Developed Country MDGs Millennium Development Goals MOT Ministry of Tourism MOT DA Ministry of Tourism and Diasporean Authority NBSSI National Board for Small Scale Industries NCC National Commission on Culture NDC National Democratic Congress NDPC National Development Planning Commission NE North East NEPAD New Partnership for Africa's Development NTO National Tourist Organisation ODI Overseas Development Institute PAMSCAD Programme o f Action to Mitigate the Social Cost o f Adjustment XVUl University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PNDC Provisional National Defense Council PPT Pro-Poor Tourism PPTP Pro Poor Tourism Partnership PRSPs Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers PSIs Presidential Special Initiatives PUA Peri Urban Area PUI Peri Urban Interface PWR Participatory Wealth Ranking SAP Structural Adjustment Programme SLA Sustainable Livelihoods Approach SLF Sustainable Livelihoods Framework SMEs Small and Medium Enterprises SMMEs Small, Medium and Micro Enterprises SOAS School o f Oriental and African Studies SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences SSA Sub-Saharan Africa STEP Sustainable Tourism for the Elimination o f Poverty UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCTAD United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund UNIDO United Nations Industrial and Development Organisation UNMDGs United Nations Millennium Development Goals UNO United Nations Organisation UN WTO United Nations World Tourism Organisation USA United States o f America USD United States Dollar WB World Bank WDR World Development Report WTO World Tourism Organisation X IX University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background A major challenge facing the world community, according to the World Bank Development Reports o f 2000/2001, is reducing the poverty facing about a third o f the world’s population. In Sub- Saharan Africa (SSA), it is estimated that almost 50% o f the population live in absolute poverty (Rowson, 2001; Avery, 2007). The estimate o f poverty incidence would significantly increase if it was seen beyond income poverty (Sahn and Stifel. 2002). Uncertain social progress is more acutc in Africa compared to other regions that have witnessed more sustained improvement in living standards (UNICEF, 2000; World Bank, 2001). Since independence, Ghana has been confronted with the inequitable distribution o f development and the persistence o f poverty. Meeting the food needs o f a growing population, managing resources to meet the developmental needs without compromising the environment, and reducing the proportion o f the population described as 'poor ' have been identified as immediate challenges facing successive governments. In this regard, a range o f social, political and economic strategies that put a high premium on economic growth (pro-growth policies) have been pursued over the years, and have yielded different levels o f success. The concern now, for kpro-poor‘ policies and strategies is the consequence o f a deep rooted disillusionment with the development paradigm which placed exclusive emphasis on the pursuit o f growth. According to Pasha (2002) the primary target o f developing countries in the 1950s and 60s to achieve rapid growth was to raise levels o f foreign savings (aid) with the expectation o f a "trickle- down' effect, largely through higher employment and real wages for poverty alleviation. There were no explicit pro-poor policies, but only 'pro-growth' policies through which poverty was to be reduced in this paradigm. However, in many situations, the process o f growth was accompanied by rising inequality such that the so-called trickle-down effect was either weak or non-existent (Pasha, 2002). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh With the failure o f growth strategies to lessen poverty, the focus shifted initially to the adoption o f the Economic Recovery Programmes (ERPs) and Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAPs) in the 1980s and 1990s. to stabilise the economy. Next was the design o f targeted anti-poverty interventions in the form o f ‘social safety nets' to tackle poverty. The objective o f this strategy was to reach those groups that remained excluded from or were marginalised by the process o f growth. This is the implicit philosophy behind the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) that have been prepared by developing countries for concessional financing by international financial institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank (WB). In recognition o f the implications o f pervasive poverty for socio-economic development, the Government o f Ghana launched its poverty reduction strategy in 2002. There is recognition now o f the need to go beyond the establishment o f social safety nets and also directly focus on providing jobs and raising incomes o f poor people through explicit policy interventions in the process o f growth. Public policies need to influence both the process o f generation and distribution o f income in such a way as to disproportionately benefit the poor. The focus now is on ‘pro-poor' growth, and by extension, ‘pro-poor’ tourism, where tourism is an important contributor to economic development, as is the case o f Ghana. Tourism is a young but expanding industry in Ghana which accounts for almost four percent o f Gross Domestic Product (GDP), and at the current annual growth rate o f 12 percent, tourism has the potential o f becoming Ghana's main foreign exchange earner (NDPC, 2005: 38). Even though the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I) and the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS II) identified tourism as a tool for accelerated socio-economic development through its job creation and income generation potentials, the poverty reduction potential o f tourism has been insufficiently recognised and exploited by government and its decentraliscd metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies over the years. Following global trends in the 1970s and 1980s. Ghana pursued a macro-economic tourism development agenda, focussing on tax and foreign exchange revenues at the national level, with 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh investments in major hotel and resort development, international promotion and national and regional master planning (DFID, 1999; Ashley et. a L 2000; Asiedu, 2004). However, in the late 1990s, the adoption o f the new poverty elimination target of halving the number o f people living on less than one US$ per day by 2015 has refocused development planning on pro-poor growth. Today, global and regional development planning agenda are shifting towards a micro-economic focus on local sustainable economic growth strategies which benefit local communities, and in particular those below' the poverty threshold. The potential for using tourism to generate pro-poor economic growth is being reassessed with poverty elimination now at the heart o f tourism development decision-making. However, Goodwin (2000) notes that the emphasis has been on minimising social, cultural and environmental impacts; rather than on positively affecting the livelihoods o f the poor (Goodwin, 2002). Generally, the importance o f handicraft for tourism development in Ghana has not received adequate attention, and it is not clear whether the tourism, cultural and poverty policies have been pro-poor. Recently. Ghana's poverty reduction strategy (GPRS I and II) recognises the vast economic potentials o f the handicrafts sector, and seeks to promote the crafts industry for tourist trade and export through the provision o f opportunities and technical assistance for micro-enterprises o f crafts procurers and improvement in the quality and marketing of their products. However, while the crafts sub-sector might not be as conspicuous as other tourism sub-sectors (hospitality, travel and tours), in Ghana it is one sector in which poorer people participate effectively, not only as labourers doing menial seasonal jobs, but as owner-managers o f Micro and Small-scale Enterprises (MSEs), with a great scope for wealth creation, and with benefits accruing directly to local people and their families in many craft villages nationwide. The cultural and socio-economic value o f handicrafts in general, and the recognition o f the added value o f handicrafts in tourism development in particular, call for its promotion (UNESCO. GACD, and DCCD. 2006; UN WTO, 2008). This is especially relevant today as world and regional bodies and nations are desperately searching for solutions to reduce poverty and other unacceptable 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conditions o f human existence summarised in the lirst Millennium Development Goal (MDG I). Although there have been much concern and study o f the real and potential contributions o f tourism, and o f handicrafts, there is now a pressing need to develop the synergy between the two and to understand the nature o f that relationship so as to highlight the potentials o f handicrafts for tourism development, wealth creation and poverty alleviation. This thesis argues that the production and sale o f handicrafts can foster the continuity o f local skills and traditions, and contribute significantly to poverty alleviation through its ability to create jobs, income, socio-economic opportunities, and sustain crafts-based livelihoods in local communities in Ghana. The capacity o f the craft industry to create high added value has been recognised by relevant world bodies and researchers (Kerr, 1981; Sagnia, 2005; Santagata, 2006; and WTO, 2008). This thesis also argues that money spent on crafts spreads instantly along the crafts value chain into the local community to provide a means o f livelihood for many families that depend on this activity. Historically, certain communities in Ghana are known for the production o f particular crafts items that continue to serve functional, ceremonial, religious and aesthetic purposes. Even though there is ethnic specialisation o f particular crafts based on different resource endowments, many o f the skills for making these handicrafts are declining. The natural resources on which continued production depend are dwindling, and many craft-based livelihoods have become insecure. The craft production value chain and their organisation seem not to ensure equity. However, no systematic study has been carried out to measure the implications o f these on the sustainability o f the crafts industry and on the livelihoods o f crafts workers and their families in Ghana, and the Ashanti region in particular. 1.2 The Research Problem The potential contribution o f handicrafts to improvements in local employment, wealth creation and poverty alleviation has been well documented by many writers such as Kerr (1990), Hitchcock and Teague (2000), Kamara (2004), Santagata et a'.. (2004), and Sagnia (2005). Advocates o f the use o f tourism as a tool for socio-economic development also recognise the contribution o f crafts production to poverty alleviation policies. Tourism has been hailed as a sector with significant linkages to other 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sectors such as agriculture, fishing, retailing, arts and crafts; and with economic spinoffs for rural development. However, the human and cultural capital o f craft villages (craft skills, traditional techniques and local resources) seem to have been neglected. These could be revitalised for job creation, wealth creation and poverty reduction. The peri-urban area (PUA) around Kumasi, the cultural capital o f the Ashanti region, is characterised by a number o f villages whose people continue to specialise in the production o f traditional handicrafts. However, some local and global events have created both ‘opportunities* and ‘threats', making craft-based livelihoods precarious. The historical and cultural backgrounds o f artisan labour, their economic potential, and their ‘survival’ or ‘dem ise’ today remain largely unexamined in these craft villages. Knowledge on how craftsmen and women are coping with reduced levels o f welfare in the face o f declining crafts activities in some villages on one hand, and how the renewed interest in crafts occasioned by tourism affects livelihoods on the other hand, is limited. Issues affecting crafts workers' livelihood security and sustainability are unclear and the importance o f tourism for sustained crafts production is little understood. The important roles o f the crafts sector in tourism for job creation and income generation have been articulated in the literature extensively but separately (Goodwin, 2000; Bello, 2006; Rogerson, 2005; and Sagnia, 2006). However, the role o f handicrafts in promoting and, in turn, being promoted by the tourism industry for accelerated development and poverty reduction has only recently been acknowledged (WTO, 2008). The contribution of handicrafts has been realised but little has been done to harness its potential for wealth creation and poverty reduction, and linkages o f the crafts industry with other sectors o f the local economy are unclear. In order to exploit the potential synergies, the fundamental links need to be explored and clearly understood. Cultural industries across the world are built on a myriad o f small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). This is especially true in the developing world where large-scale cultural enterprises are few and far between, (Rogerson, 2005) and a large number o f micro enterprises operate alongside SMEs. The development o f strong cultural industries in Ghana depends upon the 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh establishment o f viable and sustainable enterprises, yet many cultural enterprises in craft villages often seem not to attain economic viability, and fail to ensure a decent living for creators and other artisans involved in the enterprise. Factory produced substitutes o f some hand-crafted utility goods and changing tastes are likely to affect the demand for crafts locally. This may result in strangulated markets and, or market failure in some crafts villages. In this regard, Goucher (1981) and Steiner (1985), (cited in Hitchcock and Teague, 2000) have noted that influx o f manufactured items affects local production systems, leads to changes in buying patterns, and loss o f income among craftspeople in the developing world. Economic necessity may also force many craftspeople to search for alternative livelihood options (Hitchcock and Teague. 2000). Information on these issues amongst craftspeople in the Ashanti region is lacking and needs to be examined. Micro and small-scale enterprises face many challenges generally as the evidence o f Yankson (1992); Meager et al. (1996); Gartner (1999); and Rogerson (2005) suggest in Ghana, UK and in South Africa. However, the challenges o f micro anc small-scale crafts enterprises, per se, have remained under-researched in Ghana. While CIFOR (2002) warns o f depiction o f forests, Okrah (2002) has found that declining access to natural raw materials in the wood carving business negatively affects carving enterprises in Ghana. However, information is lacking on the effect o f the decline in patronage o f crafts products and how this affects the crafts businesses and crafts-based livelihoods. For crafts production to become a pro-poor tourism strategy for poverty reduction, the way business is done in the crafts villages need to change. Some crafts entrepreneurs along the handicrafts value-chain may be deriving less than optimum returns on their creativity and labour. Furthermore, information about issues o f inequalities within the handicrafts industry in the crafts villages in the Ashanti region is limited. Issues o f access to raw materials and markets, discrimination and remuneration regimes need to be investigated amongst craftsmen and women at various levels o f the crafts value chain in order to identify the poorest segments o f crafts workers. Policies that influence crafts production also need to be examined for evidence o f pro-poorness. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Much is not known about local artisans’ understanding o f marketing tools, product development and place promotion. Issues o f collaboration and competition amongst craftspeople need to be examined. The benefits o f forming stronger businesses may be lost due to the fierce competition amongst crafts procurers and their lack o f networking and collaboration. To succeed in developing a workable poverty reduction intervention based on crafts production, there is the need to understand what artisans perceive as poverty, how they identify the poor within the crafts industry and within their communities, and where they place themselves on the poverty - wealth spectrum, following the model expounded by Kunfaa (1999). The study therefore, intends to analyse the systems that give real meaning to the concept o f pro-poor growth and to explore what can be done to reduce poverty amongst handicraft entrepreneurs within the selected crafts villages. The research attempts to answer the following questions: • Has the cultural, tourism and economic policy environment unlocked opportunities for craftspeople to derive enhanced economic, non-financial and other livelihood benefits in crafts villages in Ghana? • What livelihood assets do craftspeople possess, and what are the constraints to crafts production, and their implications for participation and development o f linkages? • In what ways do different categories o f crafts entrepreneurs perceive and experience poverty? • In what ways do craftspeople cope with production challenges, and poverty? • What is the scope for making handicrafts production pro-poor? 1.3 Objectives The general objective o f the study w'as to assess the potentials o f the crafts industry as a pro­ poor tourism development strategy for poverty reduction in Ghana. Specific objectives o f the thesis were to: 1. Review the tourism, cultural and poverty policies in Ghana to determine their effects (pro­ growth or pro-poor) on the development o f the crafts, and the tourism industry. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. Examine crafts workers’ livelihood assets and production constraints, and outline their implications for participation and the formation o f partnerships and linkages. 3. Find out how craftspeople perceive and experience poverty in the study villages. 4. Investigate how craftspeople cope with production challenges, and poverty. 5. Outline policy implications and recommendations to make craft production a pro-poor tourism development strategy for poverty reduction in Ghana. 1.4 Research Hypotheses and Propositions 1.4.1 Hypotheses Based on their status in the crafts enterprise, level o f economic benefits derived, participation in decision making and sustainability o f the craft activity, the following hypotheses were formulated and tested: 1. H0: That there is no significant relationship between the status o f craftspeople and their self-assessed poverty status. Status o f crafts o f craftspeople refers to their position along the production chain. The crafts production chain can be defined briefly as enterprises which are involved with creation and production, and marketing o f crafts items, while poverty generally relates to deprivation due to inadequate income, food, shelter and inability to access social services like health and education. It is necessary, however, to identify who does what specifically, and what the main activity o f a craftsperson is. Beyond the ‘m erchant'/ ‘artisan’ categorisation, it is important to determine individual respondents' employment status by finding out whether they worked as ‘unpaid family m em bers’, as ‘contract artisans/merchants' or as ‘self-employed artisans/merchants’. Indicators used to assess one’s position along the crafts value chain included questions on specific work done in the crafts business, while respondents’ own assessments (self ranking) o f their poverty status on a 3-point poverty scale (poor, neither poor nor rich, and rich) was based on standards o f each community studied. However, to avoid bias in this potentially subjective exercise, results would be compared with a more objectively 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh derived CASHPOR House Index to establish respondents' level o f well-being accurately. 2. H0: That there is no significant relationship between the status o f the craftspeople and the level o f economic benefits derived from the crafts business. Benefits here are restricted to economic, financial and other non-financial livelihood benefits such as jobs, incomes, level o f satisfaction, and capacity building and training for the individual craftsperson. Community benefits relate to positive social and cultural impacts, donations to the community, and increased access to infrastructure and services provided for tourists, but that are o f benefit to locals such as improved roads, communications, healthcare and transportation. Other benefits such as prestige and pride are not included as they are difficult to measure. 3. Hc: That there is no significant relationship between status o f craftspeople and participation in decision-making that affect their businesses and community. It is necessary to be more specific as to the nature o f participation in a particular context, and identify who takes part in what, when, and how, and with what results. Indicators used to assess the likelihood o f participation o f craftspeople in the affairs o f their businesses and community included membership o f crafts associations, community development committees, social security and insurance schemes and community crafts/tourism management teams. 4. H0: That there is no significant relationship between the availability o f production inputs and sustainability o f the crafts business. Availability here refers to physical and economic access to raw materials and skilled artisans on which the crafts business depends. Sustainability refers to ensuring that resources are used in a way that ensures present and future availability. Accessibility is measured both in terms o f distances traversed and cost o f obtaining production inputs. Entrepreneurs’ perceptions about the sustainability o f their businesses were also gathered. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Decision Criteria Ho (Null Hypothesis): There is no significant relationship between the dependent (which is the status o f the craft entrepreneur) and the independent variable(s). Hi (Alternative Hypothesis): There is a significant relationship between the dependent (which is the status o f craft entrepreneurs) and the independent variable(s). If the P-value calculated is less than or equal to the significance level (< 0.05), reject the null hypothesis H0 1.4.2 Propositions 1. The development o f tourism and renewed interest in crafts production for sale to tourists and the export trade has provided jobs and incomes (livelihoods) to some craftspeople and their families in the Ashanti region. 2. Crafts-based livelihoods in some villages have become insecure as a result o f decline or virtual collapse o f the crafts production occasioned by dwindling markets and local support. 3. The way crafts production is organised does not ensure equitable rewards to women and those skilled artisans at the lower levels o f the value chain in the crafts villages. 4. The long-term sustainability o f the crafts industry is threatened by the shortage o f some raw materials and skilled artisans. Some young people participate in the production o f various crafts items but do not intend to remain in the industry. 1.5 Justification for the Study Poverty alleviation in the developing world is one o f the foremost issues today. It is an issue which has commanded the full focus not only o f world leaders and governments, but also o f civil society. As part o f the collaborative research on the ‘Changing Faces o f Poverty in Ghana', this study was aimed at developing a pro-poor tourism strategy for poverty reduction based on handicraft production for the craft villages found in the country at large. This study contributes to our understanding o f the dynamic interrelationship between the tourism and crafts industries and the response o f craft entrepreneurs to business opportunities and 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenges that come along with increased travel and globalisation. The study provides insights into how poverty is perceived and experienced by craft entrepreneurs, and deepens our understanding o f their coping and survival mechanisms. This study makes a contribution to poverty reduction efforts in local communities through the understanding o f the arena and arena systems and the agency o f craftspeople which informs the practicality o f implementing pro-poor tourism strategies. 1.6 Organisation o f Chapters The study has been organised into eight chapters. The introductory chapter (Chapter One) presents a brief background to the study. It is followed by the problem statement and research questions, objectives, and the hypotheses. Following this chapter is the second, wrhich reviews relevant literature and conceptual issues including the concept o f poverty, pro-poor growth and cultural globalisation. The discussion then moves on to the conceptual framework and the study methodology. The main themes discussed here include the elaboration o f the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework and value-chain analysis. The context for the study is presented in this chapter. It justifies why Ashanti crafts are wrorthv o f study and presents with maps a brief geographical, socio-cultural and historical overview of the study area and the tourism resources o f Ashanti region. This is followed by the methods used, highlighting selection o f study areas, sample frame and selection, field research techniques and methods o f analysis. Furthermore, government policies on handicrafts, tourism and poverty reduction are examined in Chapter Four. The review questions whether or not these policies specifically target poor people and unlock opportunities for them to increase economic and non-financial livelihood benefits. The discussion probes the policies in order to determine whether the approaches have been pro-growth or pro-poor. Chapter Five examines the various livelihood assets o f craftspeople. The discussion touches on the production constraints and outlines their implications for participation and the formation o f partnerships and linkages within the local economy. Chapter Six highlights how various categories o f craftspeople perceive and experience poverty. It presents results o f how craftspeople rank themselves on the poverty - wealth continuum. Chapter 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Seven provides insights into strategies craftspeople adopt to cope with production challenges and the mechanisms they employ to cope with poverty. The discussion examines the survival and coping mechanisms craftspeople employed to secure their livelihoods. Finally, the summary, conclusions, policy implications and recommendations are outlined in Chapter Eight. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL ISSUES 2.1 Introduction The previous chapter, among others, highlighted the problem to be investigated, the specific objectives, and the hypotheses o f the study. This chapter aims to locate the study in its scholarly context by reviewing the main currents o f thought within the tourism, handicrafts and poverty discourse, and highlights the linkages amongst them. The chapter begins with a review o f the literature on the nature o f tourism development (2.2.1); explores the links between tourism, handicrafts and poverty reduction (2.2.2 to 2.2.5); and examines the potentials o f cultural and creative industries for pro-poor tourism development (2.1.6 and 2.1.7). This chapter also examines the poverty concept, and discusses how poverty is perceived, experienced and highlights the range o f coping mechanisms (2.2) that have been engineered to deal with it. Finally, the chapter examines conceptual approaches to tourism, handicrafts, and poverty studies and discusses the concept o f cultural globalisation which underpins the study. 2.2 Literature Review 2.2.1 The Nature o f Tourism The terms ‘tourism ’ and ‘travel' are often interchanged within the published literature on tourism (Page and Connell 2006:11). While ‘travel’ relates to the movements and the facilities creatcd to transport the tourist from an origin o f a journey to the destination and back, ‘tourism’ does not lend itself to easy definition. Williams and Shaw (1988) have observed that ‘the definition o f tourism is a particularly arid pursuit' (William and Shaw 1988:2). However, tourism encompasses human and business activities associated with one or more aspects o f the temporary movement o f persons away from their immediate home communities and daily work environments for business, pleasure or personal reasons (Chadwick 1994:65). In the same vein, the United Nations (2003) defines tourism as a socio-economic phenomenon comprising the activities and experiences o f tourists and visitors away from their home environments, serviced by the travel and tourism industry and host destinations (UN. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2003:7). The definition o f tourism has emphasised both a demand and supply perspectives. From a demand standpoint, tourism involves the movement o f people from their permanent places o f residence and their temporary stay in other locations primarily for pleasure, leisure, recreation and business. However, a supply-side definition emphasises the range o f businesses and goods that cater tourists’ needs (UN, 2003:7). When the demand and supply perspectives are combined, tourism is viewed as: “the temporary movement o f people to destinations outside their normal places o f work and residence, the activities undertaken during their stay in those destinations, and the facilities created to cater to their needs" (M athieson and Wall, 1982:1). This study is concerned more with the supply side definition as it relates to crafts production and its potentials for wealth creation for poverty reduction. 2.2.2 T ourism Development and Poverty Reduction Reducing poverty has been an on-going challenge for governments, NGOs and large sections o f the world 's population. To help achieve the M DGs and reduce poverty, a number o f poverty reduction tools need to be developed and applied. There is increasing evidence that tourism is one tool which can effectively help reduce poverty. However, while the economic growth potential and the socio-cultural and environmental impacts o f tourism had long been recognised and acknowledged (Mathieson, and Wall, 1982; Wahab, and Pigram 1997; Butler, 1997), it is only recently that attention has been refocused on the potentialities and practicality o f tourism development as a strategy for poverty reduction (Jamieson. 2001; Goodwin, 2002; W TO, 2002; Ashley and Mitchell, 2005, 2006; and ODI, 2006). Most existing tourism studies, especially those focussing on developing countries, concentrate on the influence o f large, foreign-owned tourism companies on destination areas (Britton 1978; Britton 1982; Debbage 1992). The literature also reveals the inadequate attention authors have paid to the impact and linkages o f small and medium-sized tourism businesses on local economies and. importantly, have failed to successfully theorise the interaction o f domestic with international forces in shaping tourism development (Shaw and Williams 1994). 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The role o f tourism in stimulating growth in the lesser developed countries has been highlighted. Hitchcock (2000) points out the attention other commentators have drawn to the potential of tourism to stimulate a variety o f economic activities in the 1960s and how this ‘multiplier and trickle down' concept was replaced by a more cautionary stance in the following decades as the problems o f overdependence o f tourism on external capital and its associated ‘leakage effects’ became clearer (Hitchcock. 2000). In the wake o f globalisation and economic restructuring, many countries and communities are struggling to redefine and rebuild their economies. To reduce poverty and encourage economic and social development, m any governments, international aid agencies and researchers have recognised the positive impact tourism development can bring to a country by creating economic opportunities and contributing to the general quality o f life o f residents. In the past, however, sufficient attention has not been paid to ensuring that gains from tourism development go to those most in need among the local population rather than only to the better-off or outsiders. In this regard. Emanuel de Kadt (1979) notes that although a more equitable distribution o f the benefits o f tourism is desirable, the tourism sector by itself cannot correct this anomaly. He concludes by highlighting the role o f government policy towards unlocking opportunities for poorer participants to derive enhanced benefits from tourism development (De Kadt 1979:9). Other scholars who subscribe to the view that equity has to be at the centre o f national policy planning include Bryden (1973) and Goodwin (2002). Tourism has com e to represent an increasingly stronger economic development opportunity for developing countries and for those wishing to diversify their economies. Tourism is in a good position to contribute to the UN Millennium Development Goals, especially the first one regarding poverty reduction as stated in the WTO Declaration: "Harnessing Tourism for the Millennium Development Goals" adopted on the eve o f the 2005 UN Summit (Yunis, 2005). According to Hall and Lew (1998), debate over the ‘wise use ' o f natural resources has been at the centre o f geographic imagination for many years. They cite George Perkins Marsh's book Man and Nature or, Physical Geography as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh M odified by Human Action (1965), originally published in 1864, as having enormous impact on conservation debates (Hall and Lew 1998:1). However, since the time o f Marsh, geographers have been influencing the course o f natural resource management in several ways (see Mitchell, 1989). 2.2.3 A pproaches to Tourism D evelopm ent A critical review o f the literature on the academic concern with tourism reveals many approaches and paradigm shifts, which have been occasioned by economics, environment, sociology, and now poverty. The economic aspects o f tourism have been widely studied and have been extensively published in academic journals such as Tourism Management and Tourism Economics. However, much o f the early research, and the justification for tourism development tended to focus on the potentials for positive economic gains (Asiedu 2004:26). Page and Connell (2006), and many others are o f the view that tourism has nourished across the world because o f its perceived benefit: it is touted as one o f the world's largest industry. However, tourism development in many places has led to deterioration in environmental quality (Mathieson and Wall 1982; Pearce 1989; Asiedu 2004:26; Page and Connell 2006:343). The growth o f tourism has prompted debate about environmental consequences and the desirability o f further development. The effects of mass tourism in the 1960s and increasing awareness of the human impact on the environment led to a general realisation that nature is not an inexhaustible resource, and this was embodied in the seminal study by Young (1973) Tourism: Blessing or Blight? This study and others by Krippendorf (1987), and Wood and House (1991) question the validity o f uncontrolled growth in tourism. The ‘impacts’ studies and sustainability paradigm, instigated by concerns with the negative effect o f tourism on the physical resources o f destination areas in the 1960s culminated in the evolution o f international tourism action on sustainable tourism since 1980. However, attributing environmental damage to tourism alone is problematic. Mathieson and Wall (1982) have noted that the main problem is that of disentangling the effects o f tourism from the effects o f human existence (Mathieson and Wall 1982:97-98; Page and Connell 2006:374). 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Initially, the sustainability paradigm was applied to tourism development resulting in more environmentally sensitive forms o f tourism such as ecotourism and wildlife-based tourism. However, failed direct state involvement and inequalities in the economic benefits, vis-a-vis the negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts derived by locals at tourist destinations led to a reworking o f the approach to tourism development to include a new focus on local participation (Segbefia, 2008). The sociological and anthropological concern with tourism development is reflected in a number o f seminal studies in tourism and its social and cultural impacts embodied in MacCannelPs (1976) The Tourist, Smith's (1977) Hosts and Guests and De Kadt’s (1979) Tourism: Passport to Development. These studies confirm M urphy’s (1985) argument that tourism is a ‘socio-cultural event for the traveller and the host' (M urphy 1985:117). Indices such as Doxey’s (1975) irritation index 4irridex' have sought to measure these socio-cultural impacts through the measurement of varying degrees o f acceptance (euphoria) to rejection (antagonism). Today, however, the concern is on using tourism as a tool for poverty reduction and the new' focus is on 'micro-economic pro-poor growth' compared to the ‘macro-economic pro-growth’ focus o f past interventions. With the adoption o f the MDGs, the focus has shifted to the role o f tourism in poverty reduction. This has led development planners and tourism analysts to search for innovative ways o f how tourism can contribute to poverty reduction. Earlier attempts by the United Nations and DFID sought to use sustainable tourism for the elimination o f poverty (STEP). However, this approach did not specifically target poor people as the Pro-poor Tourism approach does. 2.2.4 Pro-Poor Growth and Pro-Poor Tourism 2.2.4.1 Pro-Poor Growth While there has been research on the impact o f tourism on the economic development o f a country, there has been little work that documents the economic impacts o f tourism on increasing the well-being and quality o f life o f the poor. It has been argued that the trickle-down effects of tourism does not benefit the less well-off segments of the society, and some researchers and donor agencies are not convinced that the economic benefits o f tourism actually substantially change the conditions o f the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh poor. Generally, Pasha et al. (2003) notes that macroeconomic development paradigms which locus on the hope that there would be trickle-down effects have failed because the perceived trickle-down benefits have been weak generally, and non-existent in some cases. The concept o f pro-poor growth is of central importance. However, there are different understandings o f this concept as reflected in debates in academic literature and policy environments. There is a distinction o f an ‘absolute* and a ‘relative' concept o f pro-poor growth (D11D, 2004). The absolute concept o f pro-poor growth is that growth is pro-poor when it reduces poverty (Ravallion, 2004), whereas the relative concept is that growth is pro-poor when the poor benefit disproportionately, so implying a reduction in inequality (Kakwani and Pernia, 2000). Both notions are o f relevance to this study because the absolute concept focuses attention on the rate o f growth specifically for the poor, but it is also very important to consider the distributional pattern o f growth and so the evolution o f inequality. For a given rate o f growth, the more it reduces inequality the bigger its poverty reduction impact will be (McKay and Aryeetev, 2004). Pro-poor growth has been defined variously. Some authors refer to it as growth which results in a significant poverty reduction, thereby benefiting the poor and improving their access to opportunities, (e.g., UN, 2000; World Bank, 2000; OECD, 2001). But it is not clear how significant a reduction in poverty must be and how progress in achieving pro-poor growth is to be monitored (Pernia, 2003). 'Hie DFID (2004) defines pro-poor growth as ‘growth that is good for the poor*, and agrees that higher rates o f growth usually result in more rapid poverty reduction, especially over periods of a decade or more. This is in consonance with Eastwood and Lipton's (2001) exploration o f the links between growth, equality and p o v e r t y reduction. In that study, they confirmed that, fck... poverty decline tends, on average, to be faster in times and places o f fast, prolonged growth than alongside slow growth, let alone stagnation or decline; and that there is no general or universal tendency for growth, as such, to make income distribution either less or more equal..." . (Eastwood and Lipton, 2001). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh While Ravallion and Datt (2002) equate pro-poor growth with high elasticity o f poverty with respect to growth, Ravallion and Chen (2003) introduce the concept o f 'm e a n growth rate o f the p o o r , all o f which Ernesto Pernia considers as ‘begging' the question o f measuring and monitoring in the former, and as analytically ambiguous in the latter case. To him, “pro-poor growth is the type o f growth that enables the poor to actively participate in economic activity and benefit proportionally more than the non-poor from overall income increase" (Pernia, 2003). Klassen (2004:2) similarly defines “pro-poor growth to mean that the poor benefit disproportionately from economic growth.” Key to the definition o f pro-poor growth, therefore, is the joint consideration o f growth and its distribution. It should be stressed that, while both ex-ante and ex-post distribution are pivotal to poverty reduction as such, pro-poor growth is essentially about ex-post distribution, i.e., distribution o f the increment to the pie, not to the existing pic. Moreover, pro-poor growth is primarily about the distribution o f growth between, not within lower and upper income groups. Pro-poor growth merely requires that the proportional income growth of the poor exceeds the overall average income growth (Pernia. 2003). In the same vein, Pro-Poor Tourism (PPT) may be defined as tourism that enables the poor to actively participate in tourism economic activity and benefit proportionately more than the non-poor in overall income increase in the industry. This is a clear departure from the trickle-down development notion o f the 1950s and 1960s that meant a gradual top-dow n How from the rich to the poor. 2.2.4.2 Pro-Poor Tourism The Pro-Poor Tourism framework has been identified as the most practical route to unlocking the opportunities for poorer people to participate and derive net benefits from tourism activity using a range o f assets which are available to them. It is in this respect that small-scale craft entrepreneurs and craft villages becom e relevant. It is important to note, that overemphasis on social, economic and physical impacts o f tourism in the literature overshadows the dynamics of entrepreneurial activities that plays an important role in the composite tourism industry. Generally, Hitchcock (2000) asserts that development o f tourism enclaves in developing countries marginalises local entrepreneurs both 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh geographically and economically, and leads to an expansion o f the informal sector (Hitchcock, 2000). Until recently, a reliable set o f research and data that is germane to the understanding o f the poverty reduction and tourism development relationship in both developed and developing economies was lacking (Jamieson, 2001). However, the Pro-Poor Tourism Partnership (PPTP) provides a compelling insight into the tourism and poverty reduction nexus, and re-articulates a multi-pronged strategy for its realisation in rural, peri-urban and urban settings o f communities in developing economies. The PPTP is collaboration between the International Centre for Responsible Tourism (ICRT), the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), and the Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Information on the definition and strategies o f tourism and poverty reduction relationships and case studies are now available in the PPT info-sheets published by the PPTP (see http://www.propoortourism.org.uk/). According to the PPTP (2004), “pro-poor tourism, is tourism that results in increased net benefits for poor people". It is important to note that PPT is not a specific product or niche sector but an approach to tourism development and management. It enhances the linkages between tourism businesses and poor people; so that tourism’s cortribution to poverty reduction is increased and poor people are able to participate more effectively in product development, e.g., operators o f micro tourism businesses and craftspeople. There is no doubt that a pro-poor tourism policy implies a change in policy direction. It calls for a change in objectives solely concerned with increasing overall tourism numbers and revenues, to a new one that stresses forms o f tourism that are of benefit to the poor. These forms o f tourism can be labour intensive, include support for a role o f the informal sector in tourism development, should be based on tourism assets that are available to the poor and should direct tourism development to areas where the poorest people live. This form o f tourism should also be concerned with ensuring that tourism development does not exacerbate the problems o f the poor by increasing pollution, making land more expensive and decreasing access to natural and cultural opportunities (Jamieson, 2003). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The literature on the developmental impacts o f tourism, mainly in the developing world, but to a certain degree also in the developed world, has in recent years sought to identify whether tourism can actually be regarded as, and encouraged to become, a ‘pro-poor' development strategy (Binns and Nel, 2002). Poverty alleviation/elimination is the core focus o f PPT. But there is often some confusion as to how PPT relates to other tourism concepts such as ‘ecotourism ’, ‘sustainable tourism’ and 'community-based tourism ’. In an attempt to clarify the situation, the PPTP explains: ‘PPT also overlaps with both ecotourism and community-based tourism, but it is not synonymous with either. Ecotourism initiatives may provide benefits to people, but they are mainly concerned with the environment. Community-based tourism initiatives aim to increase local people's involvement in tourism. This is a useful component o f PPT. But PPT involves more than a community focus - it requires mechanisms to unlock opportunities for the poor at all levels and scales o f operation” (Pro- Poor Tourism, 2002:1). As Ashley and Roe (2002) argue, ‘despite commercial constraints, much can be done to enhance the contribution o f tourism to poverty reduction, and a pro-poor tourism perspective assists in this endeavour' (Ashley and Roe 2002: 61). In support o f this approach, Sharpley (2002) also argues that, ‘tourism has long been considered an effective catalyst o f rural socio-economic development and regeneration' (Sharpley, 2002: 112). However, he questions whether tourism can, in fact, be regarded as a developmental panacea. Even though positive evidence o f the impact o f tourism-based development on communities can be found in localities such as Taquile Island (Mitchella and Reidb, 2001), Southern and Eastern Africa (Ashley and others, 2000) the reality is that, control often remains vested in the hands o f outsiders, such that local communities are often only incorporated at a subservient level. This can easily lead to negative effects, such as resource depletion and the loss, or commoditisation o f culture. Pro-Poor Tourism, as noted, is hinged cn three main pillars, economic benefits, capacity building and noncash benefits and networking and participation. When these opportunities are unlocked for poorer participants in the handicrafts business, there is a higher likelihood for poverty to 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh be reduced, putting hitherto less privileged artisans on the road to economic and other forms o f security. What is left now is to fashion viable and practical poverty reduction strategies taking all the diverse perspectives into consideration; to support and em power craftsmen and women to be able to lift themselves out o f poverty; to develop their capacities to deal with present and future shocks and stresses caused by arena-based difficulties, or agency-based inadequacies; help artisans to identify and seize opportunities to be able to make informed choices that would enhance their livelihoods, and enhance their capacities to effectively adapt to the changing fortunes o f life. However, crafts development should be considered as part o f overall development for a given region, rather than an economic panacea that will provide instant alterative employment and income opportunities. 2.2.5 Importance o f Cultural Industries in Development According to Engelhardt (2005), awareness o f the potential economic value o f culture is growing globally, and governments are increasingly focussing their attention on cultural industries - businesses which are based on cultural resources and intellectual property - as also understanding their utility as a vector for sustainable development. One means o f countering the negative forces o f globalisation, and highlighting the value o f local skills and knowledge, according to Engelhardt (2005) is to support the businesses which rely on cultural creativity as key resources. The economic value o f culture and the creativity they foster have been acknowledged by researchers all over the world (see Graburn 1976; Hitchcock and Teague, 2000; Shaeffer, 2005). The social and spiritual value o f culture is well understood, but their potential for socio-economic development has been little recognised, and remains largely untapped. Cultural industries have the potential to contribute significantly to the economies o f developing countries. It has been observed that globally, cultural industries are considered the fifth largest economic sector in terms o f turnover, after financial services, information technology, pharmaceuticals and biotechnology, and tourism. The global value o f creative industries was projected to increase from US$831 billion in 2000, to US$1.3 trillion in 2005, representing an annual growth o f over seven percent (DACST, 1998). Evans (2005) has noted that they are the major employer and major 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contributor to national wealth in the UK as they earn more, and employ more people in London than financial services. They contribute £55 billion in gross value added, which is six times more than automotive industries and nine times more than aerospace and pharmaceuticals (Evans, 2005). Culture is today acknowledged as an economic asset (World Bank, 1999; Thorsby, 2000). According to Santagata (2000), localised industries made up o f micro, small and medium scale enterprises (M SMEs) that produce goods based on material culture constitute an important road to economic development. Consequently, Kamara (2004) has noted that for the past two decades, cultural industries have increasingly attracted interest from policy makers and private sector actors in developed nations who are increasingly aware o f the important contributions cultural industries make to their economies. In their analysis o f quantitative data on the economic importance o f artisan goods on national and international markets, Santagata et al. (2004) defined material culture, and presented a historical overview o f the evolution o f handicrafts. They noted that culture-based goods have become a modern example o f sustainable and endogenous growth based on small and micro cultural firms. They conclude that cultural-based goods show a main road to development, but to develop, they have to make a transition from traditional handicraft production into ‘soft industrial design’ by adopting the ‘cultural district’ perspective and the assignment o f ‘collective trademarks' (Moreno et. al., 2004). The firms engaged in craft production and marketing in Ashanti craft villages are somewhat clustered, forming a de-facto cultural district. They can benefit from collective trademarks in their battle and frustration with protecting intellectual property rights. In a related study, Moreno, Santagata and Tabassum (2004) examined handicrafts production through the lens o f economics, and focussed on the sociological and economic definitions o f material cultural heritage. They compared the issues o f material culture value-chains in Pakistan and Ecuador, and analysed how material cultural heritage can be used as strategic assets for sustainable economic development for iocai communities. They conclude that material culture can become a basis for a self­ sustained endogenous economic development. However, this is not a straight forward matter as 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh revealed by the findings o f Kamara (2005) who identified the challenges and constraints to successful craft production and marketing in developing countries. Many o f the craft entrepreneurs and artisans can benefit from K am ara’s keys to successful handicraft entrepreneurship. With the adoption o f the MDGs in 2000 by the United Nations General Assembly, global attention has been increasingly focussed on the design o f comprehensive strategies in which to achieve economic development that is truly sustainable and that contributes directly to the eradication o f the scourge o f poverty. This has triggered many international workshops and seminars seeking to examine the prospects o f cultural industries for poverty reduction in developing countries in Asia, the Pacific and Africa. These include a high level panel on creative industries organised by UNCTAD in June (2004); a Senior Expert Symposium on Promoting Cultural Industries for Local Economic Development (Jodhpur, India, 22-26 February 2005); Arterial Conference on Vitalising African Cultural Assets (Goree Institute, Dakar, Senegal 5-7 March 2007); Strengthening Local Creative Industries and developing Cultural Capacity for Poverty Alleviation (Sixth annual conference 17-20 November 2005). The World Tourism Organisation International Conference on Tourism and Handicrafts (13-15 M ay 2006) in Tehran, Islamic Republic o f Iran; and the 12th session o f the UNCTAD pre-conference event in Accra, which examined the creative economy and industries for development. International, regional and national organisations1 have developed interest in cultural, tourism and poverty reduction. Dimitri (1995) questions why the supply-side o f the tourism sector (local suppliers, entrepreneurs and labour issues) has so far been weakly theorised, neglected and under researched. Rogcrson (2005) re-echoes Brittons (1991) who is o f the ” iew that this weak level o f theorising has stunted efforts to develop a stronger insight into the industry’s workings and resulting social actions. Shaw and Williams (1994) also argue that the identity and characteristics o f indigenous entrepreneurs, especially, the organisation and behaviour o f local tourism businesses in developing countries need to be researched. They point out that there is a pressing need to comprehend the dynamics o f the role o f 1 The international and regional organisations with interest in cultural industries inc lude WTO, WIPO, ILO, UN, ECOW AS, NEPAD, and UNCTAD. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh entrepreneurship, and particularly, “how tourism enterprises operate in different economies” (Shaw and Williams, 1994: 120). Insufficient research has been carried out concerning firm formation and the development o f entrepreneurial skills in tourism. Furthermore, inadequate information exists, for example, concerning the motivational forces leading local people to enter the small business side o f the tourism sector. It is therefore appropriate to examine small tourism and hospitality firms as a distinct analytical category from small business enterprises as a whole (Thomas 1998, 2000). Recently, however. Christian M. Rogerson (2005) working on Tourism Small Enterprises (SM M E) support programmes in South Africa found out that these enterprises needed different forms o f assistance, and that local people had different motivations for entering the tourism small business sector (Rogerson. 2005). Thus, this study and allied studies in the developed world partially fills the void identified by Shaw and Williams (1994) in the dynamics o f tourism small businesses. In his review o f tourism small businesses, Rogerson (2005) acknowledges that the bulk o f existing scholarship is centred on issues around the role o f small tourism firms in developed countries, and consists o f w'ork around several issues that are related to the development and dynamics o f small tourism firms. The focus o f many o f these studies however, has been on the accommodation and not on the handicrafts sector. As many kinds o f alternative tourism occur in peripheral regions, it has been suggested that local control and local small enterprise development in tourism in such areas be supported by the provision o f special fiscal and monetary incentives to enable local entrepreneurs to own and operate small tourism establishments (Tosun, 2005). Finally, a n e w perspective on tourism small firms in the developing world emerges from the set o f writings on pro-poor tourism which stresses the importance o f a policy environment for supporting small tourism enterprises as a potential basis for addressing poverty reduction (Ashley et al ,2000: Ashley et al., 2001; Ashley and Roe, 2002; Bah and Goodwin, 2003). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.6 Handicrafts and Poverty Reduction Potential According to Kerr (1991) there are multiple reasons for ensuring the maintenance o f cultural traditions: historical, cultural, economic, ecological and so on. Now, more than ever, there is a growing focus on the economic potential o f the traditional crafts in terms o f employment opportunities, small business enterprise, trade and tourism; and the potential o f crafts development to enable local people to improve their well-being without depleting renewable natural resources. The utilitarian, aesthetic, socio-cultural and economic value o f handicrafts have been amply demonstrated and documented in the literature (Gittinger, 1979; Gearheart and Kerr, 1987; Pye, 1988; Scllato 1989; Kerr, 1990; Santagata et al., 2004). The deliberate fostering o f crafts villages is seen as a vital, socially and economically prudent and viable way o f maintaining and preserving the cultural heritage o f rural societies, especially in the face o f declining agricultural yields and output occasioned by urbanisation and changes in land use; and the new effective demand created through the globalisation process. Although the volume o f handicraft sales to tourists may not compare with the export market (Pye, 1988), handicrafts play an integral role in support o f the performing arts which are o f primary importance to tourism. Working together, the crafts become important catalysts in building ethnic pride and maintaining or reviving cultural practices which otherwise might become extinct (De Kadt 1979; Pye 1988). Even though urban-based small-scale industrial production o f handicrafts might seem attractive, results from pilots have proved that nurturing crafts in their natural settings appear to have a greater potential for success (Kerr. 1990; ATA, 1990). Santagata et al. (2004) have also demonstrated how material culture can be used as a strategic asset for sustainable economic development, especially for local communities, with the initial support o f international agencies and progressively by themselves, given that high quality goods and services based on material culture can ground a self­ sustained endogenous economic development (Santagata et. al., 2004). Export diversification through the promotion o f non-traditional exports is a leading priority for Ghana (UNDP, 2000). The handicrafts sector has grown rapidly in Ghana. Now, the African Growth 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Opportunities Act (AGOA), initiative has added textiles and garments under the Presidential Special Initiative (PSI). The sector has grown from a value o f around $2.6 million in 1993 to more than $11.6 million by 2002. This figure excludes contributions from the garments and textiles (EPC, 2006). However, a study by Action for Enterprise (AFE, 2003) notes that much o f this growth has been founded on direct donor funded support within the sub-sector, embedded in key market coordination and service functions, and as donor support was withdrawn major cracks appeared in the sector. These issues relate to quality control, product design and the use o f ICTs. A strong case is, therefore, made for embedded services in the handicrafts sector as crafts merchants might see payments for these services as unnecessary outlays and a reduction o f tight margins (AFE, 2003). Studies by FAO (1987) and Campbell (1990) have found that what may work in an industrial setting may usually suffocate home-based handicrafts - especially, where women's roles are concerned. The introduction o f ‘labour-saving’ machinery can threaten the hand-made nature o f the crafts; moreover, case-studies consistently show that, when 'im proved technology' is introduced, women are generally excluded from access to the new machinery (FAO, 1987a; Campbell. 1990). In this regard, Browne (1978) reports that the introduction o f the potter’s wheel into Ghana was patronised by men, while women continued making pots the traditional way (Browne, 1978). According to Pye (1988) most rural-based artisans tend to work part-time and in the home. The characteristics o f these cottage industries have both positive and negative implications. This may affect the ability to produce economically significant quantities to meet export demand, and a potential conflict o f time between subsistence production and handicrafts work for cash. On the positive side, it may complement agricultural livelihoods, create extra employment and contribute to household income, mop up excess labour during off-season periods, mitigate migration, and help reduce poverty (Pye, 1988, Kamara, 2005). However, Kerr (1991) warns that expectations from efforts aimed at handicrafts development should not be exaggerated, as economic development o f handicrafts production aione cannot be expected to result in maintenance o f cultural traditions and poverty reduction. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As rural areas grow and become peri-urban, and as peri-urban communities become urban, access and utilisation o f natural resources on which crafts-based livelihoods depend become problematic. Issues o f discrimination, commoditisation, depletion and control arise. The perspectives o f villagers accustomed to access defined by complex traditional precedents are often at odds with state and district lawrs aimed at resource protection. Usually, government policy is, by and large, tipped in favour o f large consumers o f raw materials, who are the main beneficiaries o f government concessions and permits (Peluso, 1989; Weistockand Sunito. 1989). 2.2.7 Handicrafts, Tourism and Development One o f the first authors to draw attention to the importance o f crafts as forms o f cultural expression and to exam ine their important links to tourism was Nelson Graburn. Over the years, a huge literature on tourism, “ethnic arts”, “handicrafts’’ and artisanal products has emerged. Hitchcock and others have examined many issues relating to tourism, handicrafts, and community approaches to tourism with a focus on Indonesian handicrafts development (see Hitchcock, 1985, 1991; Hitchcock and Teague, 2000; Hitchcock and Nuryanti, 2000; Hitchcock and Putra, 2007; Hitchcock and Wesner, 2008). Traditionally, handicrafts have been seen as a certain type o f manufacturing, whereby objects are created by hand through the skilled use o f tools to produce essentially functional goods (Donkin. 2001). According to Graburn (2008), the word Handicrafts in the English language connotes “alterin’” . Alterity in turn, connotes being ‘handmade' as opposed to manufactured, standardised, or plastic. In the Ghanaian context, handcraft items are intended to be used (either in the home or as tools). However, African crafts, and Ghanaian crafts for that matter, are not only handmade and functional for use as domestic accessories or tools; they are imbued with religious significance, and also serve as ‘secular’ objects o f social customs - as regalia for the chieftaincy institution or ritual objects in cults (Rattray, 1927; Sarpong, 1971; Shadier, 1979; De Kadt, 1979; Obeng, 1988). According to Graburn (2008), handicrafts can carry an air o f nostalgia as “survivals o f a past age” when everything was made by hand, or it may refer to an item being made by people who still 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh live a way o f life that suggests the past, based on crafts, the ability to make m ost o f the useful things in their lives themselves (Graburn, 2008, cited in WTO, 2008:29). Handicrafts are, therefore, the tangible and intangible products that reflect the cultural heritage and traditions o f a country, region or local community. M cKercher (2008) notes that handicrafts may be evocative o f past practices but may also reflect current practices. They are associated with place and have value because they reflect a place and the people who produce them. They can be physical products, including household products, traditional beauty products, cosmetics and medicines, clothing, art, paintings, sculptures, carvings, pottery, traditional ceremonial artefacts and even industrial goods including farm implements, tools and industrial artefacts. Even skills, no matter how broadly ‘skill’ is defined can become a handicraft (Marwick 2001. cited in McKercher. 2008). There is also a recognition that intangible heritage can fit into a broader definition o f a handicraft (Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, 2004). However, by strict definition, art and performance are not handicrafts. Crafts development can represent a constructive, positive contribution to the development o f alternatives to resource-destructive agricultural practices, based on the provision o f gainful employment. Although research is limited, available evidence provides clear indications o f the actual and potential economic clout represented by handicrafts within the economies o f developing nations (Kerr. 1990; Bello. 2002). When this is combined with tourism the possibilities are immense. Handicrafts are an important part o f tourism. Yet, little research has been conducted on this activity in Ghana. According to M cKercher (2008), much o f what has been written is general in nature, and repeats the same old stereotypes about the positive and negative impacts o f tourism on host communities (Heeley. 1989; Hall and McArthur, 1993; and Bruner, 1996). While there has been extensive work carried out on the impact o f tourism on the economic development, the last two decades has seen a proliferation o f a rich volume o f literature by geographers on tourism's spatial characteristics, with studies devoted to addressing the economic, environmental and socio-cultural impacts o f the tourist industry in destination areas (Britton 1978; Mathieson and Wall, 1982; Zurick. 1992). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Even though there have been many conferences and research on tourism and many on handicrafts, the linkage between tourism and handicrafts has not yet been fully explored, understood or developed, with a resultant loss o f valuable revenue and job creation opportunities. However, there is a growing awareness o f the potential economic value o f cultural resources for tourism development. The UN WTO identified this largely unexplored research area only recently, and organised the first ever conference in May 2006 to develop the synergy between tourism and handicrafts, and to raise awareness about the importance o f handicrafts for tourism and vice-versa. This conference examined the job creation, income generation and poverty alleviation opportunities in developing the tourism- handicraft linkage, and investigated ways to maximise these opportunities, paying attention to the vulnerable sectors o f society. The prospects of a sustainable partnership between tourism and handicrafts were thoroughly examined within the broad framework o f the struggle for poverty alleviation, culminating in a ‘Tehran Declaration on Handicrafts, Tourism and Poverty Alleviation (2006)'. This declaration marks a useful beginning in the process o f defining relevant strategies and practical tools for governments and the private sector, identifying the roles o f the corresponding Government departments, o f the local and incoming tourism industry, o f external sources o f finance, and o f the necessary technical assistance (UNWTO, 2008). Tourism and handicrafts seem to have a symbiotic relationship. Again, recent international conferences, workshops and symposia organised by United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in 2004 and 2008, the United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO) in 2005, the International Network for Cultural Diversity (INCD) in 2005 and 2007, all focused on the prospccts o f cultural industries for poverty alleviation in developing countries; the potentials and constraints o f their development; and the importance o f networks and a conducive policy framework to support their development. However, the link between handicraft and tourism development for poverty reduction is a recent phenomenon. It is imperative, therefore, to throw some light on the theoretical and conceptual basis o f this literature in order to obtain an illumined understanding o f its relevance to poverty reduction in urban, peri-urban and rural 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contexts in Ghana. One o f the tilings tourists look for during their trips is a 'm em ento ', something that reminds them o f the particular trip. Handicrafts and other souvenirs satisfy this tourist need. But McKercher (2008) re-echoes M arwick (2001) when he notes that unlike other types o f souvenirs, handicrafts play a much more personal role in shaping the tourist experience, fostering long-term memories and associations with a place. As such, they are valued more highly than most other souvenirs (Mckercher, 2008). In India, Java Jaitly, Sheldon Shaeffer, Richard Engelhardt and others in 2005 examined the socio-economic contributions and industrial potentials o f India's creative industries at a seminar on the arts and crafts o f the region. They concluded that creative enterprises and traditional crafts held the future o f industry as they were the major employers and contributors to national wealth. As such, businesses in the cultural industries were to be seen as vectors for sustainable development, and culture was to be renegotiated as legitimate business activity (Shaeffer, 2005). International and regional organisations such as the World Bank (WB), International Labour Organisation (ILO), United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), United Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO), Economic Community o f West African States (ECOWAS), the N ew Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), the African Union (AU) and governments all over the world are interested in issues dealing with the problems and prospects o f ethnic and tourist crafts. This interest focuses on the economic, job creation and poverty reduction potentials o f crafts, and their tourism appeal. However, African and Ghanaian researchers and academics are beginning to recognise the prospects o f the cultural industries for poverty reduction in developing their economies. Increasingly, poverty reduction strategy papers (of Cambodia. Malawi. Mozambique, Nepal, Yemen, Zambia and Ghana) include crafts and tourism issues (PPTP, 2004: Info sheet No. 9). The establishment o f specialised agencies and programmes for the examination and support for cultural industries, including the handicraft sector, attests to the increasing importance and relevance o f University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the sector, and the acknowledgement o f its economic viability in transforming local and national economies. In this regard, Mohamed Berriane (1999) in a study commissioned by UNESCO, summarised and synthesised earlier studies on Tourism, Culture and Development in the Arab region, and draws out a positive connection between culture, tourism and the development needs o f local communities (Berriane, 1999). However, such studies have been slow to emerge on the Ghanaian tourism and crafts scene. Crafts may change in response to new tastes and preferences or due to changes in religion and culture. The link between culture and tourism has been examined by Ellis (1976). He examined the impacts o f tourism on cultural manifestations and highlighted issues relating to changes in cultural manifestations due to tourism development. He noted that changes in the form and use o f crafts are occasioned by passage o f time, and new forms o f tourist demand. Ellis concludes that authenticity o f arts and crafts, and the environments in which they are marketed need to be preserved to sustain tourist interest in them. Graburn (2008) shares this view by insisting that the point o f sale o f crafts should be in harmony with the objects being sold. Research output on tourism in Ghana relates to the social and economic effects o f tourism (Asiedu, 1997; Owusu-Frim pong 2001; Blankson et al., 2001) community involvement, and eco­ tourism (Dei, 2000). Those related to tourist crafts and handicrafts were researched by Pokua-Nimo (2000) who looked at the problems and prospects o f the kente weaving industry while Okrah (2002) examined the link between wood carving and depletion o f certain tree species. However, issues relating to handicraft entrepreneurship and handicraft-based poverty reduction strategies remain la ig d y under-researched. 2.2.8 Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (SMMEs) and Craft Entrepreneurs ~ While Buame (2001) provides a deep analysis o f entrepreneurship and who an entrepreneur is 2 This section draws heav i ly on the works of: I Francis Greene and Kevin Mole (2006) “ Defining and Measuring the Small Business" 2. David J. B rooksbank (2006) “ Self-employment and the small bus iness” all in 3. Sara Car ter and Dylan Jones-Evans eds. (2006) Enterprise and sm all business Principles, Practice and Policy. 2n'1 ed. Prentice Hall . Pearson Educational Ltd., Harlow England. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in his (2001) draft on Entrepreneurial and Innovation Management (see Buame 2001), it is clear that possessing a craft-making skill, or any other skill per se, does not make one an entrepreneur. However, defining what a small enterprise is presents many conceptual difficulties. Definitions used by researchers and governments to describe smaller enterprises shows that there is no single or universal definition o f smaller enterprises (Sara and Carter 2006). The Bolton Report (1971) is one o f the earliest attempts to provide a definition o f small enterprises based on meeting certain criteria such as independence (uncertainty), owner management (personalised), and small market share (size) in the United Kingdom, (Greene and Mole 2006:7). The European Union recognises three categories o f small businesses, using employment levels. According to the EU (2005). micro enterprises have less than 10 persons; small enterprises with <50 persons; and medium ones with <250 persons. The United Kingdom categorises small enterprises into micro. 0 - 9 ; small (including micro) 0 - 49; and medium, 50 - 249 persons. However, the National Board for Small-Scale Industries (NBSSI) in Ghana define micro enterprises as sole proprietorships and those which employ less than 5 people; small ones as those employing 5 - 29 people; and medium ones as those employing 30 - 100 people. Clearly, there are problems with measurement, and cross­ country comparisons. In spite o f these problems, Greene and Mole (2006) assert that smaller enterprises represent the overwhelming number o f enterprises in any economy (Greene and Mole 2006:7 f). But, it is important to know what kind o f people go into self employment, especially the entrepreneurs who venture into the handicrafts businesses and their prospects o f overcoming poverty. There is no established, widely accepted definition, official and otherwise, o f a small firm. But whatever definition is adopted, the most commonly found cr?fts enterprise is small or micro (informal) (Morrison and Thomas, 1999). It has been suggested that tourism-dependent firms should be regarded as a distinct group o f small enterprises (Thomas, 2000). Even though micro and small crafts enterprises are visibly present in the tourism industry in Ghana, very little is known about them. It is, therefore, imperative that we investigate the dynamics o f crafts production, the value chains and how these could be reorganised into pro-poor tourism related poverty reduction activities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Yankson (1992) has noted the definition of SMEs based on their size, management style, client base, and the nature o f technology employed; these define some o f their characteristics. In that study, some o f the challenges o f M SM E s have been outlined. These include inadequate capital and the high cost o f capital, bureaucratic impediments which discourage registration, inability to prepare business and marketing plans. Based on these characteristics, most cultural enterprises and entrepreneurs may be categorised into the micro and small-scale enterprises. Despite their apparent simplicity in terms o f size and organisational structure, Yankson (2008) concludes that small enterprises are actually more difficult to study than larger enterprises (Yankson, 2008). There is a lively debate about the types o f people tempted to give self employment a try. Brooksbank (2006) identifies the backgrounds o f the self-employed in the UK and examines the major trends and changes in the stock o f self-employed over the last two decades. In this regard, Jenkins (1994), Meager et al. (1996), and Parker (1997, 2004) reports on the income distribution o f the self employed (male and female), and conclude that while the self-employed could earn as much as wage earners, their earning abilities are skewed, with very high earning males to one side of the spectrum, and a large and growing num ber o f poor self-employed to the other end o f the spectrum. It has been found out that self-employment, even if it forms only part o f a working career, can put people’s future financial security at risk, as people with punctuated work histories, with periods o f employment, unemployment and self employment are more likely to be pushed into the poorer group of self-employed workers. This category is less likely to have a stable occupational pension, and any significant volume o f savings, implying a greater dependency burden in later life. A critical examination o f the personal characteristics (gerder, age, marital status, cthnic group, and levels o f education) o f the self-employed reveals certain patterns and trends. It must be noted that while this aspect o f the review relies heavily on European evidence, the general characteristics o f entrepreneurs are similar, with only slight differences. It has been found that males make up a significantly greater proportion o f the self-employed than do females. However, there is a debate about the role o f women in the workplace and the increasing trends in female self-employed rates (Carter and 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cannon, 1988; Hakim, 1988a; Curran and Burrows, 1989). The links between self-employment and poverty or success are not straightforward. For this reason, Storey (1994) believes that it is important for the self-employed to have a realistic understanding o f what they are undertaking, as many survive only by working very long hours at very low rates o f pay. Brooksbank (2006) questions why so many people are choosing self-employment if there are risks o f failure and poverty. Majority o f people entering self-employment, however, are the unemployed with dreams o f becoming their own bosses, and those with limited options o f finding any wage employment (Brooksbank 2006:30-32). However, anecdotal evidence suggests that some o f the new self-employed are forced into it through re-deployment and redundancy. The links between self- employment and age shows clearly that self-employment becomes an increasingly inviting option as one nears middle age, and an increase in the participation o f people aged over 65 years. Meager (1991) reports that age distribution for both sexes are roughly similar; however, the propensity for males to enter self-employment at an early age is almost four times that o f similarly aged females. Explanations for these patterns and trends include age at which enough capital and experience are likely to be accumulated, compulsory retirement at age 65, and family commitments at middle age. Self-employment and marital status has been researched by Daly (1991a) and Meager (1991) into some detail. They report lower rates o f self-employment for single people than it is for people in other categories (such as married, widowed, divorced or separated); divorced men have higher self- employment rates than divorced women, while widowed women have a higher self-employment rate than all other categories. Daly (1991a) stresses the importance o f dependent children in determining self-employment rates. He reports little difference between men and women with and without dependent children over all age groups. Generally, ethnic minority populations tend to be concentrated in fairly distinct geographical regions. Some particular ethnic groups are reputed to be more enterprising than others (Curran and Burrows, 1989). While the Kwahu o f Ghana’s Eastern region are informally reputed to be one o f the greatest ‘trading’ ethnic groups, this study has not stumbled on any hard evidence which suggests that 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the Ashanti are more or less enterprising than other ethnic groups. However, Clark and Drinkw'ater (1998) have examined how both ‘push’ and ‘puli' factors have led members o f certain ethnic minorities to enter self-employment by re-echoing Metcalfe et al. (1996), who found that the desire to avoid labour market discrimination in the form o f low-paid jobs was a principal explanation for the entry' o f minorities into self-employment. The level o f education achieved by the potential entrepreneur has long been as a crucial factor in determining both the actual entry into self-employment and, thereafter, the longer-term success o f the venture. However, evidence from the UK shows some inconsistencies as reported by Curran and Burrows (1989). They conclude that the self-employed appear to have lower levels o f educational attainment than wage earners, although there is some overlap between the two groups. However, Daly (1991) and Meager (1991) found out that, generally, the self-employed appear to have a higher level o f educational achievement than their employees. Brooksbank’s analysis clearly shows that there is a complex relationship between educational qualifications and participation rates for the self-employed. However, this relationship depends critically upon the definitions used in defining the datasets and, indeed, upon which survey is used to compile that data. Craft village entrepreneurs fall within the informal tourism sector o f the economy in many developing countries. Production value chain is traditional in outlook and quantities are limited by the type o f technology, and business organisation. Michael Porter's ‘value chain' is a well-established concept for considering key activities that an organisation can perform or manage with the intention o f adding value for the customer as products and services move from conception to delivery to the customer (Porter, 1980). It is often used in economics with rcfcrcncc to the process from conception to the consumption o f a product. In Ghana, the role o f small and medium-sized handicrafts enterprises remains largely under­ researched. The most recent research on SMEs in tourism by Gartner (1999) examined the development role o f SMEs in the in the tourism industry in the Central region. However, Yankson and Aboagye’s (1992) examination of production constraints o f small-scale artisans, though not directly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh related to traditional handicrafts, offers some insight into the problems faced by SMEs in Ghana, and the characteristics o f the practitioners. Rogerson (2005, 2006) has published extensively on tourism small businesses in southern Africa. In all these, the handicraft sector does not feature prominently in the literature. However, the potential contribution o f handicraft development to economic development has been acknowledged by Asiedu (1997). 2.2.9 Cultural Enterprises and Creative Industries Culture has been defined as “the set o f distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional features o f society or a social group, and encompasses in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of living together, value systems, traditions and beliefs” (UNESCO, 2002)3. However, the cultural policy o f Ghana defines culture as: “ ... the totality o f the way o f life evolved by (our) people through experience and reflection in their attempt to fashion a harmonious co-existence with their environment" (NCC, 2004:9). The policy also recognises handicrafts as a valuable material heritage which forms a valuable part o f Ghana’s contemporary culture. The businesses that engage in making and selling handicrafts and other items o f the material culture o f any people can be called ‘cultural enterprises', which belong to the broader ‘cultural industry’. The key component in these businesses is individual creativity (Evans, 2005). The word 'heritage’ connotes a form o f ‘legacy' which is bequeathed to a person or inherited by a people. Nuryanti (1996) examines the complex relationships between tourism and heritage and associates ‘heritage’ with Inheritance*, noting its role as a carrier of past historical values. Heritage is viewed as part o f the cultural tradition o f a society from which material culture and handicrafts are derived. Tourism on the other hand, is seen as a dynamic form of modem consciousness, and its interaction with heritage often resulting in a reinterpretation o f the latter. She draws a parallel between heritage and tourism on the one hand, and tradition and modernity on the other. However, other studies point out the contradictions that sometimes characterises dialogue concerning cultural heritage and tourism. Cultural tradition is associated with stability and continuity, while tourism is associated 3 Universa l Dec lara t ion on Cultural Diversi ty, U N E S C O , Paris. 2002 . 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with change (Hall and McArthur, 1993; Heeley, 1989; Hewison, 1987; Fowler, 1989). The concept o f ‘"Heritage" in this study will be expanded to include the natural, social, cultural and historical past and values, structures and crafts making skills that have been passed down from generation to generation. It includes the physical environment and its attributes, the social and traditional cultural manifestations, and the traditional crafts and skills for their production, which together form the basis o f tourism and crafts development. The study interrogates the links between handicrafts and tourism, how crafts production is organised, and how poverty perceptions influence choice o f coping strategies. Different theoretical approaches have been used to analyse the relationships between cultural heritage and tourism. A number o f authors have chosen to address the linkages between the two by examining the structural ties between production o f culture and tourism consumption (Cohen. 1988; MacCannel. 1976; Urry. 1990; Watson and Kopachevsky, 1994). However, local crafts production in Ashanti has been sustained partly by the thriving chieftaincy institution, socio-cultural and traditional religious values, tourist demand, and the export trade. These craft villages have preserved the age-old crafts traditions and skills, and have acted as magnets in attracting international tourists, and artisans from other parts o f Ghana into the Ashanti region. It has been argued that new forms o f reproduction o f the past and associated consumption patterns are reflected in the ways that people choose to travel. A movement towards one's roots and a growing appreciation o f tradition and aspects o f relating to o ne ’s total environment reflect the interplay between the local and the global. Tourists are assumed to be looking for what they perceive to be original, authentic (craft) items and want to buy them at their place o f origin (Ventacachellum, 2004). Heritage tourism offers opportunities to portray the past in the present. It provides an infinite time and space in which the past can be experienced through the prism o f the endless possibilities o f interpretation and reinterpretation (Ventacachellum, 2004, cited in McKercher 2008). Ashanti crafts may also be conceived as ethnic crafts and its relation to tourism as ethnic tourist arts. Defining ethnicity is problematic as it connotes notions o f tribal and local minorities. Bentley 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1987) defines ‘ethnicity’ as a construction o f group identity based on ideas o f shared descent and socio-cultural practices, with both sentiment and instrumental power dimensions. According to Swain (1993:33) ‘Indigenous’ indicates a type o f ethnic group living in their socio-cultural natal place. She re-echoes Graburn (1976:1) who refers to these peoples as “the fourth World”: “ ... a collective name for all aboriginal or native peoples whose lands fall within national boundaries and techno bureaucratic administrations o f the First, Second and Third World (Swain, 1993). However, there is no attempt to imply that the Ashanti are 4th world. Cultural industries are also known as ‘creative' or ‘copyright’ industries, and include a wide variety o f economic activities, ranging from crafts through music and film to publishing, fashion and the multimedia industry. UNESCO, defines cultural industries as those industries which produce tangible or intangible artistic creative outputs, and which have the potential for wealth creation and income generation through the exploitation o f cultural assets and the production o f knowledge-based goods and services (both traditional and contemporary). The use o f creativity, skill and intellectual property to create products and services with social and cultural meaning is what binds the cultural industries together (UNESCO, 2005)4. Handicrafts are also known as artisanal products, and crafts men and women also as artisans. According to UNCTAD, “artisanal produces" are those provided by artisans, either completely by hand, or with the help o f hand tools or even mechanical means, as long as the direct manual contribution o f the artisan remains the most substantial component o f the finished product. Handicrafts are considered part o f the larger set o f heritage. However, there are no universally acceptable definitions for artisanal products. Creative industries derive their origins from individual creativity, skill and talent that have a potential for job and wealth crcation through the generation and exploitation o f the individual's intellectual property. Creative industries include artisanal products, visual arts, performing arts, cinema and audiovisual media, multimedia, literature, books and publishing (Evans, 2005). This thesis is only 4 Def in it ion o f ‘cul tura l indust r ies ' in, Background Documents, As ia -Pac i f ic C rea t ive Com m uni t ie s : A Strategy for the 21" Century, S en io r Exper t s S ym pos ium , 22-26 February, Jodhpur. India, U N E S C O . 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concerned with handicrafts, which is part o f the artisanal cultural products. Creative industries have emerged as one o f the world 's most dynamic economic sectors, offering vast opportunities for cultural, social and economic development. International trade in creative goods and services surged to US$445.2 billion in 2005 from US$234.8 billion in 1996. according to preliminary UNCTAD figures. Such trade grew at an unprecedented average rate o f 8.7% a year from 2000-2005 (UNCTAD, 2008). This reflects the economic and cultural breadth o f the creative industries. Linking business, culture and technology, the creative economy holds potential for developing countries to transform untapped creative resources into growth. While the concept o f the creative economy is recent and still evolving, it reflects the idea that creative assets, including handicrafts, can generate economic growth, job creation and export earnings while at the same time promoting social inclusion, cultural diversity and human development. To this end, the UNCTAD XI ministerial meeting in Sao Paolo in 2004 called on the international community to help developing countries “foster, protect and promote their creative industries." In 2004, WTO held a Ministerial Meeting on Cultural Tourism and Poverty Alleviation which highlighted the challenges and opportunities presented by cultural tourism, culminating in the historic Hue Declaration. The WTO has established its own 'Sustainable Tourism to Eliminate Poverty* (UNWTO ST-EP) Foundation, using sustainable tourism to eliminate poverty in developing countries. 2.2.10 C om m odit isa t ion , A dapta t ion and Authenticity Commoditisation, according to Cohen (1988), who re-echoes Appadurai (1986), is a process by which things and (activities) come to be evaluated in terms o f their exchange value, in a context o f trade, thereby becoming goods (and services)..." (Swain, 1989:208) Ethnic art souvenirs are a commoditisation o f ethnicity: the production and exchange o f ethnic goods and behaviours o f consumption by others across ethnic boundaries (Swain, 1990). Tourism has also been viewed as exploiting indigenous people (Swain, 1990) and their intellectual property rights. Some of the pitfalls o f commoditisation of handicrafts relate to gender segregation, discrimination and exploitation, and loss of skills and authenticity (Scrase, 2002:3). The work on the 'chikan 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh embroidery industry o f India by Wilkinson-Weber (1997) shows elements o f change in gender roles, and exploitation in the craft production process. The artisan is paid per piece, and as demand pressures increase, artisans become de-skilled. In the process, authenticity and quality are compromised. Scrase (1997) concludes that it is impossible to meet the increased demand and consumption for the chikan embroidered shirts with the more time consuming but authentic methods. The drive to meet the large number o f orders leads to the craft itself becoming de-skilled and inauthentic. Similarly, it is possible for less preferred tree species and inferior yarns to be used in making products for tourist consumption in the selected crafts villages. This adaptation relates to what Graburn calls ‘inwardly’ and ‘outwardly’ directed crafts, where a certain degree o f craftsmanship and choice o f materials may vary for the type o f client. Crafts directed at local clients (chieftaincy institution and traditional religious people) may be quite different from those directed at tourists. However, issues o f authenticity arise from adaptation o f traditional crafts in response to tourist demand and the new uses to which the crafts products are put. It is important to note that apart from the manufacture of items specifically for tourist consumption, Schadlcr (1979) observes that the impact o f tourism on the shape, colour and aesthetic appearance o f traditional arts and crafts is negligible (De Kadt 1979:149). Rattray (1927) has noted that Ashanti crafts, in particular, owe their origins largely to religious factors. In this regard, Obeng (1988) found that the style and form o f Ashanti stools reflected their closely held religious beliefs. However, De Kadt contends that even in Africa, a craftsman can produce objects of beauty without their being invested with ritual or religious significance either for him or for his clientele (De Kadt 1979:70). While Shadier’s (1979) work on the impact o f tourism on the meaning of cultural manifestations suggests that African crafts become degenerate when their manufacture is not for religious purposes. De Kadt suggests that May’s (1977) definition o f crafts is less problematic: traditional art (cratt) comprises works “made within a traditional society for use - religious or secular 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh - within that society or for trade with traditional trading partners” (May, 1977).5 Schadler (1979) has noted that tourism is not solely responsible for changes that have been taking place in African arts and crafts. He contends that change in the crafts result from an erosion o f the religious beliefs or social customs that have always been the mainspring o f African artistic expression. Objects such as carvings were created for use in the cult; with the demise o f traditional religious beliefs and their associated rituals, the objects to which craftsmen devote themselves become “meaningless fragmentary husks o f a cult or religion”. Because the original meaning invested in craftsmanship has disappeared, Schadler regards the objects, by definition, as degenerate. However, other commentators (De Kadt, Andronicou and Groupe Huit, 1979) have insisted that tourism has rather contributed to their preservation and revival (De Kadt 1979:79). According to Emanuel De Kadt (1979), tourist demand for traditional crafts as souvenirs and the different uses to which such crafts were being put has led some craftspeople to adapt the design (form, shape and size) o f these products to bring them more in line with the taste o f new customers (De Kadt 1979:68). This observation is attributed to Forster (1964) who claimed that tourist demand for souvenirs and their uncritical stance toward the performances which they observe in their search for local colour have often been mentioned as causes of a decline in cultural and artistic standards (Forster 1964:226). In this regard. Mario Gavira (1976), who studied the mass tourism industry in Spain, concluded that once crafts production comes under the impact o f demands o f mass tourism, it becomes the manufacture o f mere souvenirs, which are not necessarily objects o f traditional craftsmanship (Gavira, 1976). Some researchers (Ondcrwater et al. 2000, cited in Asiedu 2004) have, however, criticised the sale o f ethnic crafts - which were traditionary geared towards satisfying local needs and were not intended for the marketplace - to tourists. They saw this practice as ‘commoditisation' o f ethnic crafts and ‘adulteration’ o f cultural practices, as some o f the items were modified to suit tourist tastes, preferences and convenience (Asiedu, 2004:25). These themes border on adaptation o f ethnic crafts for the tourist market and, on issues o f authenticity. 5 M a y R. J. (1977) “ T o u r ism and the Artefact Industry in Papua N ew G u i n e a / ' in Ben R. F inney and Karen A. Watson, cds., A New Kind o f Sugar: Tourism in the Pacific, 2nd ed. (Honolulu: East-West C e n t re , 1977, p. 125.) 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The frequent claim that tourism contributes to degeneration in arts and crafts (Foster 1964:226; Gavira 1976) appears to be an exaggeration. However, De Kadt (1979) maintains that tourism has contributed to their preservation and revival. He further notes that even though curio production, “airport art", and performances o f fake folklore are stimulated by tourist demand, arts, crafts, and local culture have been revitalised as a direct result o f tourism. He concludes that even though some transformation o f traditional forms may result, this change does not lead to degeneration. I knvever, Appudarai (1986), Cohen (1988) and other researchers consider the sale o f traditional crafts and other cultural and religious objects in tourism as commoditisation and the trivialisation o f cultures for selfish interests. It is important to note that other factors may contribute to changes in form, uses and meaning of traditional crafts (Appadurai, 1986; Cohen, 1988; Swain, 1993; Scrase, 2002). Many tourist art products have become oversized (gigantism) compared with their original dimensions. To meet quality standards, products have o f necessity to be large, and tourist demand tends more toward bigger models than was originally expected (miniaturisation). This is especially true for all kinds o f brass castings, but also to a certain extent, for wooden objects, although parking requirements impose certain limitations. Craft production has a gender dimension. Swain (1993 ) explores this dimension by examining how women are empowered, or exploited in a predominantly patriarchal and capitalist economic system which is epitomised by international tourism. She concludes that while internal (family/community) factors lead to commoditisation o f ethnicity, which enables women's empowerment, external factors (such as market or state) limit role options for indigenous women and men, and defines what they can or cannot do. It would be interesting to find out if this is possible in a predominantly matrilineal socio-cultural environment amongst the Ashanti. A common theme in the earlier literature on African and Ashanti crafts is the relationship between handicraft and the religious, cultural and social lifestyles o f the peoples or societies that created them. Browne’s (1978) review o f literature on handicrafts reflects the focus o f early scholarship on handicraft research in Ghana and the West African sub-region. These tend to focus on 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the history, production methods, form and function, design, symbolism and religious role o f handicrafts as is suggested by the works o f Price (1883), Cardinall (1924), Sarpong (1971), Quarcoo (1970), Kent (1972), Lamb (1975), Huber (1959), and Quarcoo and Johnson (1968). These w'orks were all cited in Browne (1978). Rattray’s study among the Ashanti - Religion and Art in Ashanti (1927) - is probably the most comprehensive on Ashanti royal crafts and the villages established for their production. He explored the art and culture o f Ashanti, and includes descriptions o f weaving in Bonwrire, Adinkra printing in Ntonso, pottery in Pankrono, bronze casting in Krofoforom, and wood carving in Ahwiaa. However, the economic and poverty reduction implications, and the link o f handicrafts with tourism were not considered in that study. A complex industry has emerged in the craft villages, in response to this new demand. Browne (1978) focussed on the local production techniques, economic viability and technology o f selected crafts. She studied wood carving at Ahwiaa, pottery at Apiadu, bead making at Dabaa. brass casting in Kurofoforom, and kente weaving at Sakora Wonoo, and concluded that the local technologies w'ere well-adapted to the local economic conditions and w'ere by no means static, but noted the decline o f pottery, as plastic and aluminium wares were introduced into the market. Even though this study noted the employment creation potential o f the crafts, the link between handicrafts, tourism and poverty reduction was not considered. 2.3 Conceptualising Poverty and Craft-based Livelihoods The persistence o f poverty in many parts o f the developing world, despite quite spectacular economic progress in the last half century, has revived interest in the subject in academic and policymaking circles alike. This revival, according to Osmani (2003), has spawned a rapidly growing literature in the last decade or so that is markedly different from the poverty discourse o f a few decades ago (Osmani 2003). In this section, the concept of poverty which includes inequality, discrimination, exploitation, vulnerability, exclusion and gender issues are examined as they relate to crafts-based livelihoods. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The new discourse in poverty has been shaped and informed by several streams o f ideas with a great deal o f convergence, but does not add up to a single coherent conceptual framework. However, a major common theme underlying all these streams is diversity - diversity o f ways in which people perceive and experience poverty, diversity in how poor people strive to escape or cope with it, and diversity o f policy interventions needed for combating poverty. This recognition o f diversity in all spheres related to poverty has far reaching implications for how the subject is approached; in particular, how to conceptualise poverty, assess its prevalence, and devise strategies for eliminating it (Osmani, 2003). 2.3.1 Poverty Perceptions and Experience What is perceived as poverty provides the basis on which policies and strategies are designed to meet poverty reduction goals (Greeley, 1994:50). To understand the many perceptions and reality o f poverty, which constitutes ‘the changing faces o f poverty’, and the potential o f handicraft production for poverty alleviation, it is important to understand how craft entrepreneurs perceive and experience poverty, and the ways by which they cope or try to overcome it. In this regard, Kunfaa (1999) reports that based on local criteria, communities are able to identify the well-off, the better-off, the poor and the abject poor. It was further noted that the rural poor had more coping strategies to fall upon than the urban poor (Kunfaa 1999:3). Traditionally, poverty has been understood to mean a lack o f access to resources, productive assets and income resulting in a state o f material deprivation (Baulch, 1996, cited in Catagay, 1998). Recent discussions on poverty have shown that poverty is multi dimensional and includes not only material deprivation but also, various forms o f vulnerability to shocks. It also includes lack o f dignity and autonomy (Catagay, 1998; Sen, 2000; World Bank, 2000; Kabeer. 2003). The World Development Report (2000) included insecurity as one o f the three key dimensions o f poverty. The World Bank designates certain percentages o f the population above the poverty line as vulnerable because they face a high likelihood o f falling below it. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Kabeer (2003) looks at vulnerability from two perspectives: from an objective perspective such as exposure to risks, shocks and stress and the inability to deal with them without sustaining damaging loss, for example, becoming less healthy, selling off productive assets or withdrawing children from school, and from a subjective perspective such as the sense o f powerlessness in the face o f threats (Kabeer, 2003). In the crafts industry generally, those businesses and individuals which derive a greater proportion o f their incomes from tourists, and depend solely on crafts are more vulnerable than those which derive only a small proportion o f their incomes from crafts and tourists. In this sense, many crafts entrepreneurs may become vulnerable to changes in travel patterns and market trends o f their crafts. According to the World Bank, “one is considered poor if o ne ’s income level falls below some minimum level necessary to meet basic needs”. This minimum level is usually called the ‘poverty l ine’ - what is necessary to satisfy basic needs. These vary across time and societies. Therefore, poverty lines vary in time and place, and each country uses lines which are appropriate to its level o f development, societal norms and values. To this end, this study uses a number o f approaches to identify poorer craftsmen and women from wealthier ones. Crafts workers themselves identify categories o f poorer workers along the craft value-chain through a process o f participatory wealth ranking (PWR), through se lf ranking, and through the calculation o f a simple Cashpor Housing Index (CHI), (Catarinich 2000). Research has shown that poverty can be both chronic and transient (ODI and AIRD. 1999: Gyan Baffour, 2004). It is chronic when one is bom into it and with virtually no chance of getting out of it. In the latter ease, changing economic, political or environmental circumstances, acting singularly or in various combinations, may push some people ‘in and out o f poverty*. In other words, during certain periods, these factors may cause some people to become poor or poorer, but at other times the same people may become more affluent. This suggests that there are winners and losers in the face o f both what is considered 'adverse' and ‘favourable’ factors. The determining factor then would be one's capability to withstand the ‘shocks’ (resilience versus vulnerability) or one's capability to identify and 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh convert opportunities into levels o f welfare. Poverty may then be defined as a lack o f basic capabilities. For example, basic capabilities include a life free o f avoidable morbidity, adequate nourishment, healthy reproduction, personal security, and participation in society (McKinley, 1997). This ties in very w?ell with Amartya Sen’s concept o f ‘capability failure' as poverty. Amartya Sen and Jean Dreze (2002) introduced a broader perspective on poverty as the deprivation o f human capabilities. Capabilities are alternative combinations o f ‘functionings,’ that is. what people are able to do and be, and from which a person can choose. The idea o f capability is one of freedom, that is, freedom to choose what kind of life to live. Poverty is thus, the deprivation o f such basic capabilities as the freedom to lead a normal life - being able to avoid deprivations such as starvation, undernourishment, illiteracy, morbidity and mortality - (Dreze and Sen 2002). Poverty involves constant emotional stress, and violence has a profound impact on the lives o f the poor (Davies and Rylance, 2005). Thus, “ individuals, families and groups in the population can be said to be in poverty when they lack, or are denied, the resources to obtain the types o f diet, participate in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary, or at least, widely encouraged or approved, in the societies to which they belong. They are poor when their resources fall below those commanded by the average individual or family so that they are, in effect, excluded from ordinary living patterns, customs and activities’' (Townsend, 1993:31). Even though this gives some impressions on social exclusion and how poverty may be experienced, it is nothing close to actually experiencing it. Indeed, the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (GPRS I & II) accepts poverty as a multi­ dimensional concept with complex interactive and causal relationships between the dimensions. Though it implies low income, it goes far beyond that. It means malnutrition, persistent ill health, lack o f education, and poor housing, it also means chronic unemployment, lack o f access to basic social services and inability to access legal or political rights. The GPRS focuses on four dimensions o f poverty, namely: Poverty as lack o f income and consumption poverty; Poverty as lack o f access to /> basic social services e.g. water, health, educational facilities; Poverty as deprivations in human 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development, i.e. capacity development; Poverty as a multi-dimensional deprivation related and non­ related negative elements o f life such as physical weakness, powerlessness in decision-making, vulnerability, isolation, gender discrimination, inability to assert legal or political rights. Poverty is defined as not the mere shortage o f income, but also the deprivation o f rights, liberties and opportunities (Dreze and Sen, 2000). Following this new perspective, Dubois, Mahieu and Possard, 2001 (cited in Droy and Dubois, 2002) have analysed the dimensions o f women's poverty as a result o f gender inequalities because poverty is not mere shortage o f income but also the deprivation o f rights, liberties and opportunities (Dreze and Sen, 2000). The dimensions o f poverty as analysed by Dubois, Mahieu and Possard (2001) include: a) Lack o f human capital (lower levels of education, insufficient healthcare); b) Lack o f physical capital (little access to equipment, reduced land rights); c) Lack o f access to financial capital (lack o f credit, savings, low income, and lack o f control over income); d) Lack o f access to social capital (weakness in social cohesion, insufficient information to relate to other women): e) Low decision making power at the home and community levels: 0 Reduced mobility due to time constraints; g) Inability to access political rights; h) Vulnerability and discrimination, violence towards women, no respect o f civil rights, women and girls denied their rights due to cultural norms. Indeed the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP. 1997) cited in Catagay (1998) argues that from a human poverty or capabilities perspective, it is harder for women to transform their capabilities into incomes or well-being. Inequalities in the distribution o f income, access to productive inputs such as credit, command over property or control over earned income as well as biases in labour markets and social exclusion that some craftspeople experience in a variety o f economic and political settings form the basis o f their greater vulnerability to chronic poverty. These issues may also apply to migrant craft workers and those craft workers operating at the lower ends o f the craft value chain. Poverty may be experienced differently by its victims. In this regard, the poor in one society may represent the affluent in another society. There may be variations even within the same country and region, and from one community to the other. It would, therefore, be interesting to find out each 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh community's acceptable standard o f well-being in order to establish the poverty status o f all those deviating from the community standard in the selected urban, peri-urban and rural craft villages. This exercise may be a tenuous one as it is extremely difficult to determine a uniform desired living standard, even for members o f the same household, let alone for a whole community. The caveat in this maze is to rely on averages or minimum acceptable levels o f well-being. Much o f the available information on poverty and inequality in Ghana has been assembled over the last two decades, writh conventional administrative data now being supplemented with survey data and qualitative or participatory assessments o f poverty. Important qualitative sources include a participatory poverty assessment carried out in several rural and urban communities in 1994/95 (Norton et a l , 1995); the Ghana ‘Voices o f the Poor’ study (Kunfaa, 1999); the participatory poverty consultations conducted in 36 communities as part o f preparing the GPRS (Government o f Ghana. 2003, section 3.3); as well as a large number o f other local level studies. Important sources o f survey data include the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS; conducted in 1987, 1993, 1998 and 2003); Core Welfare Indicators Questionnaire (CWIQ; 1987 and 2003); and the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS; 1987/88, 1988/89, 1991/92, 1998/99 and 2004/2005). The 2000 Population and Housing Census also provides some information of relevance to poverty, e.g. on availability o f facilities, and is also a key source for the recently completed poverty mapping exercise (Columbe, 2004) which provides estimates o f income poverty at a district level (McKay and Aryeetey, 2004). In view o f the m any criticisms levelled against the income method o f poverty measurement, it is important to adopt a more holistic measure that combine* income levels with those of consumption, levels o f vulnerability and the possession o f material and non-material assets. Most importantly, the individual’s own perception o f her/his poverty status is necessary to aid the determination o f the links between poverty and the perception o f stigma. Currently, only a few studies explore these social dynamics in Ghana. The current blueprint for poverty reduction is captured in the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy II. which focuses on: Accelerated and sustainable growth; Poverty reduction; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Promotion o f Gender equity; Protection and empowerment o f the vulnerable and excluded within a decentralised, democratic environment. While GPRS I emphasised Poverty Reduction programmes and projects, the GPRS II emphasises growth inducing policies and programmes as a means to wealth creation and poverty reduction. GPRS II is, therefore, anchored on: Continued macro-economic stability; Accelerated private sector led growth; Vigorous human resource development; and Good governance and civic responsibility. The word ‘capability* has been used by Amartya Sen (Sen, 1984, 1987; Dreze and Sen, 1989) to refer to being able to perform certain basic ‘functionings', to what a person is capable o f doing and being. It includes, for example, to be adequately nourished, to be comfortably clothed, and to avoid escapable morbidity and preventable mortality, to lead a life without shame, to be able to visit and entertain one's friends, to keep track o f what is going on and what others are talking about (Sen. 1987:18; Dreze and Sen, 1990:11, cited in Chambers and Conway, 1991:4). However, within the generality o f Sen's use o f capability, there is a subset o f livelihood capabilities that include being able to cope with stress and shocks, and being able to find and make use of livelihood opportunities. According to Chambers and Conway (1991). such capabilities are not just reactive, being able to respond to adverse changes in conditions; they are also proactive and dynamically adaptable. They include gaining access to and using services and information, exercising foresight, experimenting and innovating, competing and collaborating with others, and exploring new conditions and resources. It is often assumed that poverty is a rural phenomenon as evidenced by the following studies (World Bank, 1995; GOG, 2000: Songsore, 2002). This corresponds with the belief that urban residents in Ghana have much higher income than their rural counterparts because they have a better access to formal and informal employment in the cities (Lipton, 1977; Bates, 1981). However, recent studies also indicate that the number o f urban residents that can be characterised as being poor is growing (Maxwell et a i, 2000; Songsore, 2003). The changing fortunes in peri-urban areas due to urbanisation and city expansion bring in its wake, rapid changes in the local economy to which some 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh residents are not able to cope. Such persons become displaced right in their own territories because they lack or have inadequate capacity to cope with the rapid socio-economic changes that urban dynamics and urbanisation brings to bear on their livelihood activities and local resources on which these livelihoods depended. Commoditisation and commercialisation o f hitherto free natural resources, pressure on available socio-economic infrastructure and the rising cost and scarcity o f land may require a reworking o f livelihood strategies and a re-engineering o f skills to deal with, and surmount the new challenges. According to Cattarinich (2001) certain dimensions o f poverty may prevail in particular temporal and spatial contexts, however, it is more useful to view poverty as a complex phenomenon that often includes some or all o f the above dimensions. Moreover, it is worth noting that the defining characteristics o f poverty also are invoked as its causes (e.g.. a persistent lack o f income or material assets might be declared the cause, as well as the symptom, o f poverty). The causes can constitute a set o f interlocking vicious cycles, for example, illness may prevent someone from working, leading to a decline in income, which may in turn result in the inability to procure enough food and medicine, leading to a further decline in health. This may necessitate the sale o f material assets in order to obtain the resources to purchase the food and medicine, thereby increasing the individual's vulnerability to changing economic circumstances while also leading to a decline in socio-economic status and influence in the community, etc. Thus, poverty must be viewed as a process as well as a phenomenon. Finally, poverty may be defined both objectively (absolute) and subjectively (relative) (ODI and AIRD. 1999:10; Serageldin, 1989:28). The international poverty line is based on an absolute definition of poverty. Subjective/relafi’ve definitions determine poverty in comparison to other groups within a given society. There are other definitions of poverty that attempt to blend the two conceptions. For instance, IFAD (2001:19) state that, "poverty can be seen as broadly multidimensional, partly subjective, and variable over time, comprising capabilities as well as welfare and in part relative to local norms, comparisons and expectations". Strategies that rely on absolute/objective definitions aim to raise the standard o f living o f all people to a common minimum standard. Strategies that rely on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relative/subjective definitions aim to reduce societal inequalities (Cattarinich, 1991:3). It is important to note, however, that all of these definitions are constructed, usually by those who may not be poor, and imposed on ‘poor* groups. Poverty is, therefore, a value judgement that is not something one can verify or demonstrate except by inference and suggestion, and even then, with a measure o f error. To say who is poor is to use all sorts o f judgements. The concept has to be limited by the purpose lor which it is to serve by the definition. Depending on whether poverty is perceived in terms o f absolute or relative deprivation (Webster, 1984:18), the numbers classified as poor will differ and so will the approaches required for poverty reduction (Dinye and Deribile, 2004:45). This study looks at poverty from the perspective o f Dubois, Mahieu and Possard (2001). As a result o f traditional cultural restrictions and inequalities in crafts production, some categories o f craftspeople, including the youth, women and migrant crafts workers have limited opportunities, capabilities and options, less information and knowledge, and limited power which affect their socio­ economic status. This translates into limited choices and agency in decision-making processes that shape their well-being. These ‘vulnerable* craftspeople are systematically excluded from the higher levels o f participation and decision making in the craft villages. This affects their earning power at the production and marketing levels, and their ability to participate at the community level. With limited capacity, they are not able to establish effective linkages and or collaboration with their colleagues within or outside their owrn rank. At the production level, some carvers, weavers, and finishers (artisans with craft skills) have less financial capital, lower education, and less valuable information, which translates into low productivity and subsequent low incom~ levels. Their work is the most difficult and dangerous, yet the least rewarded. They are paid for only the material content o f the handcrafts they produce, irrespective o f the time input and symbolic value o f the crafts. The craft merchants then sell these same pieces at prices wtiich reflect the symbolic value and the painstaking effort o f the production process. In this way, artisans remain poor, producing craft objects that enrich craft merchants and other middlemen. At the community level, artisans, migrants, the youth and women have less power or means o f expression 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as compared to craft merchants and men due to their lower socio-economic status. These situations affect livelihoods security. One way to understand the situation o f the vulnerable in the crafts industry is to examine their livelihood portfolios. 2.3.2 Coping and Survival M echanisms In addressing the question o f coping and survival strategies, Sahl (1996a) assumes that a small deficit in a household 's budget can lead to the mobilisation o f its ‘sedentary' resources. In this respect, coping and survival practices refer to the ordinary mechanisms people pursue to mobilise resources to handle difficult situations. This is because as long as there is a deficit, people find themselves compelled to engineer possible alternatives to bridge the gap between their income and expenditure either by increasing income to match expenditure, or to reduce expenditure (i.e.. consumption) according to the level o f their income (Sahl. 1996). Thus, the concepts o f coping and survival practices describe the ways in which the poorer craftspeople increased their earnings, or reduced their outlays in order to realise a minimum tolerable standard o f living (Bangura, 1994). 2.3.3 Participation, Marginalisation and Exclusion Participation has been defined in various ways but a clear distinction can be made between participation as a means and participation as an end. Participation as a means is to enhance the likely success o f predetermined activities and targets by involving people to ensure their commitment (Harper, 2003). Those who argue for participation, as an empowering end, pursue it through increasing people’s confidence and consequently enabling change. This has been a subject o f debate because it is argued that participation in itself is not an empowering experience, although change can occur. Those that favour participation as an end. argue that participation can lead to greater control and confidence and that this can achieve changes in wider social relations. They see it as integral to a wider process o f social transformation and structural change o f a system o f relations through which inequalities are reproduced. At the same time, the process o f participation gives greater decision making power or access to the poor or marginalised (Harper, 2003). Thus, I larper argues that participation could be both 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a means and an end. She notes that in situations o f extreme marginalisation, participation as an empowering end is seen to be the only option. In this study, participation is seen as a means to an end. When craft workers are able to access more jobs and derive more economic and non-cash benefits, they are empowered and feel part o f the economic process. They are able to meet and honour their obligations and earn the respect o f their fellow colleagues and family. This participation can be enhanced when they come together for common interests and share trade information and access opportunities for partnership and linkages with other sectors o f the local economy in a ‘win-win' fashion. Through participation in group activities, training programmes can be organised to upgrade their (artisans) skills, which can lead to access to credit and entrepreneurship training programmes. The researcher believes that those craft workers who have benefitted from such programmes would be better placed to derive more benefits from any intervention programmes than those who have not. According to Jamieson (2001), the tourism community must understand the nature o f poverty before it can begin to define the relationship o f tourism initiatives and improving the conditions o f the poor. Consequently, this study sought to understand the nature and extent o f poverty in the rural and peri-urban handicrafts villages first, before designing poverty reduction strategies that arc targeted at improving and sustaining their current livelihood strategies, to bolster their resilience and to reduce inequalities and vulnerability to future shocks and stresses. But, in what ways do poverty perceptions o f the poor differ from those o f the non-poor? Beyond income and basic services, individuals and societies are also poor - and tend to remain so - if they are not empowered to participate in making decisions that shape their lives (Jamieson, 2001). 2.4 C onceptual F ram ew o rk While there are a number o f possible conceptual frameworks and constructs that can be used to determine how best to intervene in the poverty reduction process, one accepted approach is the Livelihoods Approach. Walter Jamieson, Harold Goodwin and Christopher Edmunds (2004) see livelihood analysis as a methodology, which can be used to analyse the contribution that different 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh forms o f tourism might make to the livelihoods of the poor. The advantage o f livelihood analysis is that it provides a methodology that looks at the positive and negative impacts o f a particular form o f tourism development upon the livelihoods o f the poor (Jamieson et al. 2004:15). According to Jamieson et al. (2004), applying a livelihoods approach enables the assessment o f the impacts o f tourism initiatives on the different livelihood strategies o f individuals and households in a particular area. It recognises that not all individuals and households will experience the same positive and negative impacts. As the poor generally lack access to the employment market they generally have a diverse set o f livelihood strategies designed to minimise risk and reduce their vulnerability. These strategies are often applied at the household level with men, women and children engaging in a wide range o f activities, some o f them subsistence activities which cannot easily be assigned a cash value, to sustain themselves. In order to maximise livelihood benefits, there is the need to understand what people's livelihood priorities are. and the complex ways in which different tourism options affect livelihoods directly and indirectly. It is also important to note that livelihood strategies differ between households and between men and women. There is therefore, no single answer to what will optimise livelihood impact for the poor in a community. However, livelihoods need to be secure and sustainable over the long run. Yet, in most situations, some will lose and gain more than others. 2.4.1 Sustainable Livelihoods Framework The Sustainable Livelihoods Approach (SLA) is a way to improve understanding o f the livelihoods o f poor people. It draws on the main factors that affect poor people's livelihoods and the typical relationships between these factors. It can be used in planning new development activities and in assessing the contribution that existing activities have made to sustaining livelihoods. The two key components o f the SLA are: a framework (see chapter four) that helps in understanding the complexities o f poverty and a set o f principles to guide action to address and overcome poverty. The livelihoods approach was developed initially in the early 1980s by Armartva Sen (1981) to explain famine. This approach represents a wider and more complex conceptualisation o f poverty. The 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh essence o f the concept is described by Chamber and Conway (1992): A livelihood comprises the capabilities, assets (including both tangible and intangible resources) and activities required for a means o f living. A livelihood is sustainable when it can cope with and recover from stresses and shocks and maintain or enhance its capabilities and assets both now and in the future, while not undermining the natural resource base (DFID. 1999). However the sustainable livelihoods framework is hinged on certain principles. The principles that underpin the DFID (1999) sustainable livelihood approach are as follows: 1) It is human centred, that is, sustainable poverty elimination will be achieved only if external support recognises the socio-economic, cultural and ethnic diversity o f communities, focuses on what matters to people and works with them in a way that fits in with their current livelihood strategies, social environment and ability to adapt; 2) It must be responsive and participatory, that is. poor people must be closely involved in the identification and implementation o f livelihood priorities; 3) It is versatile and operates at various levels; 4) It adopts the partnership approach, with both public and private partners; 5) It is dynamic, as livelihoods and the factors shaping them are constantly changing; 6) It takes a wide view o f sustainability with key dimensions such as economic, institutional, social and environmental sustainability. The framew'ork provides a checklist o f important issues and sketches out the linkages. It also draws attention to core influences and processes and emphasises the multiple interactions between the various factors that affect livelihoods. The framework is intended to be a versatile tool for use in planning and management. Imbedded in the framework is the systems approach which is demonstrated in the interconnectedness between and amongst elements o f the framework (vulnerability context, capitals and assets, policies and other structures, agency and outcomes). The sustainable livelihood approach is a departure from earlier models o f planning like Participatory Development. Sector-wide approaches and Integrated Rural Development Approach o f the 1970's. The approach endeavours to build upon the strength o f these and gives more recognition to poor people's realities. People are the main concern, rather than the resources they use or their governments. SLA is used to identify the main constraints and opportunities faced by poor people, as expressed by 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh themselves. It builds on these definitions, and then supports poor people as they address the constraints, or take advantage o f opportunities. The framework is neither a model that aims to incorporate all the key elements o f people's livelihoods, nor a universal solution. Rather, it is a means of stimulating thought and analysis, and it needs to be adapted and elaborated depending on the situation. In this study, a livelihood is a combination o f the resources used and the activities undertaken in order to survive. The resource might consist o f individual skills and abilities (human capital), land, savings and equipment (natural, financial and physical capital), and reciprocal formal support groups or informal social networks that assist in the activities being undertaken (social capital). These correlate with the livelihoods asset pentagon in the Sustainable Livelihood framework (Fig 2.1). This combination o f activities is represented in the livelihood strategies box in the framework. The livelihoods perspective should broaden our understanding o f the crafts entrepreneurs, helping us to see them as individual men and women struggling with the day-to-day business o f managing the opportunities and risks o f a diverse and complex livelihood portfolio. It aims to stimulate debate and reflection, which should result in more effective programmes for the promotion o f crafts as a sustainable livelihood option, and as a pro-poor tourism strategy for poverty alleviation. The SL framework places people at the centre o f a web o f inter-related influences that affect how these people create a livelihood for themselves and their households. Closest to the people at the centre o f the framework are the resources and livelihood assets that they have access to and use. These can include natural resources, technologies, their skills, knowledge and capacity, their health, access to education, sources o f credit, or their networks o f social support. The extent o f their access to these assets is strongly influenced by their vulnerability context, which takes account o f trends (for example, economic, political, and technological), shocks (for example, epidemics, natural disasters, civil strife) and seasonality (for example, prices, production, and employment opportunities). Access is also influenced by the prevailing social, institutional and political environment, which affects the ways in w hich people combine and use their assets to achieve their goals. These are their livelihood strategies. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2 .1: Sustainable Livelihoods Framework Sustainable Livelihoods Framework Livelihood Assets Tstrraunctsuforrems i&ng Livelihood VULNERABILITY processes Outcomes CONTEXT Structures - More income S H O C K S - Government - Well-being - Reduced T R E N D S - NGOs / - Laws vulnerability SE A SO N A L !'! \ - A I D / - P o l i c i e s - Food security -Culture - Sustainable use o f natural -Institutions resources P rocesse s NH - hF = fnina utmaur aanl capital P physncia lc apitaical ccaappiitt l aall S = social capital Source: D F ID , 1999 Human capital represents the skills, knowledge, and ability to work, physical capability and good health that together enable people to pursue different livelihood strategies and achieve their livelihood objectives. At a household level, human capital is a factor o f the amount and quality o f labour available; this varies according to household size, skill levels, leadership potential, health status and the ability to leverage labour o f other household members particularly women (DFID, 1999). Human capital (knowledge and labour or the ability to command labour) appears in the generic framework as a livelihood asset, that is, as a building block or means o f achieving livelihood outcomes. Apart from being o f intrinsic value, human capital is required to make use o f any o f the other four types o f assets. It is, therefore, a prerequisite, though not solely responsible, for the achievement o f desirable livelihood outcomes. High levels o f human capital can substantially add to social (networks and connectedness) and financial capital (regular inflow o f money, savings and available stocks) and help in acquiring natural capital (land - clay, trees, and other factors o f production) not only for direct productive activities but also as collateral for loans. Through their stock o f social, financial and natural capital 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh craftspeople may be able to attain productive physical capital (equipment and inputs). Human capital also shapes perceptions and behaviours, and informs decisions and choices o f coping and survival strategies. This study adapts the sustainable livelihoods framework (Fig. 2.2) and combines it with perspectives from Giddens' (1984) Structuration theory, Coleman's (1971) Resource Conversion Approach, and the Pro-Poor Tourism model by Ashley et al. (2002) to analyse the handicraft system for a pro-poor poverty reduction strategy which is focused on the vulnerable craftspeople o f the crafts communities under study. Livelihoods may demonstrate resilience or vulnerability based on the level o f resourcefulness or inventiveness o f craftspeople (agency) to convert goods, ideas and opportunities into levels o f welfare. Again, livelihoods may be influenced by socio-cultural or political structures which may shape the ‘arena'. The characteristics o f the arena or arena systems may ‘support ' or ‘restrict' the efforts (agency) o f crafts workers. These perspectives from Structuration theory (Giddens. 1984) and Resource Conversion Approach (Coleman, 1971) lend themselves to poverty studies and are relevant to understanding the sustainable livelihoods framework adapted for this study. Intervention strategies could be based on enhancing the capabilities o f the crafts workers (agency oriented), or they could be based on improving the socio-economic, political and cultural environment within which craftspeople work (arena oriented). With local and external constraints identified, the next level o f the framework identifies the different poverty perceptions o f various craftspeople, district assembly and tourist board officials. These are deemed necessary because these perceptions inform the policies, programmes and strategies that are designed for poverty reduction and alleviation. The next level o f the framework assesses some o f the processes and structures that influence crafts production and the policies and programmes with relevance to crafts and tourism development. In this exercise, there is a deliberate search for a micro- economic and pro-poor policy focus on the handicrafts sector specifically, and linkages with other sectors o f the tourism industry for poverty reduction. 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ignre 2.2: Sustainable Livelihoods Fram ework for Poverty Reduction Source: A da p te d f rom D F ID , 1999: C o le m a n , 1971; G iddens , 1999: and A sh ley et al.. 2002 . As the financial structure is closely connected with the social structure, membership o f more formalised groups m ay enhance access to information and markets. Thus, social ties and membership o f associations lower or break barriers to market entry and access to information and assistance. Furthermore, social needs are all dependent on financial and human capabilities as well as on the provision o f social security, by markets and state structures and processes. Thus, market and state structures determine the poverty levels or livelihood strategies o f the crafts entrepreneurs. In order to develop an understanding of these complex relationships it is necessary to look beyond the assets themselves, to analyse the types o f structures and processes that transform assets into livelihood outcomes. Issues o f discrimination based on gender, age and ethnic differences, exploitation o f weaker participants and equity are important issues here. Support to enhance human capital can be both direct - craft support programmes, skills development and capacity building - and indirect changes in local institutions, reform in craft and 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tourism policies, and changes in business practices. In either case it will only achieve its aims if people themselves are willing and able to invest in their own human capital (Berma. 1996. cited in Sood, 2002). However, if some categories o f craft workers are prevented from doing so by adverse structures and processes (e.g. formal policies, financial constraints or gender inequality and cultural norms within the crafts villages) then indirect support to human capital development will be particularly important. In many cases it will be necessary to combine both direct and indirect support. The most appropriate mechanism for such combined support may well be an integrated approach to human capital development, drawing on information gathered through livelihoods analysis to ensure that effort is focused where it is most needed. The ‘livelihoods' concept is a realistic recognition o f the range o f activities that individuals and households engage in to ensure their survival, and improve their well being. In the past, craft production used to be an off-season pastime, but now it has become the main business activity to many families. Many others rely on it for a substantial part o f the family budget. Generally, it is difficult for households in poorer countries to support themselves on the basis o f a single business activity or full­ time wage employment (Rakodi et al., 2002). Households and individuals, therefore, combine their options. The household income is influenced by the number o f working members and their earning capacity, household size, skill levels and on the interplay o f assets (human, social, physical, natural, financial, and political capitals) along with the institutional/organizational processes and structures. All o f which, are influenced by external shocks and opportunities (decline in tourist flows, changes in tastes or competition from cheaper imports) and internal evolution (death, migration or a new born). They use a diverse combination o f assets at different times, and in different settings. Sometimes they emphasise one at the expense o f another, depending on their priorities, opportunities, constraints, and choices. This combination constitutes their portfolio. Ellis (1998) adds that through livelihood diversification poor families construct a diverse portfolio o f activities and social support capabilities in order to survive and improve their standards o f 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh living. Households and individuals adjust the mix according to their own circumstances and the changing context in which they live. Richards (1989) has noted that “At any scale (whether o f individual, household, village, region, or nation), livelihoods are composed in complex ways, with multiple and dynamic portfolios o f different activities” (Richards, 1989, cited in Scoones. 1998). Since livelihoods are dynamic, portfolios are often recomposed. Feeding regimes, education and health are affected during stresses and may or may not be restored to their original levels after the stress. Employment creation through indigenous crafts is believed to be a productive source o f income (Harper, 2000, cited in Sood, 2002) and can compliment other livelihood strategies. Crafts could form an important part o f asset portfolios o f the poor, and could lead to diversification o f their livelihood strategies. Practitioners in the field have also recognised the value o f crafts as a lex er for wider development. Jamieson (2003) warns that crafts development should be considered as p a n o f an overall development for a given region rather than as an economic panacea that will provide instant alternative employment and income opportunities. It is believed that income generation programmes to revive crafts and provide livelihoods alone cannot guarantee development and poverty reduction. They could be the entry point for many other aspects o f the development process. They can become the key and catalyst to financial independence, better education, health, community building, women's emancipation, youth employment and the discarding o f social prejudices - in short, it could lead to the revitalisation, both economic and social, o f marginalised rural, peri-urban and urban communities. Apart from examining the diverse combination o f assets and livelihood strategies that the poor adopt, SLA also takes into consideration the nature o f vulnerability that the poor face. According to Moser (1998) it provides a more dynamic understanding o f poor people's position because poor people move in and out of poverty, depending on events, circumstances, and/or on the life cycles o f individuals and the household. Moser (1995) identifies five elements in her ‘asset-vulnerabilitv framework’ - labour, human capital, social capital, productive assets and household relations. A pooling in o f these elements plays an important role in the individual or household's ability to adjust to 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh changes in the external environment. The pooling o f these elements acts both as critical safety nets and as 'shock absorbers ' , reducing the vulnerability o f a household and individuals who join them. The concept o f vulnerability better captures processes o f change than more static measures o f poverty. For the vulnerability concept, poverty removal is seen as a process o f removing vulnerability which can be in the form o f financial, physical, natural, human and social constraints. Reardon. (1997) emphasises that human capital is connected to the financial, natural and social structures within which the poor find themselves, and to achieve sustainable livelihoods those structures do have to be addressed. Some cultural traditions and the gender role o f women in Ghana have the potential o f negatively affecting the capability o f craftswomen to enter labour markets and earn income. For example, w om en’s reproductive and gender roles may negatively affect their productive outcomes. Time spent on childcare, domestic roles and social obligations could be spent in production activities, so when we try to intervene in linking the artisans with markets, one has to address these other issues that can release more time for women to engage in economic production. It is equally important that the Government, while planning and envisaging policies, ensures that all the five components are addressed simultaneously, to ensure sustainable livelihoods to craftspeople. It has to ensure that interventions are packaged in the right combinations that make it viable and manageable in particular circumstances. Government policies need to take into consideration the physical location o f the artisan groups, as well as ensure access to information, plans and schemes. One without the other does not yield results. Providing one followed by another would make no sense either 2.4.2 Crafts Value-Chain Analysis The crafts production and marketing/distribution sub-system will be targeted for special evaluation using the value-chain analysis described by McKercher (2008). In this model, direct sale o f handicrafts (where the consumer buys directly from the producer either at the point of production or through a retail shop owned by the artisan) has the advantage o f maximizing returns to the producer, 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh but the disadvantage o f limiting the distribution network. It ensures a fairer return to artisans and lower prices for consumers (Figure 2.3). Multiple step systems involve one or more wholesalers and/or distributors, whether locally or overseas buying and on-selling the item to a retailer and ultimately to the consumer. This model allows the product to reach a larger market, but the return to the producer is generally less. The producer also loses control over how the handicraft is presented and what cultural message is sent. Figure 2.3 illustrates the dynamics o f this framework. Figure 2.3 Handicrafts Value-Chain Analysis Conisiu mer ii t Retailer Multi-step Retailer Distributor Two-step Retailer Wholesaler Wholesaler One-step t - t Direct Producer Source: ( M c K e rc h e r , 2 008 ) Carvers, weavers, potters and bead makers as well as finishers operate at the lower end o f the model, while dealers and other craft merchants who are not artisans operate at the next higher levels by on-selling locally or through export. While producers receive a price which reflects only the material content o f the items, retailers and wholesalers sell handicrafts to tourists and other consumers at a price which reflects the symbolic content, thus making bigger profits. At each stage o f the distribution chain, the price o f the craft item increases by the profit margin and handling costs that are incurred. Artisans are, therefore, cheated by retailers and wholesalers. Artisan's capacity on correct pricing needs to be enhanced. 2.5 C u l tu ra l Globalisation Stemming from Carl Sauer's (1925) ideas of a Cultural Landscape, Cultural geography has evolved into a sub-field within human geography. Some o f the main cultural phenomena studied in cultural geography include language, religion, different economic and governmental structures, a n and crafts, tourism and other cultural aspects that explain how and /or why people function as the> do in the areas in which they live. This study is philosophically grounded in this concept o f cultural 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh globalisation as it relates to tourism studies. According to Jordan et. al., (1994) cultural geography is the study o f cultural products and norms and their variations across and relations to spaces and places. It focuses on describing and analyzing the ways language, economy, government and other cultural phenomena vary or remain constant, from one place to another and on explaining how humans function spatially (Jordan et. al., 1994). Timothy Scrase (2002) provides an overview o f recent literature and studies o f Third World artisans in the context o f economic globalisation. Me draws upon recently published research from Central America, Asia, and Africa, which demonstrates that globalisation has intensified the precarious existence o f artisan communities through increasing global competition, the mass production o f craft goods, and shifting trends in fashion, cultural taste and aesthetics. He criticizes both government and non­ government support programmes and policies as limited and ineffectual and considers recent consumer trends like “ fair trade” shopping as piecemeal and limited in terms o f the long-term support they can give to struggling artisan communities. He concludes that when artisans survive, they do so mainly on the periphery o f both global and local capitalist economies - a situation that has rarely changed over the decades. In various ways and in specific regional contexts, the globalisation o f production exacerbates, rather than diminishes, the marginal status o f artisan communities (Scrase. 2002). Writing on Globalisation and Indian Crafts Industry, Pradeep Kumar Jena (2007) reviews Orissan handicrafts production and examines the challenges and opportunities occasioned by globalisation. He notes that illiteracy keeps artisans poor, and dependent on middlemen who pay them on a piece rate basis. Artisans who are not able to cope turn to other alternatives, leading to a 30 per cent decline in the number o f skilled artisans over the years. It i* important to understand what cultural changes have taken place in the crafts villages in Ghana and how these changes have impacted livelihoods o f craftspeople in the selected crafts villages for this study. 2.6 Summary This chapter has presented an overview o f crafts production as a pro-poor tourism development strategy and elucidated on the poverty perceptions, experience and coping mechanisms. The chapter 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has also examined the dynamics o f crafts production and marketing through the sustainable livelihoods framework and the crafts value chain analysis to identify the relative benefits derived by different players in the industry. Until recently, the poverty, tourism and poverty reduction literature have evolved separately. However, through this review, the connectedness in the culture, handicraft enterprises, tourism and their potentials for poverty reduction have been recognised and harmonised. Additionally, a strong case has been made for the vast potentials in using cultural enterprises as a pro-poor growth vehicle for wealth creation and poverty reduction in craft communities in Ghana and similar societies o f the developing world. Identified gaps in the literature include the dearth o f information on self ranking on the wealth-poverty spectrum by individuals, how poverty is experienced and the coping mechanisms that are engineered to deal with poverty and reduced levels o f well-being. Information on cultural globalisation and the changes that it has created in specific spaces and places exists, but empirical research on these issues in the African and Ghanaian context is lacking. This study seeks to cover some o f these grey areas in the literature and generate relevant data and information. The review has also shed some light on the nature o f handicrafts and what tourists are looking for when they purchase them. Authenticity, though not the focus o f this thesis is a very important consideration as noted by Graburn (2008). Handicrafts need to be produced by the local people whose culture it reflects and must be sold by them to tourists and other clients. The influences o f urbanisation, modernisation, and globalisation have also been examined and have been found to exert both positive and negative influences on the sustainability o f micro and small tourism enterprises. Having examined the relevant literature on handicrafts, tourism and poverty reduction, the conceptual and philosophical background o f the study, the next chapter focuses on the study area and describes some o f the crafts o f Ashanti and presents the research methodology, which outlines the sources o f data, methods o f data collection and analysis. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER T H R E E STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH M E TH O D O LO G Y 3.1 Introduction The previous chapter presented the review of literature and conceptual framework o f the study. This chapter presents the geographical, historical, and socio-cultural background to handicraft production and tourism development. This background to the study area is important because it aids understanding o f the context o f handicrafts production and tourism development in the study villages o f the Ashanti region. Section 3.6 presents the methodology o f the study. 3.2 Geographical and Historical Background 3.2.1 Geographical Background The Ashanti Region is centrally located in the agro-ecological zone known as the middle belt o f Ghana. It lies between longitudes 0°. 15" W and 2°.25” W. and latitudes 5°.50” N and 7°.46“ N. It occupies a total land area o f 24.389 km 2 representing 10.2 per cent o f the total land area o f Ghana (GSS. 2005). Figure 2.1 presents the Ashanti Region in national context. The region shares boundaries with Brong Ahafo to the north. Eastern Region to the east. Central Region to the south and Western Region to the South West. It is the third largest region after Northern (70,384 km 2) and Brong Ahafo (39,557 km 2) Regions. Today, Ashanti region is home to over 3.6 million people (3,612,950), representing over 14% o f the country’s population with a population density o f 148.1 persons per square kilometre, the third after Greater Accra and Central regions (GSS, 2000). If early population estimates are at all accurate, the Ashanti population has expanded significantly during the twentieth century. The population was estimated at about 250.000 around 1900, at approximately 578,000 in 1931, and at over 822.000 in 1950 (Fortes 1969: 140; Manoukian 1950: Busia 1951: 165: and Steel 1948). The 1960 census lists a total population o f 895,360 (Kaplan el al. 1971: 88). More than half o f the region lies within the wet, semi-equatorial forest zone. Due to human activities and bushfires, the forest vegetation o f pans o f the region, particularly the north-eastern pan. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh has been reduced to savannah. The region has an average annual rainfall o f 1270mm and two rainy seasons. The major rainy season starts in March with a major peak in May. There is a slight dip in July and a peak in August, tapering off in November. December to February is dry, hot and dusty. The average daily temperature is about 27degrees Celsius. Much o f the region is situated between 150 and 300 metres above sea level (GSS. 2000). Despite this tropical setting, Ashanti region is divided into two quite different ecological zones, northern and southern. The northern zone is drier and is characterized by a savannah-forest type o f vegetation, with stunted trees scattered over large expanses o f grasslands. The natural vegetation o f the southern zone consists o f high forest, but little virgin forest now remains. The most common vegetation today is that o f the cultivated plots o f cacao (cocoa) trees and secondary forests on formerly cultivated land. These differing ecological zones have given rise to contrasting types o f agriculture. In the north (around Ejura and Mampong) the main subsistence and cash crop is yams, followed by guinea com. In the south, a much larger variety o f subsistence crops is grown, including especially yams, cocoyams, cassava, and maize. Also, there has been widespread development o f major commercial crops such as the kola-nut and particularly cocoa. In fact, cocoa farming has become the main economic activity in the southern zone. Trees in the forested southern areas provide the raw materials for the carving activities. The region is endowed with spectacular geography - Lake Bosomtwe, the Mampong Escarpment, Digya National Park, the Owabi Arboretum and Bomfobri Wildlife Sanctuaries - some of which are being developed as tourist attractions The region is drained by Rivers Offin, Prah. A Irani, and Owabi with a major w-ater treatment plant at Barekese which supplies Kumasi and its environs with potable water. There are other smaller rivers and streams w hich serve as sources o f drinking w ater for residents in the region. 6 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.1 M a p o f G h a n a Showing A shanti Region MAP OF GHANA, SHOWING ASHANTI REGION PE R EAST Notionol Bo undory UPPER WEST GION REGICH Regionol Boundory B R O N G A H A F O REG IO N REG IO N s A S H A N T I R 6 CENTRAL ‘ACCEZT Re&ION lOOKM Ocpt. of Gcoqd Ru'-ol Dev KN'JST-Kum asi - 2 0 0 8 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 Historical Background Some o f the early documentation on the people who occupied present day Ghana before colonisation includes the erstwhile Ashanti kingdom (Boahen, 1989). Insights into who the Ashanti are. their social structure and kinship systems, political organisation and governance, traditional customs and religion, control and administration o f natural resources, and traditional handicrafts have been documented by anthropologists, colonial administrators and other scholars, with notable ones being Rattray (1920), Browne. (1978), and McLeod (1971). According to Fortes, the Ashanti state was created and maintained by war. and a military ideology remained a central feature o f its cultural orientation to the end. Before its annexation by the British in 1901, this state was a confederation o f nine originally autonomous founding chiefdoms and a number o f subsequently incorporated communities. At the centre o f the state was the wealthy and powerful chiefdom o f Kumasi, whose hereditary ruler was acknowledged as the Asantehene, that is. the head o f the nation, or king. The ‘Ashantis ' constitute the largest o f the subgroups o f the Akan, who trace their origins partly to Bono-Manso and Techiman, in present day Brong Ahafo Region. The Ashanti speak Twi. an Akan dialect, which belongs to the Niger-Congo language family (Greenberg 1966: 8; Manoukian 1950: 10). According to traditional accounts and legends, the name 'Ashanti* was derived from the Akan phrase, “osa n tf \ meaning those brought together because o f war (Microsoft Corporation. 2005). As a united people, they started with the Oyoko clan around Asanlemanso. After several years o f subjugation by other polities, such as the Akwamu and the Denkyira, the Ashantis eventually grew to become a very powerful kingdom founded by King Osei- Tutu I (1695-1717). In the late 1600s Osei Tutu, who had spent his childhood days in the court o f the Denkyira King. Ntim Gyakari, organized a rebellion and defeated the Denkyira people during the battle o f Feyiase in 1701 (Buah. 1998). converted the military coalition into a permanent political union (confederacy) with the help o f his lifelong friend and spiritual mentor, the legendary Okomfo Anokyc, and established the Ashanti Kingdom. The Ashanti constitute 14.8 per cent o f all Ghanaians by birth, and 30.1 per cent o f the total Akan population of 8,562,748 persons in Ghana (GSS, 2005:3). 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Historically, the Bekwai, Juaben, Kokofu, Kumasi, Kumawu, Mampong, and Nsuta people were once subject to the Denkyira. The Ashanti Kingdom expanded rapidly, by fighting and dominating many settlements, far and near. They fought many successful wars against the Denkyira and their allies, the Wassa, the British, the Fante and even the Bonos (Brongs). By the 18,h Century they had dominated most parts o f present day Ghana. In 1896, Britain occupied the Ashanti Kingdom and annexed it as part o f the Gold Coast Colony in 1901.The Ashanti kingdom eventually collapsed with the defeat and exile o f King Prempeh I, first, to El-mina Castle and eventually to the Seychelles. In 1957 the Ashanti people became independent as part o f Ghana. The region is one o f the ten political regions today. However, the Ashanti people retain a strong sense o f historical and cultural identity in modern Ghana, and show reverence and allegiance to the Asantehene till today. 3.2.3 Ashanti Social Structure and Cultural Heritage Traditional Ashanti governance was based on an elaborate chieftaincy system. Like all Akan peoples, the Ashanti are matrilineal, meaning that descent is traced down the female line. In this system, a man’s heirs are not his sons but his sisters' sons (Obeng, 1988:2). No Asantehene, therefore, has been a son o f a previous one, but all Asantehenes descend, in the female line, from Osei Tutu's mother. Nana Maanu. A senior woman in this royal line always carries the title o f Asantehemaa (Queen Mother). She might or might not be the biological mother o f the Asantehene, but in any case she commands immense respect and traditionally exercises much influence. The present Ashanti King, Otumfuor Osei Tutu (II), is a direct matrilineal descendant o f Osei Tutu (I). The Ashanti heritage consists o f their matrilineal inheritance system, veneration o f ancestors, traditional festivals (adaekesee/fofie), funeral celebrations, and traditional ritual observations for deified gods, represented in rivers such as Tano. Prah, Offin, and others. These traditional practices serve as authentic attractions for tourists from all over the world. Historically, the city boasts o f a number o f relics and monuments that tell part o f the story about Ashanti heritage. Some o f these include the Manhyia Palace Museum, the Centre for National University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Culture, Premper II Jubilee Museum, Kumasi Fort and Military Museum and the Okomfo Anokye Sword. Others are the Kejetia Market, Traditional Street Sculptures. Kumasi Zoo. and the Akwasidae Ceremony. These heritage resources can be combined with the region’s natural tourism resources and developed for domestic and international tourism. 3.2.4 The Crafts of Ashanti Handicraft, also known as handcraft, craftwork or simply craft, is a type o f work where useful and decorative items are made completely by hand or using only simple tools. Usually the term is applied to traditional means o f making goods. The individual artisanship o f the items is a paramount criterion; such items often have cultural and. or religious significance. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicrafts. Usually, what distinguishes the term handicraft from the frequently used category karts and crafts' is a matter o f intent: handicraft items are intended to be used, worn, et cetera, having a purpose beyond simple decoration. Handicrafts are generally considered more traditional work, created as a necessary part o f daily life, while arts and crafts implies more o f a hobby pursuit and a demonstration/perfection o f a creative technique. In practical terms, the categories have a great deal o f overlap. The men and women who create these handcrafted items are the artisans. During pre-colonial times and the recent past, the Ashanti and other ethnic groups in Ghana produced most o f the useful things they needed themselves, using local resources and traditional methods and technology. Many o f the traditional utilitarian crafts have been replaced by imported factory produced substitutes today, leading to the disappearance o f not only the craft objects but the skills o f making them. However. Ansa Asamoa, commenting 011 Ghana's experience o f the ‘Socio­ economic Development Strategies o f Independent African Countries' in 1996 noted that invasion o f the Ghanaian market by large imports did not. as is generally thought to, destroy the greater part o f pre­ colonial craft technology and domestic industry. However, modernisation and industrialisation have led to change in taste in the use o f more durable household items. Traditional craft technologies like pottery and weaving have been hardest hit. Other pre-colonial crafts like iron and gold smelting could 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not survive (Asamoa, 1996). Some pre-colonial craft technologies have survived.6 However, Asamoa (1996) notes that they are still embedded in subsistence technology, and restricted to rural areas. Many o f the artisans producing these pre-colonial crafts are to be found in rural areas, combining their trade with agriculture. However, this study found out that many crafts people now live in urban and peri-urban areas, and virtually depend on crafts for a greater proportion o f their household budgets. Secondly, some o f the craft villages have been totally engulfed by urban development. This has implications for the survival o f not only the craft technologies, but most importantly, o f the sustenance o f crafts people whose livelihoods depend on these crafts. Asamoa also identified newly introduced crafts such as tailoring and shoe mending, watch, vehicle, motor cycle, bicycle and electrical repairs. Crafts like carpentry, masonry, tie and dye, photography and hairstyling, as well as book binding, milling, ceramics and taxi services also emerged during the colonial era. These crafts are mostly urban based with artisans and service operators living in urban areas. The Ashanti arc noted for their expertise in a variety o f specialised crafts. These include weaving, wood carving, pottery-making, and metallurgy. O f these crafts, only pottery-making is primarily a female activity; the others are restricted to male specialists. Even in the case o f pottery- making, only men are allowed to fashion pots or pipes representing anthropomorphic or zoomorphic figures. Today, the city o f Kumasi is ringed by villages famous for their artisans and handicrafts. Some o f the craft villages were originally established centuries ago to provide regalia for the king and his court. The most skilled craftsperson was commissioned to produce religious or everyday handcrafted products for the royal courts. These craftspeople were usually rewarded by conferring on them chiefly titles o f the particular crafts for which they were recognised. Thus, there is the Kentehene (Kente Chief), Nkukuohemaa (Pots queen) and so on. Over time, these crafts chiefs who supplied the royal courts with specific handcrafted items became influential in the crafts villages’ local governance and administration. In the case o f Ahwiaa, the settlement was established by Fante refugee carvers from "Pre -co lonia l crafts w h ich have su rv iv ed inc lude Blacksmithing, G old smi th ing , baske t w e a v in g , leather work, mat and c lo th w eav ing , sp inning , pottery, ca rv ing , b ea d s m aking , brewery, soap m ak in g , and p a lm oil extrac t ion. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the Asante-Denkyira war in the 17th century. However, they report to the Otumfuor through the Atepemhene, a sub-chief o f the Otumfour (Fosu, 2001:46). The establishment o f craft villages in the Ashanti region wras, in some cases, a response to the demands o f the traditional chieftaincy, religious and socio-cultural systems on one hand, and the requirements for utility items for everyday use on the other. Thus, those villages which specialised in the production o f stools, state swords, linguist staffs, fertility dolls, figurines, beads and pots with local philosophical and proverbial designs and symbolism may be recognised as “ royal crafts" villages. These ‘royal craft ' villages are found in close proximity to the Ashanti traditional court, Manhyia which is located in Kumasi. Special villages have not been established for the production o f the other utility craft items. 3.2.4.1 Wood Carving Wood carving is a form o f working wood by means o f a cutting tool held in the hand resulting in a w ooded figure or figurine or in the sculptural ornamentation o f a wooded object. The phrase may also refer to the finished product, from individual sculptures, to hand-worked mouldings composing part o f a tracery (Wikipedia, 2G08). Wood carving is divided into many branches, each with its own specialists. Among the major products are wooden sculptures o f outstanding artistic quality and the talking-drums (ntumpane). The famous wooden ‘"stools” are symbolic and ritual objects rather than items o f furniture. The Golden Stool. (Sikadwa Kofi), is the most sacred stool o f all because it represents the sumsum (soul) and symbolises the unity o f the Ashanti people. According to Rattray (1927), several generations ago. every stool in use had its own special name which denoted the sex. or social status, or clan o f the owner (Rattray 1927: 271). Wood carving has been an age-old activity in Alrica and in many Ghanaian communities. The activity persists today with most religious, chieftaincy regalia and household utility items being carved fertility figurines, stools, linguist staffs, masks, mortars and pestles, w'ooden spoons and palettes, drums and other musical instruments, and dug-out canoes, etc. These carved objects also have artistic 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh designs and symbols that serve religious or decorative functions. The carving o f wooden stools and fertility figurines is an important craft in Ashanti. Sarpong (1971) discusses some aspects of the history, design, symbolism and religious role o f the stool, while the work o f Quarcoo (1970) is another major study o f the stool carving industry. Plate 3.1 Stool Carvers at Work According to Rattray (1927), the art o f wood carving in Ashanti owed its origins largely to religious factors. The style and form o f Ashanti stools reflected their closely held religious beliefs, especially, with regard to the dwelling place o f their chiefly ancestors. The seats (stools) on which people sat were believed to embody the souls o f their owners, during their lifetime and even so after death (Obeng, 1988). This belief led to the desire for scats o f artistic form and design. Later on, particular designs became specialised and standardised for use by certain sexes, clans or individuals, i.e. designs indicated gender and clan affiliations (Rattray, 1927). No one is allowed to sit on the golden stool o f the Ashanti people as a sign o f reverence, and it has its own stool. When a king or chief dies his stool is blackened and put away as a memorial (Rattray, 1920; Obeng, 1988). Wood carving in Ahwiaa has evolved from an activity which served the local domestic and religious needs to a business adapted to meet tourist demand and export, and one on which many 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh families and livelihoods depend today. The activity itself has become departmentalised with different people performing different aspects o f the carving process. Different craftspeople were observed performing specific aspects o f the carving process - carving, finishing, polishing and sales. Carving is seen as a m an 's work; women and children participate only at the finishing, polishing and sales stages. See cut logs in the background o f plate 3.2. Plate 3.2 Ahwiaa Contract Carvers at Work Carv ing begins with the selection and cutting o f wood the approximate size and shape o f the figure to be created. The type o f wood is important as hardwoods like Mahogany (Khaya ivorensis), Ebony (Dalbergia melanoxylon) and le a k ( Tectona grandis) are more difficult to shape but have greater lustre and longevity. Softer woods may be easier to carve, but are less resistant to damage. Sese, (Funtumia spp; Holarrhea wiufsbergii) is the preferred wood for carving stools for its white colour and finish quality (see small fcsese‘ stools in plate 3.1 on the previous page). In the past, wood was readily available in the surrounding forest around Ahwiaa. However, wood has become scarce today as preferred wood species are cut without replanting. This scarcity has presented a business opportunity for trade in the supply o f wood for carvers. However, only a few men were involved in this trade. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh After selecting their wood, carvers begin the general shaping process using gouges (Bomye), adzes (usene sorsorwa) or hand-held axes (Akuma) depending on the size o f wood and the item being created. One o f the most important tools o f African carving is the adze. It has implications for African design. Generally, sculptures are carved while wood is still fresh as dry wood is more difficult to work on. For harder woods, the sculptor may use various chisels, (Paeye, sosor dianim, dawuruwa) and mallet (Abosobaa), much like a stone carver. Smaller sculptures may require the wood carver to use a knife (sekanmma), and larger pieces might require the use o f a saw or axe. No matter what wood is selected or tool used, the wood sculptor must always carve either across or with the grain o f the wood, never against the grain. Plate 3.3 Carving Tools used by Carv ers at Ahwiaa Once the general shape is made, the carver (designer) may use a variety o f tools for creating details. For example, a knife may be used to smoothen the surface, and a “v-tool” may be used to make fine lines or decorative cuts. Once the liner details have been added, the wood carver finishes the surface. The method chosen depends on the required quality o f surface finish. The texture left by shallow gouges gives ‘life' to the carving's surface and many carvers prefer this ‘tooled’ finish. If a completely smooth surface is required general smoothing can be done with tools such as “rasps," 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which are flat-bladed tools with rippled edges. “Rifflers’' are similar to rasps, but round in shape for working in folds or crevasses. The finer polishing is done with sandpaper. Large grained sandpaper with a rougher surface is used first, with the sculptor then using finer grained sandpaper that can make the surface o f the sculpture slick to the touch. Plate 3.4 Finished Stools and other Wooden Sculptures on Display • 1 1 , After the carving and finishing is completed, the artist (finishers) may seal and color the wood with a variety o f dyes and polishes, such as potassium sulfate or "mansion' polish which protects the wrood from dirt and moisture. Oil also imparts sheen to the wood which, by reflecting light, helps the observer ' read ' the form. Carvers seldom use gloss varnish as it creates too shiny a surface, which reflects so much light it can confuse the form. Objects made o f wood are frequently finished with a layer o f wax, which protects the wood and gives a soft lusterous sheen. A wax finish is comparatively fragile though and only suitable for indoor carvings. Finally, shop owners and their sales attendants display the finished sculptures in shops/stalls along the main road which passes through the town or packages them for exporl. Some o f the wood carvings are also sold in the regional and national capitals and in craft markets in adjoining countries (Boukina Fasso, l o g o and Benin). Today, wood carving does not only serve utilitarian and religious 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh purposes, but it has become a business activity which supports the livelihood o f many families in the craft villages and beyond. There have been adaptations in the form, size and shape o f the objects, and there are problems and new' opportunities. There are carving centres in almost all ethnic areas where the local resources and skill permit. Aburi in the Eastern Region, Winneba and Cape Coast in the Central Region, Hohoe and Vakpo in the Volta Region are all carving centres in Ghana with a predominance o f certain designs and objects. However, the centre o f carv ing in Ashanti is Ahwiaa in the Kwabre district, noted for stools, fertility dolls (Akuaba) and other traditional court paraphernalia. Other carving villages (see fig. 3.5) in Ashanti are Asennua, Meduma. Amanfrom, Foase. Otaakrom, Yonso, Atwea Hills, Abofour, Offinso, Amantia, Akuasi, Apaa, in the Sekyere. Abuakwa, Mampong, Atwima and Ahafo Ano South districts. Carving activities also takes place in the bush as shown in plate 3.5. According to oral tradition and a few historical accounts (Fosu, 2001), Ahwiaa was established as a refugee settlement for three stool carvers and their families who tied the Ashanti-Denkyira war in the 17th Century to seek asylum with King Osei Tutu I in the Ashanti Kingdom. The original settlers were in the persons o f Opanin Kwame Panin, Yaw Kwatia and Opanin Kutua and their families who were received by the Adontenhene, Nana Amankwaa Sei and taken to the Otumfour. They were later 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on joined by Opanin Kwame Darkwa and Akwasi Yoyo and their families. After learning that they were carvers, the Otumfour ordered that they be settled at Ahwiaa to carve all the stools and other wooden objects and court paraphernalia for the Ashanti court. It was these men who introduced stool carving into the Ashanti region, combining carving with agricultural activities. Ahwiaa carvers are reputed to have carved the famous golden stool, and the ceremonial presidential seat. Ahwiaa is best known for its stools (sesegwa), fertility figurines (akuaba) and wooden swords (afena); however, other genres o f wood carvings such as ‘profiles’ and 'shadows' from Aburi, Animals and figurines from Hohoe and other items are carved by carvers from other regions who are attracted to the carving centre at Ahwiaa. For their good works, a stool has been created at Ahwiaa for a chief, commissioned to be in charge o f all carving needs o f the Ashanti court and to oversee all carving matters. I lowever, there is a chieftaincy dispute in Ahwiaa today. 3.2.4.2 Rente Weaving Weaving is a highly developed craft, with dozens of standardized and named textile designs. Stamped cloth. Adinkra is also made. Weaving is a widely practised craft in West Africa, and kente one o f the better known crafts o f Ashanti. The techniques, designs and colours o f weaving have been studied by Lamb (1975), who undertook a comprehensive study o f West African weaving. Kent (1972) describes the weaving o f Ashanti, Fon, Yoruba, Ewe, Ibo, Nupe and Igbirra peoples in Ghana and Nigeria. A detailed account o f Ashanti weaving is contained in Rattray's (1927) work on religion and art o f the Ashanti. It is not easy to state exactly when the art o f weaving was introduced in Ashanti. The kente cloth, known locally as nwentoma. is a type o f fabric made o f interwoven cloth strips and is native to Ghana, where it was first developed in the 12th century. Kente is a royal and sacred cloth worn by kings and only in times o f extreme importance. However, over time, the use o f kente has become more widespread. Nevertheless, its importance has remained and is held in high esteem in the Akan family and the entire nation. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 3.6_____ Ashanti Kente on display at The Export Production Village in Bonwire There are many legends on weaving in Ashanti. According to indigenous Bonwire weavers, the original weaving idea came from two hunters (Koragu and Ameyaw) who were fascinated by a spider making its nest. They returned and tried to imitate the spider using fibre from the Kyenkyen tree to weave bark cloth. Weaving is said to have started at the time o f Oti Akenten in the 17th century. The first woven cloth was known as ‘bark* cloth. This cloth was woven from the bark o f the Kyenkyen tree, which was softened by beating it with a corrugated metal hammer. The fibre wfas woven using the basket weaving technology, hence the name Kente derived from kenten (basket). Another legend has it that the basket (kenten) weaving technology was employed in making the first cloth from raffia fibre. Koragu and Ameyaw, hunters from Bonwire, are believed to have invented the kente cloth; however, Nana Ota Kraban is reputed to have improved upon their invention. According to Rattray. (1927), Kente weaving started at the time o f Oti Akenten in the 17lh Century. Otaa Kraban is reported to have brought back the hand-loom technology from the Gyaman area, now in La Cote d 'Ivoire into Bonwire. Kente weaving in Ashanti has for a long time been confined to men. Certain kente designs such as the oyokoman is reserved for only the Asantehene. It is a cloth o f prestige and class worn by royalty and the very important and wealthy in society. Today, the economy o f Bonwire is inextricably XI University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tied to Kente weaving and this activity supports the livelihoods o f many families. Kente weaving is a complex activity which supports livelihoods. Its potential for wealth creation and poverty reduction are great but there are challenges. Kente is a special hand-woven cloth in strips o f about four inches wide on a traditional wooden handloom. It is then cut into strips o f twenty-four, each measuring about four yards and sewn together into a larger piece o f cloth for men. Special lengths and sizes are sewn for women. Combinations o f two or more bright colours o f yarns are used to weave kente by the weavers’ own arrangements and design as shown in plate 3.6. The weavers assign names and significance to the designs and arrangements that they have created. The tools o f kente weaving comprise the wooden loom (Plate 3.7), made up o f the heddle, shuttle, spindle and cotton or rayon yarns. The loom and all the accessories are obtained locally while the yams are now bought from retail shops in the town, from Kumasi, or Tema. The weaver propels the shuttle across the warp by hand and changes the weaving pattern by foot. To obtain a smooth and uniform weave, a weight is attached to the yarns on a wooden sledge. Single, double and triple weaves are produced to obtain different thickness in the fabric. Originally, the first bark cloth and kente cloth was woven for the Asantehene, and later for some paramount chiefs who wore it during traditional ceremonies and on special occasions. The original bark cloth is still worn by the Asantehene on special occasions. Certain kente cloths, such as the Oyokoman are reserved exclusively for the Asantehene. Intricate designs are named after important Ghanaian personalities and celebrities. Ashanti kente has bright colours and geometrical designs while Ewe kente has softer colours and animal or human designs. In contrast to rayon favored by Ashanti weavers, the Ewe use cotton. Although no longer using vegetable dyes, many o f them use hand dyed yam. Although there is overlap in techniques, one can distinguish the Ewe Kente from the Ashanti because the Ewes weave figures and symbols into their cloth. There is more diversity in the Ewe patterns. Usually Ewe cloth is woven to order for Ghanaians, but the tourists have become customers also and concessions have been made in colour and style in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cloth that they buy and seem to prefer. The main cloth market is in Agbozume, which is close to the Togo border. Other Ewe kente weaving centres include Agbozume, Anlo Afiadenyigba, Keta, Agortime Kpetoe and Kpalime in neighbouring Togo. Plate 3.7_____ Weavers at the Loom in the Export Production Village Shed in Bonwire The centre o f Kente production in the Ashanti region is Bonwire. However, other kente weaving villages in the region include Sakora Wonoo, Adanwomase, Amampe, Bepoase, Tewobaabi, near Ntonso and the Cultural Centre in Kumasi (see Figure 3.5). However, the Ewes are master weavers o f beautiful kente with intricate designs. Besides the narrow loom, broad loom weaving occurs in the northern region. Kente weaving is a household activity and the mainstay o f the local economy in Bonwire and its surrounding villages. The weaving industry is organised around independent and contract weavers, and kente dealers and merchants who buy from independent weavers and contract weavers who are paid per piece. There are tailors who stitch the narrow pieces together, and design bags, neck ties and other garments from kente. Besides weaving, which is the main economic activity for men, women engage in trading in foodstuffs and other household provisions, and carry out some subsistence farming. However, children and women participate in some aspects o f the production process, e.g., yarn spinning and stitching. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It takes determination, skill and long hours and many days o f hard work to weave a strip o f kente. Due to the arduous nature o f kente weaving, many young men in Bonwire do not want to become weavers. The shortage o f skilled weavers has necessitated recruitment o f migrant weavers from the Volta region. A group o f Ewe migrant weavers are shown in plate 3.8. Plate 3.8 Migrant Ewe Weavers at their Looms under a Shed at Bonwire Like Ahwiaa, weaving in Bonwire is confined to men. However, women participate in selling the cloth. The weaving skills are passed down to the youth informally as they assist with various aspects o f the craft. However, most o f them are not interested in becoming weavers in future. Kente continues to be a cloth o f choice for its quality and cost. The merchants sell to locals and tourists while the weavers concentrate on weaving. Even though weaving still persists, the volumes sold have declined since the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the USA in 2001. 3.2.4.3 Pottery Potter>r is made by forming a clay body into objects o f a required shape and heating them to high temperatures in a kiln to induce reactions that lead to permanent changes, including increasing their strength and hardening and setting their shape. There are wide regional variations in the properties o f clays used by potters and this often helps to produce wares that are unique in character to 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a locality. Prior to some shaping processes, air trapped within the clay body needs to be removed. This is called de-airing and can be accomplished manually by wedging. Wedging can also help to ensure even moisture content throughout the body. Plate 3.9 Traditional Method of Pot Making at Pankrono •' *—'V r - - u Once clay has been de-aired or wedged, it is shaped by a variety o f techniques (coiling, flattening, solid balls o f clay). Traditionally. Ashanti pottery was hand-molded from solid balls o f clay. After shaping it is dried (75 ° - 80°) before firing. There are great variations in methods used but a commonality is the non-use o f the potter 's wheel. Pots are fired at low temperatures, in an open air kiln to a temperature o f about 1000°C and 1200°C, and are unglazed. Firing produces irreversible changes in the body. It is only after firing that the article can be called potter>r. In lowrer-fired pottery the changes include sintering, the fusing together o f coarser particles in the body at their points o f contact with each other. In all cases the object o f firing is to permanently harden the wares and the firing regime must be appropriate to the materials used to make them. As a rough guide, earthenware is normally fired at temperatures in the range o f about 1000 to 1200 degrees Celsius; stoneware at between about 1100 to 1300 degrees Celsius; and porcelain at between about 1200 to 1400 degrees Celsius. However, the way that ceramics mature in the kiln is influenced not only by the peak temperature achieved, but also by the duration o f the period o f firing. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Thus, the maximum temperature within a kiln is often held constant for a period o f time to soak the wares, to produce the maturity required in the body o f the wares. Plate 3.10 Potterv Ware on Display bv the Road side at Pankrono The atmosphere within a kiln during firing can affect the appearance o f the finished wares. An oxidising atmosphere, produced by allowing air to enter the kiln, can cause the oxidation o f clays and glazes. A reducing atmosphere, produced by limiting the flow o f air into the kiln, can strip oxygen from the surface o f clays and glazes. This can affect the appearance o f the wares being fired and, for example, some clays containing iron fire brown in an oxidising atmosphere, but green or black in a reducing atmosphere as shown in Plate 3.10. The atmosphere within a kiln can be adjusted to produce complex effects in colour. Proximity to the source o f heat may also affect the colour o f the wares. Pottery wares become blackened through lack o f oxygen (reduction) when they are closer to the source o f heat; and brownish (oxidation) when they are further away from the source o f heat as shown in Plate 3.10 above. Pottery is a widespread craft activity and is discussed in most anthologies o f West African crafts. Amongst the crafts o f Ghana, pottery-making is the oldest and the most widespread. Huber (1959) and Rattray (1927) have studied Krobo and Ashanti pottery respectively. For a long time, earthenware were used for preparing and serving food, fetching and storing water and other liquids, and used for the preparation o f traditional medicine, and for other ritual purposes. The 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh aketekyiwa was especially in great demand by palm wine tappers who used it to collect the sap from palm trees. Even though potters do not know the one who introduced the art o f pot making, Pankrono potters learnt the skill from their own mothers. This confirms Rattray's observation that “ pot making is a hereditary craft which is passed from mother to daughter". However, Rattray reports the first potter as Osra Abogyo from Tafo, near Pankrono (Rattray, 1927). Potters used simple tools like corn cobs to give the pots texture, pebbles to smoothen out and make pots impervious and wet rugs to wet the pots to improve workability. A Hat ring made o f the inside o f a palm branch (sometimes made from plastic pipe) is used to scrape excess clay from the insides o f the pot. These simple tools are shown in Plate 3.11. The pots are made in two halves from a lump o f clay, and the two pieces jo ined to form a complete pot. The surface o f pottery wares may be burnished prior to firing by rubbing with a suitable instrument o f wood, steel or stone, (shown in Plate 3.11) to produce a polished finish that surv ives firing. Com cobs are also used to make the pots smooth before burnishing. It is possible to produce very highly polished wares when fine clays are used, or when the polishing is carried out on wares that have been partially dried and contain little water, though wares in this condition are extremely fragile and the risk o f breakage is high. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Pottery-making centres in Ghana include the Krobo, Shai, and Begho centres (Huber, 1959 cited in Browne, 1978); however, the major centre for Ashanti traditional pottery-making is Pankrono. Other minor centres include Obuokrom and Tafo 011 the M ampong road, Sisirease, Ekwea and Apiadu. Other places producing pottery, but using modern technology are Afari, Nfansi, Kwahu and Abuakwa. producing coolers, mugs and eating bowls (Asanka). Household utensils and ritual objects were made in these centres. Pankrono pots were famous not only because they enjoyed royal patronage. Its proximity to the Central market and Kejetia, the transport terminal in Kumasi were exploited to advantage. Pankrono potters still make ritual pots for the Ashanti royal court, for the preparation o f herbal medicine, and for twin rituals. A stool has been created for the Queen for pottery in Pankrono. Pots from Pankrono were popular even as far as Sekondi in the Western region. The potters see their craft as a continuation of tradition, and see themselves as custodians o f the traditional heritage handed over to them by their mothers and ancestors. The aketekyiwa, a small pot used by palm wine tappers was the cheapest but fastest selling pot. The ahcna, a large pot used to store water, was the biggest and most expensive pot, but was difficult to make and needed the utmost care during firing. However, the adoption o f plastic containers by palm wine tappers led to a decline in demand for the aketekyiwa. 3.2.4.4 Bead M aking The origins o f beadmaking in Ghana are unknown, but the great majority o f powder glass beads produced today is made by Ashanti and Krobo craftsmen and women. Krobo bead making has been documented to date from as early as the 1920s but despite limited archaeological evidence, it is believed that Ghanaian powder glass bead making dates further back. Bead making in Ghana was first documented by John Barbot in 1746. Beads still play important roles in Krobo society, be it in rituals of birth, coming o f age, marriage, or death. Powder glass beads are made from finely ground glass, the main source being broken and unusable bottles and a great variety of other scrap glasses. Special glasses such as old cobalt medicine bottles, cold cream jars, and many other types o f glasses from University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh plates, ashtrays, window panes - to name only a few - are occasionally bought new, just for the purpose. Plate 3.12 Bags of Broken Glass and a Box of Dyes for Making Powdered Glass Beads Modem ceramic colourants, finely ground broken beads, or shards o f different coloured glasses from various sources can be added to create a great variety o f styles, designs and decorative patterns in many different colours. In addition, glass bead fragments o f varying sizes, which have traditionally been used for the manufacture as well as for the decoration o f specific types o f beads, can now be found in interesting new combinations, and during the past few years in particular, bead makers have taken this tradition yet another step forward by using entire, i.e. whole small beads for making their colourful bead creations. Beads continue to be treasured jewellery for royalty and for the affluent. It is also used during festivities and on special occasions. Bead making has been described by several authors in various locations in Ghana. In Browne's (1978) study, the following early works on beads in Ghana, which discuss techniques o f beads making observed in particular villages were reviewed: Price (1883) and Cardinall (1924) discuss the origin o f Aggrey beads o f the Gold Coast; Wild (1937) studied Dunkwa beads; Shaw (1945) reported bead making with a bow drill in the Gold Coast, and Sinclair (1939) 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh looked at methods o f bead making in Ashanti, Note the different sizes and shapes o f the finished beads on display in Plate 3.13. Plate 3.13 A sam ang Beads on Display The Krobo o f the Eastern region are better known for bead making in Ghana, however, the centre o f beads production in the Ashanti region is Asuofia-Asamang, a village oft' the Barekese road. Other villages in the Ashanti region that make powder glass beads are Pasoro, Daaban, and Asuofia, all in the Atwima Nwabiagya district. According to Rattray (1927) the art o f bead making was introduced into Asamang by Osei Kwame, who originally hails from Daaban. However, recently, this activity has declined considerably, and bead making livelihoods have become insecure. It is, therefore, important to find out how the surviving bead makers are coping with the downturn o f this particular craft activity. Krobo and Ashanti powder glass beads are made in vertical molds fashioned out o f locally dug clay. Most molds have a number o f depressions, designed to hold one bead each, and each o f these depressions, in turn, has a small central depression to hold the stem o f a cassava leaf. The mold is filled with finely ground glass that can be built up in layers in order to form sequences and patterns o f different shapes and colours. Note the vertical and horizontal moulds in Plate 3.14, and the cassava stems in Plate 3.15 at the Asamang Cooperative Beads Factory in the Ashanti region. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The technique could be described as being somewhat similar to creating a sand ""painting" or to filling a bottle with different-coloured sands and is called the “vertical-mold dry powder glass technique” . When cassava leaf stems are used, these will burn away during firing and leave the bead perforation. Certain powder glass bead variants, however, receive their perforations after firing, by piercing the still hot and pliable glass with a hand-made, pointed metal tool. Firing takes place in clay kilns until the glass fuses. There are different beads found in Ghana. The most popular are the Krobo “Akoso” beads, Venetian beads or trades beads, and Aggrey beads. The most common colour o f Akoso beads is yellow. There are also green, and rarely blue or black specimens. The most prevalent decorations, preformed from strips o f hot glass, were applied in patterns o f cross-crossed loops, longitudinal stripes and circles. Glass from crushed Venetian beads was used for making the glass powder, and the decorative patterns were made o f glass derived from Venetian beads, or from small whole Venetian beads such as the so-called green heart and white-heart beads. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 3.15 Cassava Stems in a Vertical Mould ready to be filled with Powdered Glass 21/09/2005 Krobo beads have three distinct styles - the fused glass fragment beads, the bi-cones, and the *kMue ne Angma" or “Writing beads'". The fused glass fragment beads are made by fusing together fairly large bottle glass or glass bead fragments. These beads are translucent or semi-translucent and receive their perforations, as well as their final shapes, after firing. The bi-cone type o f beads comprise of two halves (usually bicones, occasionally spheres) that are created from pulverized glass. The two halves are jo ined together in a second, short firing process. The "Mue ne Angma” or “Writing Beads’* are conventional powder glass beads made from finely ground glass, with glass slurry decorations that are “written" on and fused in a second firing. “Meteyi” beads are usually yellowish while the “ Keta awuazi" beads are blueish and originate from Togo and Keta areas in the Volta region o f Ghana and Southern Togo. However, “Meteyi" beads were made by the Ashanti people o f Ghana. Longitudinal seams that can often be observed on these beads give evidence that they were made in horizontal molds. Meteyi beads are often ellipsoid in cross section and they have a rough surface on the side which touched the bottom o f the mold during firing. They can be opaque yellow, and more rarely, green, blue or white, with stripe decorations in combinations o f blue, yellow, white or red. Manufacture ceased during the 1940s. Modern bead 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh making in Ashanti in Asuofiia, Asamang and Daahan produce different styles using the dry powder glass technique. The traditional technology involved grinding broken bottles into fine powder, first in a cylindrical metal mortar with a metal pestle, then on special grinding stones as shown in plate 3.16. The fine glass powder was then mixed with coloured ground beads and baked in specially made clay moulds in firewood powered clay ovens/kilns. The cylindrical beads were nicknamed 4bankyedua? after the stem o f the cassava leaf, which was usually inserted in the middle o f the glass powder to leave an eye in the beads for threading. The beads were then polished on stone to make them smooth before threading. The crafts women performed all the processes and hired labourers for various tasks only when the quantities were large. Sometimes children helped out. Plate 3.16 Traditional G rinding Stone for Beads M aking in Asamang Today, the broken bottles are milled mechanically with the aid o f machines. Special dyes are imported and used to enhance the colour and brilliance o f the beads, while a gas kiln (Plate. 3.17) has replaced the firewood powered ovens. Even the smoothening process has been mechanised. However, a substantial part o f the beads making process is still done manually. The design and tilling ot the clay moulds with glass powder and dye, the baking and the finishing processes are all done manually. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 3.17 Traditional Firewood Kiln and a Modern Gas-Powered Kiln This technology upgrade was possible through an African Development Bank (ADF) grant to build a factory and procure equipment for a co-operative society o f beads makers organised by the 3 T l December Women's Movement (DW M ) o f the erstwhile National Democratic Congress (NDC) party. With this support, the beads makers were able to increase their production and income. They operated a system where all the inputs were supplied by the 31st DWM and the cost deducted from the value o f the end product. This system ensured that the Movement bought a greater proportion o f the products for export. However, it denied the producers from getting direct access to the overseas market. In spite of this, the ADF support revived the traditional craft and put Asamang on the National tourism map as the centre o f beads making in the Ashanti region. It also attracted tourists and business to the town. Demand from overseas markets, including neighbouring La Cote d 'Ivoire and export by the 31" DWM sustained the beads business until recently. 3.3 The Early Economy and Political Administration Gold, kola nuts, and to a lesser extent, slaves were the trading commodities in Ashanti during the 1800s. These commodities were in constant demand by European merchants and northern Islamic markets alike. European merchants had traded on the coasts south o f Ashanti since 1400s for the region's gold and slaves. The Ashanti participated in the Atlantic Slave trade to a lesser degree than 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh many West Alrican states did. The slaves owned by the royal families were often exchanged for European goods, usually, weapons. Kola nuts, sold largely to northern traders were another important export commodity. Some communities specialised in the manufacture o f cloth, pottery, and other goods for local markets. Most Ashanti people lived in agricultural villages and produced their own foodstuffs. The strategic location o f Kumasi as a modal town was decisively exploited for the region's development. Elaborate road maintenance, taxation and surveillance systems were implemented to control, and promote trade. This ensured that all traded goods going up-north or coming down-south along the eight great ‘radial roads', (Nkwantempon), passed through Kumasi. Specialized agencies were set up to achieve these objectives. There were road inspectors, (akwanmofowj to keep the roads in good condition; tax collectors, (kotokuosoafour) to collect fines and taxes; treasurers, (nkontaabuofour) to keep accounts o f revenues and expenditures o f gold dust, and a large corps o f messengers, (afenasoafour) to physically carry information to and from Kumasi on government business. The nkwansrafour (road wardens) maintained security along the great radial roads. By this shrewd arrangement, the Ashanti kingdom profited immensely. Thus, till today, apart from gold and agricultural production, trade and transportation seems to be the hub around which the modern economy o f Kumasi revolves. 3.4 Tourism in Ashanti The region is endowed with a variety o f rich natural attractions. Some o f these include the inland Crater Lake, Lake Bosumtw i, formed by a falling meteorite, and the Bobiri Forest Reserve with its arboretum. The region is home to the Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary, which contains a variety o f birds, and the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary, seasonal waterfalls. There is also the Digya National Park which stretches from Kumawu to Atebubu which serves as habitat for flora and fauna. Other tourist attractions in the region include the Mframabuom Caves at Kwamang, and Atwia Rock Formations. The gold mines at Obuasi are also part o f the tourist attractions o f the region. These tourism resources fall within the hexagonal region surrounding the Kumasi metropolis, known as the ‘Ashanti Tourist 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zone' (ATZ) demarcated as a catchment area for the region's major tourism resources. It is one o f the ten national tourism zones demarcated as a focus for the development o f tourism resources in each o f the ten administrative regions o f Ghana (see Figure 3.2). The cultural attractions o f the Ashanti people are illustrated in their material culture and belief systems, and represented in their chieftaincy, inheritance, architecture, technology, and ritual practices. Some o f these cultural attractions include the Asantemanso Village, where it is believed the Ashanti’s emerged from the earth: Kumavvu Town, Kentinkronu Shrine, Adarko Jarchie Shrine, Ejisu-Besease Shrine, the Statues o f Kumasi and the Patakro Shrine, which serve as important public monuments with religious and cultural significance. Events form part o f the attraction complex o f the Ashanti Region and include the Akwasidae and Adaekesee festival celebrations. The Ashanti's revere their dead and observe elaborate rituals and rites to usher their departed loved ones to the hereafter. Funeral celebrations therefore, form an integral part o f the daily lives o f the people. It is common to observe people clad in red and black mourning clothes over the weekends to signify a state o f mourning. The Asantehene sits in state on Thursdays to # receive visitors and to solve disputes brought before him. Church and sporting activities are common over the weekends. Exhibitions and other entertainment events are frequently held at the Centre for National Cultural and on university and other tertiary institution campuses in the region. Kumasi is also home to the Fabulous Asante Kotoko football club, which draws a large passionate following. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.2 M ap of Ghana Showing the National Tourism Structure Plan 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The tourist infrastructure o f the region is concentrated in the capital, Kumasi. There are star rated and budget hotels, restaurants, and ‘chop bars’ where local cuisine may be bought cheaply. Transportation, telecommunications, health, shopping and sporting facilities are available. The night life in the Kumasi can be found in the discos, night clubs and cinemas. Due to the skewed distribution of the tourist infrastructure, tourist visitations to peri-urban and rural areas are limited to day trips to these rural areas. Figure 3.3 Map of Ashanti Region Showing Tourism Zones A S H A N T I T O U R I S M Z O N E M O < T i c » o r > < 3 , •W 8tl0d WMloe b" < ' • R e s e r v e . K u m o v 'u J o m o i ' q o n o a s o m an 9 O yoko .sokor« onwjre B o b r n w i ld lift; SO^C tuory K u b e o ie omfo f Pemenose (_ oke BosumTwi L E G £ N D « P o o A C T o i i c i t C e o i r e R o'l»«oy R o o d * Minor R o o d / Potn R.v 3.5 T he S tudy A rea and C raft Villages The craft villages for the study include Ahwiaa in the Kwabre district, Asamang in the Atwima Nwabiagya district, Bonwire in the Ejisu-Juaben Municipality, and Pankronu in the Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly. 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.4 M ap of Ashanti Region Showing Study Districts 99 SOURCE Kumosi Metropolitan A s s e m b ly -2 0 0 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.1 Ahwiaa, K w abre District Kwahre District, carved out o f the former Kwabre Sekvere District in 1988. is located almost in the central portion o f the Ashanti region. It is within latitudes 60 4 4 ’ North and longitudes 10 33’ to 1044' West. The District shares common boundaries with Afigya Sekyere District to the North; Kumasi Metropolitan Area to the South; Ejisu Juaben District to the Southeast; Atwima Nwabiagya District to the West and Offinso District to the Northwest. The District has a total land area o f 246.8 square kilometres constituting about 1.01% o f the total land area o f Ashanti Region. Kwabre District is part o f the Greater Kumasi City region, which is made up o f Kumasi Metropolitan Area and the surrounding Districts (See Figure 3.2). The climate o f the district is the wet semi-equatorial type. The predominant vegetation types found in the district are Moist Semi-Deciduous Forest and isolated Grassland. Continuous felling o f trees has deprived the district o f its valuable tree species and other forest products. Mamponteng is the district capital, located 14km NE of Kumasi. It has a population o f about 164,688 persons (GSS, 2000). The district is 65% urbanised. Other tourist sites include centres o f world class weaving and dyeing at Sakora W'onoo and Ntonso, Antoa nature reserve and shrine. Ahwiaa is located 9km along the Kumasi-Mampong road in the Kwabre district. It is noted for saw' milling. wrood works and woodcarvings o f all shapes and sizes. Wood carving at Ahwiaa specialises in the production o f royal crafts including sesegwa stools for kings, chiefs and queens, and linguist staffs with various motifs and animals of totemic significance. Alnviaa is one o f the 86 settlements with a population o f 19.729 (GSS, 2000). Other villages producing wood carvings in the Ashanti region :ncludc Ofoasc, Ascnnua, Buoho, and villages around Jamasi. To exploit some o f the district’s tourism potential, the District Assembly has lined up certain specific projects and programmes for tourism promotion. These include the construction o f modern washrooms for Ahvviaa and Ntonso tourist centres; the construction o f a 0250-million craft village for Ahwiaa wood carvers currently under construction; and a grand festival of chiefs and people of Kw'abre to showcase the various cultural festivals in the district to tourists. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh r\~v CO UJ 0 < _i (/> _i d) c c O 5 h- § * LL < i CnO cr o o oo ri 0 z > ooo C & Q u *S D 1— 5 CO 2 > * -© LU q«: 3 > z -*-* a C/5 H: v - $ co i g © iLrU 0 C- °< S3> § 5 ¥ 1 to . © 01 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5.2 Bonwire, Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly Bonwire is located about 18km NE o f Kumasi in the Ejisu-Juaben municipality. Ejisu-Juaben Municipality is located in the central part o f the Ashanti Region. It lies within Latitude 1° 15' N and 1 0 45' N and Longitude 6° 15'W and 7° 0 0 'W. It is one o f the 26 administrative and political districts in the Ashanti Region o f Ghana. The District is known globally for its rich cultural heritage and tourists attractions notably the kente weaving industry. It shares boundaries with the Kumasi Metropolitan Area and Kwabre District to the east, Sckyere East District and Asante Akim North Municipal to the west and the Bosomtwe-Atwima-Kwanwoma and Asante Akim South Districts to the south. The District stretches over an area o f 637.2 km2 constituting about 10% o f the entire Ashanti Region, with Ejisu as its capital. Currently it has four urban settlements namely, Ejisu, Juaben, Besease and Bonwire. The central location o f the district provides enormous opportunity for creating an inland port for Ghana to serve northern section o f the country. The district falls within the forest dissected plateau terrain region. It rises from about 240 metres to 300 metres above sea level. The area is generally undulating and is drained by a number o f rivers, notable among them being Oda, Anum. Bankro. Hwere and Baffoe. In the rainy season, occasional flooding is experienced in the inland valleys along the river basins. The total population o f the district stands at 144,272 (2006) and distributed among settlements. Bonwire is renowned as the centre for kente weaving in Ashanti even though the craft is practised in several ether villages far and near Kumasi. Other kente producing villages in the district include Adanwomase, Wonoo, Ejisu, Juaben, and many surrounding villages. While kente weaving is the main tourist attraction o f the district, the shrines at Besease and Adarko-Jachie. the Palace oi Nana Yaa Asantewaa, the Queen Mother o f Ejisu. Bobiri Forest Reserve and Butterfly Sanctuary, also present some historical and cultural monuments which serve as heritage tourism resources. 3.5.3 Asuofia-Asamang, Atwima Nwabiagya District Asuofua-Asamang. 25km from Kumasi, is located off the Barekese road in the Atwima- Nwabiagya district. The district lies approximately on latitude 6° 75'N and between longitude 1° 45' 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and 2° 00’ West. It is one o f the 26 political and administrative districts in Ashanti region. It shares common boundaries with Ahafo Ano South and Atwima Mponua Districts (to the West), Offinso District (to the North), Amansie West and Bosomtwe-Atwima Kwanwom a Districts (to the South), Kumasi Metropolis and Kwabre Districts (to the East). It covers an estimated area o f 294.84 sq km. The district capital is Nkawie. The main handicrafts o f the district consist o f pottery making. Beads making, wood carving, batik l ie and Dye and basket weaving. There are lccal ceramic and tile craftsmen at Afari, Esaase and Mfensi. Important traditional and historical tourism sites in the District are the Okomfo Anokye footprints at Nkaakom, beads m aking sites at Daaban, Asufua and Asamang. Asuofia-Asamang is the centre o f beads making in the Ashanti Region. Beads making used to be a major household activity in this town until recently. The District has an undulating topography with average heights o f about 77 metres above sea level, with gentle to steep slopes. The highest points can be found in the Barekese and Tabere areas. The Offin and Owabi rivers are the main rivers o f the District. Two major dams, Owabi and Barekese have been constructed across the Owabi and the Offin rivers respectively to supply pipe borne water to residents o f Kumasi and its environs. The District lies within the wet semi-equatorial zone marked by double maximum rainfall ranging between 170cm and 185cm per annum. The major rainfall season is from Mid-March to July and minor season is between September and mid-November. Rainfall, which is unreliable, is not well distributed throughout the year. Temperature is fairly uniform ranging between 27°C (August) and 3 PC (March). Mean relative humidity o f about 87 to 91 percent is characteristic o f the district. 3.5.4 Pankrono, Kumasi Metropolitan Assembly Pankrono is located 6km along the Kumasi - Mampong road in the KMA. The Metropolis is centrally located in the Ashanti Region and its capital, Kumasi, is also the regional capital. The metropolitan area shares boundaries with Kwabre District to the north. Atwima District to the west, Ejisu-Juaben District to the east and Bosomtwe-Atwima-Kwanwoma District to the south. It covers 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh about 299 square kilometres o f the region. The metropolis has the wet sub-equatorial type o f climate. Temperature and humidity is both moderate. The vegetation falls within the moist semi-deciduous south-east ecological zone. Predominant species o f trees found here are Ceiba, Triphochion, Celtics and exotic species. The soil type o f the metropolis is forest ochrosol. This is a very rich soil type, which has made it possible for foodstuff to be grown in the periphery o f Kumasi. Pankronu is home to traditional hand-made earthenware that is specially made for ritual and utilitarian purposes. Old women potters may be observed making these special pots. Also located within the KMA is Ampabame-Krofrom, another royal craft village where traditional gold, silver and brass objects are made with the lost wax method. Elaborate jewellery, gold plated staff crowns, arm bands, necklaces, rings and insignia, anklets used by kings and queens are made in this village. Kumasi metropolis also has several tourist attractions. These include Centre for National Culture, which provides facilities for recreation and opportunities for study and research in the arts and craft industry in Ghana, the famous Golden Stool and Okomfo A nokyc’s Sword at Bantama, and the Royal Mausoleum, where the bodies o f Ashanti kings were preserved until the late 1850s. There is also the Kumasi Fort and Military Museum, which exhibits relics o f Ashanti wars, the two World Wars and Ghana’s recent military history. There is the Kumasi Zoo, adjacent to the Cultural Centre, and has on display reptiles, lions, elephants, birds and primates. The material culture o f the Ashanti is a memorial o f the past, and a link to the present. It reminds us o f the ingenuity, skills and resourcefulness o f our forebears. As it becomes increasingly difficult to find things that are truly unique and authentic, handicrafts are one o f the few items that reflect authentic local culture in a globalised world. Handicrafts have a deep association with a place, its people, and their ways o f life, and a certain period o f time. The rejuvenation o f craft production in some o f the craft villages is therefore, a response to satisfy this need. In addition to preserving traditional knowledge, skills and technologies, handicrafts production provide jobs and livelihoods to many families and individuals, and satisfies the aesthetic, utilitarian 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and spiritual/ritual needs o f the local people. The development o f tourism has given crafts production and crafts-based livelihoods a great boost as local and international tourists patronise these authentic Ghanaian handicrafts which serve as gift and decorative items and also fulfil practical spiritual, aesthetic and utilitarian purposes. These craft villages have also served as tourist attractions, where tourists have the opportunity to observe the production processes o f various crafts items. Thus, while some o f the craft villages have found a new lease o f life, others are facing rapid decline due to importation o f industrial substitutes and other challenges. The next chapters search the literature for the handicraft, tourism and poverty reduction links and examine the perceptions and coping mechanisms of craft entrepreneurs. 3.6 Methods of Data Collection and Analysis Investigating the perceptions and experiences o f poverty, coping mechanisms and issues o f handicraft production and sales as a sustainable pro-poor livelihood strategy, as well as the policy environment presents a complex research challenge that requires both quantitative and qualitative * research approaches and data, as well as desk and field studies. Ronald McQueen and Christina Knussen (1999) call this multi-method and multi-data approach triangulation (McQueen and Knussen 1999:244). Triangulation is the term used to describe the ways in which the reliability and validity o f a qualitative study can be assessed. According to Olsen (2004). triangulation involves looking at the research question from several viewpoints. The term reflects the way in which a second point o f view on a phenomenon creates a triangle. Useful accounts o f the ways in which triangulation can be used are provided by Miles and Huberman (1994) and Tindall (1994). Triangulation is widely recommended as a way o f doing social research (Bryman 1996. 2003: Denzin 1970; Flick 1992; Gilbert 1993). It is a method o f cross-checking datafrom multiple sources to search for regularities in the research data (O 'Donoghue and Punch 2003). The most well known form of triangulation, data triangulation, uses multiple data types (e.g. qualitative and quantitative.) to investigate the research question. Triangulation, thus, becomes a series o f steps associated with changes in the researcher’s conceptual map o f the terrain (Gilbert 1993, Bryman 2002; Olsen. 2003). 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh While triangulation is important, McQueen and Knussen (1999) warn that all participants or researchers do not have to agree or see a situation in the same way. Researchers are encouraged to report divergent opinions, and different interpretations o f the same observations and phenomenon to their audience (McQueen and Knussen 1999:244). Finally, analysis o f data from triangulation runs the risk o f sounding repetitive (emphasis mine). To unravel patterns and trends o f benefits accruing to various craft workers, and to get a deeper understanding o f how craft entrepreneurs cope with production challenges and poverty, a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods and data was employed to satisfy the data requirements o f the study, and make findings more robust. Bryman (2003) describes the result o f multi-method research strategies as ‘convergent validity'. The purpose o f triangulation in qualitative research is to increase the credibility and validity o f the results (Cohen and Manion. 1986: Altrichter et al., 1996: Denzin. 1978). It is important to note that methodological triangulation might bring about difficulties o f interpretation when the epistemological norms and ontological assumptions o f different methodological schools are at odds w ith each other (Bryman 1998). Such deep differences o f opinion have been described as ‘epistemological chasms' (Walby 2001, cited in Olsen, 2004). However, by focussing on the social origins o f conflicting theories rather than their points o f conflict, we are able to reach dialogue or debate. Methodological triangulation, on the other hand, allows researchers to engage with contrasting theories, and to discover in practice what they can and cannot do and showr in relation to a particular research question. While data triangulation allows us to reach more complex models, methodological triangulation allows us to compare theories and methodologies by applying them, yielding important information about their practical adequacy (Sayer, 1992). Triangulation, however, implies additional costs in terms o f time and money. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were used to examine crafts workers' livelihood assets and production constraints. Qualitative research methods have often been criticised as subjective while quantitative methods have been extolled for their objectivity (Burrell and Morgan, 1979). 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, the design and content o f questionnaires, which are considered unbiased are, in fact, a product o f the subjectivity o f the researcher. In recent times, however, there has been recognition o f the need to overcome the dichotomies between qualitative and quantitative research methodologies as it is realised that the two are not entirely divorced from each other (Robson. 2001). It is noted that while quantitative methods could be used to search for trends and patterns, qualitative methods aids our understanding o f those trends. 3.6.1 Research Design The research design for this study began with a desk study to review the tourism, cultural and poverty policies in Ghana in order to determine their effects on the development o f the crafts and tourism industry; and qualitative data collection approaches. Initial meetings with representatives from all categories o f crafts workers presented great scoping opportunities to interact with the craftsmen. At these meetings the research was introduced to craft entrepreneurs, and issues pertinent to their work were discussed. This is what Mark Hampton describes as a rapid participatory appraisal where participants discussed, debated, and expressed their varied views on poverty and how they experienced it; strategies they adopted to cope with it; and the challenges they had to overcome in the production and sale o f their craft products. Having identified crafts workers who were most vulnerable, views were elicited on how their economic and non-cash livelihood benefits (jobs, income, training, linkages, and information) could be enhanced to build their capacity in order to make crafts production a pro-poor activity. Examination o f the results o f these early approaches (pre-test) formed the basis o f design o f other research instruments and choice o f field methods. Participants were also guided to identify the poorest o f the craft workers along the benelits continuum, using an adaptation o f the Participatory Wealth Ranking (PWR) and CASHPOR House Index (Cl II) methodology (Simanowitz et al. 2000). These are participatory and visual micro credit ' poverty targeting tools developed by Anton Simanowitz, Ben Nkuna. and Sukor Kasim (2000). The PWR is a method where community members identify and rank poor people and places (suburbs) in 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their own community based on local standards and criteria. This method yields general but context specific information on the community’s perception o f poverty, how' to identify a poor person and a list of poverty causing factors. The CHI, uses external housing conditions as a proxy for poverty, and can be very effective in conditions where there is a consistent relationship between poverty and housing conditions. It is an indirect and visual method that is used to make inferences about the poverty status o f respondents by scoring the housing materials (walls, floors, roofing, etc.) and the services available, on site, al the respondents’ dwelling unit. Both methods are context specific. PWR relies on detailed knowledge o f a community itself, and is unlikely to work in contexts where the community is weak, or where there are high levels o f conflict or mistrust. Similarly, the CHI relies on there being a strong correlation between housing conditions and poverty. Though useful, the findings m ay not be generally applied to all communities studied, as they are context specific. Even though participants disagreed on whose work was more difficult, they were unanimous on who derived the ‘least' and the ‘m ost’ benefits from the craft enterprise. This method was adapted into the questionnaire, and data on it was collected by observing and/or asking (depending on the place o f interview) respondents specific questions about their dwelling units and services available to them. Additionally, a self-ranking exercise o f poverty status was also carried out to sec how respondents ranked themselves (poor, neither poor nor rich, or rich/wealthy). However, some sensitive issues could not be explored using direct approaches. Focus group discussions and interviews were employed to find out how craftspeople perceived and experienced poverty in the study villages. As poverty issues were considered sensitive, the vignette approach wras adapted and used in sections o f the focus group discussion guide to provide a less personal and, therefore, less threatening way o f exploring poverty issues, and to explore the range o f actions that respondents were likely to take (coping mechanisms) in response to the hypothetical scenarios they were presented with (Barter and Renold. 1999). 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Vignettes have been widely used as a complementary technique alongside other data collection methods (see Hazel 1995: Hughes 1998). They can be employed either to enhance existing data or to generate data not tapped by other research methods (such as observation or interviews). Vignettes were adapted into sections o f the questionnaire to elicit coping strategies to production challenges and hypothetical scenarios o f hardship. They can also be concrete examples o f people and their behaviours on which participants can offer comment or opinion (Hazel 1995:2). These are short scenarios in written or pictorial form, intended to elicit responses to typical scenarios (Hill 1997:177). Finally vignettes may be stories about individuals, situations and structures which can make reference to important points in the study o f perceptions, beliefs and attitudes (Hughes 1998:381). The researcher paid attention to the different ways vignettes may be employed. They were not used as a self-contained method, but as an adjunct to other research techniques. This is reflected in how the story is presented, and at the stage in the data collection process they are introduced; and how responses are structured. Nevertheless, vignettes generally serve as interpretation o f actions and occurrences that allows situational context to be explored and influential variables to be elucidated. They also clarify individual judgements, often in relation to moral dilemmas; and aid discussion o f sensitive experiences in comparison with the ‘normality’ o f the vignette. Finch (1987:105) describes vignettes as “short stories about hypothetical characters in specified circumstances, to whose situation the interviewee is invited to respond". However, as Finch (1987:113) cautions, “asking about what a third party 'ought' to do in a given situation is not the same thing as asking respondents what they themselves think they ought to do” . Vignettes in the questionnaire were, therefore, directed at the individual respondents. 3.6.2 Data Collection 3.6.2.1 Sources o f Data In order to achieve the stated objectives, the study made use o f both primary and secondary data sources (Table 4.1). Primary data were acquired through field surveys. The methods employed 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh included questionnaire administration, interviews, discussions and observations. Secondary data is an inexpensive, fast and less demanding means o f obtaining information as compared to primary data. It is information that has been collected or published previously and is available for use by others. Primary data can be relatively expensive, but the delays and cost o f primary data can be minimised by supplementing it with secondary data. In this study, secondary sources included tourism policy information from Ministry o f Tourism and Diasporan Affairs (M OTDA), non-traditional export and handicraft data from Export Promotion Council (EPC). cultural and poverty policy information from the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC), census reports from the Ghana Statistical Services (GSS), and Ministry o f Chieftaincy Affairs and National Culture at the national level. At the district and regional levels, district background information and development data were obtained from the Kwabre and Atwima Nwabiagya district assemblies (KDA and ANDA), Ejisu-Juaben Municipal Assembly (EJMA), and the Kumasi Metropolitan Assem bly (KMA). Data were also obtained from the National Board for Small- Scale Industries (NBSSI). the Ashanti Regional Administration, and Ghana Tourist board (G I B), National Cultural Centre (NCC), and Aid to Artisans, Ghana (ATAG), all in Kumasi. Table 3.1 Sources of P r im ary Data and Methods of Data Collection Source of Data Method of Data Collection Type of Data Craft entrepreneurs FGD Interview Guide Qualitative and Questionnaires Quantitative In-depth interviews and Case Stories Community members (non-craft FGD Interview Guide Qualitative workers) In-school youth in craft villages Questionnaires Quantitative and FGD Interview Guide Qualitative Opinion leaders and Assemblymen In-depth Interviews Qualitative Officials at Regional and District FGD Interview Guide Quantitative levels, and other institutions Questionnaires Qualitative In-depth Interviews Source: F ie ldwork , 2 006 Additionally, some data for the research were obtained through desk research. A search for relevant information on handicrafts, tourism and poverty was carried out using books, magazines, journals, published and unpublished conference and workshop reports and research findings. Various search engines (w w w. sc h o 1 a r. uoo g 1 e. co m . www. mctac ra w I e r. c o m , and others), electronic 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh encyclopaedia (www.wikipedia.com, Encarta encyclopaedia), and some databases on poverty and pro­ poor tourism (Pro-poor Tourism Info Sheets and Bulletins) were consulted on the internet. Reserved documents and original early reports on culture, tourism and handicrafts were consulted, both on the internet and at various libraries in Ghana, Norway and the UK. The School o f Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) library wras particularly useful. Personal discussions were also held with crafts development experts in Kumasi (ATAG) and at the London Metropolitan University. Only relevant aspects o f secondary data were included in the research. A reconnaissance survey was carried out in August 2005 in order to observe and gather relevant information and data to enhance selection o f craft villages from the selected districts for the main field study. The main field survey started in March 2006 and ended in October 2006. Additional follow-up visits to the studv communities were carried out in June 2007. Three o f the selected crafts communities •* (Bonwire, Ahwiaa, and Pankrono) were revisited in April 2008 for some data on youth participation and non-craft making residents in the craft villages. All the focus group discussions and in-depth interviews were conducted by the researcher in order to have first hand information o f the issues at stake. Eriksen (1999) has pointed out that a principal requirement in fieldwork consists o f trying to take part in local life as much as possible. This is basic for fieldwork whether or not it is supplemented with other techniques. The researcher made use o f some field assistants for the administration o f the craft entrepreneurs* questionnaire, and for taking notes during group discussions. Tw'i-speaking graduate students and teaching assistants were recruited from the Department o f Geography and Rural Development. Kwame Nkrumah University o f Science and Technology, Kumasi. A two-^ay training workshop was organised for the field assistants before the administration o f questionnaire schedules. Specific topics covered during the training exercise included study objectives, sampling methods, field courtesies and how to ask questions, and an in-house mock questionnaire administration to agree on a unilorm translation from English to I wi. Getting access, note-taking and transcription, hands-on familiarisation with the digital recorder was also covered. A pre-test o f the questionnaire in one o f the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh craft villages provided an opportunity to clarify issues, and to update the questionnaire. The pre-test also gave us an idea about how long it took to administer a questionnaire. A few changes were made to the questionnaire (rephrasing some questions and introducing filters and sub-questions) after the pre­ test. Asante Twi was the main language for this study. However, Ewe and English were also employed where necessary. Language was not a problem, and no interpreters were used. The researcher grew up in the Ashanti region and has a deep understanding o f Ashanti culture. Both the interviews and group discussions were done in the local Twi language. However, FGD with Ewe migrant weavers at Bonwire was done in English and in the Ewe language, which the researcher understands and speaks fluently. Interviews with officials were done in the English language. The researcher asked all the questions in the interviews and moderated all the group discussions, employing the use o f a digital voice recorder to record proceedings, and to avoid interruptions, but taking occasional notes and probing for explanations and meanings o f local jargons. However, the field assistants took notes as buck up for group discussions. However, the in-depth interviews were done only with the use o f the digital voice recorder so as to ensure privacy and confidentiality for interviewees. The researcher took more notes during interviews. 3.6.2.2 Sample Design A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted to select craft villages from Kumasi and its surrounding districts. The sample frame o f the study was made up o f five districts o f the Ashanti region. Discussions with officials and information from district assembly profiles revealed that there were many villages producing handicrafts in Kumasi and surrounding districts. However, following Rattray (1920) only those craft villages that were established to produce royal crafts (historical centres) were purposively selected from the list o f craft villages for this study. Care was taken not to select more than one village from a particular district. Through reconnaissance visits to the historical centres o f royal craft production (Bonwire, Awhiaa. Asamang, Ampabame Krofofrom, Pankrono, and Ntonso) and initial discussions with craft 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh workers, the researcher observed a substantial decline in craft activities at Pankronu and Asamang, while Bonwire and Ahwiaa had an appreciable level o f craft activity. Men predominated in the production and marketing o f crafts at Bonwire and Ahwiaa, while at Pankronu and Asamang, crafts were the domain o f women. Four locations were, therefore, purposively selected to reflect male and female crafts, and flourishing and declining craft activity from the list o f royal craft villages. rhese contrasts were deemed important for investigation to examine the scope for pro-poor craft tourism and to identify the factors that have contributed to the demise or survival o f craft production. It was also imperative to find out if gender o f entrepreneurs or socio-cultural elements (traditional economic controls and religious restrictions, taboos and discrimination) had anything to do with survival or collapse o f craft activities. Table 3.2 presents a distribution o f communities surveyed by geographical location, type o f craft produced, gender o f people predominantly engaged in the craft activity, and distance o f craft village from Kumasi. Table 3.2 Location and Distance of Cr--a--f--t- Vi—llage—s f- ro—m Kumasi District/Location Craft Village Type of Craft Predominantly Distance from Kumasi KMA Pankrono Pottery Women 6 km Kwabre DA Ahwiaa Wood carvings Men 9 km Ejisu-Juaben MA Bonwire Kente weaving Men 29km Atwima Nwabiagya DA i Asamang Beads making Women 25km Source: F ie ldwork , 2006 . A sample is used as a substitute for the population. It should thus represent the characteristics of that population as closely as possible. Thus, the first step in the sampling exercise was to identify the population from which the sample was to be drawn. It was easy to identify and count all the active craft workers at Asamang (four) and Pankrono (six) because o f the reduced activity levels, at the latter and the small size o f the former. However, it w'as much more difficult to do the same at Ahwiaa because many o f the carvers worked in the forests where they could find preferred tree species. There were a few places in the town where carvers and finishers worked under trees, sheds and in the alleys between the houses. There are shops along both sides o f the road, which passes through the town where finished items are displayed for sale. At Bonwire, one can find, at least, a loom in every other house. Weavers and finishers worked under make-shift sheds made from palm branches, 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh under trees, in front o f houses, and in private and group production centres. Kente shops with colourful kente and kente products can be found along both sides o f the town streets. Purposive and random sampling was employed. Craft communities were purposively selected while individual craftspeople were randomly selected using a 20 percent random sample at Ahwiaa and Bonwire, but 100 percent coverage o f all active craftspeople at Pankrono and Asamang due to their rather small numbers. Even though the num ber o f craftspeople at Asamang and Pankrono combined are insignificant for any statistical analysis per se, they add up to the aggregate samples from Ahwiaa and Bonwire. Discussions with district assembly officials and craft workers themselves during the preliminary survey revealed that there were about 350 - 450 full-time craft workers at Bonwire, and about 300 - 400 full-time craftspeople at Ahwiaa. Generally, however, all people deriving some or all of their liv elihoods from wood carvings was estimated at 2,000 at Ahwiaa while that for kente was put at about 3.000 inhabitants in Bonwire. Even though kente weaving is practised in other villages like Adanwomase and Sakora Wonoo, many o f these weavers sold their kente cloth to merchants at Bonwire. Like Bonw ire, Ahw iaa was also the major marketing centre for wood carvings from villages like Asennua. Yonso and Apaa. all in the Kwabre district. Individual craftspeople were selected for administration o f the questionnaire through the use o f the simple random sampling technique. To be selected however, individuals must be actively engaged in making or finishing crafts (artisan) or selling finished crafts products (merchant) as a full-time or part-time activity. Both employees and owner managers o f crafts businesses were sampled. At Bonw ire and Ahwiaa. non-craftspeople were recruited to participate in group discussions to obtain alternative views on some o f the issues. Craft w orkers were interviewed at their places o f work (at home, workshops, in shops, and in the bush/forest) so as to make use o f the practical context, and observe the processes ol cralt production and sales. Thus, the study involved an element o f participant observation in many respects. In each o f the craft villages studied, a local guide who was either the chairman or other well-known craftsperson was recruited to facilitate access and to assist in recruiting participants for group 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discussions. At the district assemblies, the District Co-ordinating Directors or District Planning Officers played this role. Many ol the craft villages have become dormitory towns for commuters who reside in the craft villages but were not involved in the craft activity. Thus, those who resided in craft villages but were not involved in craft work were completely excluded from the surveys. Junior secondary school pupils at Bonwire, Ahwiaa and Pankronu were interviewed on their school compounds, while only a few were interviewed at the craft workshops. A total o f 204 questionnaires were administered to 138 craft workers face-to-face because many o f them w ere illiterate. How ever, four DA officials and two other stakeholders opted to complete the questionnaires at their own convenience. Some pupils were guided to complete the questionnaires while some were completed through the interview method. A total o f 150 people participated in 16 group discussions made up o f craft workers (8 FGDs), non-craft worker community members (2 FGDs), district assemblies (2 FGDs), in-school youth (1 FGD), and initial panel discussions (3 FGDs) in the preliminary field study. There were 24 in-depth interviews with various stakeholders and 8 ease stories o f (4) poorer and (4) well-off craft workers. Table 3.3 Research In s tru m en ts and S am ple Size in Study Villages D a t a C o l l e c t io n Bonw ire A h w i a a P a n k r o n o A s a m a n g R ow Tools ( E j i s u - J u a b e n M /A ) ( K w a b r e D/A) ( K M A ) ( A t w i m a N D A ) Tota l P re 1 i m i n a ry S u r v e y 14 - craft w orkers 16 c ra f t workers 10 craft w orkers 40 Craft w o r k e r s ’ fo rum Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s for: 69 craft s w o rk e r s 5 9 c ra f t workers 6 craft w o rk e r s 4 craft w orkers 204 Craft Workers 3 0 - in -school you th 30 - y o u th 1 - K M A official 1 - D/A official In - school youth 1 D /A official 1 - D /A official 1 - G T B official D A s & Others 1 - N C C official F G D G u i d e s for: 11 - w eave r s 6 - c a rv e rs 8 - Potters 6 - Bead m a k e r s 110 Craft workers. 10 - m ig ran t w e a v e r s 8 - f in ishers 15 - schoo l youth Non-craf t workers 8 - sh o p ow n ers 6 - dea le r s D A staff, 10 - locals 8 - locals In-schoo! Youth 8 - D /A s ta f f 6 - D /A s ta f f I n - D e p th I n t e r v i e w s 2 - craft w orkers 2 craf t workers 2 - craft w o rk e r s 2 - craft w orkers ' \ i t h : 1 - a s s e m b ly m a n 3 a s s e m b ly m e n 1 - a s s e m b ly m a n 1 - a s s em b ly m an 1 - D /A s ta f f 1 - D /A s ta f f 1 - D/A s t a f f 1 - D/A s ta f f 25 1 - N C C s ta f f I - G T B s ta f f 1 - N B S S I s ta f f I - ATAG s ta f f 1 - craf t s leader 1 - c ra f t s leader 1 - informant C o lu m n Total 167 148 47 17 379 Source : F ie ldwork , 2 006 Overall, three hundred and seventy nine (379) people participated in this study as shown in table 3.3 above. I his was made up o f 251 crafts people, 75 in-school youth in the crafts villages, 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ordinary community members, 22 metropolitan, municipal and district assembly staff, and 13 other stakeholders. However, due to the decline in craft activities in Asamang and Pankrono. majority o f participants were from Ahwiaa and Bonwire. 3.6.2.3 Survey Instruments a) Questionnaires Questionnaires are an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number o f respondents. They are also easy to administer confidentially, especially, if participants are to respond honestly (Munn and Drever 1999). In spite o f the qualitative nature o f this study, especially, in Pankrono and Asamang, questionnaires were employed to corroborate the findings. In this study some o f the questionnaires were targeted at active craft entrepreneurs in the selected craft villages. There was a questionnaire for in-school youth in selected craft villages, and an open ended questionnaire for officials o f district, metropolitan and regional offices. The questionnaires contained both close ended and open ended questions, and were designed to gather both quantitative and some qualitative data. Open-ended sections o f the questionnaire were used to corroborate findings o f in-depth interviews and focus groups. Craft workers' questionnaires elicited information on the basic characteristics o f the respondents and their household composition, o f craft production and marketing dynamics, sources o f credit and target markets, production and marketing constraints and problems faced. There were also questions on consumption patterns during ‘good' and ‘bad' times, income and expenditure, employment status and the range o f benefits derived from craft work. Information on housing materials, tenancy status and available services were also collected to aid the calculation of the CASHPOR House Index. Respondents' experiences and self ranking o f poverty status were also explored. The section on vignettes explored the range o f actions and decisions craft entrepreneurs took (or would take) given various scenarios to measure coping mechanisms and attitudes. A five-level Likert Scale (Likert, 1932) was used to gather information on concerns and reactions to various issues relating to sustainability o f craft production and participation in decision- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh making in the craft villages. A likert scale is a psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires where respondents specify their level o f agreement to a statement. The range o f answers on the Likert scale were first explained, and then verbally delivered. The degree o f agreement or disagreement gave more scope for understanding the varying shades of opinion, which is deemed superior to questions using the dichotomous scale o f yes/no (Dawes 2008). Finally data on the physical assets o f respondents were collected using a dichotomous scale. The interview method was used in verbally delivering questionnaires so as to minimise non­ response rate which is a characteristic with this method. Secondly, most of the crafts workers were illiterate and cannot complete the questionnaires on their own. These closed questions were explained to respondents when they were in doubt, however, some o f the questions on perceptions and attitudes were left open-ended to give respondents enough latitude to express themselves. Multiple choice responses were provided, with an ‘other, please specify' option for additional responses. These responses were later re-coded for data entry and analysis. To understand how the craft business is organised, and the perceptions, experiences and coping mechanisms o f craft workers to poverty, qualitative methods were employed to get a deeper insight and understanding from the craft workers' own standpoint. Their narrations of their motivations to start their businesses, their successes, failures, constraints and challenges in the craft industry and their future aspirations were studied with qualitative methods. b) Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) Focus groups have a long history in market research, and more recently in medical research (Powell & Single. 1996). They have been defined variously in the literature. Powell et a l (1996:499) define a focus group as a group o f individuals selected and assembled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject o f the research. Thus, focus groups were employed to organise the discussion o f poverty issues and other subjective issues (Kitzinger. 1994), as a collective activity (Powell et al... 1996), and social events (Goss & Lcinbach, 1996). It also facilitates group interaction (Kitzinger 1995). 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The main purpose o f using focus groups in this study was to draw upon respondents' perceptions, attitudes, feelings, beliefs, and experiences o f poverty, and to identify from their own points ol view, which craft workers were poorer or better-off. It was also to gather information about the coping mechanisms various craft worker groups adopted, and reactions in a way which would not be feasible using other methods, tor example observation, one-to-one interviewing, or the use o f questionnaires. These attitudes, feelings and beliefs may be partially independent o f a group or its social setting, but are more likely to be revealed via the social gathering and the interaction which being in a focus group entails (Gibbs, 1997). Care was taken in recruiting members o f the focus groups. Within the Ashanti cultural context, younger people are shy to express themselves completely in the presence o f older people. Efforts were made to achieve a considerable homogeneity in age and other socio-economic differences. Efforts were also made to explain questions, state the purpose o f the sessions and the intended use o f data. There were follow-up probes to promote debate and get a deeper insight. Polling was sometimes used to make sure everybody contributed to the discussions, and to prevent few participants from dominating the discussions. In spite o f the many advantages o f FGDs, as with all research methods there are limitations. Some busy craft workers were reluctant to participate in the group discussions. As craft production was already gender specific, gender homogeneity o f groups was achieved with little effort in the selected craft villages. Perceptions o f poverty, experiences and coping mechanisms were discussed: how a poor and a rich person is identified, causes ol poverty, identification o\ a minimum amount o f income necessary to sustain an individual lor basic needs per month, participation in cralt work, production and marketing problems, issues o f discrimination and power relations, as well as the benefits and challenges o f handicraft production for individuals and communities were also discussed. An additional FGD was held with migrant Ewe weavers at Bonwire after the researcher learnt about their presence during discussions with kente merchants. 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Non-craft worker community members in the selected craft communities also participated in separate discussions to discuss all the above issues, except those on production challenges. Officials o f the Kwabre and Ejisu-Juaben district assemblies also participated in group discussions on poverty perceptions and what the assemblies were doing to make craft production a pro-poor activity. The researcher moderated in all interviews and used a digital voice recorder to record group discussions. Permission was sought from all focus group discussants to tape record the discussions. Field assistants took notes during the discussions. c) In-depth Interviews In-depth interviews are very detailed interviews and a means o f explaining and understanding relationships that can only be obtained by more extensive quantitative approaches (Johnston et al., 2002). It allows the researcher to study subjective meanings and motives in addition to more quantifiable attributes that can be tapped by structured questionnaires. In-depth interviews are particularly appropriate for documenting life histories and for identifying how craft workers cope with poverty and manage their businesses. They are appropriate where the subject o f research is confidential or highly sensitive, like the issues under consideration. In this study, purposivelv selected men and women who were either successful or still struggling in the crafts business were interviewed in-depth. Officials o f relevant institutions and district assemblies were also interviewed in order to obtain their perceptions, attitudes, beliefs and feelings about poverty and pro-poor tourism as an approach to poverty reduction in craft villages. Efforts o f institutions to assist craft workers were also discussed. Some o f the interviewees declined peunissi disappointed O.O 2.0 1.4 1.4 Total 100(17) 100.0 (49) 100.0(72) 100.0 (138) Su rnmarv: Satisfaction 88.2 - 75.5 97.2 88.5 Disappointment 11.8 24.4 2.8 11.5 Total 100.0(17) 100.0 (49) 100.0 (72) 100.0 (138) Source: F ie ldw ork . 2006 . Generally, the se lf employed artisans and craft m erchants reported more satisfaction levels than the other w orkers along the value chain. The chi-Square value for status and satisfaction was 15.077 and a p-value o f 0.020, which is significant at 95 percent confidence level. The second null hypothesis is. therefore, rcjcctcd and the alternative hypothesis accepted. However, female craft workers were more dissatisfied with their earnings than their male counterparts as shown in table 5.32. Table 5.32 Levels o f Satisfaction by G ender a n d M a rital S ta tus Level of Some Key variables Total satisfaction Male Female Married Consensual union Not married N= 138 Very satisfied 71 35.7 66.0 76.9 66.7 67.4 Satisfied 17.7 50.0 24.5 7.7 20.8 21.0 Disappointed 9.7 14.3 7.5 15.4 11.1 10.1 Very disappointed 1.6 O.O 1.9 O.O 1.4 1.4 Total 100.0 (124) 100.0(14) 100.0(53) 100.0(13) 100.0 (72) 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2006. 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh By cross tabulating satisfaction levels with respondent's key variables it was found out that more females and artisans were less satisfied with their earnings than their m ale and merchant counterparts. This is show n in tables 5.30 and 5.32. However, it seem s the crafts business is a lucrative one as only a few craftspeople said they were dissatisfied with their earnings. Generally, those who earned more were more satisfied than those who earned less. M en, craft m erchants and Bonwire craftspeople were the m ost satisfied as they earned m ore comparatively. Financial capital was. however, tied to the social system and access to information and markets. 5.3.3 Social C ap ita l an d Access to In fo rm at ion Social capital was m ade up o f the network o f people with w hom an individual craftsperson had established reciprocal social ties w h ich were exploited during tim es o f stress and hardship. It determined how ‘connected* or ‘n e tw o rk ed ’ an individual was, and included formal and informal relationships with colleagues, em ployers, clients, kin and friends. M em bership o f formal and informal professional, social and religious associations were also part o f the social capital that was exploited to gain access to information and m arkets. Access to information also depended on the level o f human, social and financial capital. Craft p eo p le 's social capital was part o f their livelihood assets which they used in com bination with other assets to achieve desirable livelihood outcom es. The most important social capital was found to be the relationship with family and friends. This w as not surprising as the extended family system, where active links were maintained with parents and grandparents, siblings and cousins, friends and even neighbours. These social links were still prevalent in many rural communities. Kente m erchants were o f the view that having a relation or a friend in a strategic position in an institution which influences o n e 's business was advantageous. Table 5.33 Religious B ackground Religious Community Name Artisans Merchants Total background BonwAihrwe iaa Pankrono Asamang N=91 N=47 N= 138 N=69 N=59 N=6 N=4 Muslim 1.4 1.7 O.O O.O 1.1 2.1 I.4 Traditional religion 1.4 1.7 33.3 O.O 1.1 6.4 2.9 No religion 8.7 15.3 16.7 O.O 11.0 12.8 II.6 Christian 85.5 81.3 50.0 100.0 86.8 78.7 84.1 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Sourcc: Fieldwork, 2006. 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furtherm ore, m em bership o f religious organisations (churches, m osques and shrines) also constituted social capital for m any craftspeople in the craft villages studied. It was also observed that migrants from the sam e region and language group rallied together and helped one another with information, soft loans and job opportunities. The religious backgrounds o f craftspeople are captured in table 5.31. There were over 84 percent o f Christians am ong the craftspeople sam pled for this study. M arket and business information, favours and assistance were sought not only from friends and relations, but from Christian and M uslim brothers and sisters; from clients and employers with w hom individuals had established relationships o f trust; and from colleagues and m em bers o f associations to which craftspeople belonged. However, not all craftspeople belonged to the few craft associations in the villages as show n by table 5.34. Table 5.34 M e m bersh ip of C ra f t Associations Membership o f Comnuinitv Name Artisans Merchants Total craft association Bonwire Ahwiaa Pankrono Asamang Member 14.5 47.5 16.7 75.0 24.2 42.6 30.4 Not a member 85.5 52.5 83.3 25.0 75.8 57.4 69.6 Total 100.0 (69) 100.0 (59) 100.0 (6) 100.0(4) 100.0(91) 100.0 (47) 100.0 (138) Source: F ie ldw ork , 2006 . Generally, craft workers were not interested in belonging to associations as only 30.4 percent said they w ere m em bers o f associations. The relatively h igher association mem bership at A sam ang may be explained by the fact that beads production w as organised as a cooperative society o f December 3 P l W om en’s M ovem ent project. However, from Figure 5.8, m ore o f the craft m erchan ts were association members compared to the artisans. Thus, in term s o f association membership, crafts m erchants were better connected than artisans. The third hypothesis that: “there is no significant relationship between employment status and participation in decision-m aking ...” was tested with the following results shown in Table 5.35. Table 5.35 Em ployment Status and M em bersh ip o f Associations Association Work for family Contract worker Self employed Total Membership member Yes 5.9 6.1 23.6 15.2 No 94.1 93.9 76.4 84.8 Total 100.0(17) 199.0(49) 100.0 (72) 100.0(138) Source: Fieldwork, 2006. 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The se lf em ployed in the craft villages once again dem onstrated a relatively higher level o f commitment to being m em bers o f associations. Contract w orkers clearly need assistance in this area as the data dem onstrates. Besides not being m em bers o f crafts or com m unity associations, crafts workers were without any social security or insurance cover. This has grave implications for their future financial security and poverty as discussed in the literature (Jenkins, 1994; Parker, 2004). It has been found that self-em ploym ent, even if it forms only part o f a w ork ing career, can pul peop le’s future financial security at risk, as people with punctuated work histories, w ith periods o f employment, unemployment and s e lf em ploym ent are more likely to be pushed into the poorer group o f se lf employed workers. The Pearson C hi-Square Value was 8.222 with a P-Value o f 0.016, which is within the significance threshold o f 0.05. The null hypothesis is, therefore, rejected, implying a significant relationship between em ploym ent status and association m em bership. The better connected craftspeople were able to fall on their network o f friends, relations and associates to get ahead o f the competition for relevant information and business opportunities. With better organisation, self employed artisans and crafts m erchants were more strategically positioned to benefit from any support interventions than their artisan counterparts. 5.4 The C ra f t Value C hain and Production Challenges The value chain model describes the different value adding activities that connects a com pany 's supply side with its dem and side. Value chain analysis is, therefore, an analytical framework for decomposing the production process to identify value added at each sta^e o f the production process - supplier, manufacturer, distributor, retailer and customer. Table 5.36 show s the value chain o f crafts chosen for this study. T he chain begins at the bottom o f the table. In this study, value chains o f different complexity were identified in the crafts villages as shown in table 5.36. I he production processes in the villages m ay be simply categorised into a) creation/design, b) production/finishing, and c) sales/marketing. Generally, craftspeople operated at specific, or multiple stages/levels o f the value chain. To some extent, there were few modifications and 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adaptations o f old designs and patterns in wood sculptures at A hw iaa and kente weaving at Bonwire. Operators at each level o f the value chain were either se lf em ployed entrepreneurs, or worked as employees o f se lf em ployed entrepreneurs. Level in craft va lue cha in B o n w i re A h w ia a P ankrono A s a m a n g R em ark s C o n s u m e r s : Virtual col lapse o f Local pat rons R ed u ce d R ed u ce d Neglig ib le N eg l ig ib le craf t s at Pankrono Foreign and local tourists R ed u ce d R e d u c e d N/A ' N /A and Asam ang . C r a f t M e r c h a n t s : M erchan t s s tock craft Local on-sel l ing (reta i l) A va il ab le Availab le Low key L o w key p roduc ts from other Export (d is tr ibu tion) Availab le Availab le N/A N /A places. F in ish ing (p o l i s h / d e s ig n ) F in ishers are part o f Contract Finisher A vai lab le Availab le N/A N /A the p roduc t ion stage. Independent F in isher A vai lab le Availab le N/A N /A P r o d u c t i o n ( A r t i s a n s ) : A r t i sans somet imes Contract Ar t i sans Present P resen t N/A N /A e n g a g e labourers for Independent Ar t i sans Presen t Presen t Present Presen t cer ta in tasks, o r use Migrant ar tisans Presen t Presen t N/A N /A fami ly labour. Raw M a t e r i a l S u p p l i e r s U nsus ta inab le use Natural raw mate r ia ls N /A N /A N egl ig ib le N /A has led to depletion Factory p roduced inpu ts Availab le A vail ab le N/A Availab le o f natural sources. C r e a t o r s / I n n o v a t o r s N eg l ig ib le N eg l ig ib le A bsent A bse n t Art i sans /M erchan ts A d a p t a t i o n s com p la in about c o p y in g by others. Source: F ie ldwork , 2006 . (* N o i A vai lab le = N / A ) Table 5.36 shows elem ents in the traditional value chain analysis (primary activities) that contribute directly to getting goods and services to the custom er - inbound logistics, production, outbound logistics, sales and m arketing. This includes procurem ent, manufacturing, sales and marketing, and delivery to buyers. This is the push approach to supply chain management. However, a detailed exposition on supply chain m anagem ent is beyond the scope o f this study. The following sections examine each o f the links in the craft production value chain. 5.4.1 H andic raf t Design and C rea t io n Phase Creation or conception phase in the value chain o f cultural based goods is a key phase. This activity is a com bination o f creativity and expertise/skills o f the crafts-person . Products were, therefore, imbued w ith intellectual property. However, innovations and adaptations o f older designs were slow to emerge. Copying o f designs and innovations robs creators o f their investments. Creators and originators o f new ideas did not register their works, and did not hold any intellectual property rights (patents, copyrights or tradem arks) over their creations. M any crafts people were, therefore, not 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh encouraged to spend time and resources in trying out new ideas. Crafts m erchants and artisans explained that when the new idea sold, other crafts people copied it in no time. However, if it did not sell, they bore the cost o f tim e and scarce resources spent on it alone. It was difficult to determine who owned property rights as different people w orked on products from conception to consumption. Due to this problem, m any genres o f craft products were identical, and lacked that masterpiece quality o f craftsm anship which w as possible only by painstaking and tim e consuming effort. Moreover, orders had tight delivery deadlines which had to be met. In an effort to beat deadlines, quality was com prom ised, leaving consum ers dissatisfied with some o f the products. Craft merchant groups also noted that only a few tourists and buyers w ould pay for m asterpieces. Such well-crafted items were, therefore, made only by special order when the price was right. This partially explains G rabum 's ‘inw ard ly’ and ‘outw ardly ' directed crafts concept explained in section 2.2.10 above. 5.4.2 Production an d Finishing P hase 5.4.2.1 Sources and Cost o f Raw M aterials At the base o f the value chain w ere raw material suppliers (wood/logs, yarns, and finishing inputs like mansion polish, dyes, sandpaper, potassium and other chemicals) at A hw iaa and Bonwire. There were no raw material suppliers at Pankrono and Asam ang. Raw material supply is a recent phenomenon, which was in response to the increasing importance o f craft activities in some o f the craft villages on one hand, and difficulties in finding production inputs, and the friction o f distance involved in obtaining inputs from distant sources, on the other. Table 5.37 S ou rccs of Raw M a t e r ials and O ther Inputs for C ra f t P roduction Source Percent S o u rc e s Percen t S ources Percent Bonwire: N - 6 9 A h w ia a : N = 59 P ank rono : N = 6 Locally in town 87.0 L o c a l ly in town 52.5 Loca lly in tow n 66.7 Kumasi 4.3 K u m a s i 1.7 N f e n s i . Locally and from K u m as i 4.3 S e k y e r e / A t w i m a District 1.7 Total 100.0 Accra and T em a 2.9 M a m p o n g Distr ict 28 .8 A s a m a n g : N = 4 Kpetoe (Volta reg ion) 1.4 A h a f o A n o South district 5.1 K um as i 100.0 Total 100.0 Volta reg ion 1.7 Total 100.0 T e m a (G rea te r Accra) 3.4 Overa l l : N = 1 3 8 L o ca l ly and in Kumasi 1.7 Loca lly in t o w n s 68.8 K u m a s i an d Sekyere Dist 3.4 E lsew here 31.2 Total 100.0 Total 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2006. 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh T he sources o f raw m aterials for production arc sum m arised in Table 5.37. Cotton and rayon yarns for w eaving in Bonwire were locally obtained within the town and from Kumasi. However, som e weavers bought their supplies from Tema in the Greater A ccra region. Due to depletion o f preferred species, trees were now obtained from forests in other districts. Trees were obtained from unreserved and reserved forests at M ankranso, M am pong, Jamasi, and Offinso, and from sawmills in Ahwiaa and elsewhere, while finishing supplies were obtained locally, and from K um asi. Clays were locally obtained, while firewood was obtained from Ahwiaa sawmills. Overall, 68.8 percent craftspeople obtained raw m aterials from the craft villages. The cost o f raw materials for the production o f various crafts is show n in Table 6.30. The cost/price o f raw materials ranged from those that were freely accessible, to those that craftspeople had to pay for. Cotton yarns were cheaper than rayon. Depending on the quality and where one bought supplies, a piece o f cotton yarn costs between 03,500.00 and £6.000.00 cedis , (now GH0O.35 and GH0O.6O). while rayon yarns cost between 05.000.00 and 08,000.00 cedis, (now GI 100.50 and GH0O.8O). Kente designers paid betw een 0250,000.CO and 03,000.000.00 cedis (now GI 1025.00 and GI 1^300.00) for kente, depending on the quality, to make garm ents and other accessories. Potters did not have to buy clay for their work, however, they bought firewood. On average, potters spent about 020,000.00 (GH02.OO) cedis on firew ood per cycle of production (about 20 pots). Broken bottles were also easily obtainable from the brew eries in Kumasi. A bag o f broken bottles cost GH0O.5O cedis per crate and GH03.OO cedis per bag. T hese prices, however, fluctuated regularly. Table 5.38 Prices of Raw M ate r ia ls and Inputs in the Selected C ra f t Villages Price o f raw mate r ia ls ( G H p ) Per Pr ice o f raw mater ia ls (G H p ) Per Pr ices ( G H 0 ) Per Cent Cent Cent Bonwire: N = 69 A h w ia a : N = 59 P a n k ro n o : N = 6 Cotton /R ayon (0 .35 - 0 .80) 72.5 T re e s (Free , 1.00 - 20.00) 39 C la y ( f ree ) 50.0 Shutt le (1 .00) 2.9 S to o l s ( 5 . 0 0 - 3 0 . 0 0 ) 3.4 C o o le r (2 .00 ) 16.7 Thread /Y am (0 .60 0 .70) 10.1 C a r v i n g s ( 1 . 0 0 - 3 0 . 0 0 ) 25 .4 Pots ( v a r ia b le ) 33.3 K e n t e ( 2 5 . 0 0 - 300 .00 ) 11.6 M a n s io n polish 0 . 3 0 - 0 . 7 0 16.9 Total 100.0 Misce l laneous (e.g. w a x ) 2.9 P o ta s s iu m (0 .20 - 0.50) 5.1 A s a m a n g : N = 4 Total 100.0 L e m o n ( 0 . 1 0 - 0 . 2 0 ) 3.4 B ro k en bott les 25.0 (69) M is c e l l a n e o u s (sandpaper) 6.8 ( 0 . 5 0 - 3 . 0 0 ) Total 100.0 C h e m ic a l s / D y e s (59 ) 1 0 . 0 0 - 2 0 . 0 0 75.0 Total 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2006. 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Trees obtained from farm ers cost only 02,000.00 Cedis or GH02.OO. The sam e tree obtained from the Forestry Com m ission cost 0200,000.00 or GI 1020.00. Som etim es, trees were obtained free ol charge from farm ers who wanted them removed from their farms, or were obtained from the forests illegally w ithout permit. H ow ever the trees are acquired, they are felled and cut into pieces m easuring two to three feet or more in length. The size depends on the kind o f craft object it was going to be used for. Log suppliers ' cost included the cost o f renting a chainsaw (or labour to chop the tree with an axe), transportation cost, and their time. These logs were sold to craft m erchants who engaged contract carvers to turn them into craft items. However, some m erchants and independent carvers procured their own trees for their work. 5.4.2.2 Labour and Cost o f Production and Finishing Craft items Production is the next level o f the value chain. This includes finishing o f craft items for the market. Crafts people 's cultural know ledge and m astery o f traditional techniques o f making particular crafts, and the skills o f finishing them to an acceptable quality that meets consum ers ' standards and tastes were valuable at this stage. Skilled artisans (weavers, carvers, potters and beads m akers) and finishers (sand papering, wood designing and polishing; stitching and kente designing) perform ed these tasks. The context was dom inated by entrepreneurs o f local origin w ho w orked as individual artisans, and as small cooperatives whose m em bers w orked independently. Unskilled labour and children were som etim es engaged for particular tasks during the finishing stages o f production. Children and w om en wrere, how ever paid lower rates than adults and males, because their work required further touch ups for a perfect finish. M ajoiity (76.1 percent) o f the artisans who produced the ^rafts were locals from the crafts villages, and a few m igrant artisans (23.9 per cent) as shown in chapter five. As most entrepreneurs desired to m ove up onto the marketing side o f the crafts business, the num ber o f skilled w eavers and carvers has declined. T he declining num ber o f skilled weavers and carvers was made worse by the waning interest o f the iocai youth from making a career in w eaving and carving. These shortages have 7 T he cedi w a s r e d e n o m in a t e d in 2008 . 0 10 ,000 .00 is now equiva lent to G H 0 1 .00; £ 1,000 .00 = G Hj£0 .10. 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh necessitated recruitm ent o f migrant weavers and carvers to augm ent the num ber o f artisans in these communities. Pottery and beads m aking were at the verge o f collapse. However, a limited num ber o f old practitioners rem ained in the pots and beads business, albeit at a much diminished scale. Earnings in the craft industry were low, irregular and unregulated. Wages were low and working conditions poor. Artisans found it difficult to find contracts, and craft m erchants did not adhere to paym ent schedules agreed with artisans. M any craftspeople were without jo b s for long periods, and even those who had contracts or jo b s were underemployed. The calculation o f craft people's incom e was problematic as mentioned earlier in this chapter. Craftspeople them selves do not think in term s o f a weekly, m onthly or annual income. A ttem pts to estimate their incomes were necessarily chaotic. W eavers and kente designers in Bonwire and carvers and finishers at Ahwiaa worked independently, or on contract basis. They produced and sold their own craft items, or w'ere contracted to produce craft items at a price per piece. Thus, artisans were paid for each craft item produced or finished. Independent weavers w'ere able to buy their ow n yarns for kente production. They sold the finished product to the kente merchants or on the open market. While contract carvers and finishers at Ahwiaa were provided with raw materials and inputs, their counterparts at Bonwire charged an all inclusive sum to weave the kente cloth. Part o f the contract sum was, therefore, received before work commenced. Independent carvers, weavers and finishers, however, had to procure their ow n raw materials or inputs. Rates paid to artisans, and prices were not fixed, but depended on one’s negotiation skills. Contract carvers, weavers and finishers, on the other hand, were paid for providing the service. The production capacity and the earning ability o f artisans were limited by the lengthy production and finishing processes involved in producing quality craft items. While some o f the crafts products were easy to make, and in no time, others were seen to be difficult and time consuming. Table 5.39 and 5.40 show s some o f the traditional craft perceived by craft people to be easy or difficult to make. 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.39 Easy to m ake C r a ft Items Bonwire % Ahwiaa % Pankrono % Asamang % Single weave - plain 89.8 Smaller items 42.4 Aketekyiwa 66.7 Ntwitwamu 25.0 Female cloth 2.9 Unity 3-Head 6.8 Esen 33.3 Akosombo nkania 25.0 Double W, no design 2.9 Oware 1.7 Total 100.0 Katawodieso 50.0 Others 4.2 Masks 5.1 Total 100.0 Total 100.0 Profiles 15.3 (69) Fertility dolls 23.7 Shadows 1.7 Others 3.4 Total 100.0 (59) Source: F ie ldwork , 2 0 0 6 . The ‘single w eave ' kente cloth was the very basic design which was no longer in demand nowadays. W eavers called it many names such as awhepcm, yendihene lava, and adzavor (ewe). In the ‘double w eave’ category, the one with no design was adjudged the easiest. Smaller carvcd objects were seen to be easier to m ake than bigger ones both in Pankrono and A hwiaa. The more difficult to make crafts reported are presented in table 5.40. Table 5.40 Difficult to M ake C ra f t Items Bonwire % Ahwiaa % Pankrono % Asamang % Double weave (design) 17.4 Unity 19-Head 69.5 Ahina 100.0 Bodom 75.0 - Edwene si edwene so 65.2 Stools 8.5 Total 100.0 Senkyi Bridge 25.0 Tsakpasu/enkyiriawia 4.3 Bigger items 8.5 (6) Total 100.0 Others 2.8 Human face 3.4 (4) Total 100.0 Figurines 1.7 (69) Stools & unity 3.4 Others 5.1 Total 100.0 (59) Source: F ie ldwork , 2 0 0 6 . The most com plex designs were sometimes called “ triple w eave” or “design upon design", a literal translation o f edwene si edwene so. The complexity o f designs and the quality o f yarns used in their making are such that they exude quality and do not fade. 'They are arguably the best quality and most expensive Ashanti kente one can find in Bonwire or anyw here else in the Ashanti region. Such complex designs and the time it took to complete a unit affected their large scale production. Table 5.41 shows how long craftspeople thought it would take them to produce or sell 100 units o f their products. 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tabic 5.41 P ro d u c tion c a p a city and Rate of Turnover for 100 units o f h a n dicraf ts Time take to produce Community Name Artisans Merchants Total or sell 100 crafts units Bonwire Ahwiaa Pankrone Asamang N = 9 1 N=47 N=138 N=69 N=59 N=6 N=4 No response O.O 1.7 O.O O.O 1.1 O.O 0.7 Up to 2 weeks O.O 8.5 O.O 25.0 4.4 4.3 4.3 1 to 2 months 1.4 40.7 O.O 75.0 14.3 31.9 20.3 3 to 4 months 8.7 44.1 66.7 O.O 27.5 23.4 26.1 5 to 6 months 15.9 1.7 16.7 O.O 11.0 6.4 9.4 7 to 8 months 30.4 O.O 16.7 O.O 15.2 17.0 15.9 9 to 10 months 2.9 O.O O.O O.O 2.2 O.O 1.4 11 to 12 months 24.6 1.7 O.O O.O 15.4 8.5 13.0 1 to 2 years 14.5 1.7 O.O O.O 8.8 6.4 8.0 Over 2 years 1.4 O.O O.O O.O O.O 2.1 0.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: F ie ldw ork , 2006 . From table 5.38, it is evident that the processes involved in producing crafts, and the lengthy turnaround tim es did not make it easy for people to deliver on large orders. Artisans had a low production capacity and m erchants, a low turnover rate. This affected earning abilities and the volume o f business that one expected to carry out within a specified period. To achieve the necessary volumes, craft merchants m opped up production from different artisans. This brought about variations in quality and design o f craft items, and did not auger well for uniformity in quality and standardisation. 5.4.3 Exhibition, M a rk e t in g and Sales Phase In order to make a living from crafts production, crafts people needed to sell their products or services (skills) regularly, realise a viable income from each sale and to be assured o f regular sales in the future. Craft production on its ow n was not seen as tourism until the craft items were sold. Strictly speaking, craft m erchants organised the natural and hum an resources (raw materials, skilled and unskilled labour), the finance and information necessary to produce the craft product. They also undertook the sales and marketing function to make sure the product w as finished to a certain standard, and reached the final consum er or the retailer on time. Even though their work entailed less physical effort or risk o f injury, they undertook the greatest financial risk, and got the highest financial benefit. At the helm o f the value chain w'ere craft merchants (dealers/shop owners) who controlled the craft businesses, em ploying the services o f artisans and finishers. They organised the other stakeholders along the cralt value chain from conception to delivery o f the craft products. The craft 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh merchants organised production and supervised the processes, perform ing quality control functions in the process. They were responsible for looking for the critical finance (from formal and informal sources) needed to initiate production. They also looked for m arkets and information on what was in demand in local and international markets. Craft m erchants w ere the ones who identified business opportunities and employed skilled artisans and finishers as labourers to produce sculptures and kente, using family labour when necessary. They paid independent producers prices that reflected only the material content o f their craft objects. Finishers and contract artisans said they received low w ages as compensation for their skills and time. Having added value to the raw materials, craft m erchants sold them at prices which reflected their symbolic content, som etim es m aking windfall profits as show n in Table 5.34. Some o f them also exported wood carvings and kente to overseas retailers. W hile artisans relied on their skill and energy to make a living, craft m erchants relied on their money and managerial skills to make a living. Some level o f exploitation o f artisans by craft m erchants was reported, especially at Bonwire and Ahwiaa. This is reflected in the price differentials from producer to consum er and in the light o f the rates craft merchants paid to artisans. The situation at Pankrono w as no different, as pot sellers sold pots for twice as m uch as they paid the old potters. Consum ers, therefore, derived the greatest value from their purchase when they bought directly from producers or from retailers in the craft villages, as the prices o f the products were much lower in the craft villages than w hat pertained in galleries and craft shops in Kumasi. The craft business was seasonal, and craft merchants had to wait for considerable lengths o f tim e to make sales after the season was over. M any o f them combined the craft work with other income earning activities Jn a diverse livelihood portfolio. Kente and wood caivings merchants com plained that when the products did not sell fast, their w orking capitals were locked up in the stock; however, artisans who had produced or finished them som etim es had received part payments, whether or not the items have been sold. Contract artisans and finishers did not have to worry about taking loans to produce kente or wood carvings. The time it took to produce or sell a unit of craft item is presented in table 5.38. In spite o f the challenges, craft merchants still derived more 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh benefits from the craft enterprise than the other craft workers. As show n earlier in this chapter, the small-scale craft entrepreneurs used different types o f finance in their operations. H ow ever, A hw iaa and Bonwire craft m erchants reported that the Prudential and First Allied banks in Kum asi wrere the only banks that advanced loans to craftspeople in the Ashanti region. Prior to advancing loans, the banks were reported to have also offered basic training in book-keeping and general records keeping to beneficiaries o f the loans schem es. In spite o f this, a finance gap still exists, especially, for the small enterprises w ishing to grow, and for start ups. 5.5 O th e r C ra f t P roduction C o ns tra in ts Artisans and merchants alike encountered many challenges in their day to day activities. The economic and political effects o f globalisation - reduced tourist visitation, influx o f cheaper industrial imitations and substitutes, and m arket saturation - have been felt by all craft villages. Table 5.42 S u m m a ry of C h allenges to C r afts P roduction and C raf ts L ivelihoods Nature of Challenges Ahwiaa Bonwire Pankrono Asamang Shortages in raw materials ✓ v" ✓ Difficulties in finding skilled artisans ✓ V Difficulties in finding capital/finance S Difficulties in finding reliable markets V V Reduced number o f visiting tourists V s V Low sales and Bad prices offered by tourists V Communication difficulties with some tourists V V Harassment of tourists and following them with goods V Competition from cheaper industrial imitations s s Interference in bargaining process by tour guides V Plastic substitutes and change in tastes killing market ■/ V Local political factors V V Discrimination s V V Craft merchants do not pay good price for products s V Craft merchants do not pay artisans on time s ✓ Source: Fie ldwork , 2 006 However, while some o f the craft villages have been able to adjust fairly, these effects have contributed, in no small measure, to the decimation of craft activities in others. The major challenges to craft production are summarised under the following headings: shortages and difficulties in finding production inputs (raw materials, reliable skilled artisans, and w orking capital); difficulties in finding markets and selling products; seasonality o f tourists flow and dem and; and local challenges. Table 6.36 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh captures the main them es o f the challenges that were reported by F G D participants in the selected craft villages. 5.6 Sustainabili ty Issues One o f the im portant questions for the future o f the crafts industry in the region is the expected life o f the raw material supply (clay fields and preferred tree species), as crafts people did not replant trees they cut, and as clay fields were being sold for property developm ent due to urban pressures. Without afforestation program m es and a move to reserve c lay fields, a gradual dwindling in the production o f crafts is inevitable in Ahwiaa and Pankrono. The pottery and wood carving industries are particularly likely to decline or to migrate, because o f their dependence on natural sources o f raw materials. Lack o f interest o f local youth in the crafts is a threat to the skills base. Wages for the craftspeople were meagre. Even the highest wages were low relative to the earnings in other non-farm activities. Irregularities in the supply o f w'ork mean that there is forced underemployment. Q uality o f w ork can only be sustained i f the craft people can obtain a living from the industry. The com bination o f low wages and insufficient w ork tends to exacerbate poverty am ongst craftspeople. Wages, w hile being financial cap ita l also requires interplay o f human capital in terms o f being able to leverage the labour and the time to earn the wages. Thus, equitable and regular wages, and availability o f physical capital are all important factors for the em ploym ent o f human, financial and social capital tow ards earning these wages. The search for a consistent market needs to be com plim ented by an availability o f social networks and accessibility to financial and physical capital. C raftspeople need a continuous flow o f employment through w hich they can earn enough in terms o f cash and kind to meet their needs. In other words, they need full employment. Creating employment is then no longer a matter o f creating ‘jo b s’, but o f strengthening these workers and producers to overcom e structural constraints and enter markets where they w ould be competitive. These markets (labour, product or financial markets) may not exist locally, and w ould need to be created to link them to the larger markets. Even though an Export Production Village (EPV), a Bead factory and Craft C entre and Shops have been put up (with 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh government assistance) in Bonwire, A sam ang and Ahwiaa, for the production and sale o f finished products, for exam ple, these do not ensure adequate sales to sustain craftspeople throughout the year. Lack o f finance and cash flow were reported by m any craftspeople. It was what restricted the economic developm ent and w ell-being o f artisans and their families. There was a finance gap in the craft industry. However, while the lack o f w orking capital w'as certainly a major problem for small- scale enterprises in almost all the study areas, it is seen as a sym ptom rather than the cause o f the problems these industries were facing. The real fundamental problem may be the failure o f decision makers to recognise and support cultural industries in national planning and development strategies. This lack o f attention and support is short-sighted and results in a missed opportunity for poverty eradication, as cultural industries offer a particular opportunity for local socio-econom ic development due to their often small size and close links to the community. An inability to access government funds leads them to taking loans from local m iddlem en and money lenders at h igher rates of interest. Informal credit, thus, played a critical role in the production and expansion o f artisanal enterprise. To assist craftspeople in breaking out o f this stranglehold and also to ensure quality production, it is essential to have a capital fund for purchasing raw materials and assisting w ith wages w'hen stock is being prepared. 5.7 Discussion and Sum m ary 5.7.1 Discussion Crafts production have become a com plex business activity involving artisans, crafts m erchants and other m iddlem en, raw material suppliers and other stakeholders who all benefit from the grow th in the tourism industry. The livelihoods o f craftspeople were negotiated through the interrelationships amongst various capitals (livelihood assets), the prevailing local structures and processes to achieve desirable outcomes. In designing a pro-poor tourism strategy based on crafts for poverty reduction, it is essential to em ploy the sustainable livelihoods approach encom passing the overlapping econom ic sectors and the different resources and interests o f the private sector, state policy and institutions. 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Craft production is not the only opportunity for em ploym ent creation, route to poverty reduction or the only attraction for tourism development. However, the direct link between handicrafts and tourism cannot be denied. Crafts make important contributions to tourism development, employment creation and enhanced quality o f life for craftspeople and their families. Their utility for poverty reduction cannot be overem phasised. K am ara (2005) has noted that the biggest obstacle to cultural enterprise development lies in the mindset o f the individuals involved in the enterprise. Craftspeople were ignorant o f the workings o f the tourism industry, and did not appreciate the fact that they were part o f a bigger industry. This was especially true for artisans. Som e o f the carvers at Ahwiaa viewed their work as a continuation o f tradition, and a legacy left by their forefathers. Most o f the young w eavers and carvers seemed to be engaged in the handicrafts business for lack o f other alternative em ploym ent avenues. This may explain their survival mentality, and short-term strategies. The biggest challenge, however, was that such necessity entrepreneurs posed a serious challenge for professionalism and standards, as they lacked the skills, talent and capacity to com pete globally. To surm ount the challenges m entioned above, som e artisans and m erchants alike tried to do so many different things all at the sam e time. Being ‘jacks o f all trades and m asters o f none ', they did not demonstrate any professionalism in w hat they did. They lacked basic training in business and management skills. In spite o f all their efforts, some craftspeople experienced poverty in different ways. Finance has been identified as the most important factor determ ining the survival and growth o f SMEs in both developing and developed countries. Despite the important contributions o f SMEs to the economy, they have traditionally had difficulty in obtaining credit or equity' investment. Some ot the reasons why com m ercial banks were reluctant to service SM Es include: insufficient assets and low' capitalisation, vulnerability to market fluctuations and high mortality rates. They were regarded by creditors and investors as high risk borrowers. They also lacked adequate financial statements or business plans, which made it difficult for investors to assess (heir creditworthiness. 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most craftspeople tended to work part-time and in the hom e or close by. This has both positive and negative im plications. This may affcct the ability to produce econom ically significant quantities to meet export dem and, and a potential conflict o f time between subsistence production and crafts work for cash. On the positive side, it complemented agricultural livelihoods, created extra employm ent and contributed to household income. It also mopped up excess labour during off-season periods, mitigated migration, and helped to reduce poverty. 5.7.2 S u m m a ry Craft production in the Ashanti region has gone a long way. In spite o f the shocks o f modernisation, industrialisation and the decline in tourist v isitations since the 9/11 bombings, crafts production continues to provide employment, and a livelihood to m any crafts people and their families, while at the same tim e preserving the traditional techniques and part o f the material cultural heritage o f Ashanti. However, the craft activity has declined considerably at A sam ang and Pankrono. This chapter has also exam ined the various assets that craftspeople possess, and how they used these in various combinations to support themselves. The natural and cultural resources in the various craft villages provided economic opportunities for the development o f handicrafts enterprises, and livelihoods to practitioners and their families. Characteristics o f craftspeople revealed their physical and hum an capital and how they mobilised the other assets at their disposal to support their businesses, and make a living from crafts production and sale. Craft merchants had higher levels o f hum an and financial capital than artisans. However, through their stock o f social, financial, natural and cultural capital both artisans and merchants were able to overcom e (in varying degrees o f success) the challenges and took advantage o f available opportunities in their communities to ensure their survival and improve their well-being. Craftspeople com bined their options and were dependent on the am ount and quality o f labour available, household size, skill levels and on the interplay o f assets (human, social, physical, natural, cultural and financial capitals) along with the organisational and institutional processes and structures to sustain their livelihoods. 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The lack o f innovation and creation o f new craft designs across the craft villages, weak copyright legislation and enforcem ent regim es; challenges with raw m aterials supplies, fluctuating rates o f raw materials; and difficulties with finding w orking capital and skilled artisans, as well as difficulties w ith sales and m arketing were issues o f concern to m any craft workers. The importance o f these constraints varies from product to product. With the exception o f factory7 produced raw materials (yarns and broken bottles), it was difficult to find local raw materials (trees and clay). Lack o f a regular supply o f raw materials was a fundam ental constraint to craft production. Supplies were irregular and costs rose quickly. There was com petition for scarce raw materials between large and small entrepreneurs. In the carving industry in Ahwiaa for exam ple, saw mills com peted with carvers for scarce trees. The several ways by w hich craftspeople coped with these production challenges, hardships and resultant poverty are presented in Chapter Six. 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C H A P T E R SIX POVERTY, P E R C E P T IO N S AND E X P E R IE N C E S 6.1 In troduc tion This chapter looks at crafts peoples' perceptions and experience o f poverty. These perceptions, together with issues o f vulnerability, inequalities and participation in decision making processes were discussed with artisans, craft merchants, youth groups, m en and wom en, and ordinary com m unity members and officials, to learn about how' local craftspeople understand poverty, and how they experienced it. 6.2 Identifying the P oor an d Vulnerable Through the use o f an adapted version o f the Participatory Wealth Ranking (PWR) method, (Simanowitz et al., 2000) discussants identified the poor and the rich, based on local standards in their communities. T hough they were all unanimous in identifying the lack o f “ income” and “property" as defining characteristics o f poverty, discussants and respondents reported diverse perceptions o f the poverty phenomena. There were spatial as well as group-based differences in the perceptions o f poverty am ongst craft workers. Craft m erchants in Ahwiaa and Bonwire d istinguished between hardship ( s \ \ s s \ s s \ \ \ \ s \ \ \ \ \ ôr . \ \ \ \ \ \ \ s \ \ \ \ \ \ S \ \ \ \ \ CO CO O c b TJ T> COoo o o u- o T3 -♦r-—■ in a G c 'fc E CJ C/> — 5: 00 C /i c .O r- V 4a-»£ U o £ O O o o ‘5 o CO , c CO £ *0—3> +o—‘ o CLc c ■O t~ "O 03 CO c o oCO r — i—1> o QJ ♦o—* o c C C/v 5Z.o CO C I—3 X> o {o? o c r- £ U sz "oo ca 12 £ 1̂ : oo c: c 0c: o o *O 3 U a, T3 CO o cu ao 2o o £ oo oo a CO & o i_ >L* > *— c 00 -O *-• c Cl CO '00 c b- I—' 0c0 o V O ). o <—■ c o 00 "cc Ci-| c o C3 L- £cs XJ 'oo 03 ~_D ,3C c: >03 0030 C fc o> c o h! 3c c 00£ C3 t*“ ts c 03 c: > a oo CJ c o c: CoD C ^ 03 03 <3 o— 03 Q !_) 0 a o X O CO University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.3 Perceptions of Causes of Poverty Craft w orkers were not agreed on a single cause o f poverty in their com m unities. However, they seem to agree that laziness w as a m ajor cause of poverty in their com m unities as evidenced by about 45.7 percent o f respondents. This shows that discussants admired those who, in spite o f their limited educational achievem ents show ed tenacity by working hard to eke out a living through weaving and carving. Besides laziness, artisans were o f the view that low educational attainment, sickness, old age and large fam ily sizes were some other causes o f poverty. Others were o f the view that poverty w as inherited from poor parents, and when one lost a jo b or faced limited job opportunities due to lack o f em ployab le skills. Craftspeople also becam e poor when faced with reduced sales, or lacked adequate incom e to rent a shop. Box 6.2______ Causes of Poverty in the C raf ts V i l l a g e s ___________________________ _____ Over here, i f anyone says he or she is poor, then the person has chosen to be. The reason why am saying this is that even children make money by helping in the weaving business. We all started the weaving little by little, and now we own shops . Even some o f the school children make bookmarks and write names on bracelets when tourists and other people visit us, so why would a grown-up refuse to work? I f a woman is poor she can be excused, because they do not get involved so much in the weaving - Bonwire Shop Owners. Even the women buy and sell Kente. Women should not be excused when they complain o f poverty. My wife helps me in the shop, because that is where I get the money - Bonwire Shop Owners. Master, carving is very hard work, but we are doing it because we did not go fa r in schooling. Some o f the boys in the town are just lazy. They don't get involved in the work but they want to enjoy. I f you do this you will become a thief Even i f you cannot can'e, you can at least do sandpaper work or polish. Even though my master does not pay me on time, I get my daily bread. I f you like to work you cannot be poor in Ahwiaa, never! - Ahwiaa Carver. Source: Focus G r o u p Discuss ions . F ie ld w o rk . 2 0 0 6 Discussants were o f the view' that besides the aged, young children and those unable to earn an income, only the lazy people were poor in the craft village, as craft work does no t require higher levels o f academic education or certificates to earn a living. M ost o f the craft workers, therefore, had no sympathy for healthy, able-bodied people with no jobs or incomes. Most (76.1 percent) respondents expressed the view that poverty was caused by a combination o f factors, which left the victim in poverty. Thus, for the majority o f craft workers, inequalities in access to opportunities resulting from illiteracy, gender, and ethnicity; discrimination, laziness, m ism anagem ent, and expensive lunerals were the main causes o f poverty in the craft villages. 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, som e discussants were o f the view that low w'ages were to blam e for their poverty. Som e also believed poverty w as hereditary, and com pared it to trying to grow tall from a pit - reflecting unequal opportunities for people in the sam e community. _B__o__x_ _6__.3__ __________A__d__d_i_t_i_o__n__a_l_ _C___a_u__s_e__s_ _o__f_ _P__o_v__e_r__ty_ _________________________________________ _ _________________________________ "When you are born into a pit, how can you ever grow tall? It was difficult for us. I could not even complete primary school because there was no money. I have been doing this work since my infancy. It is hard work, but things are improving, by God's grace " -Ahwiaa Finisher. "... Things would have been better if the shop owners were paying us good rates. They don't even pay us on time. That is why we also 'show' them sometimes. We delay their work, or put it aside and work on those that would bring in money'* - Ahwiaa Carver Source: F ie ld w o rk , 2006 . O ther participants put the blame on living in an unsuppoilive environm ent or com m unity with limited natural, social and economic infrastructure. Unnecessary expenditures on funerals were also mentioned as a cause o f poverty. Overall, only 23.9 perccnt respondents mentioned single factors as causes o f poverty. However, over 76 percent m entioned laziness in com bination with other factors as being causes o f poverty. Som e carvers confirmed that there were bad nuts amongst them. However, only new and inexperienced crafts merchants were duped by such carvers. There seem ed to be some unspoken collusion on the part o f merchants to je ttison new er entrants out o f the business by preventing them from accessing the services o f the best carvers and weavers. To exercise absolute control over weavers, merchants from Bonwire were now recruiting weavers from the Volta region and housing them to weave on a contractual basis. The exploitation o f kinship ties and other social relationships o f trust account for the success o f m any merchants at A hw iaa and Bonwire. These were not readily accessible to outsiders who tried to enter the market. 6.4 Identify ing the Rich/Wealthy and Secure Characteristics that were indicative o f relative wealth (ahonva) included ownership o f a house, a car, and when children attended good schools, having regular meals, and dressed well. The ability to settle bills on tim e and to have the com m unity’s respect was also identified as characteristics o f the rich (adefoo or sikafoo). Other characteristics mentioned included ownership o f property (agyapadee) 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the form o f land, houses, farms, and other investments. Having money, property, ensuring a balanced diet and wearing good clothes were perceived as desirable and characteristics o f wealth or riches. Having enough money to live a life without restrictions, and being free o f debt were also mentioned as characteristics o f being wealthy. Even though m any crafts workers said they were poor, they were quick to point out that their condition was better than other com m unity m em bers not engaged in the crafts business. Within the crafts industry, however, crafts merchants were unanim ously identified as the better o f f and more financially secured com pared to artisans. 6.4.1 Wealth R anking and Perceived Benefits from the C raf ts en terpr ise A m ong craft workers, there were the rich (osikanii), the struggling ( 03cr\ E < o c3 ioU- Jij—d •<—D S s s s c o 03 CL Cl­ -*-« c/5 I $ s \ % % s s \ s .2? § :> £ 00 Q o3 \ \ \ s s s s s 0 G CI—J CQ £ U- 1 \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ \ < 03 u oo C - “ c v \ s \ s \ s s \ CD C/5 O CO 3 3 03 o 03 J - o I— o co o £o vOCL) oo a> 15 J = 3 O*—■ 3 o O cz 03 > O O C3 ri cr C O£ 3 C3 o o CD d cd o 3 13 -o 3 CL c4> O 03 £ o O ■—1 > » o coO 3 > 03 c a > 3 o T 3 Q . oo C . 03 O 4—< O c •a '—i u_ o o cD 3 3 > o > > > 3 > C > 3 o . O o— 1> 03 03 > 03 03 C3 -D I E o 3o 03 03 O 03 oc_ JD 0 ^ I I J U J 3 C < < U X a: a X 00 Table 6.2 Summary P e rccp t ions of Wealth a ml W ell-being University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.4.2 Perceptions o f Effort /R isk a n d Benefits derived from the craft industry' C raftspeople recognised the vary ing levels o f difficulty and risk entailed in the perform ance o f the various tasks required to procure, produce, finish and sell a particular handicraft. Naturally, one would expect that the am ount o f effort and extent o f difficulty that go into the production o f a craft item would influence the returns crafts people derived from it. However, the most difficult and risky tasks turned out not to be the most rew arding after all, and did not necessarily translate into higher economic rew ards for the artisans in particular. This issue was heavily debated amongst the crafts groups within the selected villages. T he results o f the ranking exercise are presented in table 6.3 and 6.4 reflect individual group perceptions and perceptions from a jo in t forum o f crafts workers. Table 6.3 shows the category o f craftspeople and the perceived level o f difficulty and risk involved in their tasks, while table 6.4 shows the level o f benefits derived by each category o f craftspeople across the craft villages. In the ranking exercise, k 1 * denotes the tasks perceived to be the least difficult and least risky, while h igher ranks denote increasing levels o f difficulty and risk. Log suppliers, contract carvers, yam spinners, contract weavers, potters, clay diggers, bottle grinders and beads designers perform ed the most difficult and risky jobs. Table 6.3 S u m m a ry of Perceptions of Crafts Workers w ith most D ifficult Tasks Ahwiaa Log Carving Design Finishing Store boys Craft supply and polish merchant Carvers FGD 6 5 3 4 2 1 Finishers FGD 6 5 3 4 2 1 Craft merchants FGD 6 4 2 3 1 5 Crafts Forum 6 5 1 4 2 .->* Bonwire Spinning Weaving Design Finish Sell Merchant Weavers FGD 1 6 4 3 5 2 Migrant weavers FGD 1 6 5 A2rt 4 Crafts merchants FGD I 5 4 3 2 6 Crafts Forum 1 6 4 3 5 Pankrono Clay Moulding Collect/buy Firing Merchant N/A digging wood fuel Old Potters FGD 4 5 3 1 Pot Sellers IDI 5 4 *i■> 3 1 N/A Crafts forum 4 5 3 1 2 Grinding Design Baking Stringing Smoothing Merchant Asuofia Asamang: Beads makers FGD 6 5 4 3 2 1 Source: Fieldwork, 2006 2 0 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Fables 6.4 and 6.3 show an inverse relationship. Crafts people who performed the most difficult and risky jo b s seem ed to be deriving the least benefits from the crafts enterprise. Tabic 6.4 S u m m a ry of Perceptions of Crafts W orkers deriving G rea tes t Benefit s Task \ Level o f Benefits Log carvers Designers Finishers Store boys Merchants suppliers Ahwiaa: Carvers FGD 1 4 3 2 5 6 Finishers FGD 1 5 2 4 3 6 Shop owners FGD 1 5 4 2 3 6 Crafts Forum 1 4 2 3 5 6 Task \ Level o f Benefits Spinners Weavers Designers Finishers Store boys Merchants Bonwire: Weavers FGD 1 4 3 2 5 6 Migrant weavers FGD 1 3 3 2 5 6 Shop owners FGD 1 5 3 2 4 6 Crafts Forum 1 4 3 2 5 6 Task \ Level o f Benefits Clay Pot Wood fuel Pot selling N/A N/A digging making gathering Pankrono: Old Potters FGD 1 3 2 4 N/A N /A Pot Sellers IDI 1 3 2 4 Crafts forum 1 3 2 4 Task \ Level of Benefits Grinders Designer Baker Stringing Finishing Merchants Asuofia-Asamanz: Beads makers FGD 4 5 3 1 2 6 Source: F ie ld w o rk , 2 0 0 6 Rank 1 denotes the least benefit, while ranks w ith h igher numbers denote increasing levels o f benefits. Table 6.4 shows that shop ow ners and store boys derived the most benefits from the carving enterprise; kente m erchants and store boys again derived the m ost benefits from the kente business. Pot sellers derived m ore benefits than potters. 6.5 Cost o f Living in Craf t Villages To establish the cost o f living in the crafts com m unities, PWR was once again em ployed to identify the different shades o f opinions with regards to the cost o f living for an individual for a period of one month. The cost o f feeding, rent, electricity and w ater bills were used to estimate the cost o f living in the crafts communities. An arbitrary amount o f ten thousand cedis was added to the com puted cost to take care o f incidental expenses like toiletries and other m inor miscellaneous expenses. There were no marked differences between estimates o f crafts people and ordinary com m unity members. Table 6.5 shows the computed cost o f living. There w as much disagreement on the m in im um 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh am ount as m ost discussants did not keep track o f their m onthly expenditures. Most ol them said they lived one day at a time and were m ainly concerned about the evening meal, which was the m ain meal o f the day. Secondly, m any discussants lived in family houses for which no rent was paid. Tabic 6.5 Estimated M o nthly Cost of Living for a Person in Selected C raf t Villages Cost of living Bonwire Ahwiaa Pankrono Asamang Bonwire Ahwiaa craft Craft craft craft community community workers workers workers workers members members Min - Max Min - Max Min - Max Min - Max Min - Max Min - Max (CH£) (GH0) (GI U) (GH0) (GI H) (GI \ n CN o rn 00 r̂ i 1Q—> C CO COOO r -u O (o i-< — O o Cc CO CO t: aC l) o o CO Xo»r - c •~ zl> E co c s— c Cuo o Cu o s O- o ’co 03 C cj X) o O j co > v r - *0 O•-Ti >*l o CO I— c " o a. CJ oco / ■ ■CCO C3 o o T3 o o — c u GJ o 03 . J -*—• c00 >— c >> C -c v- CJ £ £c3 Xo> c a> 01) IS CO c-l u. o O CJ CO c3 co u 03 co CJ CO C3 CO o C - 0 o n> d CO 03 C I— 03j— z: T3 C £ o O ■o v- O j— C CO X> O C./J C C o VO •*o—< JV c E E •1a— ~o -a c o ■ot—1 o- TD > v c CO o03CO O'! C *0 O C '”5c > v u CO -C s i C o c*_ ’>u. G r-" raj. -C o 0Ui 1—3 o Jl o -o r0-3 C CO o >0 o O 03 I-' O 1 C COcC I— ’ u. —03 -t—< c3 3 s ’ Oui ■V 03 03 £; 0 /J oj 03 o• 1 I— o c ‘E V- ’ £H o ’ i—■ "O a aj X J CD o C 1—OJ =3 03 S I 03 -C o Cl, £ £ £ P H CO Tabic 6.18 Perceptions on Decision-M aking and Participation in Crafts Business and 'Trends University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Majority (81 percent) o f respondents agreed that tourist arrivals had dwindled over the last 5 years. However, over 52 percent disagreed that more tourists were buy ing their products now than five years ago. Generally, older tourists seem ed to patronise m ore craft products than the younger ones, but there were little differences in the buying behaviour o f males and females. Craft workers agreed strongly that harassment o f tourists w as a big problem at Bonwire and Ahwiaa. They accused craft haw kers o f following and heckling tourists from shop to shop. Individually, craft w orkers saw their com m unities as the best place to find the products they made. They also agreed that the historical legacy o f the craft villages helped them in their businesses. However, only a few o f them kept records. Most o f them disagreed w ith the assertion that handicraft production had created p roblem s in their communities. The rapid grow th o f Kumasi was generally seen as a blessing rather than a problem by m any craftspeople. Asked to name the m ost important thing their businesses needed in order to grow, some 73 percent mentioned capital, while 34 percent mentioned enhanced m arketing skills. Other things that wrere perceived as im portant for growing their businesses included the following: improved place o f work, improved technology, the need for foreign business partners, reliable sources o f raw materials, increased tourist arrivals and a more aggressive national and regional tourism promotion. This shows that craftspeople had different priorities and needs. Intervention strategies should take cognisance o f these differences. Most craft workers (90.6 percent) attested to im provem ents in their living standards since they entered the handicraft business. Already, craft production seemed to have offered an alternative livelihood opportunity for m any families " hose quality o f life w ould have worsened, but for their participation in the handicraft business. Table 6.18 show's the results o f the assessment o f perceptions on a range o f issues, em ploying the Likert scale to identify responden ts ' shades o f opinion on the issues. Finally, even though respondents (99 percent) said they enjoyed the interview, they had the following complaints and requests to make by w'ay o f providing additional information after the interviews. Weavers com plained about some threads and yarns that proved to be o f low quality, while 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some dealers thought that loan repayment schedules were too short and that the cost o f materials were rising. Carvers com plained about the depletion o f preferred tree species, and that policemen and forest guards harassed them for cutting trees from the forests. The absence o f receptive facilities for tourists ' use was reported in all com m unities visited. To cater to this need, individual’s homes were used by tourists. There were also requests for marketing assistance, for loans and credit, intervention in solving chieftaincy disputes at A hw iaa and Bonwire, and the need for reliable sources o f raw materials. 6.10 Discussion an d S u m m a ry 6.10.1 Discussion Some craft workers experienced hunger, inadequate housing and overcrowding, could not send children to school, and children dropped out o f school for non-paym ent o f fees. They could not pay for medical services and had to se lf m edicate when they fell ill: and they could not find regular, and or secured jobs and so rem ained unem ployed or underemployed for long periods. While craft m erchants were more resilient to such shocks, slipping into poverty but raising themselves out o f it after a while, artisans found it more challenging to get out o f the poverty trap. They worked very hard to pay their debts, but found them selves borrowing or selling some o f their possessions, to make ends meet. TTie survival m entality has m ade them risk averse, leading to a lw ays seek short-cuts. They opted for short- term approaches instead o f thinking strategically in the long term. Their production was strongly influenced by the need to survive. Production was, therefore, directed at the tourist market, a m arket they poorly understood. This survivalist tendency stifled innovation, and artisans did not take the pains to produce m asterpieces, copies o f original craft items were m ade with poor design innovation. N one of the crafts w orkers had secured a copyright to their products, yet they com plained o f copying o f their designs by local and foreign producers. Among craft workers, perceptions o f poverty differed from place to place, and from one crafts worker group to the other. All craft workers were however, unanim ous on the inadequacy o f incom e and lack o f m oney as a common denominator o f poverty. Perceptions o f poverty amongst the various artisanal and m erchant groups related to their frustrations and vulnerabilities, created by their 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh inabilities to deal with certain challenges to their work (decline in work) on one part, and to general life challenges on the other; while perceptions of wealth were related to their aspirations and life expectations. In a way, poverty perceptions were ‘portraits o f poverty* painted by the poor themselves. Thus, poverty had both a ‘youthfu l’ and ‘elderly’ face, a ‘w o m an 's ' and ‘w id o w 's ' face, a ‘m igrant's ' face, an ‘illiterate’s ’ face, a ‘contract w orkers ' face and an ‘artisan’s ' lace. There were striking differences in the perceptions o f well-being and poverty between artisans and crafts merchants. W hereas artisans and the women groups focussed on critical issues such as food security, sickness and disability, inability to have children, dependency, inability to get married and loss o f a husband; the crafts m erchants and m en’s groups em phasised lack o f em ploym ent, lack o f adequate housing and respect, lack o f capital, lack of education and limited skills, and lack o f property. The diversity o f perceptions o f poverty and wealth were informative because they pointed to the various pathways ol' coping, and also influenced the choice o f coping and survival strategies. It should, therefore, inform and guide the choice o f interventions that would be relevant in addressing the issues raised. Craft workers identified poorer participants in the handicrafts enterprise by observation and examination o f one 's quality o f life. Poorer members were identified as those who were unable to maintain regular eating patterns, bought food on credit, and were almost always in debt. They were those who were som etim es found drunk, and were unemployed for long periods o f time. Most o f the poorer members happened to be artisans who worked on contract basis. They generally experienced harsher hardships comparatively. The causes o f poverty identified were threefold: those caused by onese lf (through laziness, drunkenness, large family sizes, unnecessary expenses on funerals and idleness etc.); those caused by natural and external factors over which victims had little or no control (like old age, sickness, reduced tourist visitation and sales, unfavourable policy environment and political factors); and those that were arena-based and inherited from the fam ily and community (such as lack o f social and economic infrastructure, low educational attainment, and poor parentage). The major cause o f poverty in the craft 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh villages, however, was identified by the majority o f discussants and respondents as laziness. 6.10.2 S u m m ary The chapter has identified the diversity o f ways craftspeople perceived and experienced poverty across the craft villages and w ithin the crafts industry. Som e similarities and differences were found in the local understandings and perceptions o f poverty across the study area. These are relevant for policy, and the formulation o f future intervention strategies. Craftspeople with low incomes preferred to be seen as hardworking but struggling people than to be branded ‘p o o r ’. This cultural sensibility needs to be respected. C alculation o f the CASHPOR Mouse Index revealed five categories o f people on the poverty - wealth spectrum , w hich is superior to the three-point s e lf perception / categorisation. Secondly, the distinction betw een ‘hardship' and ‘poverty ' w as useful in conceptualising poverty am ongst craftspeople in the Ashanti region. Identification o f the causes o f poverty, the perceptions and experiences o f the poor needs to be taken seriously in future studies. The next chapter presents the coping m echanism s engineered by craftspeople to overcom e production challenges and poverty. 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C H A P T E R SEVEN C O P IN G W I T H P R O D U C T IO N C H A L L E N G E S AND PO V E R TY 7.1 In troduc t ion The pervasiveness o f poverty conditions, difficulties in finding production inputs, and strangulated crafts m arkets, and the hardships that confront craft workers and their fam ilies has affected crafts w orkers’ welfare and the sustainability o f their livelihood portfolios negatively. Consequently these hardships have elicited quite a num ber o f complex adjustm ent m echanism s that enable craftspeople to cope with production challenges and escape, or withstand the effects o f poverty. This chapter exam ines the range o f strategies crafts people have adopted to cope with production challenges in order to sustain production and secure their well-being. The chapter also outlines the coping and survival m echanism s craftspeople have engineered to combat poverty in the crafts villages. Finally, the chapter concludes with a discussion o f the relationship between coping strategies and livelihood assets o f craftspeople. 7.2 C oping and Survival M echanisms In consonance w ith Sahl (1996) and Bangura (1994), there was diversity in the kind o f measures taken to deal w ith a particular challenge that em erged when individuals were confronted with limited resources for their survival and well-being. T he range o f immediate, short-term or tem poral measures that were taken to manage the situation, to achieve a certain degree o f respite may be te rm ed ‘survival or cop ing ’ strategies. The medium to long-term and more perm anent measures, on the other hand, may be termed ‘adaptive’ strategies. Usually, craftspeople responded w ith a mix o f survival and adaptive strategies designed to deal with the im m ediate problem, and to forestall their future occurrence. 7.2.1 Capacity to Cope Craft w orkers’ ability to cope with and recover from shocks, maintain quality o f life over time, and provide the sam e or better opportunities for their fam ilies, now and in the future was influenced by 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the quality and quantity o f capitals (Natural, Financial, Social, H um an, and Physical) available to them. In this regard, their hum an capital (education, skills, expertise, household size) and ability to convert available financial, natural, cultural, physical, and social resources into various levels o f well­ being within the socio-econom ic and cultural environment determ ined the quality o f their coping strategies. The household econom y was m ade up o f production, consum ption and exchange activities. This household econom y was a function o f the household size, its dem ographic composition, their activities, ownership o f resources and the way these resources were utilised. Households in the study area were characterised by the extended family system. As m any as ninety-nine (99) extended family household m em bers were being taken care o f by about 29 percent o f the respondents. Clearly, the dependency burden was high. Hence, m aintaining food security and reducing exposure to the risks o f budget deficit were the m ost important concerns o f artisans and m erchants alike. Discussants, therefore, chose the appropriate ways they perceived suitable to organise themselves and their resources to balance their income and expenditure, and m ake some savings for use during the lean season. It was difficult for crafts people to save. W hen they did, it was basically a “postponed consum ption ' rather than a form o f accumulation. To succeed, m any o f them had to exploit themselves to the limit. They adopted frugal lifestyles, worked long hours, and denied themselves many pleasures in order to make ends m eet. Many have also taken to drinking alcohol as a way o f coping with their emotional stress. During the tourist lean season, coping and survival m echanism s were highly influenced by factors such as the individual's social networks, ability to mobilise resources, degree o f economic vulnerability, ownership and access to productive assets, and the availability o f alternative job opportunities. In the crafts villages, the nature ol response to socio-econom ic changes was found to be diverse, and in tandem with their resource endowments, exchange entitlements, w ork conditions and social linkages. These factors, among others, constitute the determ inants to the m ost suitable ways o f response. 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.3 C op ing with C ra f t Production Challenges 7.3.1 C oping with Difficulties in F inding Raw M ater ia ls W hen shortages occurred, craft workers usually travelled outside their com m unities to obtain such production inputs in order to stay in business. This entailed additional costs and delays that negatively im pacted on already tight margins. Prices o f raw materials also kept fluctuating. This negatively affected the profitability o f their businesses. Shortages in finding high quality yarns, depletion and difficulty in finding certain wood species, clay, and certain dyes for making beads were some o f the com plaints o f both m erchants and artisans in all the craft villages studied. Most o f the production inputs were, however, obtained locally w ithin the crafts villages. Table 7.1 show s the challenges to finding raw materials in the selected crafts villages. Table 7.1 __Challenges in F inding R eliab le Raw M ate r ia ls Bonwire % Ahwiaa % Pankrono % Asamang % Shortages 29.0 Harassment 10.2 Shortages 66.8 Shortage of dye 50.0 Cannot find rare colours 1.4 Depletion 13.6 Fields sold 16.7 No difficulty 50.0 No difficulty 69.6 Shortages 50.0 Costly fuel 16.7 fota! 100.0 Total 100.0 No difficulty 25.4 l ota I 100.0 Total 100 Source: F ie ld w o rk , 2006 . Overall, 52.9 percent crafts people reported difficulties in procuring raw materials for their enterprises. Difficulties in finding raw materials locally have the potential o f leading to marked decline in crafts production at present locations, and/or a m igration o f the crafts people and centres o f production to areas where such inputs are cheaply and abundantly available. Yam shortages are not a big problem in Bonwire. however, w eavers and kente merchants have, on occasions, had to travel to Accra to obtain high quality rayon yam s, and rare fast coloured yarns for weaving special kente that would not fade. Some special accessories lor the looms that were used by some contract migrant weavers were reported to be obtainable only from the Volta region. However, there were only occasional shortages in finding good quality yarn. In the past, imported yarns were scarce, but today factory produced yarns abound locally. Difficulty in finding suitable wood for carving has becom e a m ajor headache for carvers and merchants alike. This problem has elicited various coping and adaptive strategies. First, log suppliers, 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh independent carvers and merchants travelled to adjoining districts with forests containing the preferred tree species to obtain them. After negotiations, the logs were transported to the carving village to be worked on by contract carvers. Secondly, some independent carvers and their fam ilies have migrated to areas where they found suitable trees easily. The relocation o f carvers was a m easure to avoid the long distances and additional transportation costs incurred in procuring trees for carving. However, m ost o f the carved item s found their way back to Ahwiaa, for sale to tourists and other local and foreign retailers. Difficulty in finding suitable tree species for carving was com pounded by the fact that carvers had to com pete with sawmills for som e tree species. This was especially so in the case o f Sese. However, unlike the saw mills, carvers did not have tree felling concessions. This made it difficult for them to obtain trees easily and legally. To cope, carvers with specialisation in Oware, and other sm aller items like Akuaba (Ashanti fertility figurines) were now using sawmills rejects/scantlings in carving these smaller craft items. Another response to difficulties in finding suitable wrood for carving w^as to utilise other tree species, like teak and Cedera for carving objects directed at the tourist market. Additionally, craftspeople produced smaller craft objects referred in the literature as miniaturisation. M iniaturisation served a dual purpose. It helped in conserving scarce raw materials and satisfied tourists' needs as well. With airline restrictions on passengers' baggage w eigh t allowances, sm aller items and replicas o f the originals seemed to be catching on with tourists. On the whole, carvers made a more efficient use of wood, and added more value to it com pared to sawmills. For a long time, craftspeople have cut trees free o f charge and without the need for perm its and waybills. They, therefore, did all they could to avoid paying for permits and waybills. However, som e craft merchants had to pay bribes for the release o f their logs when they were arrested by the police or forest guards. When it became impossible to find certain types o f w-ood legally, carvers and m erchants admitted they stole trees from protected forests. To avoid this unpleasant situation, many carvers carried out their operations in the bush, as carved items did not require perm its and waybills to be 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh transported from one location to the other. Carving in the bush and paying bribes have, therefore, emerged as strategies to avoid problem s created by harassment from the police and forest guards. Some finishers also reported occasional shortages o f po tassium ; however, it was easily obtainable from Kumasi. Thus, travel to distant places to procure w ood, migration, use o f less suitable tree species, use o f sawm ill rejects, miniaturisation, and tree stealing from protected reserves, were all ways o f coping with scarce w ood supply. The proximity o f Pankrono to the city o f Kumasi, and the establishm ent o f a modern residential estate. (Pankrono Estates) that stretches across virtually all the c lay w inning fields have led to serious problems for the old potters. These problems have elicited some cop ing strategies that account for the little traces o f pot m aking that we still see at Pankrono today. To remain in business, even if at a very diminished capacity, the old potters had to scavenge for clay that was found when foundation pits were dug to put up houses. Som etim es, clay was dug behind people's backyards. Potters reported that property ow ners did not take kindly to holes being dug behind their walls and backyards, and have usually chased them away. The shortage in clay supplies and the general disinterest am ongst the youth, with regards to pot m aking as a vocation, have created serious challenges to the viability and sustainability o f pot m aking in Pankrono. Pottery seems to be a dying craft activity in Pankrono. Another problem that severely constrained potters* wrork was the issue of finding fuel wood to bake the pots. Hitherto, firewood w'as freely gathered from the nearby bushes, but buildings have taken over the Helds. Potters have had to buy firew ood from Ahwiaa sawmills and other firewood sellers. T his is an additional cost which makes their endeavours less profitable. The powder glass bead business relied on local and foreign sources for raw materials. Broken bottles were sourced from the Coca Cola Bottling plant and other brew eries in Kumasi. However, FGD participants reported that the chem icals and dyes used in the craft were imported from the U.S.A and Japan. Though there w'ere no reported cases o f shortages in finding broken bottles for making beads, occasional shortages o f the chem icals was reported. To cope during such periods o f shortage, supplies were obtained from the College o f Art o f the Kw'ame Nkrum ah University o f Science and Technology 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (KNUST); from the central market in Kumasi, and from bead m aking com m unities in Dodowa in the Eastern region. Work had ceased for a very long time, since the change o f government in 2000. Equipment and several dust-laden bags o f broken bottles and chem icals were seen at the factory site at Asamang during the study. 7.3.2 Coping with Scarce W ork in g Capital and Finance A major com plaint o f craft workers, especially m erchants, was related to finding reliable sources o f w orking capital to support and expand their work. Som etim es, capital was needed just to be able to deliver an order. M any m erchants relied on their own savings and loans from relations, colleagues and friends to survive in the handicrafts business. A few o f the discussants mentioned Prudential Bank and. First Allied Bank as the only banks that advanced loans to some o f them. In the last resort, they turned to local m oney lenders for loans to support their businesses. They reported that it was far easier to obtain a loan for funerals than it was for business. A close look at the sources o f credit reveals that institutional credit was not accessible to all crafts workers equally. F o r lack o f collateral, many o f them had to fall on their social capital by borrowing from persons in their social circles. Some o f them had to dispose o f possessions to raise funds to support their businesses. Such distress sale o f assets earned them less than the market value for the items pawned. Craft merchants had more access to institutional credit than artisans. About 21.7 percent reported that they did not have access to credit at all, while about 55 percent had to fall on personal savings and on their social capital to obtain capital for their businesses. The analysis shows that artisans were more versatile in their search for capital, exploiting all avenues open to them. Most artisans and a few m erchants borrowed from friends, employers, colleagues, and customers, becom ing indebted to them in the process. Some artisans who defaulted in paying their debts had to pay these debts by working for their creditors. 230 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.3.3 Coping with Skilled L a b o u r S hor tages M erchants were confronted w ith the task o f finding the best carvers and w eavers available in order to stay in business. The artisan m erchant relationship was usually, one o f trust. However, it was difficult to find trustworthy carvers and w eavers at Ahwiaa and Bonwire respectively. The dearth o f master weavers in Bonwire, especially has led to the recruitment o f weavers from Akpokorpe, near Agortime Kpetoe and other places in the Volta region, to work as contract weavers. W hen dealers were hard pressed, they bought products from w eavers from surrounding kente producing villages in order to deliver on orders. M erchants usually handpicked carvers for specific jobs. However, som e o f the unreliable carvers were the only ones who could carve certain objects. M erchants, therefore, had no choice but to go to them for such jobs. Some carvers had become notorious for disappointing merchants, taking advanced paym ents and failing, or refusing to deliver. However, some merchants also reneged on their promises to pay the carvers on time, and in bulk. Some o f the carvers w ere easily swayed into selling carved items to other m erchants for instant cash, with the hope o f m aking a replacement later. However, due to the strict deadlines for merchants to deliver, this created problem s for merchants. Merchants com plained o f lost business opportunities due to unnecessary delays. Another measure merchants adopted to keep artisans w ork ing for them was to w ithhold some o f their wages till the next contract. This way, m erchants were able to keep the working relationship for a while. Secondly, this ‘delayed payments strategy ' was to ensure that carvers did not abscond with part-paym ents for their services. The problems and coping strategies observed in Awhiaa and Bonwire with regards to finding reliable carvers and weavers were not present at Pankrono and Asamang. Former bead makers had become redundant, and were now peasant farmers and petty traders. Both men and w om en at Asam ang survived by finding work in Kumasi on a daily basis, while, inhabitants o f Pankrono survived pursuing non-farm, non-pottery based urban econom ic activities. Additionally, the few pot sellers in the town did not offer competitive prices for the pots. The low prices and the drudgery o f finding clay, and 231 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh firewood served as a disincentive, and the old potters were unable to cope with this burden. Pot sellers continued to exploit not only the old potters, but also the fame o f Pankrono, as certain special pots used for rituals and for medicinal purposes were obtainable only at this place. To add variety to their collections, and to augm ent local production, pot sellers procured coolers, asanka, and other earthenware from Afari, Nfansi, K w ahu. and Abuakwa. However, the keen com petition amongst the three pot sellers in the tow n results in frequent quarrels and anim osity am ongst them. 7.3.4 Coping with M a rk e t in g and Selling Constraints To survive, m erchants at A hw iaa and Bonwire have adopted a range o f coping m echanism s to deal with the slump in tourist arrivals, and in sales. Shop boys and crafts haw kers had become aggressive in their quest to m ake sales, so much so that they virtually chased the tourists with goods from one shop to the other, much to the annoyance o f other shop owners. This harassm ent o f tourists, sometimes, resulted in argum ents and fights amongst shop boys. This resulted in low overall sales for everybody. Generally, handicrafts have a very high symbolic content w ith respect to their material content, which renders the question o f pricing problem atic. Carved items and other handicrafts, therefore, had no fixed prices. A system o f bargaining o r haggling was adopted to determ ine the price when tourists arrived. Wood suppliers, carvers and finishers, therefore, lost out on the windfall gains made in selling the final product, as the value o f the material content and services to produce the final product was relatively negligible - for instance, the wood used in carving an object m akes up only a minimal part o f the value o f the finished product. The prices o f these cultural products were, therefore, determined to a large extent by their symbolic value. Another way to survive was to reduce prices so as to make products cheaper. Shop attendants reduced their ow n prices in order to sell more. This move reduced their margins in a way, but as shop owners derived super normal profits from craft sales they still m ade decent profits. Some craft merchants said they operated shops and galleries in Kumasi and Accra as a way o f diversifying the points o f sales. Some also exported various carved items to local and foreign distributors. 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Som e independent finishers reported selling their products in crafts markets in Benin and Burkina Faso. However, craft exporters were the more established dealers in the woodcarvings and kente business. They were perceived by their colleagues as having all the right connections and contacts locally and abroad. Overall, 25.4 percent were engaged in crafts exports. W hile 91.4 percent merchants sold directly to tourists, only 42.8 percent artisans had any direct dealings with tourists. There was a 52.2 percent preference for foreign markets while 44.2 percent preferred local m arkets. However, som e 3.6 percent o f the craftspeople had no preference. At Bonwire and Ahwiaa, contract weavers and carvers were not allowed to deal with tourists directly, and were kept busy by craft merchants all the time. However, som e migrant weavers and carvers had pooled their resources to put up a structure for craft sales to improve their own earnings. Organising craft festivals in the production village w as seen as an innovative way o f attracting tourists into the craft villages, and cashing in on the opportunity to market and sell products. The Ejisu Juaben district assem bly in conjunction with weavers and kente m erchants and chiefs have organised such bi-annual festivals at Bonwire. Sustainability o f the organisation o f the festival has, however, become problematic and the festival could not come on in 2006. Even though crafts workers at Ahw iaa saw festivals as a great opportunity to improve sales and celebrate carving with a display o f masterpieces, they faced organisational difficulties. Participation in crafts fairs and trade fairs was ano ther strategy adopted by only 33.3 percent o f all crafts workers, with only 14.5 percent reporting o f participation in international trade fairs. They complained o f the high cost o f participation being a deterrent to them. Due to the decline in tourist visitations and the proliferation o f industrial imitations and substitutes. 70.3 percent craft workers reported severe com petition in their w'ork. Even though 58.0 percent respondents believed that craft production in their villages w'as declining. 44.2 percent wrere o f the view that the continued survival o f their businesses depended on the past glory o f the selected craft villages as renowned traditional centres for authentic Ashanti crafts. Place promotion. was thus important for sustaining craft enterprises in the Ashanti region. However, craftspeople did not have the 233 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resources to prom ote their businesses by themselves. For exam ple, only 12.2 percent advertised their products, m ainly through the use o f complimentary cards and brochures; about 23.9 percent labelled their products; and 67.4 percent offered explanations w ith regards to how to use or take care o f the handicraft objects sold. Table 7.2 Most Pressing P ro blems of C raf ts W orkers Problems A rt isans M e rc h a n ts Total Difficulty in g e t t in g credit 49.4 31.9 42 .0 Difficulty in se l l ing produce 23 .6 51.1 33.3 Difficulty in ge t t ing r a w mater ia ls 20 .9 19.1 20.3 High cost o f p ro d u c t io n 5.5 10.6 7.2 Unreliabili ty' o f w o rk e rs 4.4 12.8 7.2 Difficulty in r e p a i r in g tools and m a c h in e s 1.1 O.O 0.7 Tight dead l ines f ro m m erchan ts /dea le r s 1.1 O.O 0.7 Low ra tes /pr ices pa id by shop o w n e r s 1.1 O.O 0.7 Hawkers in v ad e m y shop 9.9 12.8 10.9 No prob lem s 4.4 2.1 3.6 Total 1 0 0 .0 (9 1 ) 100.0 (47) 100.0 (1 3 8 ) Source: F ie ld w o rk , 2006 . M any o f the enterprises were no t operated along business lines. Only 14.5 percent reported having a business plan, and only 29.7 percent respondents had registered their businesses. However, about 66.7 percent had telephone contact while a few (2.2 percent) could be reached through the post and by e-mail. Aside telephony, craft workers hardly utilised the internet and other information and communication technologies in their work. To cope with the collapse o f the powder glass bead business, two o f the surviving bead m akers supplied som e o f their products to the M anhyia Palace Museum for sale to tourists, through special arrangements. This was possible because they had relations in the palace. Once again, social capital was exploited in order to cope with the difficulty in finding reliable markets for their beads. This also reflects some level o f inequality, and those w ho had no contacts in the palace could riot cope, and had to find alternative livelihood activities to survive. Many former bead makers are peasant farmers and petty traders now. Rural-urban dynamics are also exploited as K um asi’s proximity offers daily work opportunities to many youths from Asam ang who work as masons and day labourers. Finally, some craftspeople faced communication difficulties when dealing with non-English speaking tourists. A few finishers and shop boys spoke French and w ere usually called upon to 234 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh translate when their colleagues encountered French clients. Som e o f them ended up drawing these clients to their ow n shops. Generally, calculators were used to aid price conversions, and for quoting prices in a ‘silent trade' fashion until an agreeable price were arrived at. Table 8.2 illustrates the most pressing problems reported by respondents. 7.4 Coping with Poverty To cope with poverty or tem poral hardships, the craft workers used a variety o f quite complex allocation m echanism s, depending on their perceptions o f risk, to re-organise resource use. Several coping and survival strategies have been identified. These include w orking hard to earn supplementary incomes from other jobs; disposal o f possessions, including land, houses, jewellery, and electronic gadgets; borrowing from friends, relations and colleagues; external support m echanism s that included remittances, transfers and donations; increase o f income earners at home, child neglect and child labour; and readjustment o f consum ption habits. These coping and survival m echanism s are examined in the following sub-sections. 7.4.1 S upplem entary Income Poverty has becom e a com m on threat so much so that a single activity was not enough to adequately sustain life in the craft villages. Craftspeople tried to diversify their income portfolios through income diversification activities, which Bangura (1994) describes as ‘multi-survival strategies' consisting of, subsistence remunerative w ork on com m ission or wage basis, self- employment. migration and urban inform al jobs. The first stage o f the ad justm ent measures was the engagem ent in a source generating supplementary income. Those who w ere engaged in this form o f coping survived by working for other craft workers wrhen they had some spare time, i.e. selling their labour. Som e m igrant weavers said they worked on farms on weekends ‘by d a y ' to earn additional income to support themselves until they completed a contract to receive paym ent. Others survived through subsistence farm ing and the keeping ol domestic animals that were sold during crises situations. Som e craft m erchants operated transport 235 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh businesses (tro-tro, and taxi); and som e said they did som e petty trading on the side. W hen incom es from supplem entary activities failed to fill the incom e-expenditure gap. craft workers resorted to borrowing, buying food on credit, selling some personal effects, and readjusting their consum ption habits and eating patterns. 7.4.2 Borrowing As noted above, craft workers exploited their 'soc ial relationships o f trust and reciprocity* (social capital) by borrow ing from relations, friends and colleagues. Borrowing was not limited to only artisans; m erchants also em ployed this strategy to obtain ‘soft ' loans from those with whom they shared reciprocal relationships o f trust. Som e craft workers reported borrowing from their wives when it became necessary. Craft workers also borrowed from local m oney lenders, m iddlem en who were their regular custom ers, and from the banks. However, local m oney lenders and banks w ere approached for loans only when it became impossible to find em ergency loans from other sources. Table 7.3 Food Insecurity a nd_Coj>ingJ>trategies What did (or w o u l d ) y o u do C o m m unitv N a m e Art isan M erchan t Total when hard pressed for food to B o n w ire A h w ia a Pankrono A s a m a n g N =91 N = 4 7 N = 1 38 feed your h o u s e h o ld ? N = 6 9 N = 5 9 N=6 N = 4 Borrow (fr iends & re la t ions ) 43.5 52.5 66.7 50.0 51.6 42.6 48 .6 Borrow (co l le ag u es & Boss) 4.3 1.7 O.O 25.0 3.3 4.3 3.6 Look for a loan 2.9 8.5 O.O O.O 5.5 4.3 5.1 Assistance ( f r iends & Kin) 17.4 8.5 16.7 O.O 13.2 12.8 13.0 Sell personal e f fec ts 7.2 6.8 16.7 O.O 3.3 14.9 7.2 Buy food on credit 1.4 1.7 O.O O.O 2.2 O.O 1.4 Find second j o b / w o rk harder 4.3 O.O O.O O.O 2.2 2.1 2.2 Go without food / e a t less 8.7 13.6 O.O 25 .0 9.9 12.8 10.9 Start farming / g a rd en 4.3 O.O O.O O.O 3.3 O.O 2.2 Don't know w h a t to do 5.8 6.8 O.O O.O 5.5 6.4 5.8 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: F ie ldw ork , 2 0 0 6 . Craft peoples’ social capital is more evident when one analyses the range o f actions they took in the face o f certain challenges. Overall, craft merchants were better connected than their artisan counterparts. The section on vignettes was used to capture w hat craftspeople did or would do in given hypothetical situations. The described situations were designed to tease out their social and financial capitals as show n in Tables 7.3, 7.4 and 7.5. In these sections, respondents were asked to state what they did or would do il they were hard pressed for food to feed the family; when they needed a 236 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh substantial am ount o f money at short notice; and when they were bereaved at a time they did not have sufficient funds. Overall, about two-thirds (61.6 percent) o f craftspeople sought (or w ould seek) assistance from family and friends when confronted w ith difficulties in feeding m em bers o f their households. Craftspeople in Pankrono and A sam ang seem to have the most limited options. However, buying food on credit, borrowing from colleagues and employers, and seeking assistance from family and friends were important options which reveal the social capital o f the poorer craftspeople. 7.4.3 Disposal o f Possessions Due to the generally low rates paid by merchants, artisans were hardly able to survive on their earnings. They were alm ost alw ays short o f cash. To bridge the gap, many o f them reported borrowing from friends and relatives within and outside their kinship circles. M ost o f them reported being in permanent debt. To offset their indebtedness, and to raise m oney for pressing dom estic or work related expenses, some craft workers d isposed o f some of their personal effects and other household items. Table 7.4 shows the interrelationship betw een social and financial capital. The responses in table 7.4 also suggest craft people’s sources o f finance in an emergency situation. Again, social capital (friends, relations, colleagues and em ployers) feature prominently in the asset portfolios o f craftspeople. Successful entrepreneurs com bined formal and informal channels o f help in the m anagem ent o f their enterprises. Table 7.4 E m erg en cy F in an c ia l Needs and Coping S tra teg ies What w ould you d o w hen you C o m m u n ity N am e A rtisan M erchan ts Total need a substantial am o u n t o f B o n w ire A hw iaa Pankrono A s a m a n g N=91 N = 4 7 N = 138 m oney at short no tice? N = 6 9 N = 5 9 N=6 N =4 Borrow (friends &. re la tions) 47.8 39 .0 6 6 7 75.0 49 .5 38.3 45.7 Borrow (co lleagues & em ployer) 7.2 3.4 O.C O.O 6.6 2.1 5.1 Look for a loan (m o n ey lender) 18.8 25.4 O.O O.O 13.2 34 .0 20.3 A ssistance (fr iends & re la tions) 14.5 13.6 O.O O.O 15.4 '8 .5 13.0 Sell personal effects 4.3 6.8 16.7 25 .0 5.5 8.5 6.5 W ithdraw m o n ey from sav ings 1.4 1.7 O.O O.O 2.2 O.O 1.4 Forgo w hat I need the m o n ey for 1.4 3.4 O.O O.O 2.2 2.1 2.2 Borrow and w ith d raw sav ings O.O 1.7 O.O O.O 1.1 O.O 0.7 Get assis tance from & S av ings O.O 1.7 O.O O.O O.O 2.1 0.7 D on 't know w hat to do 4.3 3.4 16.7 O.O 4.4 4.3 4.3 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: Fieldwork, 2006. 237 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh These informal sources o f finance were devoid o f the tim e consum ing bureaucracy and paperwork associated w ith bank loans. These were last, timely and did not require collateral o f any kind. Apart from local m oney lenders, loans from friends and relations did not usually attract any interest. These sources w ere, therefore, cheaper com pared to bank loans and loans from money lenders. Table 7.5 shows w hat happens w hen one was bereaved. A distinction needs to be m ade between borrow ing from friends and relations and getting assistance from friends and relations. In the former case, there is an im plicit intention to repay the loan; however, the latter case suggests no intention to pay back w hatever ‘he lp ’ or ‘assistance' friends and relations have offered. Indeed, m any craftspeople expect this ‘help or assistance’ from siblings, parents, friends and colleagues during emergencies and tim es o f stress. Table 7.5 B e re a v e m e n t /F u n e ra l E x p e n ses and C o p in g S t ra te g ies What w ould you do w h en you are C om m unity N am e A rtisan M erchan ts Total bereaved and do not have m o n e y ? B o n w ire A hw iaa Pankrono A sa m a n g N = 9 I N = 47 N = I3 8 N = 6 9 N = 5 9 N=6 N = 4 Borrow from fr iends & re la tions 36.2 42.4 66.7 25 .0 45.1 29 .8 39.9 Borrow (co lleag u es & em p lo y e r ) 4 .3 1.7 O.O O.O 2.2 4.3 2.9 Look for a bank loan 26.1 25.4 O.O 50.0 19.8 36.2 25.4 Assistance (fr iends & re la tions) 18.8 13.6 33.3 25 .0 17.6 17.0 17.4 Sell personal effects 8.7 6.8 0 0 O.O 8.8 4.3 7.2 W ithdraw m o n e y from sav in g s 4.3 1.7 0 0 O.O 3.3 2.1 2.9 Take a loan from m o n e y lender 1.4 5.1 O.O O.O 2.2 4.3 2.9 Get assis tance & spend S av ings O.O 1.7 O.O O.O O.O 2.1 0.7 D o n ’t know w h a t to do O.O 1.7 O.O O.O 1.1 O.O 0.7 Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 Source: F ie ldw ork , 2006 . It is interesting to note that crafts people, who com plained about delays and bureaucracy when taking a loan from the bank, suddenly went to the bank for loans (25.4 percent) when they were bereaved. However, they explained that it was easier and faster to get a bank loan for funeral purposes t h a n foi business. While only 15.2 percent craftspeople were in any kind o f insurance scheme, there were 31.9 percent craft m erchants compared to only 6.6 percent artisans members o f insurance schemes. Electrical gadgets, jew ellery , personal kente cloth; domestic anim als, land and buildings, vehicles, and mobile phones were sold at giveaway prices. Som e artisans reported selling some o f their tools and raw materials like yam s when they were hard pressed for cash. However, such distress sale 238 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of personal effects and other household items were resorted to only when other efforts to raise m oney at short notice failed. Crafts workers perceived the sale o f personal belongings as undesirable. A considerable part o f these resources, particularly land and estates, were social assets that raised the social status o f the owner. Losing them meant losing o n e 's social status and prestige. Overall, craft person 's financial capital com prised savings, bank loans, money lenders, and stock o f unfinished goods. Social capital on the other hand com prised friends and relations, colleagues and employers, religious and professional association m em bers. 7.4.4 Remittances, T ransfe rs an d Donations Another w ay o f coping was to fall on remittances from relations and friends living abroad or locally in other tow ns and cities; and on occasional gifts o f cash and kind. These forms o f coping were more prevalent at Pankrono, am ongst the old potters. T hese forms o f coping seem to be em ployed amongst the elderly and younger artisans. They were, however, not a reliable way to make a living according to discussants at Pankrono. While majority o f the old potters at Pankrono were entirely dependent on such sources o f income, the few that were still active in the pottery business w'ere able to supplement their rem ittances with whatever income the)’ earned from m aking pots. 7.4.5 Use of U npa id Family Labour , Child L ab o u r a n d Neglect Many craft workers reported falling on family m em bers to secure their livelihoods. W ives, grown up children and even school age children wrere m obilised to provide assistance in running their enterprises. Even though family labour was usually not paid for. sometimes, family m embers had to work for others for income to support the family budget. Som e school-age children skipped school to work for others and kept the income for their personal use. This situation has led to m any school children playing truant and earning income sandpapering w ood sculptures or weaving kente instead o f going to school. Both artisans and merchants saw truancy in the ir com m unities as a major problem, but were still far from finding a solution, as they found themselves in a difficult and conflicting situation. Using 239 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh child labour w as cheaper, and when w orking with tight deadlines, it was an option that was virtually impossible to ignore. Seen differently, giving opportunities to the younger ones to try their hands at some aspects o f the craft production w as how they honed their skills practically, so the children ‘learnt by doing ', and for a reward that w as vital for the family welfare. W ithout such opportunities for children and w om en to earn incom e, som e families w ould experience severe hardships. Some children got involved in crafts production out o f genuine interest and did not get paid for rendering services, however, for others it had become a matter o f an econom ic necessity. Some needy parents and guardians allowed, or even facilitated child work as a m eans to alleviate their poverty. When school-age boys and girls w orked during holidays, or after school in sandpapering, polishing, spinning thread, weaving and m aking bracelets, selling iced water and other items, it m ay not just be a case o f truancy but one o f poverty alleviation. Child labour may have a negative impact on the children, their families and the society as a whole. These consist o f impact on the ch ild 's health, school achievement, possible deviant practices and other risks involved. H owever, w hen m em bers o f the family do not rally behind the breadwinner, to demonstrate solidarity and share the burden o f finding resources to meet the basic needs, som e discussants said they reneged on responsibilities, not because they were irresponsible, but that they simply could not meet their obligations. Some carvers said they had to ask their wives to return to the village until things improved. W hen this happened, children, wives and the aged were neglected sometimes. Neglect was, therefore an option for coping. 7.4.6 R ead ju s tm en t of C o n su m p tio n H ab its To reduce vulnerability and the risk o f falling into the poverty trap in the event o f econom ic hardship, craft workers readjusted by instituting changes in the pattern o f their assets utilisation, and in their consumption behaviour. Readjustment strategies were som etim es self-generated and were preventive in nature, especially in the utilisation o f assets or property. C hanges in utilisation o f assets reported included renting o f a house or part o f a house, and turning part o f the dwelling unit into workshops. Som e merchants at Ahwiaa converted their private cars into taxis. 240 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Changes in consum ption patterns were primarily cooking less often, and in m any cases, a direct reduction in consumption. In this strategy, craft workers either reduced the quality or quantity, or both, o f their food consumption. M any craftspeople did not cook. They simply bought cooked food. This was so even for the m arried ones with children. Children were given som e palliative breakfast (koko. cocoa drinks, and other beverages) to keep their hunger at bay until meal time. M ost craft workers said they ate their first meal from about 10am to about midday. Thus, by strategically placing breakfast closer to lunch time, it nullified the need for lunch, thereby reducing the daily meal burden from three to two main meals. The evening meal, however, w as the m ajor meal that stood the greatest chance o f being cooked at home for those living with their w ives and children. For those living alone, eating places along the main roads and within the villages served their eating needs well. A related strategy w as to eat a heavy meal as breakfast, which usually provided them with the energy required for the arduous work, and also sustained them till the next meal tim e in the evening. W hen food was difficult to come by, the mechanism under their im m ediate control wras to decrease their food consumption. The range o f strategies adopted by craft workers to deal with poverty included soliciting assistance from family and friends, i.e., draw ing on their social capital; by w orking hard, by starting craft businesses, and by finding supplem entary jobs. They also sold some personal effects, i.e. converting some personal assets into financial capital. Other strategies involved migration into craft villages, depending on remittances and by praying for divine intervention. Respondents reported that there were good times and bad times in the handicrafts trade. The good times were experienced during the tourist season, when tourists arrived and sales picked, from June through September. Bad times according to the crafts workers were experienced during the lean tourist season, w hen sales volumes dipped. Feeding regimes, quality, quantity and frequency o f meals were usually the first to be affected when a family or an individual's economic situation changed negatively. The foods respondents consumed during breakfast show that they preferred a heavy breakfast. 1 hey ate porridge/koko, beverage, rice and stew, waakye, ampesi, kenkey, fufu, gari and beans for 241 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh breakfast. Banku, (37.7 percent) was the m ost popular breakfast food item, followed by rice and stew (34.0 percent) am ongst the artisans. Generally. (82.6 percent) craft w orkers ate a heavy breakfast, with only 17.4 percent taking porridge and beverage at breakfast. A ccording to carvers and weavers, the nature o f their work dem ands that they ate a heavy meal that would sustain them for the hard work. For lunch, craft w orkers ate rice and stew, am pesi, kenkey, fufu, banku, kokonte, gari and beans and roasted yam. At lunch, rice and stew, ampesi and kenkey dominated. Foods eaten during supper were not different from those eaten at breakfast and lunch. However, fufu (37.7 percent) emerged as the major food for supper. Desserts were not popular with craft workers, as over eighty percent (87 percent) did not eat any desserts. The few that reported eating desserts took soft drinks (7.2 percent). Bananas and oranges were the only fruits eaten by 4.4 percent o f those who ate some dessert. 7.5 Local S tru c tu re s a n d Processes Local structures and processes have an immense influence on w ho gets what, and when in the community. These structures influenced the allocation and access to productive resources, and were linked to the local powrer structure. Issues o f inequalities results from unequal access to local resources and opportunities. In this section, the social, cultural and political structures that either support oi hinder efforts o f crafts people in the pursuit o f sustainable livelihoods are discussed. Local structures that influenced handicrafts activities in the study area included the traditional authority, the district and metropolitan assemblies, assemblymen and unit com m ittee m embers o f the crafts communities: the regional Ghana Tourist Board, and the Centre for National Culture, National Board for Small Scale Industries, and local crafts associations. The influence o f these institutions on craft production seemed to be negligible, as craftspeople said they had very little interaction with them. Even the traditional authorities did not seem to have much control over the activities o f craftspeople in all the crafts villages studied. District and municipal assemblies were seen only as tax collectors. Craftspeople were not satisfied with the development efforts o f district assemblies in their various communities. 242 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.6 Discussion and S u m m a ry 7.6.1 Discussion Overall, it is im portant to note that survival and coping strategies that were engineered to deal with production difficulties show ed either resilience or vulnerability. T hose craftsm en demonstrating resilience consist o f those w ho crafted ingenious ways o f solving the p rob lem to remain in business, while those dem onstrating vulnerability found exit strategies. Som e tried to put up with the challenges, or quit the craft business altogether. Thus, there seem s to be a strong link between perceptions o f poverty, how poverty is experienced and the kind o f coping m echanism s adopted; and these have to guide the selection o f in terventions to com bat poverty. I lowever, it appears that self-employed craft merchants possessed m ore effective coping strategies to foil on than their contract artisan counterparts. The proposition that 'perceptions o f poverty are linked to peoples ' aspirations or perceptions o f w ealth ' seems to be valid w hen one looks at the evidence from this present study. Sahl (1996, 2001) m akes a clear distinction between survival and coping strategies to m ean short-term m echanism s in the former, and longer-term strategies in the latter ease, in this study adaptation is seen as a continuum o f short to long term adjustm ents consisting o f survival, coping and adaptation itself as the final perm anen t change that signifies the finding o f a concrete solution to the challenge. Thus, adaptation is v iew ed as both a process (journey) and a state (destination). To cope with poverty and temporal hardships, craft workers used a variety o f quite complex allocation mechanisms. It is im portant to note that while some o f the coping and survival strategies w'ere completely legitimate and genuine, others were less so as they contravened laid down rules and regulations or bordered on illegalities. For example, stealing trees from protected forests, bribing policemen and forest guards to avoid prosecution, and cutting trees w ithout the necessary permits and payment o f appropriate taxes w^ere not sustainable. O ther undesirable practices included harassment o f tourists to make a sale, delaying paym ent o f contract artisans, prevention o f some category o f craftspeople to sell directly to tourists, and low rates that dealers paid carvers, weavers and potters. Personal profits were, thus, made at social and environmental cost, reinforcing local inequalities. 243 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7.6.2 S u m m a ry Coping m echanism s have been found to be influenced by the quality and quantity o f capitals available to craftspeople. The diverse ways in which crafts people used their hum an capital to mobilise and convert financial, physical, natural and social capitals into levels o f w ell-being have been noted. The complex allocation m echanism s craftspeople used to re-organise their resource use during harsh times included diversification o f their incom e portfolios to earn supplem entary incomes, changes in the utilisation o f assets, changes in consum ption patterns, borrowing , disposal o f possessions and relying on remittances and transfers. Increasing the number o f w orking household m em bers, including child labour and even, neglect were identified as some o f the coping and survival m echanism s used by craftspeople to cope with reduced levels o f welfare. Finally, issues o f d iscrim ination, inequalities and participation, and crafts people 's suggestions for enhancing the capacity o f poorer crafts peoples' ability to derive enhanced financial and livelihood benefits, and participate in the affairs o f the industry and in the com m unities in which they live and work were discussed. The next chap ter summarises the key findings and draws out the policy implications thereof and recom m ends some pro-poor strategies for stream lining the crafts sector for enhanced pro-poor tourism developm ent and poverty reduction. 244 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh C H A P T E R E IG H T S U M M A R Y O F K E Y F IN D IN G S , C O N C LU SIO N S AND R E C O M M E N D A T IO N S 8.1 In troduction Poverty reduction has been a challenging theme in developm ent thinking since the 1950s and 1960s. There is universal recognition today o f the need to place poverty reduction as the central objective o f the process o f developm ent. Global commitment to poverty reduction is manifested in the Millennium Developm ent Goals (M D G s). In Ghana, the search for a secure, sustainable, and equitable national developm ent strategy that w ould be empowering for the bulk o f G h a n a ’s population has been going on for decades. However, the multi-faceted nature and dim ensions o f poverty has elicited different alleviation/reduction strategies over the years. Post-independence developm ent planning focussed on agriculture, industrialisation, and provision o f social infrastructure (education, health, water, transportation, energy and housing). Attention has also been focussed on economic sectors with high g row th potentials including agriculture, m in ing and recently, tourism . I lowever, the persistence o f poverty and the concern for pro­ poor policies today are the consequence o f a deep rooted disillusionm ent with the development paradigm which placed exclusive em phasis on the pursuit o f growth, w ith the expectation o f a ‘trickle- down' effect, for poverty alleviation. To reach those groups that were marginalised or rem ained excluded from the process o f growth, anti-poverty interventions in the form o f ‘social safety n e ts ’, embodied in the Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers (PRSPs) were designed and adopted in 2002. But in many situations, such pro-grow th interventions were accom panied by rising inequalities that weakened or nullified the so-called ‘trick le-dow n’ effects. The case for tourism and craft development as a way o f bringing econom ic development has been made in general term s with a focus on economic growth, with the assum ption that any such development will eventually benefit the poor through the “ trickle dow n” effect. Until recently, those engaged in tourism and crafts developm ent have not sought to demonstrate the impacts o f tourism and crafts on poverty reduction - the focus has been or. macro econom ic impacts and its potential to bring 245 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh economic growth to poor and m arginalised individuals and com m unities rather than on m easuring and demonstrating specific im pacts on poverty. The general objective o f the study, therefore, w as to exam ine the potentials o f the crafts industry as a pro-poor tourism developm ent strategy for poverty reduction in Ghana. The study was part o f a bigger project on ‘T he C hanging faces o f Poverty in G hana '. I lowever, some craft villages in the Ashanti region were purposively selected for detailed analysis. It w as also important to review relevant policies, and assess how policies, local structures and processes affected craft workers* capacity to cope with production difficulties and with poverty. It w as necessary to learn about how craftspeople perceived and experienced poverty; how they identified the poor, their own perceptions o f their poverty status; and the m echanism s with which they coped and survived. A total o f four craft villages were selected from four districts in the Ashanti region for study. The research tools used included interviews, questionnaires, d iscussions and field observation. Different structured questionnaires w ere administered to stakeholders in the craft communities and relevant institutions. Q uestionnaires were administered to a hundred and thirty eight craftspeople, 60 in-school youth, and six officials o f district assemblies and other institutions. A hundred and fifty craftspeople (150) and other relevant stakeholders were purposively sam pled from the four districts for discussions. Descriptive statistics including frequencies, and cross tabulations, as well as highlights o f key findings were employed in the analysis o f data. With the emergence o f m ore durable manufactured household item s and tools, and the dem ise o f traditional African religions and cultural practices, the production o f traditional crafts with religious and cultural significance and for utilitarian and ceremonial purposes have been on the decline since independence. Consequently, the trade in local crafts and the livelihoods o f artisans have becom e precarious, and at risk o f collapse. However, the local resources and traditional skills available in craft villages and the declining nature o f it, coupled with the increasing im portance o f the crafts for tourism development in recent tim es calls for the revitalisation o f the sector. T his will not only preserve and protect the traditional skills and technology, but can create the avenue for the development o f pro-poor 246 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh tourism based on crafts production. 8.2 S u m m a ry o f K ey F ind ings The effectiveness o f relevant policies was assessed based on the objectives o f pro-poor strategies: those focussed on econom ic benefits; non-cash livelihood benefits and those focussed on participation in decision making. A rev iew o f policies on tourism, handicrafts and poverty reduction revealed that pro-poor content in policies were inadequate, and a lack o f im plem entation where they existed. liven though the policies acknow ledged that jobs and incomes could be derived from developing the tourism and crafts industries, there were no deliberate strategies to unlock opportunities for poorer entrepreneurs to derive enhanced cash and non-cash livelihood benefits from these activities. Policy m aking has not focussed on developing the synergy between the cultural and tourism industries as they evolved independently. The potentials for wealth creation and poverty reduction are yet to be realised. The cultural policy identified the protection o f creativity through copyright legislation; however, there is lack o f im plem entation, with w'eak copyright legislation and enforcement regimes. The potential for using handicrafts for a pro-poor poverty reduction strategy is great. However, the present mode o f production is not sustainable. Declining sources o f local raw materials and skilled craftspeople have resulted in production difficulties. Small-scale village industries and indigenous technologies are being edged out by products (imitations and substitutes) o f multinational corporations. Changes in consum er tastes and buying trends, coupled with declining tourist visits to craft villages, have meant that craft producers need more support than ever i f they are to become viable and continue to sustain their livelihoods. WTiile the youth participate in the crafts sector to earn some income, they become artisans only wrhen all other alternatives failed. Generally, artisans had a low se lf image and had no control o f how their creations were marketed or presented to the final consumers. In spite o f these challenges, survival o f the traditional crafts and production techniques are important attractions for tourism developm ent. The potentials o f craft production as a business activity, and for tourism development have been realised in Ghana. However, tourism and crafts development 247 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh policies have evolved separately, and the poverty reduction potentials o f the tourism and crafts industries have not been considered until recently. In this regard, the important links between the crafts and tourism industries need to be clarified for the inheren t wealth creation and poverty reduction synergies to em erge. Policy has failed to convert crafts and tourism prospects into program m es that promote and unlock opportunities for poorer members in craft villages and the wider society to derive enhanced econom ic and other livelihood benefits. These issues have not been adequately articulated in the policies. To thrive, the crafts and tourism industries need to be well coordinated. Livelihood assets in the craft villages included locally available natural resources, traditional crafts skills and technology, local and institutional sources o f finance, physical infrastructure and social amenities, and the social networks and relationships am ongst craftspeople and their family and friends, colleagues and other associates. Together, these form ed the livelihood capitals possessed by craftspeople. However, natural raw material sources had declined considerably and, there were no efforts to protect or ensure their long-term sustainability. Benefits derived by different categories o f craftspeople were found to be dependent on the level from which they operated on the crafts value chain. Self-em ployed artisans and craft m erchants derived more benefits than contract artisans and workers in family businesses. Production challenges included declining access to raw materials, difficulties in finding investment capital and finance, shortages o f skilled labour, marketing and selling difficulties. Rates paid by craft merchants for crafts items were found to be low. In spite o f their carving, w eav ing and pot m aking knowledge and skills, artisans were found to be vulnerable to global and local forces, and to the exploitative tendencies o f the more enterprising self-employed craft merchants. Contract w orkers were also not able to mobilise and form a united front to demand better rates and to get a fairer recom pense for their services. I'he unpopularity o f craft work was identified in all the study villages. Traditional crafts skills were declining, while the youth in the craft villages w ere not interested in pursuing craft-based livelihoods. Som e youth in craft villages saw the crafts industry as a low wage job and a sector for school dropouts and the poor. Most entrepreneurs in the crafts business can be described as “necessity 248 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh entrepreneurs” - people who have becom e entrepreneurs because they could not find other suitable work. However, they played an important role in poverty alleviation. M igrant craftspeople have been drawn to the em ploym ent opportunities at Bonwire and Ahwiaa, while som e were recruited to augm ent shortages in skilled artisans in the craft villages. A s part o f the globalisation o f crafts production, newer forms, shapes, colour schem es and sizes of w ooden sculptures and kente cloth have em erged, especially, at Bonwire and Ahwiaa. Shortages o f skilled artisans have also necessitated the recruitm ent of migrant artisans from the Volta region. However, decline in patronage and natural raw m aterials have led to the search for alternative livelihoods at Pankrono and A sam ang. Former female artisans are now traders, while the men now search for casual jo b s in construction and as labourers in the capital city. Kumasi. Lower educational attainment and male dominance o f the crafts were observed. W hile fem ale crafts have declined at Asamang and Pankrono, male crafts at A hw iaa and Bonwire were flourishing albeit at reduced activity levels. Craftspeople had difficulty in obtaining credit or equity investm ent. Tourism specific infrastructure was lacking in the crafts villages. Low' levels o f physical capital and socio-economic infrastructure were found in the crafts villages. Lack o f incomes and property underscored the definition o f poverty and wealth across the craft villages; however, other social and cultural values like societal respect and prestige were also mentioned. In identifying the poor, a distinction was m ade between those in hardship (ahokyeree) and those who could be considered poor (ohia) through participatory wealth ranking. The causes o f poverty were identified as low levels o f education and em ployable skills, sickness, old age. laziness, large family sizes and mismanagement. Craftspeople believed poverty could also be inherited from poor parents, from loss o f jobs and unemployment, and from living in deprived environments. The cost o f living in crafts villages was higher than in surrounding settlements. Even though self-ranking results showed that most craftspeople did not want to be branded as poor, the C A S H P O R house index revealed that over half o f the craftspeople (55.8 percent) were secure, a third (31.2 per cent) were insecure and vulnerable, and only thirteen percent w'ere poor. Craftspeople experienced 249 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh poverty differently, and for varying periods. Seasonal poverty was widespread, and affected even the craft m erchants who were relatively wealthier than the other craftspeople. The challenges to craft production and livelihoods elicited m ultifarious coping strategies and mechanisms. Craftspeople travelled to neighbouring districts to procure scarce raw m aterials, stole from reserved forests, and continued to seek cheaper sources o f raw materials. They recruited contract weavers and carvers from other regions to augm ent shortages in finding skilled artisans, and relied on non-institutionalised sources o f credit and finance to support their businesses. They com peted fiercely for custom ers and resorted to export o f craft items to West African markets and abroad. To com bat poverty, craftspeople tried to diversify their income portfolios through “multi- survival” strategies. They generated supplem entary incomes through selling their labour, increasing the number o f household income earners, through changes in resource use - converting a private car to a taxi, renting out house or part o f house - or migrated to look for greener opportunities. O ther coping strategies included readjustment o f consumption habits and feeding patterns, use o f unpaid family labour and child labour, neglect, divorce, and relying on remittances, transfers and donations. Others borrowed, and or disposed o f some personal possessions to make ends meet during times o f hardship. Finally, local processes and structures were seen to be discriminatory, leading to unequal access to resources and opportunities in the crafts villages. Suggestions for enhancing the capacity o f poorer crafts peoples' ability to derive enhanced financial and livelihood benefits, and participate in the affairs of the industry and the com m unities in which they lived and worked included provision o f credit, marketing and advertisem ent support, paym ent o f realistic prices and rates to artisans, and training in new designs. 8.3 C onclusions The research questions, study objectives, hypotheses and propositions have been adequately addressed in chapters four, five, six and seven. The problem s identified have been examined and a summary o f key findings highlighted (8.2). This section presents the conclusions o f the study based on the examination and discussion o f the evidence derived from desk and field investigations. 250 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh First, the study sought to find out whether the cultural, tourism and econom ic policy environments had unlocked opportunities for craftspeople to derive enhanced economic, non-financial and other livelihood benefits for craftspeople or not. From the analysis o f relevant policies in chapter four and key findings sum m arised in section 8.2 above, the study concludes, inter alia, that: a) The pro-poor content and focus o f the cultural, tourism and poverty reduction policy framework were to be inadequate, and. where they existed, im plem entation was lacking. b) The study found great potential for using handicrafts as a pro-poor poverty reduction strategy but the mode o f their production was found to be unsustainable largely due to the declining sources o f local raw materials, unavailability o f skilled craftspeople, non-favourable nature o f the changing consum er taste and buying trends as well as declining tourist visits to the craft villages. c) Discriminatory local processes and structures translated into unequal access to resources and opportunities in the craft villages. d) Benefits derived by different categories o f craftspeople were dependent on the level from which they operated on the crafts value chain. S e lf em ployed artisans and craft merchants derived m ore benefits than contract artisans and w orkers in family businesses. Secondly, based on the assessm ent o f the livelihood assets o f craftspeople, their production constraints and their implications for participation and the developm ent o f linkages in chapter five, and the summary o f key findings, the study concludes, am ong other things, that: a) Livelihood assets in the craft villages were varied, including locally available natural resources, traditional craft skills and technology, local and institutional sources o f finance, physical infrastructure and social amenities and the social netw orks and relationships. These assets have helped in the developm ent o f the industries over the years even though some o f these assets are under threat now. 251 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b) Production o f traditional crafts with religious and cultural significance and for utilitarian and ceremonial purposes has been on decline. Consequently , the trade in local crafts and livelihoods o f artisans had becom e precarious and at risk o f collapse. c) Participation o f school-going children in crafts production was responsible for their low academic achievem ent, high truancy and school dropout rales am ong the youth in the crafts villages. d) Inequalities and illiteracy prevented some artisans from participating in decision making in their com m unities and within the craft industry. e) Even though intra-sector linkages were strong, inter-sector linkages were weak and needs to be fostered and supported. Thirdly, based on the analysis o f data and key findings on the perception and experience o f poverty in the crafts villages, the study concludes, among o ther things that: a) There are spatial and group based differences in the perceptions and experience o f poverty among craft workers. b) Craftspeople distinguished between hardship (ahokeyeree) and poverty (oiiia). Besides lack o f income, craftspeople identified a range o f factors as causes o f poverty, but perceived laziness as a major cause o f poverty in the craft communities. c) Craftspeople experienced hardships and seasonal poverty in m any ways including hunger, living in poor housing with inadequate social am enities and child and spousal neglect. Additionally, with regard to coping mechanisms to production challenges and poverty, the study concludes, inter alia, that: a) The production, survival, sustainability and authenticity o f cultural goods and associated livelihoods in the crafts villages were susceptible to local and global threats and opportunities. b) Craft people adopted varied m echanism s to cope w ith production and livelihood challenges. 252 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c) Coping strategies that have been adopted to counter some o f the observed production challenges included travelling to neighbouring districts to procure raw materials, recruitment o f contract workers from other regions to augm ent shortages o f skilled workers locally and reliance on non-institutionalised sources o f credit to finance business activities. d) Few artisans and m any crafts merchants were found in some o f the crafts villages. The merchants resorted to cheap child labour and migrant artisans. e) Coping and survival capacities varied from place to place, at different times o f the year and by- sex. f) The potential for using handicrafts for a pro-poor poverty reduction strategy is great. However, challenges like declining sources o f local raw materials and skilled labour needs to be addressed. g) The survival o f the traditional crafts and production techniques are important attractions for tourism development. Therefore, the important links between crafts and tourism industries need to be deepened and strengthened to facilitate and enhance poverty reduction and wealth creation in these villages and towns. h) The unpopularity o f craft w ork was identified in all the craft villages studied. The youth saw it as a low wage industry and a sector for school dropouts and the poor and has therefore becom e a job o f the last resort. i) Cultural goods w'ere directed m ainly at tourists and the export m arket, whilst factory produced imitations and issues o f intellectual property rights emerged. Overall, the study concludes that pro-poor craft developm ent approaches hold the key to a successful development o f cultural goods and pro-poor tourism for poverty reduction in the study area. Based on this supposition, the next section (8.4) makes recom m endations aimed at m aking crafts production pro-poor and securing crafts based livelihoods. 253 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8.4 Recom m endations For the cultural, tourism and poverty policies to unlock opportunities for pro-poor development, there is the need to harm onise these policies and to integrate pro-poor objectives into programmes under a com m on implementation agency. This m ulti-sector role requires the establishment o f an inter-ministerial agency to manage the process. The regional Tourist Boards should also liaise with District A ssem blies to develop monitoring and support p rogram m es for self-employed, contract artisans and crafts m erchants in the craft villages. Secondly, mini bazaars and craft fairs (already started in Bonwire) should be jo in tly organised by the district/municipal assemblies and the various crafts associations in the crafts villages. This should be organised m ore frequently, as they could be successful as cultural events with great opportunities for m erchandising and business. There is the need to support and develop traditional cralts enterprises for local and tourist consumption if they are to rem ain viable and continue to provide sustainable livelihoods for practitioners. Practical crafts m aking lessons and workshops could be organised by craftspeople with support from their respective district/m unicipal assemblies for both dom estic and foreign tourists. This would lead to generation o f additional income for craftspeople, and offer tourists and other visitors an interesting activity for fun and pleasure. This way. a visit to the craft village w ould not be only to shop for art and craft pieces but one w hich offers both interesting craft products and experiences. Interpretive services were lacking in all the crafts villages studied. Visitors are interested in the nuanced m eanings o f form, shape, colour schemes and the traditional, social, philosophical and magico-religious meanings o f G hanaian traditional handicrafts. The rational for some rituals and taboos associated with particular crafts can also be studied and results used as inputs for developing interpretive material on G hana 's cultural products. In this regard, the universities, especially, KNUST should partner with master craftspeople and their district assemblies in carrying out the necessary research into this area to produce interpretive material for tourist and visitors consumption. To ensure reliable supply o f raw materials, avoid shortages and elim inate negative practices in procuring trees for their work, it is necessary for the Forestry Com m ission to give carvers tree cutting 254 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concessions. However, to ensure sustainability o f tree supplies, carvers must start replanting trees in forests from which they cut trees. Producers o f handicrafts should com e together to buy inputs in bulk so as to enjoy trade discounts and have a strong bargaining pow er in order to make the trade in crafts viable and profitable. Again, traditional leaders at Pankrono should allocate and reserve som e clay fields for potters if the activity is to be sustained in the near future. The utility and aesthetic value, as well as the design o f earthenware needs to adapt to the tastes and preferences o f identified markets, i f the activity is to become vibrant and rewarding. The Departm ent o f Rural Art al K N U ST should take a lead role in this regard. Finally, the introduction i f the po tte r’s wheel may bring the life back into pot m aking as a livelihood option as it has the potential to engage the attention and interest o f the youth. M any o f the crafts were found to be targeted at tourists. However, to create effective local demand for traditional craft items and put money in the pockets o f craftspeople directly. Hotels and other hospitality businesses should be encouraged by the regional Ghana Tourist Board to utilise some of these crafts for internal decorations. In this regard, the classification and grading/rating o f these hospitality establishments should include the use o f local materials (local content) including local crafts for qualification to a higher star rating. This suggestion has some merit cushioning crafts-based livelihoods against any external shocks and reduced tourist visitations that result in reduced sales. To m anage truancy in crafts villages, and avoid the problem o f child labour and child participation in the production o f handicrafts, and to ensure the survival o f the crafts, school administrators in crafts communities should find innovative ways to ensure that pupils and students stay in school, especially, during the tourist season. Additionally, a system o f apprenticeship should be established for each craft village where artistic and business m anagem ent issues will be taught along with the hands-on training in craftsmanship. Interested pupils and students may then enrol on this programme to learn and earn income without com prom ising their formal educational training. All artisans and merchants need information about markets and training on how to reach markets. Exhibitions and crafts fairs should be organised m ore frequently to showcase products, share 255 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lessons and information and interact w ith buyers and exporters to securc contracts. This has the potential o f developing market audience and stim ulating local demand for handicrafts. H andcrafted furniture and internal decorations could for example, replace imported substitutes, and create jo b s and incomes for craftsmen. To strengthen linkages am ong small handicrafts enterprises and reduce the fierce com petition am ongst them, enterprises should be encouraged (facilitated by NGOs and Donors) to form business clusters, from w hich they can all benefit from sub-contracting arrangem ents and discounts. M icro firms could com e together to form a small or medium-sized enterprise with brighter chances o f securing institutional credit and securing bigger orders because o f enhanced capacity to deliver. Artisans and all other crafts workers need to be educated on entrepreneurship and business management skills, and be encouraged to adopt long-term strategies for growing their businesses. They need to be encouraged to incorporate pro-poor and sustainable practices instead o f short-term survivalist strategies. Craftspeople need to be assisted in developing short, medium and long-term business plans. Activities to engage the interest o f visiting tourists, along with a well thought out interpretive program m e to inform, entertain and stim ulate interest in the place visited o r item purchased need to be pursued. Finally, relevant policies should be sensitive to the needs o f these cultural enterprises, and should be accom panied by appropriate implementation. In order to develop measures to spread the benefits o f crafts and tourism more widely, it is necessary to know who the stakeholders are, how they are now affected by the industry both positively and negatively, the ways in which proposed changes m ight strengthen their livelihood assets and how they '*an contribute to make it happen. A thorough analysis also reveals the relationships am ong stakeholders and the ways in which the actions o f each group impact on the lives and activities o f the others along the crafts value chain. The private sector, the governm ent and the academ ic com m unity must work in partnership to realise a sustainable tourism crafts sector. To unlock the potentials o f crafts for tourism developm ent and poverty reduction, policies must be harmonised and strategically coordinated. The sector m ust be 256 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh protected from the influx o f m ass produced and inauthentic Ghanaian crafts like kente and other crafts items. There is an opportunity to replace imports from other countries that flood the market but are not representative o f the local culture and do not contribute broadly to the economy. Developm ent o f the crafts sector can also help m itigate the rural to urban migration. 8.5 C ontr ibu tion to K now ledge and Areas for F u r th e r Research The original contribution this study makes to knowledge includes the following: a) The study has dem onstra ted that the pursuit o f appropriate policies in the area o f handicrafts prom otion in the context o f pro-poor tourism could lead to poverty reduction in the craft villages. b) It has also show n that pro-poor tourism strategies hold the keys to unlocking potential benefits, especially, for poorer craftspeople in the craft villages. c) Further, the study has identified production and m arketing constraints, how these affect crafts-based livelihoods and the mechanisms craftspeople have adopted to cope with them. In addition, the study has identified some gaps in know ledge in the area o f craft production as a pro-poor tourism developm ent strategy for poverty reduction which calls for further investigations. Some o f these recom m endations require further studies for developing small projects that would make crafts production a viable econom ic activity around which pro-poor tourism can be developed. The following recom m endations are made for further research: • Intellectual property rights and enforcement regimes need further studies to examine the impact o f imported cultural goods on local industries in Ghana. The idea o f “com m unity copyrights" need to be discussed w ith craftspeople, and piloted for adoption. • Despite the lack o f interest o f the youth in craft villages to take up crafts work as a career, they nonetheless participated in the activity to earn incomes for their needs. Truancy was reported at Bonwire and Ahwiaa. Retention, dropout and attrition in basic schools need further research. There is the need to investigate how this problem affects school attendance and performance in craft villages. 257 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • Issues o f child neglect and child labour also raise serious concerns for best practices in cralt production for export, and needs to be investigated. • The living conditions and w elfare o f retired craftspeople in the craft villages needs to be further investigated. The elderly and retired craftspeople seemed not to have any social protection during old age. • There is also the need for elaboration o f national taxation policies to exam ine how the tourism crafts sector is affected. • Policies on access to local raw materials and concession rights need to be looked at. Commercial w oodlo ts could be a viable opportunity for the long-term sustainability o f craft industries. Forest products accreditation and fair trade principles need to be studied and mainstreamed into the tourism crafts sector. • There is the need for in-depth study o f the symbolic m eanings o f craft items to develop an interpretive handbook on various designs, symbols and patterns for a better appreciation o f the crafts o f Ghana. • A country-wide evaluation o f crafts production needs to be carried out to identify the thriving and declining crafts. The collapse o f the bead factory at A sam ang raises concerns over political party involvement in the production and promotion o f local crafts. There is the need to investigate howf sim ilar supported schemes are faring nationwide. 258 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bibliography Aboagye, A. A. & Yankson. P.W.K. (1992) Employment in the Urban Informal Sector in Ghana. ILO/JASPA, Addis Ababa. Action for Enterprise (AFE), (2003). G h a n a - Em bedded services in handicraft m arke ts . 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Embroidering Lives: Women's Work and Skill in the Lucknow Embroidery Industry. New York: State Univers i ty o f New York. 279 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh William, A.J. & Shaw, G. (1988) T o u r i s m and Economic D evelopm ent : Introduction*, in Williams, A. and Shaw, G. (eds) Tourism one/ Economic Development: Western European Experiences. London, Belhaven Press. Wood, S. & House. k . (1991). The good tourist. London: M andar in . World Bank (1995) , ‘Ghana: Poverty Past, Present and F u tu re ' , Report No. 14504- GH, World Bank, W ashing ton D.C. World Bank (1999) . Cul tu re and Sustainable Development: A f ram e w o rk for Action, Washington D C: World Bank. World Bank (2000). A t tacking Poverty: World Development Report 2000/01 OUP, Oxford: N ew York. World Bank, (2001) Attacking Poverty. World Development Report 2000/2001, World Bank. Oxford. WTO (2002) Tourism: A Catalyst for Sustainable Development . W T O Commission for Africa. 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"Tourists arc becom ing more and more sensi t ive to the quality and conservation o f env ironm enta l and cultural resources" The F C O C L U B Interview with Eugenio Yunis, Head. Sustainable Development o f Tourism, United N a t io n s World Tourism Organisation (U N W T O ) . International Ecotourism Monthly Year 7, Issue 83. August . 2006. Yunis, E. (2004). Tourism, Poverty Alleviat ion and Microcredit : A First Glance. Microfinance Matters, 2005. Accessed 19/10/2004 h n p : /A \ \v w i in cd f< H g /en g l i$ h 'm ic r< > nn anc£ ' ,ne\v$lcitcr/pat?es/iM lv 2 / n e w s t o u r ism ph Zurick, D. N. (1992) . Adventure travel and sustainable tourism in the peripheral econom y o f Nepal. Annals o f the Association o fA merican Geographers 82:608-28. 280 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d i x 1 Department ol Geography and Resource Development Study on the Potentials of H andic raf ts Production and Pro-Poor UniversilN ol Ghana, Legm tourism for Povert> Reduction in Peri-U rban Kumasi Accra. Ghana (Four Districts) Jan u a ry Ju n e 200<* H a n d ic r a f t s W o r k e r s Q u e s t i o n n a i r e __________________________ _ ___ in t ro d u c t io n a n d r e s p o n d e n t id e n t i f ic a t io n 001 D IS R IC T N A M E 008 Q U E S T IO N N A I R E N U M B E R 002 C O M M U N I T Y N A M E 009 D A T E O F IN T E R V IE W 003 R 's H O U S E N U M B E R 010 IN T E R V IE W E R N A M E 004 R 's F IR S T N A M E o n L A N G U A G E O F IN T E R V IE W 005 R 's L A S T N A M E 012 N A T IV E L A N G U A G E O F R E S P O N D E N T 006 P L A C E O F IN T E R V IE W 013 T R A N S L A T O R U S E D 007 SEX 014 T IM E (S ta r t | S lop) 1 _ _ E D IT IN G / D A TA E N T R Y 021 F IE L D S U P E R V IS O R 027 S U R V E Y M A N A G E R 022 DATE (d d /m m /y y ) 028 D A TE ( d d / m m / y \ ) 023 STATUS* 029 STATUS* 024 O F F IC E E D IT O R 030 DATA E N T R Y C L E R K 025 D A TE (d d /m m /y y ) 031 D A T E (d d /m m /y y ) 026 STATUS* 032 STATU S* ♦STATUS C O D E S : 1. C O M P L E T E 2. A D D I T I O N A L V IS IT S -tEQUI R ED 9 6 O l H E R (S P E C IF Y ) S E C T I O N 1: B A C K G R O U N D NO. Q U E S T I O N S R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K I P T O First. 1 w ould like to ask so m e q u e s t io n s ab o u t y o u CITY..........................................................................................................1 101 and y o u r househo ld , l or m ost part o f the l im e until TOWN you were 12 y ea rs old, d id y o u live in a city, tow n VILLAGE . ........................................................3 or in a v illage? 102 How long h av e y o u lived con tin u o u s ly in th is YEARS co m m u n ity ? ALWAYS (SINCE BIRTH) .......................................................... 95 - Q 107 VISITOR............................................................................................... 96 IF LESS TI IA N O N E Y E A R . E N T E R *00’ 103 If you m oved in to this c o m m u n i ty less th a n a yea r TOWN ago. w here w as y o u r p rev io u s ab o d e? T O W N REGION N A ....................................................................................... 99 A N D R E G IO N C I T Y ................................................. .................................1 104 Just before y o u m oved here, d id you live in a city, TOWN ........................................... .................................. 2 VILLAGE .............3 a tow n or a v il lage? N A .............. ............................ 99 HERE TO STA Y ..................................................................................1 1-2 YEARS.............................................................................................2 105 How long do y o u intend s lay ing and w o rk in g 3-4 YEARS5-6 YEARS 1 here? DON’T KNOW ...............88 NA .9 9 BETTER BUSINESS PROSPECTS ................................... 1 106 W hat are so m e o f the reasons w h y y o u m o v e d TO FIND A JOB 2 here? OTHER 96 NA ............ ....... 99 MONTH 107 In what m o n th and y e a r w ere you b o m ° DON'T KNOW M O N T H ............................................................... 88 YEAR DON'T KNOW YhAR 8888 108 1 low old w ere y o u on your last b ir thday? AGE IN COMPLETED YEARS COMPARE AND CORRECT 107 AND/OR !OS IF DON'T KNOW AGE ................................................................. 88 INCONSISTENT Are you cu rren tly m arried o r living with a YES.CURRENTLY MARRIED . . 1 109 m an /w om an? Y1 S. LIVING WITH A M AN/WOMAN 2 NO. NOT IN UNION 3 281 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh YES. FORMERLY MARRIED ......................................................1 110 1 lave y o u ev e r b een m arr ied o r lived w i th a YES. LIVED WITH A MAN/WOMAN ................................ 2 m a n 'u o m a n ? N<) 3 - Q 113 N A ............ 99 WIDOWED ........................................... | 111 W hat is y o u r m arital s ta tus now : are y o u w id o w e d , DIVORCED 2 d ivo rced , o r sepa ra ted? SI PARATED 3 NA 99 112 Is s o u r h u sb an d /w ife /p a r tn e r li\ ing w i th y o u now LI VING TOGETHER i or is s/he s tay in g e lsew here? STAYING ELSEWHERE 2 N A ......... 99 113 1 lave y o u e v e r g iven b ir th? Y E S . | N O ................... 2 — 120 114 1 low m any so n s live w ith y o u ? SONS AT HOME 1 low m any d au g h te rs live w ith y o u ? DAUGHTERS AT HOME N A ............................................ ,99 115 How m any so n s are a live bu t d o not l ive w ith y o u ? SONS ELSEWHERE? A nd how any d au g h te rs are a live bu t d o not live DAUGHTERS ELSEWHERE w ith you? N A .................................................................................................... 99 116 1 lave y o u e v e r had a ch ild w h o w a s b o m a l iv e but Y E S ........................................................................................................ | later d ied? N O ........................... 2 N A .............................................. ............... 99 117 In total, how m an y b o y s h av e died? BOYS DEAD A nd how m an y g ir ls have d ie d 9 GIRLS DEAD N A ..................................... . 9 9 IIS S U M A N S W E R S TO 114. 114, A N D 117, A N D TOTAL BIRTHS E N T E R T O T A L N A ............................................................................................. 99 119 C H E C K 1 18: Just to m ak e su re that I h av e th is Y E S ..................................... ........................................... 1 PROBE & right: y o u h av e had in total b ir ths N O ..........................................................................................................2 CORRECT during y o u r life. Is that co rrec t? NA ................................... . . .99 120 1 low m any person s live w ith y o u but are no t y o u r PERSONS LIVING IN ow n ch ild ren? HOUSEHOLD SIZE C H E C K Mil S IZ E 112+114+120+R E S P O N D E N T NA ....................................................................................................... 99 121 1 lave you ev e r a t tended school? Y E S .........................................................................................................1 NO ......................................................................... .................2 — Q 124 122 What is the h igh es t level o f school v ou a ttended KORANIC.............................................................................................1 koranic. prim ary, m idd le /JS S , PRIMARY.......................................................................................... 2 M IDDLE/JSS .................................................................................. 3 secondary / techn ica l /com m erc ia l /S S S , o r h igher? S E C O N D A R Y /T E C H /C O M /S S S .................................... 4 HIGHER (H N D / DEGREE) .......................................................... 5 N A .................................................................................... . 9 9 123 What is the h iches t prade vou c o m p le ted at that GRADE level? N A ...........................................................................................................99 124 Can you read and understand easily, w ith EASILY.................................................................................................. 1 difficulty, o r not at all? WITH DIFFICULTY ...................................................................... 2 - Q 126 NOT AT A L L ........................................................................................3 125 Do you usually read a n ew sp a p e r o r m agaz in e at Y E S ........................................................................................................ I least, once a w eek? N O ...........................................................................................................2 N A .............................. ......................... 99 126 Do you usually listen to a radio every' day? Y E S .........................................................................................................1 W hat is you r favourite radio station? P R O B E FOR N O ............................................. 2 # O F T IM E S FAVOURITE RADIO STATION 127 Do you usually watch television at least, o n ce a FAVOURITE TELEVISION S TATION week? Y E S .................................................................................................. 1 What is you r favourite television s ta tion? N O ......................... ................................................................................. 2 282 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Y E S .................................................................................... 1 128 D id y o u vo le in the last n a t iona l e le c t io n s ? N O ............................................................................................... ....... 2 N A .............. ..................................99 129 W hat is \ o u r re lig ion? CHRISTIAN (SPECIFY) ............................................................ 1 MUSI IM ................................................................1 TRADITIONAL ............................ j NO R E LIG IO N ....................................................................................... 4 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 130 To w hich e thn ic g roup d o y o u b e lo n g ? A SA N TE..................................................................................................1 OTHER A K A N ....................................................................................... 2 GAM DANG B E ................................................................................. 3 E W E ..........................................................................................................4 GUAN ........................................................................................ 5 MOLE-DAGBAN1................................................................................ 6 OTHER N O R T H E R N .......................................................................... 7 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 131 W h a t is y o u r m ain o ccu p a tio n? FARMER................................................................................................ 1 MERCHANT/ T R A D E R ....................................................................2 D RIV ER................................................................................................. 3 M ECHANIC........................................................................................ 4 CARPENTER ...................................................................................... 5 TAILOR /SEAM STRESS ........................................................... 6 HAIRDRESSER / B A R B E R ............................................................ 7 OTHER SKILED T R A D E .................................................................. 8 DAILY L A B O U R E R ........................................................................... 9 S T U D E N T /P U P IL ..............................................................................10 TEA CH ER ..............................................................................................11 CIVIL SERVANT................................................................................12 APPRENTICE...................................................................................... 13 UNPAID FAMILY WORKER ....................................................... 14 HOUSEWIFE..................................................................................... 15 UNEM PLOYED...............................................................................16 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 132 Do y o u do this w o rk for a m em b er o f y o u r family, WORK FOR FAMILY MEMBER ............................................... 1 for so m eo n e else, or are y o u se l f e m p lo y e d ? WORK FOR SOMEONE ELSE ...................................................2 SELF E M L O Y E D ................................................................................3 133 Apart from v o u r m ain w ork , w hat o th e r w o rk d o FARM ER................................................................................................1 y ou do? MERCHANT / T R A D E R ...................................................................2 D RIVER.................................................................................................. 3 P R O B E : W ha t is y o u r s econ d ary o r par t- tim e M ECHANIC.......................................................................................... 4 w ork? CARPEN TER........................................................................................5 TAILOR / SEAM STRESS.................................................................6 H A IRD R ESSER /B A R B ER ............................................................. 7 OTHER SKILED T R A D E .................................................................8 DAILY L A B O U R E R ........................................................................... 9 S T U D E N T /P U P IL ............................................................................. 10 TEA CH ER ............................................................................................ 11 CIVIL SERVANT................................................................................12 APPRENTICE...................................................................................... 13 UNPAID FAMILY W O R K E R ........................................................ 14 HOUSEWIFE........................................................................................15 UNEMPLOYED...............................................................................16 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 134 W hat is th e m ain ec o n o m ic activ ity in this ARABLE FARM ING.......................................................................... 1 ARTISAN (HANDICRAFTS) ......................................................... 2 co m m u n ity ? SAND W IN N IN G ..................................................................................3 TRA D IN G ...................................................................................... 4 CLERICAL........................................................................................... 5 OTHER (SPECIFY) * 96 135 A pproxim ate ly how m an y peo p le ( in c lu d in g all POPULATION ESTIMATE men. w o m en and ch i ld ren ) live in th is c o m m u n ity ? DON’T K N O W ............................................. 88 283 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SE C^ T■ Il O N 2i . :. H1 1 A, ( iN < D| / I| VC RI X A/ m Fi T1 Sw * P1 R O D U C T■ I■ OW .N • —D Y- N' A' - M- - - I- Cv S v : * mP mR — Ov S P Em Cv Tm Sw sA m Ma » ) CV - H• ■ A• m L« - / L U EL / N1 » G E S NO . Q U E S T I O N S R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K IP T O 201 Now. 1 w o u ld l ike to ask so m e q u es t io n s about y o u r VERY SATISFIED 1 SATISFIED .........................2 w ort A re y o u sa t is f ied w o rk in g in the h an d ic ra f ts DISAPPOINTED 3 VERY DISAPPOINTED . . 4 business? 202 W hat kind o f han d ic ra f ts are y ou involved in 0 WOOD CARVINGS ....................... I KENTE ............................................. 2 m ADS 3 EARTHENWARE ........... 4 OTHER (SPECIFY) % 203 1 low long h av e y o u b een d o in g th is w ork ' (W ork NUMBER OF YEARS experience) Y E S . . . . .................................................... | 203 H ave you d o n e s o m e o th e r w o rk b efo re th is one? NO ............................................................... 2 -* Q 205 204 Can y o u tell m e the n a tu re o f y o u r former w ork , NATURE OF WORK and w h \ y o u s to p p e d d o in g it? NA .............................................................. 99 REASONS FOR STOPPING 1 ............................................................................................................................................................................ 2 .......................... ............................... 3 .................................................................................................................................................................................... 205 W here did y o u acq u ire the sk il ls for this w ork ? WHERE SKILL ACQUIRED. How did you acq u ire the sk il ls for this w o rk 0 HOW SKILL WAS ACQUIRED FROM PARENTS A ND SIBLINGS ................. 1 THROUGH A PPR E N T IC E SH IP .................... 2 LEARNT ON THE J O B ............................................. 3 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 206 How m any y ea rs d id y o u s p e n d learn ing this NUMBER OF YEARS skill/trade? MAKE H A N D IC R A F T S ............................................................. 1 207 Do you m ake, f in ish /p o lish o r sell hand ic ra f ts or FINISH/POLISH HANDICRAFTS ...................................... 2 inputs now ? SELL HANDICRAFTS .................................................................3 SELL HANDICRAFTS INPUTS (SPECIFY) 4 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 208 What exactly is y o u r s ta tus in the handicrafts SHOP OWNER / DEALER .....................................................1 business? SHOP ASSISTANT / STORE BO Y/GIRL................................2 MASTER C A R V E R ........................................................................3 APRENTICE CARVER ............................................................ 4 PROBF. for R s ro le in the h an d ic ra f ts bus iness? PO LISH ER /FIN ISH ER .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................5 MASTER W E A V E R .................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................6 APPRENTICE W E A V E R ..............................................................7 TA ILO R/SEA M STRESS ..................................................................................................................................................................................................8 MASTER POTTER .............................................................................................................................................................................................................................................9 APPRENTICE P O T T E R .......................................................... 10 MASTER BEADS M A K E R .......................................................11 APPRENTICE BEADS MAKER ............................................12 RAW MATERIAL/INPUT S U P P L IE R ................................................................................................................ 13 ITENERARY CRAFTS V E N D O R .....................................................................................................................................................14 DAILY L A B O U R E R .........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................15 OTHER (SPECIFY) 96 209 At what level d id y o u start y o u r business in the SHOP OWNER / DEALER 1 handicrafts t rad e 0 SHOP ASSISTANT / STORE BOY/GIRL ..........................2 MASTER CARVER ............................................................. 3 APRENTICE CARVER ........................................................ 4 POLISHER /FIN ISH ER 5 MASTER W E A V E R ....................................... 6 APPRENTICE WEAVER 7 TAILOR /SEAM STRESS 8 MASTER POTTER .. . . 9 APPRENTICE POTTER 10 MASTER BEADS MAKER . . II APPRENTICE BEADS MAKER 12 284 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh RAW MATERIAL/INPUT SUPPLIER .................................13 ITENERARY CRAFTS V E N D O R .............................................14 DAILY LABOURER ................................................................. |S OTHER (SPECIFY) % N O . Q U E S T I O N S ^ i R E S P O N S E O P T IO N S • S K IP TO 1 2 3 4 5 21 0 W hat type o f c ra f ts d o you p ro d u ce o r se ll? W ha t are the in p u ts for these 211 produc ts? (1-5 ab o v e ) W h ere do y o u g e t these 212 i tems? PROBE FOR SOURCES D o you have a n y d iff icu lty 213 g e tt in g an y o f th ese inputs? Reliability'? 1= Yes; 2 = N o H ow m u ch d o y o u h av e to pay 214 for a unit input? H ow far do y o u trave l to 215 obtain y o u r inpu ts? H ow long d o c s it tak e to 216 produce/sell e a c h o f these items? H ow long w o u ld it tak e y o u to 217 produce / supply 100 un i ts o f items? In y o u r ex p e r ien ce , w h ich are 218 the m ost d iff icu lt i tem s to m ake/ob ta in? O n average , how lo n g d o es it 219 take to p roduce o n e o f these difficult item s? In y o u r ex p e r ien ce , w h ich is 220 the easiest item to m ak e? O n average , how lo n g d o es it 221 take to p ro d u ce o n e o f these easv items? W'hich is the m o s t ex p e n s iv e 222 i tem (s) y o u p ro d u c e o r sell? Average p rice? W hich is the c h e a p e s t i tem (s) 223 you p ro d u ce /se l l? A verage price? NO. Q U E S T IO N S R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K IP T O 224 D o you do all th e w o rk b y y o u r s e l f or do y o u get DO ALL THE WORK BY M Y S E L F .......................................... 1 —* Q 226 assis tance /help? GET ASSISTANCE..........................................................................2 For w hat tasks o r aspec ts o f y ou r w ork d o you 1. 4 225 usually need ass is tan ce? 2. 5. 3. 6. 226 Do m em bers o f \ o u r fam ily assist you in yo u r FAMILY MEMBERS A S S IS T ..................................................... I work? FAMILY MEMBERS DO NOT ASSIST ...................................2 — Q 228 N A .................................................................................................... 99 227 1 low do you pay th ose w h o help y o u ? Unpaid C A S H .................................................................................................... 1 family labour, ca sh o r in k in d 9 KIND. (SPECIFY) 2 UNPAID FAMILY L A B O U R ........................................................3 228 Do yo u spec ia lize in an y particu la r product o r do SPECIALISE IN 1 you produce o r sell a var ie ty o f products? VARIETY OF P R O D U C T S ............................................................ 2 1 229 W ho are y o u r m ain cu s to m ers? T ho se who OVERSEAS DEALERS AND PARTNERS............................ 1 purchase y o u r p ro d u c ts o r hire you r services? LOCAL DEALERS AND SHOP OWNERS ............................ 2 LOCAL T O U R IST S ...........................................................................3 INTERNATIONAL TOURISTS 4 285 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh HOTELS AND OTHER IN STITUTION S................................... 5 MIDDLEMEN ................................................................................... 6 OTHERS (SPECIFY) 96 230 W h ere d o y o u usuall} sell y o u r p r o d u c ts / render IN THE LOCAL COMMUNITY 1 y o u r serv ices? IN THE REGIONAL CAPITAL (KUMASI) .......................... 2 IN THE NATIONAL CAPITAL (ACCRA) .. 3 NEIGHBOURING COUNTRY (SPECIFY) 4 OTHER (SPECIFY) ......................................................................96 231 D o y o u sell d irectly to tourists? YES .............................................. | N O ....................................... ? 232 Is there any crafts e \e n ts / fe s t iv a l in th is Y E S ...... | co m m u n ity ? NO 2* 233 H ave y o u eve r partic ipated in an y local t rade /c ra f t Y E S ................................................................................................. | fairs at loca l/reg iona l/na tiona l levels? LEVEL N O .................................................................................. 2 234 H ave y o u eve r partic ipated in any in terna tional Y E S ...............................................................................................| trade /craf t fairs? N O .................................................................................................2 235 W hat p ro b lem s do y o u face w h e n d ea l in g w ith AGGRESSIVE H AGGLING...................................................... 1 touris ts? TOURISTS OFFER UNFAIR PRICES ................................ 2 LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES....................................................3 N A .................................................. 99 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 236 W h ich m arke t segm ent d o y o u prefer, fo re ign or FOREIGN M ARK ETS........................................................ 1 local? LOCAL M A R K ETS.....................................................................2 1 w o u ld like to ask som e q u es t io n s ab o u t y o u r 237 curren t m arke ting strategies. D o you ad v e r t ise y o u r Y E S .................................................................................................... 1 e o o d s and serv ices? N O ..................................................................................................... 2 — Q 2 3 9 238 If Yes, th rough what m e d iu m do y o u ad v e rt ise? B RO CH U RES................................................................................ 1 NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES ...................................... 2 R A D IO ............................................................................................. 3 TELEVISION .............................................................................. 4 INTERN ET.......................................................................................5 N A ........................................................................................................ 99 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 239 Do y o u label (provide n a m e o f items for) y o u r Y E S .................................................................................................... 1 p roduc ts? N O ............................. ......................................................................... 2 240 Do y ou g ive exp lana tions about y o u r p roduc ts and Y E S .................................................................................................... 1 how thev shou ld be used o r taken care of? N O ...................................................................................................... 2 24] W hat is y o u r items display / a rrangem ent strategy? NO STRATEGY............................................................................ I BY TYPE OF IT E M ..................................................................... 2 BY SIZE OF IT E M ....................................................................... 3 BY COLOUR OF ITEM . 4 1,2 AND 3 ...................................................................................... 5 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 242 W'hal is y o u r pricing strategy? FIXED PR ICIN G ................................................... ..................... I BARGAINING/HAGGLING ............................................ 2 BARTER............................... 3 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 243 D o you face an y com petit ion? YES ...................................................................................................1 N O ...................................................................................................... 2 — Q 245 NORMAI................................................................... .......... .......... I 244 W hat is the com petit ion like? S T IF F .............................................................................................. 2 N A .................................................................................................... 99 OTHER. SPECIFY 69 286 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 245 D o c u s to m e rs feel ha rassed? YES NO . 246 W ould th is b u s in e s s f lourish e lsew here? YES MO. 247 Is v o u r b u s in e s s reg is te red? YES n o . 248 Do you h a v e a b us iness p lan 9 YES NJO 249 D o y o u h av e a bus iness con tac t ad d ress? (P ost Box. YES E-mail. F ax . T e lep h o n e , etc.) NO Telephone I’ost Box c-m ail___ Fax 250 Is y o u r w o r k r i sk y /d an g e ro u s or safe? Very Risky | l | Riskv [2] Safe (3J Very Safe [4J HAND G L O V E S ............................................................... II W h ich o f the fo l lo w in g safety eq u ip m en t d o you M A S K S ............................................ 22 FIRST AID K I T ....................................... have or use? A PR O N S.....................................................................................44 OTHER. SPECIFY _________ 96 251 Do y ou have any bank o r o ther financial institution YES over here? NO 252 W hat so u rces o f cred it are available to y o u ? B A N K ......... .................................. C H O O S E A L L TH A T A PPLY TO Y OU SAVINGS AND LOANS SCHEME (S U S U ). 2 DISTRICT ASSEMBLY POVERTY FUNDS 3 PRIVATE S A V IN G S ........................................... 4 FM PLO Y ER .......................... ..5 FRIENDS AND RELA TIO N S.......................... . .6 NONE OF THE A B O V E ................................... 7 OTHER, S P E C IF Y .................................. 96 253 W hat is the m o s t p re ssing problem you face in y o u r DIFFICULTY IN GETTING CREDIT (LOANS) work? DIFFICULTY IN SELLING P R O D U C T S............ 2 DIFFICULTY IN GETTING RAW MATERIALS 3 HIGH COST OF P R O D U C T IO N ............................ 4 UNRERLIABILITY OF W O R K E R S ...................... 5 OTHER, S P E C IF Y ...................................................... 96 254 What p ro b lem s have been created by the production DELINQUENCY IN SCI IOOL CHILDREN 1 o f hand icrafts in this com m u n ity? RAMPANT A C C ID E N T S ............................ ...2 INCREASE IN FOOD PRICES . 3 INCREASE IN RENT AND LAND 4 NA ...................... 00 OTHER, SPECIFY . 96 Is handicraft p roduc tion in this com m unity dy ing YES 255 out? NO — 0 257 LOW TOURIST ARRIVALS ...................................... I 256 W hich o f the fo llow ing is / are responsible for the DIFFICULTY IN SELLING PRODUCTS 2 dem ise o f h and ic ra f t production in this co m m u n ity ? DIFFICULTY IN GETTING RAW MATERIALS 3 DIFFICULTY IN GETTING C R E D IT ........... 4 POLITICAL (CHANGE IN GOVERNMENT) 5 URBANISATION .............. 6 MODERNISATION / PLASTIC SUBSTITUTES 7 INDUSTRIAL LIMITATIONS ........................................... 8 LACK OF INFORMATION AND PROMOTION 0 PROXIMITY TO K U M A S I......................................... 10 NA 99 OTHER, SPECIFY % 287 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh N E W /O L D 257 W h e re d id the fo l lo w in g handicraft i tem s o rig in a te? CRAFT IT E M ORIGIN VARIETIES C R A F T W hat v a r ie t ie s are there? Is craft item an o ld o r new KENTE READS craft t \ p e in th is co m m u n i ty ? POTIfcRY STOOL (SESEGWA) AKUABA (DOLLS) SWORDS (AFENA) PROFILES UNITY ANIMALS OWARE MASK SHADOWS 258 W hich o f the craft va r ie t ie s are d y in g ou t? 1 5 2 6 3 7 4 8 S E C T IO N 3: P O V E R T Y P E R C E P T I O N , E X P E R I E N C E A M ) C O P I N G S T R A T E G IE S 301 D o y o u k n o w an y b o d y w h o . by th is c o m m u n i ty ’s Y E S ......................................................................................................I s tandards , can be said to be poor? N O ........................................................................................................ 2 302 W h a t d is t in g u is h e s a p o o r person from o n e w h o is POOR D I E T ...................................................................................... 1 Probe for n o n -p o o r in th is co m m u n i ty ? IRREGULAR EATING PATTERNS (< 2 x PFR DAY) 2 the ff POOR HOUSING Q U A L IT Y ..................................................... 3 INSECURITY OF T U N U R E .................................................... 4 C l lO O S E A L L T H A T A P P L Y POOR CLOTHING Q U A L IT Y ............................................. 5 INABILITY TO ACCESS SERVICES e g HEALTH, F.DUC6 LOW EDUCATION AND ILLITERACY ....................... 7 LAND LESSNESS............................................................................ 8 CHILDLESSNESS..................................................................... 9 INABILITYTO SETTLE BILLS / INDEBTEDNESS 10 BORROWING FOR FEEDING PURPOSES ..................... 11 D R U N K EN N ESS...................................................................... 12 JOBLESSNESS. AND JOB INSECURITY ....................... 13 LACK OF RESPECT IN COMMUNI TY .............................14 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 303 W hat d o > o u p erce iv e as the causes o f pover ty in this LAZINESS........................................................................................ 1 Probe for c o m m u n ity ? DISCRIMINATION....................................................................... 2 the ft LITIGATION /CHIEFTAINCY DISPUTES ........................ 3 LOW EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT OF MAJORITY 4 C H O O S E A L L T H A T A PPLY LACK OF NATURAL RESOURCE ENDOWMENTS 5 D R U N K EN N ESS............................................................................ 6 SIC K N ESS.......................................................................................... 7 OLD A G E ........................................................................................... 8 LACK OF SOCIAL & ECONOMIC INFRASTRUCTURE 9 POLITICAL NEGLECT ......................................................... 10 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 304 Do you k now anybody w ho . by this c o m m u n i ty ’s Y E S ..................................................................................................... 1 s tandards, can be said to be rich? N O ....................................................................................................... 2 305 By this c o m m u n i ty ’s s tandards , how m uch is required MINIMUM AMOUNT IN CEDIS for food. rent, and o ther basic needs for an individual MAXIMUM AMOUNT IN CEDIS for a m o n th ? 306 By this c o m m u n i ty ’s s tandards , would you say you POOR ............................................................................................ 1 are poor, not po o r o r rich? NOT POOR ............................................................................. 2 RICH .............................................. 3 OTHER. S P E C IF Y ................................................................... 96 307 On average , how m uch do you spend in a m o n th ? MINIMUM AMOUNT IN CEDIS MAXIMUM AMOUNT IN CEDIS 288 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 6 . 308 Please, list all i tem s o f e x p e n d i tu re y o u m ak e in a 2. 7. m o n th (P R O B E F O R F O O D , R E N T . 3 8 E N T E R T A IN M E N T . F E E S /B IL L S . 1.O T T O . A N D O T H E R C O N S U M P T IO N ) 4 9. A7i: D o n o t a d d b u s in e s s r e la te d e x p e n s e s ! 5. 10. 309 1 lave y o u ev e r been poor, su ffe red h a rd sh ip ? In and EXPERIENCED POVERTY 1 (Duration ) O u t o f pov er ty ? 1 low long w e re y o u p o o r ’ SEASONAL PO V E R T Y ............ ...............2 NEVER EXPERIENCED P O V E R T Y .....................3 NA 99 310 W hat did y o u do (are y o u d o in g ) to escape pov er ty ? - 311 On average, how m uch do y o u earn in a w eek , m onth DAILY (MIN) (MAX) and a year? WEEKLY (MIN) (MAX) MONTHLY (MIN) (MAX) ANNUAL (MIN) (MAX) % 312 W hat are you r sources o f in c o m e ? W h a t p e rcen tag e HANDICRAFT WORK / SALES 1 o f total income? SALARY/WAGES ............................................ 2 FARMING ACTIVITIES ........................... 3 REM ITTANCES..................................................4 INVESTMENTS ............................................. 5 PETTY T R A D IN G ............................................. 6 TRANSPORT.................................................. 7 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 313 1 w ould now like to ask you so m e q u es t io n s about F.AT BREAKFAST................................................... 1 you r c onsum ption patterns. How m a n y tim es d o you SKIP BREAKFAST ............................................... 2 EAT L U N C H ............................................................ 3 and you r family eat in a day d u r in g g o o d t im es? SKIP L U N C H ........................................................... 4 EAT S U P P E R .............................................................5 SKIP S U P P E R ........................................................... 6 EAT DESERT ........................................................ 7 SKIP DESSERT........................................................8 314 H ow m any tim es d o y ou and y o u r family eat in a day EAT BREAKFAST ................................................ 1 during bad tim es? SKIP BREAKFAST.................................................. 2 EAT L U N C H ..............................................................3 SKIP L U N C H ............................................................ 4 EAT S U P P E R ............................................................ 5 SKIP S U P P E R ........................................................... 6 EAT D ESER T.......................................................... 7 SKIP D ESSERT........................................................8 315 Do you usually cook o r buy y o u r food? BREAKFAST C O O K ............... 1 B U Y ........ 2 LUNCH ....... COOK .............3 BUY .... 4 SUPPER ... C O O K .................. 5 ............BUY 6 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 316 Please, list all food items y ou co n su m e d u r ing BREAKFAST: Breakfast, L unch , Supper and Dessert. LUNCH SUPPER/DINNER DESSERT 289 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ( V I G N E T T E ) LIST 317 E v en th o u g h som e o f th e se q u es t io n s m ay not apply to you . we w o u ld like to f ind out w h a t y o u are m ost likely to do i f you were c o n f ro n te d w ith an y ol these situations. T h a n k you W h ich o f y o u r o w n p ro p e r t ie s w ould y o u readily sell w hen y o u are hard p re ssed for c a s h '’ LIST 318 W hich o f y o u r p rope rt ie s w ou ld y o u still k eep even w hen you are hard p re ssed for c a s h ’* PROBABLE ACTIONS 319 Now. w hat w ould y o u d o i f y o u w ere faced with the follow mg s itua tions0 If y o u do not have en o u g h food to feed y o u r family? PROBABLE ACTIONS: 320 If tourists s topped c o m in g to y o u r c o m m u n i ty due to, say. a border closure o r an y o th e r re a so n 9 PROBABLE ACTIONS 321 If you needed a substan tia l a m o u n t o f m o n e y at short notice? PROBABLE ACTIONS 322 If you get a large o rder to s u p p ly b e tw e en 1. 000 - 50 .000 pieces o f h an d ic ra f ts in 1 m o n th ? WHAT IS THE MAXIMUM ORDER YOU CAN HANDLE NOW? PROBABLE ACTIONS 323 If you lost an im portan t re la t io n and y o u did not have enough m oney for the fu n e ra l ex p e n ses? PROBABLE ACTIONS: 324 If it becom es difficult to f ind raw m ate r ia ls for your handicrafts? 325 Now. 1 w ould like to find o u t the type o f h o u se you WHOLE FLAT IN APARTMENT BUILDING ................ 1 live in and w hat facilities a re av a ilab le to you . WHOLE FAMILY HOUSE ...................................................... 2 INDVIDUAL C O M P O U N D ........................................................ 3 PART OF A COMPOUND HOUSE ....................................... 4 W hat type o f house d o y o u l ive in? PART OF A FLAT / FAMILY H O U S E ...................................5 AN IMPROVED D W E L L IN G ....................................................6 NO FIXED A C COM M O D A TIO N ......................................... 7 UNCOMPLETED HOUSE .........................................................8 OTHER. SPECIFY .......................................................................96 326 Do y o u ow n , rent o r live free (not o w n e d but no rent O W N ............................................................................................... 1 being paid) in th is h o us ing un it? R E N T E D ................................................................................... 2 LIVE IN F R E E ................................................... , ........................ 3 CARE TAKER OF UNCOMPLETED H O U S E ............... 4 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 327 I low m any ro om s are av a ilab le for y o u r household? ONE R O O M ......................................................... 1 TWO ROOMS 2 THREE ROOMS ............................................. 3 FOUR ROOMS 4 FIVE ROOMS 5 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 328 H ow m any o f the room s are used for s leep ing? BEDROOMS 290 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 329 O n average , how m any p eop le share a ro o m ' ONE PE R SO N ...................................... I TWO P E O P L E ...................................... 2 THREE PEOPLE 3 FOUR PEOPLE ...............................4 FIVE PEOPLE 5 OTHER. SPECIFY_________________96 330 W hat k ind o f m ateria l has been used in b u i ld in g the SANDCRETE.......................... 1 I.ANDCRETE house? 2BURNT BRICK .. 3 SWISH .. 4 WOOD .. 5 CORRUGATED METAL / AL1 (.'MINIUM SHEET 6 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 331 W hat k ind o f m aterial has b een used in ro o f in g the T IL E S ..............................................................................................I house? ASBESTOS SHEETS ................................. 2 CORRUGATED METAL/ALI.UMINIUM SH EETS. 3 CONCRETE (CEMENT) .................................................... 4 THATCH........ 5 BAMBOO .... ...................... 6 OTHER, SPECIFY__________________________________ 96 332 W hat k ind o f m ateria l has been used for the f lo o r o f T IL E S ...................................................................... I the house? C EM EN T.................................................................2 W O O D .............................................. ......3 M U D /E A R T H ................. ...........4 PARQUET / POLIS11 ED W O O D ......................5 C A R PE T ....... .............................6 OTHER, SPECIFY______________________ 96 333 W hat is the m ain source o f d rinking w a te r fo r y o u r PIPED WATER IN HOUSE / C O M P O U N D .......................... I househo ld? PIPED WATER IN PUBIC / NEIGHBOURS'S HOUSE 2 WELL WATER IN 1IOIJSE / C O M P O U N D ...................... 3 WELL WATER IN PUBLIC / NEIGI IBOIJR'S HOUSE 4 BOREHOLE 5 SPRING, RIVER, STREAM. POND, LAKE ETC................ 6 RAINWATER ............................................. 7 TANKER/ T R U C K ......................................................................8 SACHET WATER‘PURE WATER’ .................................. 9 BOTTLED WATER (MINERAL W ATER)......................10 OTHER, SPECIFY__________________________________ 96 334 W hat is the m ain sou rce o f w ate r for o ther h o useh o ld PIPED WATER IN HOUSE / C O M P O U N D .............................I uses including dish w ash ing and laundry? PIPED WATER IN PUBIC / NEIGHBOURS’S HOUSE 2 WELL WATER IN HOUSE / C O M P O U N D ............ ....... 3 WELL WATER IN PUBLIC / NEIGHBOUR’S HOUSE ...4 BORE H O L E .................................................................................... 5 SPRING, RIVER. STREAM, POND, LAKE ETC ............. 6 RAIN WATER........ .......7 T A N K E R /T R U C K ........... ............... 8 SACHET WATER ‘PURE W A TER'...................................... 9 BOTTLED WATER (MINERAL WATER) ...... 10 OTHER, SPECIFY____________________________________ 96 335 H ow long d o es it take to go get w a te r and b ack ? DISTANCE TIME (MINUTES) NA 88 336 W hat toilet type d o es y o u r household usual 1\ use? OWN WC TOILET .................. 1 SHARED WC TOILET ......... 2 TRADITIONAL PIT LATRINI 3 K VIP LATRINE...... 4 BUCKET/PAN LATRINE ....... 5 NO FACILITY (B U SI1/ FIELD) 6 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 291 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ELEC TR IC ITY ................................. I 337 W h a t type o f energy does y o u r househo ld use for GAS 2 l ig h tin g ? K E R O S E N E ...................................... 3 CANDLES .. 4 OTHER. SPECIFY_________________ % ___ 338 W h a t ty p e o f fuel d o es y o u r household usua lly use for CHARCOAI............................................................ I F IR E W O O D .................... 2 c o o k in g an d hea ting? K E R O S E N E ................................... ... 3 SAW DUST 4 LPG G A S ............................................. 5 ELEC TR IC ITY ........................................................ 6 OTHER. SPECIFY_______________________ 96 339 W h e re is c o o k in g done in y o u r h o u seh o ld ? IN THE OPEN FIRE P L A C E ................................... I SHELERED FIRE PLACE IN COMPOUND 2 INSIDE PORCI I. VERANDER .......................... 3 LIVING R O O M ............................................................ 4 K IT H E N ............ .................................... 5 OTHER. SPE C IFY ________________________________ 96 340 W h e re d o es y o u r household usually d isp o se o f its PIT [N COMPOUND ........... . I re fu se o r so lid waste? PUBLIC REFUSE BIN ....... .2 PUBLIC REFUSE DUMP... 3 B U S H ........................................ 4 G U T T E R S ................................ . 5 BURN NEAR H O U S E ......... 6 OTHER. SPE C IF Y ________ 96 3 4 1 W h e re d o cs y o u r household d ispose o f its liquid PIT WITHIN COMPOUND w a ste ? B U S H ..................................... .2 GUTTERS ........................... 3 INDISCRIMINATELY....... 4 OTHER, SPEC IFY ________ 9h 342 W h o s e du ty is it in y o u r household to d isp o se o f YOUNG G IR L S ......... I h o u seh o ld w aste? YOUNG B O Y S ......... .2 YOUNG CHILDREN 3 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 343 A re y o u a m e m b e r o f any social security o r insurance YES s c h e m e ? N O . 344 W h a t type o f hea lth facility or personnel is usually H OSPITAL....................................... 1 2 a v a ilab le for p eop le in this co m m u n ity ? CLINIC. ................ TRADITIONAL H EA L ERS........ 3 SPIRITUALIST.............................. . 4 CHEMICAL SELLERS ............... 5 SELF M EDICATION.................... 6 ITENERARY DRUG VENDORS 7 OTHER. SPECIFY ______ 96 345 W h a t d o y o u usually d o when you b eco m e s ick? GO TO HOSPITAL.................................. I GO TO CLINIC ...2 USE TRADITIONAL HEALERS ...... ...3 J S E SPIRITUALIST ................... ...4 JSF. CHEMICAL SELLERS 5 JS E DRUG AT H O M E ................ 6 'JSE ITENERARY DRUG VENDORS 7 USE HERBS .................. 8 OTHER. SPECIFY_______________ 96 S E C T I O N 4: L O C A L S T R U C T U R E S , P R O C E S S E S A N D P O V E R T Y N O . Q U E S T I O N S -I/- - R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K I P T O 401 W h a t is the re la tionsh ip betw een this c o m m u n ity C O R D IA L ............................................. 1 an d the D istr ic t A ssem b ly ? Is it cordia l or ADVERSARIAL........................ ...........2 DON'T KNOW ................................ 88 ad versa r ia l? 402 W h a t is the re la tionship o f this com m unity and the COROIAl.......................................... 1 G h a n a Tourist B oard in Kumasi? ADVERSARIAL 2 DON'T K N O W ................................. 88 292 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 403 W h a t p ro jec ts have the D A e x e cu ted that h av e had a n v p o v e r ty reduc tion im pact in this c o m m u n i ty ? 404 H av e y o u e v e r benefited from an y DA po v er ty YUS . . . . .......................................... 1 N O .....................................................2 re d u c t io n funds? 405 Is it poss ib le for p o o r p eop le to access ass is tance Y E S .................................................. 1 from the D A ? N O .....................................................2 DON’T K N O W ........................... 88 PEOPLE? 406 W h o are the m ost p o w erfu l peop le an d in s t i tu t ions in th is co m m u n i ty ? INSTITUTIONS 407 W ho are the least pow erfu l peop le an d institu t ions in th is co m m u n i ty ? 408 D o m ig ran ts have equal r igh ts as in d ig e n e s in this Y E S .................................................. 1 c o m m u n i ty ? N O .....................................................2 409 Is there an y vis ib le d isc r im in a t io n a g a in s t m igran t Y E S .................................................. 1 c ra f tsm en in th is co m m u n ity ? N O .................................................... 2 DON’T K N O W .............................88 410 D o m en , w o m e n and ch i ld re n h av e d if fe ren t ro les Y E S .................................................. I in h an d ic ra f ts p roduc tion in th is co m m u n i ty ? N O .................................................... 2 DON’T K N O W ..............................88 411 W h ich ca tego ry o f crafts w o rk e rs a re the poores t in th is co m m u n i ty ? In w h a t w ay s can w e create m o re em p lo y m e n t 412 o p p o rtu n i t ie s for the po o re r c raf ts w o rk e rs? 413 In w h a t w ay s can w e crea te m o re o p p o r tu n i t ie s for the p o o re r c raf ts w o rk e rs to im p ro v e the ir incom es? D O N A T IO N S............................................................................. 1 414 In w h a t w a y s can c o m m u n i ty in co m e be LEASE F E E S ............................................................................. 2 d ev e lo p e d ? EQUITY D IV ID E N D S ............................................................ 3 C O O PE R A T IV E S...................................................................... 4 DON’T K N O W ........................................................................... 88 415 H ave y o u received any tra in ing from the DA o r YES .......................................... 1 any o th e r organ ization in the last 6 m on ths? N O ..................................................2 415 In w h a t w ay s C an w e build the capacity o f poorer b artisans and e m p o w e r th em ? 416 Is the re a tourism dev e lo p m en t p lann ing and Y E S ...................................................................... 1 m an ag e m en t team /com m ittee in this co m m u n ity ? N O ........................................................................2 DON’T K N O W ................................................. 88 417 Are y o u a m em b er o f this team /co m m ittee o r any MEMBER ......................................................... I o ther co m m u n ity assoc ia tion or hand icrafts NAME OF ASSOCIATION: assoc ia tions? NO!r A M E M B E R ............................................2 418 Here is a list o f s ta tem en ts ab o u t handicrafts p roduc tion in the A shanti region. P lease tell me A gree A gree D isagree Disagree D o n 't w h e the r you agree strongly, agree, d isag ree or S tro ng ly Strongly K n o w disagree strongly? a. I am usually consu l ted in the m ak in g o f a. 1 2 3 4 88 d ec is io n s co nce rn in g handicraft p roduc tion in this com m unity . 4 88 b. H and ic ra f ts produc tion is a sure way out o f b. 1 2 3 poverty. c. 1 2 3 4 88 c. Part ic ipa tion o f ch ild ren in craft w ork is a 293 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh prob lem here. d Touris t a r r iv a ls h av e d w in d le d / re d u c e d in the d. 1 2 3 4 88 last 5 years . 1 2 3 4 88 e T ouris ts are sp en d in g m o re m o n ey n o w than e 5 y ea rs ago. f. O ld e r touris ts buy m o re o f my g o o d s than r. 1 2 3 4 88 y o u n g e r ones. g. F em ale touris ts buy m o re o f m y g o o d s than Ji­ 1 2 3 4 88 m ale ones. h. 1 u sua lly keep reco rd s o f e v e n th in g I sell ll 1 2 3 4 88 i Touris ts a re harassed by h aw k ers w h e n they i I 2 3 4 88 c o m e here. j . T h e best [nam e o f c ra f t i t e m ) is p ro d u c e d in 2.1 1 3 4 88 this com m unity . k. T h e historical fame o f th is c o m m u n i ty h e lp s k 1 2 3 4 88 m y business. 1. H and ic ra f ts p roduc tion h a s c rea ted s o m e 1. 1 2 3 4 88 p ro b lem s here. m. rh e rap id g ro w th o f K u m asi is c r e a t in g n ew m. 1 2 3 4 88 p ro b lem s here 419 W hat are the m o s t im portan t th ings y o u r b u s in ess ENHANCED INVESTMENT C A P IT A L .................................. 1 n eeds in o rd e r to g row ? ENHANCED MARKETING SKILLS ........................................ 2 1MPROVED PLACE OF WORK (S H O P )...... ....................... 3 IMPROVED TECHNOLOGY (MACIIINES) .............. 4 EASY ACCESS TO INFORMATION .................................. 5 FCREIGN BUSINESS PARTNERS.......................................... 6 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 42 0 H av e you en joyed the d iscussions so far? Y E S .................................................... 1 NO .............................................2 421 Please, p rov ide any additional in fo rm ation on any o f the topics w e have d iscussed so far. i f any. 422 Has there been any im provem en t in y o u r life s ince YES, A L O T ....................1 YES, A L IT T L E .............................. 2 y o u started this w ork? N O ....................................... 3 NOT AT A L L .............................. 4 4. 423 W hat p ro p e r ty /p ro p e r t ie s h av e y o u been ab le to I. acqu ire s ince w o rk in g in the hand icraf t b u s in e s s? 5. 2 6 . 3 7. ITEM YES NO 424 Please, ind icate i f y o u o w n an \ o f the f o l lo w in g RADIO item s? TELEVISION V ID E O /D V D /V C R TELEPHONE ELECTRIC / GAS STOVE REFRIDGERATOR FREEZER LIVING ROOM FURNITURE OWN 1 tOUSE(S) BED WITH FOAM MATRESS HAND TRUCK PRIVATE CAR MOTOR CYCLE BICYCLE COMMERCIAL CAR TRACTOR LOOM /TOOLS LAND GOATS SHEEP. CATTLE POULTRY SEWING MACHINE SHOP/COM M CENTRE CAMERA GUM o n a University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh T H A N K YOU VERY M UC H FOR Y O UR TIME. O T H E R Q U E S T I O N S (P lease , R a te R esp o n d en t) H O W W E L L IN F O R M E D W A S T H E R E S O N D E N T ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No Knowledge Moderately K nowledgeable Com pletely Knowledgeable H O W F R E Q U E N T L Y D ID Y O U H A VE T O P R O B E T H E R E S P O N D E N T ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N ev er H a l f th e t im e A lw ays. WHO ELSE WAS PRESENT DURING HIE INTERVIEW? (li.C.. FAMILY MEMBER. COLLEAGUE(S). NO ONE, ETC.) COMMENTS: 295 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d i x 2 D ep ar tm en t o f G e o g ra p h y and R eso u rce D evelopm ent S tu d y on th e P otentia ls o f Pro-P oor T ourism for Poverty U n ivers ity o f G h an a . L eg o n A ccra , G hana R ed u ction in P er i-U rb an A reas o f K um asi D ep ar tm en t o f G eo g rap h y an d R u ra l D evelopm ent, K w am e (F o u r D istr ic ts) N k ru m a h U nixers ity o f Sc ience and Technology, K um asi , Uliana F eb ru a ry J u n e 2006 T o u rist Board / M etro & D is tr ict A s s e m b ly / O th er S ta k eh o ld e rs1 Q u e st io n n a ire ! in trod uction and responden t identif ication ___________________ 1 001 D IS T /M E T R O . A S S E M B L Y N A M E 008 QUESTIONNAIRE NUMBER ! 002 A G E / DATE O F E S T A B L IS I IM E N T 0 0 9 DATE O F INTERVIEW 003 R 's P O S IT IO N / R A N K 0 1 0 INTERVIEWER NAM E 004 R’s FIRST NAM E 011 L A N G U A G E O F IN T E R V IE W 005 R ’s LAST N A M E 0 1 2 N A T IV E L A N G U A G E O F R E S P O N D E N T 0 0 6 PLACE OF IN T E R V IE W 013 STAFF CATEGORY* 007 SEX 014 T IM E (Start | Stop) STAF F CATEGORY CODES* 1 TC )P MANAGEMENT 2 SENIOR STAFF 3. TECHNICIAN 4 SUPPORT STAFF (SECRETARIES, TYPISTS. DRIVERS, SECURITY. ETC ) 1 EDI T N G / DATA E N T R Y ( F O R O F F I C E U S E O N L Y ) 021 F IE L D S U P E R V IS O R 027 S U R V E Y M A N A G E R 022 DATE (d d /m m /y y ) 028 D A T E (d d /m m /y y ) 023 STATUS* 029 STATUS* 024 O F F IC E E D IT O R 030 DATA ENTRY CLERK 025 D A TE (d d /m m /y y ) 031 D A T E (d d /m m /y y ) 026 STATUS* 032 STATUS* , *STA~fUS CODES I. COM PLETE 2 ADDITIONAL VISITS REQUIRED 96 OTHER (SPECIFY) S E C T I O N 1: I N S T IT U T I O N B A C K G R O U N D & C A P A C I T Y NO. Q U E S T IO N S R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K IP T O 101 FirsL I w o u ld l ike to ask so m e ques t ions about th is Y E S ............................................................. 1 institution and y o u r cap ab i l i ty to c a n y out y o u r N O ............................................................... 2 DON'T K N O W ........................................88 m andate . D o y o u h av e the full com plem ent o f qualified s ta f f to carTv o u t y o u r m an d a te ? Please, co m p le te the follow in s table below STAFF CATEGORY TOTAL NUMBER MALE FEMALE REMARKS 102 TOP MANAGEMENT 103 SENIOR STAFF 104 TECHNICIANS 105 SUPPORT STAFF 106 ASSEMBLYMEN/WOMEN 107 UNIT COMMITTEES 108 ELECTORAL AREAS • 109 CONSTITUENCIES 110 How long hav e y o u lived con tinuously in this YEARS m e tro p o l is / c o m m u n ity ? ALWAYS. (SINCE B IR T H )..................... 95 V ISITO R........................................................................ 96 111 H ave you had an y tra in ing in pover ty analysis? Y E S ............................................................................. 1 How m any o f y o u r c o l lea g u es have had this training? NO 2 NUMBER 296 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H ave y o u h ad a n y t ra in ing in tourism an a ly s is? 112 H o w m an y o f y o u r c o l le a g u es have had th is train ing? Y E S ...... ....................................................................... 1 N O .................................................................................... 2 NUMBE? H ave you had any tra in ing in rural d ev e lo p m en t? YES .......................................................... I 113 H ow m any o f y o u r co l leagu es have had this tra in ing? NO : NUMBER SEC1 ION 2: P O V E R T Y R E D U C T IO N E F F O R T S A N D C H A L L E N G E S NO. Q U E S T I O N S R E S P O N S E O P T I O N S S K IP T O 201 W hat is the p re d o m in a n t econom ic ac tiv ity o f this COMMERCIAL ACTIVITIES (TRADING) I district? FARMING ACTIVITIES 2 HANDICRAFTS PRODUCTION 3 OTHER. PLEASE SPECIFY 96 202 W hat are the m ajo r tourist resources and a ttrac tions ir RESOl JRCE / ATTRACTION LOCATION this district ( reg io n )? W h e re are they located? C O D E F O R L O C A T IO N : (U ) = U R B A N ; (P ) = P E R I­ U R B A N (R) = R U R A L 203 W hat k inds o f handicraft ac ti \ ities are av a ilab le in tlii* HANDICRAFT NAME OF CRAFT LOCATION district ( reg io n )? ACTIVITY VILLAGE C O D E FOR L O C A T IO N : (U ) = U R B A N ; (P ) = PERI­ U R BA N (R) - R U R A L 204 What are the m ajo r tourism deve lopm en t cha lleng es of CONGESTION (HUMAN AND VEHICULAR) 1 this district ( reg io n )? WASTE DISPOSAL AND SANITATION ....... 2 LACK OF POTABLE WATER SUPPLY ...............3 INADEQUATE SOCIAL AMENITIES ..................... 4 LACK OF TOURISM SPECIFIC INFRASTRUCTURE 5 LACK OF RELIABLE TOURIST RECORDS (DATA) 6 LACK OF A DISTRICT TOURISM DEV PLAN 7 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 205 W hat are the m a jo r ch a llen g es you face in t ry in g to deal NON-COOPERATION OF LOCAL POPULATION 1 with these p ro b lem s? INADEQUATE FUNDING .. 2 LACK OF STAFF W ITI1 TOURISM EXPERTISI 3 INADEQUATE RESEARCH CAPAHII M Y 4 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 GO TO 211 206 A re there any se lf-he lp c o m m u n ity d eve lopm en t Y E S ....................................................... 1 IF NO’ projects in th is district? N O ......................................................... 2 DON'T K N O W .................................. 88 SELF-HELP 207 If there is a m self-help co m m u m tv deve lopm ent PROJECT LOCATION projects in th is district, w here are they located? 297 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 208 W h a t have you d o n e (are y o u d o in g ) to facil ita te these PROVIDE PART FUNDING ..................................... I LINK NGOS TO COMMUNITIES 2 p ro jec ts? PROVIDE SUPERVISON A N D MONITORING 3 PROVIDE TECHNICAL ADVICE 4 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 209 O o y o u face an y co n s tra in ts in pros id ing support for Y E S ....................................................... I these se lf-help p ro jec ts? NO 2 2 1 0 I f Y E S . w hat co n s tra in ts do y o u face in p ro v id in g NON-COOPERATION OF LOCAL POPULATION 1 s u p p o rt for se lf-he lp p ro jec ts in y o u r a rea o f INADEQUATE FUNDING ..............................................2 ju r isd ic t io n ? LACK OF STAFF WITH TOURISM EXPERTISE 3 INADEQUATE RESEARCI1 CAPABILITY 4 OTHER. SPECIFY 96 211 D o you have any to u rism d e v e lo p m e n t p lan s for your Y E S ...................................................... 1 d is tr ic t0 N O ........................................................ 2 DON’T K N O W ..................................88 2 12 W hat are the ob jec t ives o f th is plan and w h a t is the PLAN OBJECTIVES IMPLEMENTATION im plem enta tion strategy? STRATEGY 213 Do you usually invo lve all the s takeho lders in plan Y E S ...................................................... 1 form ulation N O ....................................................... 2 DON'T KNOW ............................. 88 214 D o you usually invo lve all s ta k e h o ld e rs in plan Y E S ...................................................... 1 im p lem en ta t ion? N O ........................................................ 2 DON’T K N O W ..................................88 215 W ho are the m a jo r s tak eh o ld e rs that y o u in v o lv e in TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES .................................. 1 d ec is io n -m ak in g regard ing p lan fo rm u la t io n ? ASSEM BLYMEN/WOM EN........................................... 2 COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS ..............3 N G O s ....................................................................................... 4 PRIVATE BUSINESS COMMUNITY REPS ..............5 HANDICRAFTS W O R K E R S .............................................6 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 216 W h o are the m a jo r s tak eh o ld e rs that you in v o lv e in TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES 1 d ec is io n -m ak in g regard ing plan im p lem en ta t io n ? ASSEMBLYMEN/WOMEN ............................................ 2 COMMUNITY-BASED ORGANISATIONS 3 N G O s ............................... 4 PRIVATE BUSINESS COM M UNITY REPS 5 HANDICRAFTS WORKERS ................. 6 OTHER, SPECIFY 96 217 Is th is institution co ncerned w ith po v er ty reduction? Y E S ...................................................... 1 N O ........................................................ 2 O n e o f the w ays o f reduc ing pover ty is to he lp people to 218 be able to help them se lves A re y o u able to provide Y E S ...................................................... I institutional support for poverty a l lev ia t ion program m es N O ........................................................ 2 DON’T KNOW . 88 in y o u r district? 298 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 219 Please, list nil pover ty a l lev ia t io n p ro g ra m m e s for w hich POVERTY KIND OF SUPPORT y o u h av e p rov ided institu tional support PROGRAMME 220 H ave you been able to p ro v id e institu t ional support for YES ..................................................... 1 handicrafts p roduc tion an d m a rk e t in g in th is district? NO ........................................................2 DON’T KNOW ................................ 88 221 H av e y o u been ab le to p ro v id e institu tional support fcr Y E S ...................................................... 1 im proved techno log ies fo r a g r ic u l tu re and agro-based NO ....................................................... 2 DON’T K N O W ..................................88 industries? 222 Do local handicrafts w o rk e rs h av e the capac i ty to YES ..................................................... 1 m anage tourism d ev e lo p m e n t in their co m m un itie s by N O .........................................................2 DON'T KNOW ................................ 88 them selves? 223 Do y o u have the capab ility to d ev e lo p and im plem ent a Y E S ....................................................... 1 C om m unity T ourism M a n a g e m e n t Plan for the craft NO ....................................................... 2 DON’T KNOW .......................... 88 villages in y o u r d is tr ic t? 224 Have you p ro v id ed o r fac i l i ta ted the p rov is ion o f any Y E S ................................................... 1 tourism specific in fra s truc tu re in an y o f the craft N O .........................................................2 DON’T KNOW ................................ 88 villages in y o u r d is trict? 225 W hat is the re la tionsh ip o f y o u r institution and C O R D IA L .......................................... I handicrafts v il lages like? ADVERSARIAL ........................... 2 NO RELATIONSHIP ................ 3 DON’T KNOW .............................. 88 226 W hat role is y o u r institu tion p lay in g in c rea t ing avenues 1. for susta inable em p lo y m e n t o p p o r tu n i t ie s in this district, 2 especially, for po o re r p eo p le? 3. 227 W hat role is y o u r institution p lay in g to c rea te avenues 1. for poorer craft m akers to im p ro v e their incom es? 2 3. Now, to each o f the fo l lo w in g s ta tem ents , indicate w he the r you: S T R O N G L Y A G G R R E = 1; A G R E E = 2; D IS A G R E E = * 3; O R S T R O N G L Y D I S A G R E E = 4. 228 M y institution created su s ta in ab le em p lo y m en t STRONGLY AGREE ................... 1 opportunit ies for the poor. AGREE 2 DISAGREE .............................................. 3 STRONGLY DISAGREE ............ 4 229 M y institution has crcated o p p o r tu n i t ie s for poor people STRONGLY AGREE 1 to im prove their incomes. A G R E E ......................................................... . 2 DISAGREE 3 STRONGLY DISAGREE ......... 4 299 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 230 M y institution has p ro v id ed institu tional su p p o r t for STRONGLY A G R E E ............................. 1 A G R E E ........................................................ 2 pover ty alleviation p rog ram m es. D ISA G REE............................. 3 STRONGLY DISAGREE 4 | 231 M y institution has p rov ided institutional su p p o r t le r the STRONGLY A G R E E ............................. 1 pro m o tio n o f hand icraf ts p roduc tion and m arke ting . A G R E E ....................................................... 2 DISAGREE................................................. 3 i STRONGLY D ISA G REE..........................4 ! 232 M y institution has facilita ted se lf-he lp p ro jec ts in this STRONGLY A G R E E ................................ 1 district. A G R E E ......................................................... 2 D ISAG REE...................................................3 STRONGLY D ISA G R EE ......................... 4 233 T h e curren t criteria an d p ro c esse s for q u a l i f ic a t io n for STRONGLY AGREE 1 the poverty a l lev ia t ion fund includes the p o o re r A G R E E .................................... 2 DISAG REE...................................................3 m em b ers o f society. STRONGLY D IS A G R E E ......................... 4 234 M y institution has en o u g h financial re so u rce s to carry­ STRONGLY A G R E E ... .................... 1 o u t its m andate. A G R E E .........................................................2 D ISAG REE.................................................. 3 STRONGLY D ISA G R E E ......................... 4 235 M y institution has d o n e very well to invo lve all STRONGLY A G R E E ................................ 1 s takeho lde rs in d e c is io n -m a k in g reg ard ing plan A G R E E .........................................................2 DISAGREE................................................. 3 fo rm ula tion and im p lem en ta t io n STRONGLY D ISA G R E E......................... 4 236 M y institution n eed s capac ity b u i ld in g in p ro -p o o r STRONGLY A G R E E ................................ 1 tourism d ev e lo p m en t s tra teg ies in o rd e r to h a rn ess A G R E E .........................................................2 D ISAG REE.................................................. 3 tourism potentials for po v er ty reduction in the STRONGLY D ISA G R EE ...................... 4 d istric t/m etropolis . 237 A s a starling point, m y institu tion can facilitate local STRONGLY AGREE .......................... 1 linkages in the local tourism industry by b r in g in g hotels, tour operators , banks, handicraft p roducers , local DISAGREE.................................................. 3 STRONGLY D ISA G REE......................... 4 farm ers , and transport c o m p an ie s etc. to g e th er to create synergy, and form n e tw o rk s for the ir m u tua l benefit. S E C T I O N 3 : SC O P E F O R P R O - P O O R T O U R I S M A N D P O V E R T Y R E D U C T I O N 301 In w hat w ay s can y o u r institution in fluence p o licy for 1 poorer peop le to p ar tic ipa te an d benefit e co n o m ica l ly 2 from tourism , espec ia lly in hand icrafts villages*/ 3 4 3 0 2 In w ha t w ays can y o u r institution facilitate the p rov is ion 1 o f in frastructure that bene fi ts tourists as well as locals? 2 3 4 303 In w hat w ay s can y o u r institution facilitate the reduction 1 o f nega tive im pacts o n poore r m em b ers o f society ? 2 3 4 3 04 In w hat w ays can w e invo lve the poor m o re in local p lann ing initiatives and amplify their vo ice (and needs) for po licy reform ? 3 4 300 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 305 A re y o u aw are that the M A p ro g ra m m e in G e o g ra p h y and Y E S ...................................................... 1 Rural D ev e lo p m en t p ro v id e s tra in ing in Rural an d Urban N O .................................................. 2 WE WOULD LIKE A PRESENTATION ON T ransporta t ion A n a ly s is and Solu tions: T o u r ism Studies: PROGRAMME 3 P overty S tud ies ; U rban P lann ing ; D e cen tra l isa t io n and D ev e lo p m en t; P roject A n a ly s is . Q u a n ti ta t iv e an d Q u a li ta t iv e R esearch M ethods , etc? 306 W hat a re the key co m p e te n c ie s requ ired by y o u r 1. o rgan isa tion for effec tive and effic ien t p e r fo rm a n c e o f 2 . du ties? 3. 4 307 W hat are y o u r im m edia te , m ed iu m term an d lo n g term IMMEDIATE: tra in ing needs? MEDIUM TERM LONGTERM: 308 H ow can the Dept, o f G e o g ra p h y and Rural D e v e lo p m e n t SHORT COURSES ON RELEVANT TOPICS ........ 1 help you? FULL - TIME MASTERS PROGRAMME FOR STAFF 2 RESEARCH COLLABORATION..........................................3 WORKSHOP AND CONFERENCE FACILITATION 4 OTHER. PLEASE SPECIFY 96 3 0 9 Please, p rov ide any additional in fo rm ation on an y o f the top ics w e h av e d iscussed so far. i f any. T H A N K V O U V E R Y M U C H F O R Y O U R T IM E . O T H E R Q U E S T I O N S (P lease , R ate R esp on dent) H O W W E L L IN F O R M E D W A S T H E R E S O N D E N T ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 No Knowledge M oderately Knowledgeable Completely Knowledgeable H O W F R E Q U E N T L Y DID Y O U H A VE T O P R O B E T H E R E S P O N D E N T ? 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N ev er H a lf the time AIw ays. W H O E L S E WAS P R E S E N T D U R IN G T H E IN T E R V IE W ? (E.G., FA M ILY M E M B E R , C O L L E A G U E (S ) N O O N E , ETC.) C O M M E N T S : 301 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d i x 3 P A N E L D I S C U S S I O N W I T H D I S T R I C T A S S E M B L I E S IN T H E C R A F T C O M M U N I T I E S IN T H E A S H A N T I R E G I O N I N T R O D U C T I O N : D A T E : We are very p le a se d to h av e th is oppo r tun i ty to interac t w ith you in t h e ..............................distr ict today, and to learn a b o u t the pover ty si tua t ion an d h o w you are c o p in g with it. I w ou ld like to in t roduce m y research t e a m to you . This i s .......................... M y n a m e is A lex Segbef ia , the Team Leader. I am a lecturer in the D e p a r tm e n t o f G e o g ra p h y an d Rura l D eve lopm en t . K N U S T , and a doctora l c and ida te in the D ep a r tm e n t o f G eog raphy and R e s o u rc e D eve lopm en t , U n ive rs i ty o f G hana , Legon . H av ing in t roduced ourse lves , w e w ou ld a lso like to ge t :o k n o w you : N a m e : O f f ic ia l T i t l e : 1. . 2. . 3. . 4. . 5. . 6. . 7. . 8 . . We are looking at the potent ia ls o f us ing handicraf ts as a p ro -p o o r to u r i sm in tervent ion s tra tegy for poverty reduc t ion in craft vi l lages in the A shan ti region o f G hana . S o m e c r a f c o m m u n i t i e s in y o u r distr ict have been selec ted for in-depth study. The agenda for this m ee t ing revolves a ro u n d the fo l lowing themes : 6. M a jo r re sources o f the distr ict / l ivel ihood assets - a c c e s s an d con t ro l? 7. M a jo r e c o n o m ic act ivit ies in the distr ict / l ivel ihood s t ra teg ies - sustainabil i ty? 8. T he p o v e r ty si tuat ion in the distr ict causes, pat terns, t r ends? 9. T h e ro le o f the DA in pover ty reduc t ion in the distr ict - s t ruc tu res , p rocesses , po li cies? 10. Fac i l i ta t ion o f tour ism /craft en te rp r i ses deve lopm en t a n d cha l lenge s in district? 11. S pec i f ic p ro -p o o r ini tiatives for c ra f t sm en an d w o m e n in the distr ict? We bel ieve that y o u r ac t ive part icipa t ion an d va luab le contr ibut ion is ve ry im por tan t in the de v e lo p m e n t o f s trategies a i m e d at po tential ly v ia b le sec to rs o f the local e c o n o m y for accelera ted p o v e r ty reduct ion and w ea l th crea t ion at the distr ict level . We w ou ld be t a k in g no tes as the d iscuss ion g o e s on , however, as the d iscuss ion gets interest ing, m y note takers m a y m iss out on som e o f the im por tan t points. We w o u ld , therefore, like to s e e k y o u r pe rm is s ion to record the discuss ion. T h a n k y o u . A : M a j o r r e s o u r c e s o f t h e d i s t r i c t / L i v e l i h o o d a s s e t s - A c c e s s a n d C o n t r o l 2 W h a t d o y o u see as the m a jo r natural resources in this d is tr ic t? WTiere are they loca ted? Is touri sm im p o r tan t in this d is tr ict? Level o f tour ism deve lopm en t? 3 H o w d o e s on e get access to these resources? Ease and e q u i ty o f access? The Vulnerable? 4 W h a t is the state o f the phys ica l infrastruc ture in the di s tr ic t? (R oads , water , energy, etc)? 5 W h a t is the Popula t ion Tiuman capi tal o f the distr ict? (Sk i l l s levels , Proport ion poor, etc)? 6 W'hat are the sources o f f inancial capi tal in the distr ict? 7 WTiat is the state and nature o f the Social sys tem? Social N e tw o rk s in this district? 8 W'hat is the condi t ion o f the resource(s ) on w hich h and ic ra f t bus inesses depend in the distr ict? 9 A re th e re an y insti tutional and policy measures to suppor t the p oo r in this distr ict? 10 Is th e re d isc r imina t ion on the g ro u n d s o f gender, e thn ic i ty and rel ig ion with regards to access o f any o f the r e sou rces d iscussed above? A n y s tra tegies for equity? 1 1 A re th e re any arti ficial barriers to entry into identif ied tou r i sm /c ra f t related bus inesses in the district? 302 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh B: M a j o r eco n o m ic ac t iv i t i e s / L i v e l i h o o d s t r a t e g i e s 1. What are the m a jo r e c o n o m ic ac t iv i t ies in this distr ic t? L ive l ihood op t ions? 2. What is the p redom inan t e c o n o m ic ac t iv i ty in this distr ict? 3. W hich specif ic p laces in the dist r ict p r o d u c e handicraf ts and w ha t is the ir im por tance? 4. O n average, what p ropor t ion o f the popula t ion is e m p lo y e d by the craf ts sec to r? 5. A re crafts enterprises reg is te red? P ropor t ion o f reg is te red /unreg is te red bus inesses in distr ict? 6. A re the act ivit ies o f c ra f t sm en an d w o m e n e c o n o m ica l ly an d e n v i ronm en ta l ly sus ta inab le? 7. Are the act ivit ies o f c ra f t sm en co n s id e re d a nu isance by peop le not en g ag e d in the bus iness? 8. W hat is the level o f u n e m p lo y m e n t an d u n d e re m p lo y m e n t in the distr ict? 9. W h a t s tructural co n d i t io n s e n c o u r a g e the d e v e l o p m e n t o f the crafts sec to r? (E c o n o m ic , Socia l . Political, Cultural , Technologica l)? 10. What s tructural co n d i t io n s o b s t ru c t the ques t o f craft w orke rs to m a ke a l iving? (E c o n o m ic , Social , Political. Cul tural , Technolog ic a l)? C : P o v e r t y s i tu a t io n in t h e d i s t r i c t - c a u s e s , p a t t e r n s , t r e n d s 1. Is this district a p oo r o n e? W h y ? 2. W h o are poorer? M en o r w o m e n ? W h y ? 3. W hich a rea s /com m uni t ie s are p o o re r? W hat accoun ts for the spatial d ispar i ty? 4. W h o is a poor pe r son? N on poor? T h e w ea l th y ? Vulnerab le g roups? 5. WTiat are some o f the indica to rs o f pover ty o f ind iv iduals? O f c o m m u n i t i e s in the distr ict? 6. What are some o f the causes o f p o v e r ty in this dis tr ict? 7. W hich sectors o f the local e c o n o m y carry the h ig hes t bu rden o f pover ty? W h y ? 8. W h a t t im e in the y e a r do peop le genera l ly e x p e r i en ce ha rd sh ip in this d is tr ict? C o p in g s t ra teg ies? W h o helps? Is pover ty inc reas ing/decreas ing? T ren d s ? 9. Have there been any cris is o r l ive l ihood fai lures in the last 5 years? W h ic h year (s ) w e r e g o o d /b a d ? W h y ? 10. Is the assembly/ ins t i tu t ion i t se lf poo r? W h y ? C o p i n g / A d a p t i v e st rategies? D: Role o f DAs in p o v e r t y r e d u c t i o n / a l l e v i a t i o n 1. H o w m uch at tention is the DA p ay ing to the p rov is ion o f basic inf ras truc tu re in the d is tr ict? (E duca t ion , health, water, roads , markets , electr icity, w a s te d isposal , a cc o m m o d a t io n ) 2. W h a t are the DAs cur ren t de v e lo p m e n t prior i t ies? 3. W hat are the condi t ions one has to satisfy- to access pover ty al levia t ion funds from the D A? 4. I lo w easy is it for the poo r to access micro credi t from the A s s e m b ly ? Fac i l i tat ion? 5. W h a t has the DA d o n e to faci li tate de v e lo p m e n t o f Craf t en terpr ises and S M E s in the district? 6. What ‘tour ism spec if ic in f ras truc tu re ’ does the DA have? In tends to build? 7. Is there any specific pover ty al lev ia t ion p ro g ra m m e ta rge ted at the vu lne rab le in the distr ict? (The aged . People with disability, w o m e n , Child ren)? 8. W hat is the cu rren t capacity o f the D A (skil led m a n p o w e r and logist ics ) to de l iver on her deve lopm en t ob liga t ions? WTiat are the cons tra in ts? C a p a c i ty requ i rem en ts? 9. How' m a n y craft w orke rs have benef i ted from the DA Pover ty Allev ia t ion F u n d ? Level o f r e p a y m e n ts ? Leve ls o f success? Prob lems? C h a l len g es? W hat benefi ts does the DA ge t from craf t peop le? 10. A ch iev in g pro-poor g row th entai ls inst i tut ional and policy reforms tha t not on ly ex p an d e c o n o m ic opportuni t ies but also e m p o w e r the poo r to ga in fu l ly part ic ipa te in and measurab ly benef i t from them. 11. What po li cy and inst itutional re fo rm s are necessary' i f this object ive is to be ach ieved in the craf t s sector? E: F a c i l i t a t io n o f T o u r i s m E n t e r p r i s e D e v e lo p m e n t - P r o s p e c t s a n d C h a l l e n g e s 1. Does the D A have an y to u r i sm de v e lo p m e n t and m a n a g e m e n t plans for this distr ict? 2 . W h a t is t h e A s s e m b ly d o i n g to p r o m o t e a n d m a r k e t t h e d i s t r i c t a s a t o u r i s m d e s t i n a t i o n ? 3. Do craft com m uni t ie s have receptive facilities an d ICTs? Current s i tua t ion in this regard? 4. A re there any public-pr ivate par tnersh ips in the crafts bus iness? 5. Are there any p lans/st rateg ies to m a k e tourists s tay a little longer? S p e n d m o re ? Any tour ism even ts? Craf t fairs? O the r at tract ions? 6. How' m uch tax do tour ism en terpr ises in the district p ay ? C om pl iance levels? 7. Do craft com m uni t ie s have craft cent res, and how is it (will it be) opera ted? 8. H o w docs the a ssembly rank its o w n effor ts at faci litation o f tour ism en terpr ise deve lopm en t? 9. H o w do the crafts peop le pe rce ive the a s s e m b l y ’s effor ts? W h a t kind o f re la t ionships exists? 10. W hat factors promote /constra in y o u r faci litation roles as an assem bly? 303 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh F: S p e c i f i c P o v e r ty i n i t i a t iv e s in t h e d i s t r i c t - t a rg e t b e n e f i c i a r i e s , r e s u l t s a n d p o v e r t y focus Specific Poverty Initiatives Target beneficiaries Results / Status Comments: Pro-Poor/Not Pro-Poor A ny O t h e r R e m a r k s / C o n t r i b u t i o n s 304 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d i x 4 D E P A R T M E N T O F G E O G R A P H Y A N D R E S O U R C E D E V E L O P M E N T U N I V E R S I T Y O F G H A N A , L E G O N A S T U D Y O N T H E P O T E N T I A L S O F P R O - P O O R T O U R I S M F O R P O V E R T Y R E D U C T I O N IN P E R I P H E R A L A R E A S IN G H A N A NOTE: A S S U R A N C E IS H E R E B Y G IV E N T H A T IN F O R M A T IO N FRO M TH IS S T U D Y IS N E E D E D PU RELY FOR A C A D E M IC PURPO SES ONLY A N D HI L L B E T R E A T E D A S C O N F ID E N TIA L I N - D E P T H I N T E R V I E W S - P O L I C Y M A K E R S . C B O s . DAs I ) In terview er:........................................................... II) Date:... III) In s titu tio n : ............................................................. IV) Officer: A. D e f in i t io n s o f P o v e r ty 1. Do w e k n o w w h o the poor are? 2. If so, h o w do w e know ? 3. W ho a re they? 4. How d o you recognise the poor? 5. H ow does percep tion o f the p o o r differ? 6. How are the poor def ined official ly? (International, national, local, and the professions)? B. B enef i t s to t h e Poor 1. How are the p o o r benefi t ing from to ur i sm , and what do they ex pec t? 2. W h a t cou ld t ou r i sm do for you (w ho benef i ts and w ho does not)? 3. W ha t k ind o f tourists do poor host co m m u n i t ie s p refer? 4. How are com m uni t ie s benefi t ing from tour i sm? 5. W hat d e te rm ines access to tour ism resources and participat ion in the local tourism industry? 6. Do m e n and w o m e n have equal oppor tuni t i es to benefit from to u r i sm ? C . Po l icy 1. In w ha t w ays are yo u involved in the crea t ion and or, im plem enta t ion o f tourism poli cy? 2. W hat are the oppor tuni t i es for e x p an d in g the benefi ts that p o o r p eop le der ive from tour i sm in the crafts sec tor? 3. W h a t a re the l imitat ions for p o o r people b enef i t ing more from tour i sm in the crafts sub-sec to r? 4. Arc the re any cur ren t policies o f us ing to u r i sm to help the p o o r to increase their in c o m e ? (Names, Year, ob jj 5. Have the re been any old policies that sought to use tour ism to he lp the poor to increase their incomes0 D. C u r r e n t S i t u a t i o n 1. W hat s teps is y o u r off ice taking to crea te condi t ions for poor p eop le to benefi t m o re from tour i sm? 2. What else needs to be done to change tourism to benefit the poor? 3. W hich o f the tour i sm sectors reaps the mos t benefi ts from tour ism act ivi t ies? W hy? 4. Which o f the tour i sm sectors reaps the least benefi ts from touri sm act ivit ies? W h y ? E. T h e H a n d i c r a f t s S u b -S e c to r , P o v e r t y a n d I n t e r v e n t i o n s 1. To w ha t ex tent a re handicrafts importan t to tour ism deve lopm ent in G h an a? Is it a v iable sector? 2. W h i c h p a r t s o f th e c o u n t r y Ho t h e s e h a n d i c r a f t s c o m e f r o m ? W h a t is t h e m a r k e t in g c a p a c i t y o f th e s e w o r k e r s ? 4. W hat w as the total budgetary' al locat ion to the tourism sector in 2005? 5. H o w m u c h o f it w as al located to the handicraf ts sub-sector? 6. How m u c h o f the budgetary al loca t ions to the tourism sector w as al located to the handicraf ts sub-sector o v e r th e last 5 years? 305 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d ix 5 P O T E N T I A L S F O R P R O - P O O R H A N D I C R A F T S E N T E R P R I S E D E V E L O P M E N T IN G H A N A C o m m u n i t y Part ic ipa t ion (D ra f t ) I Crafts associations 2 A s s e m b ly m a n /w o m a n 3. Unit commiltcc chairperson 4 District assembly 5 Chief or traditional authority 6 Ordinary community members (Non craft workers) I ■ H o w long have y o u l ived c o n t in u o u s ly in this c o m m u n i t y ? 2. W hat do you do for a l iving? 3. D o y o u hold any pos i t ion in this c o m m u n i t y ? If yes, p lease n a m e pos i t ion 4. W h a t is the p r e d o m i n a n t e c o n o m i c act ivi ty in this c o m m u n i t y ? 5. D o y o u e n d o r s e /o p p o s e the p ro d u c t io n o f crafts in this c o m m u n i t y ? 6. If you endorse (craf t p r o d u c t i o n ) , p lease explain why. 7. I f you oppose (craf t p r o d u c t io n ) , p lease explain why. 8. What is the g e n e ra l fee l ing o f the peop le in th is c o m m u n i t y abou t the p roduction o f crafts ( w o o d c a rv in g s /b e a d s /k e n te / e a r th e n w a re ) ? # “ 9. Is it poss ib le for p o o r p e o p l e to par t i c ipa te in crafts p roduc t ion in this c o m m u n i t y ? 10. W hat , in y o u r op in io n , a re the benef i t s o f crafts p roduc t ion in this c o m m u n i t y (P e r s o n a l ly ? Others /c ra ft w orke rs? T he c o m m u n i ty ? T h e D A ? ) P ro b e for the following: a E c o n o m i c b e n e f i t s (expansion o f employment and wages, jobs lor the poor, expansion o f business opportunity for the poor, small business opportunities for the poor, community income, fax revenue, etc » b. N o n - c a s h l i v e l i h o o d s b e n e f i t s (improved access to infrastructure like roads, water supply, electricity, markets etc, and services, livelihood diversification, new skills, sense o f pride, popularity o f community, training, etc) c P a r t i c i p a t i o n a n d e m p o w e r m e n t (increased participation o f the poor in decision making at personal, family, association/club, community levels, expression o f opinion on important issues, membership o f cooperatives, etc) 11. W hat can be done to e n h a n c e the benef i t s poor people d e r ive from m a k i n g hand ic ra f t s? 12. A re there any p ro b le m s co n f ro n t in g the successful p roduc t ion o f crafts in th is c o m m u n i t y ? 13. I f there are. p lease list them. 14. W h o or w ha t crea tes the se p r o b le m s if any? 15. What , in y o u r op in ion , a re the p ro b le m s created by the p roduc t ion o f c ra f t s in this c o m m u n i ty ? 16. W h o o r w hat is /are a f f e c t e d by these problems? 17. W h a t can be d o n e to s o lv e these p rob lem s , and w ho shou ld be r e spons ib le for w ha t? 18. In y o u r opin ion, are the benef i ts from crafts more than its as soc ia ted p r o b le m s ? 19. Was craf ts p roduc t ion in this c o m m u n i t y a planned dev e lo p m en t? 20. D o you k n o w o f an y m a n a g e m e n t plan to regulate crafts p roduc t ion in this c o m m u n i t y ? 2 1. Has a n y o n e in this c o m m u n i t y rece ived any training in tour ism/c raf t s b u s in e s s m a n a g e m e n t? 22. H o w do you feel w h e n y o u see visi tors (tourists and excurs ion is t s ) in y o u r c o m m u n i t y ? 23. Would you like to s ee m o r e o r fewer o f them around? 24. What are the poss ib i l i t i es for the p o o r to lift themselves out o f pover ty th ro u g h crafts p roduction? 25. D o you pa t ronise s o m e o f the hand ic ra f t s from this c o m m u n i ty ? 26. W here are the best (w oodcarv ings /beads /ken te /ea r thenw are ) m a d e in G h a n a ? Thank You. 306 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A p p e n d i x 6 FOCUS CROUP DISCUSSION W ITH C R A F T W ORKERS AND O TH ER STAKEH O LD ERS IN C R A FT CO M M U N ITIES IN TH E ASHANTI REG IO N INTRODUCTION: DATE: We are very pleased to h av e this oppo r tun i ty to in te rac t with you today, and to learn abou t you r w o r k as crafts m e n /w o m e n , an d to d iscuss m any th ings tha t af fec t y o u r w o rk with you. Even though w e are f rom the universi ty, this d iscuss ion is not in a c l a ss room , so we shou ld all feel free to e x p re s s ourse lves as there are no r ight o r w ro n g answers. We invite all op in ions . If y o u d isag ree with w ha t is said, please, feel free to say what you think about it. T h a n k you. I w o u ld like to int roduce m y research team to y o u . This i s ......................... M y nam e is A lex Segbef ia . the Team Leader. I am a lec tu rer in the D epar tm en t o f G e o g ra p h y and R ura l Deve lopm ent , K N U S T , and a doctora l c and ida te in the D epar tm en t o f G e o g r a p h y and Resource D eve lopm en t , U n iv e r s i ty o f Ghana, Legon. H av in g in troduced ourselves , w e w o u ld also l ike to get to k n o w you: N a m e Designa t ion N a m e D es igna t ion 1. 6. 2. 7. j . 8. 4. 9. 5. 10. We are ta lk ing to crafts m e n an d w o m e n in s o m e selec ted com m uni t ie s in the A shan ti reg ion, and w e are happy tha t we are ab le to meet you today to d iscuss w h a t you are d o in g , and how we can to g e th e r im p ro v e u pon w ha t y o u are a l ready d o ing so that through this craft w o rk w e can reduce o u r poverty and get m o re f rom it. We w o u ld a l so d iscuss h o w we can con t r ibu te to com m un i ty d e v e lo p m e n t an d try to f ind solut ions to some o f the p ro b le m s w e face in o u r work. T he ag e n d a for this m ee t ing revo lves a round the fo l lowing themes: 5. Craf t m e n ’s w o rk condi t ions and dynam ics 6. the pover ty situat ion in the distr ict - causes , pat terns, t rends? 7. m a jo r resources o f the district / l ive l ihood assets - access an d cont ro l? 8. m a jo r eco n o m ic act ivi t ies in the d is tr ic t / l ivelihood strategies - sus ta inab i l i ty? 9. the role o f the D A in pover ty r ed u c t io n in the distr ict - s truc tures, po li cies? 10. faci litation o f tour ism en terpri ses d e v e lo p m e n t and cha llenges in district 1 I . any specif ic p ro -poo r ini t iat ives for c ra f t sm en and w o m en in the district We be lieve that y o u r ac t ive par t i cipa t ion and v a lu a b le cont r ibution is ve ry im por tan t i f w e are to su ccee d in accelera ted pover ty reduct ion and wealth crea t ion in this com m uni ty . We w ould be taking notes as the d iscuss ion g o e s on , however, as the d iscuss ion ge t s interest ing, m y no te takers m ay miss out on som e o f the impor tant points . We w o u ld th e re fo re like to seek y ou r pe rm iss ion to record the d iscuss ion. T hank you. A: INTRODUCTION - C R A FT PRODUCTION DYNAMICS 1 H o w did this c o m m u n i t y c o m e to adop t th i s craft as a bus iness / l ive l ihood o p t ion? (Take this up again with leaders in IDIs) 2. What is y ou r posi t ion in the craft industry ? (R aw material supplier . Carver , Finisher, Dealer , Potter, etc.) 3. What skills are required for y ou r jo b ? 4. H o w long does it take to acqui re these sk i l l s? 5. H ow did you acqui re these skills? (Poll) 6 W here did you have you r training? (poll) 7 What inputs do you need in the work y o u do ? Tools? Mater ia ls? C ap i ta l ? L a b o u r ? I l o w do y o u get them? 8. W here do you purchase them ? Price? 9. What k inds of crafts do you produce/se l l deal in? Please list them. O p e ra t i o n s ? E.g. O rde r s / s tocks? H ow long does it take to carve/f inish/selI a unit i tem? 307 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Craf t I tem P roduc t ion T im e O pera t ions Rem arks 10. W h o are the people w h o buy the th ings you p ro d u ce / se l l? M ain pa t rons? W h e re do y o u sell y ou r p roduc ts? 1 1. W here do you m a k e y o u r p ro d u c t s ? W ork e n v i ro n m e n t? Faci l i t ies? S a fe ty? i 2. H o w m a n y o f you w o rk here fu l l - t ime? Pa r t - t im e? R e ce iv e p a y /w a g e s? Sa la r ies? C on t rac t? 13. H o w w ould you rank the im p o r tan ce o f the fo l low ing? a. R aw materia l supp l ie rs ( logs /dye s /po l i shes /bo t t l e s /yam s /c lay / fue l w o o d ) etc. b. c a rv e r s /w e a v e r s 'p o t t e r s /b e a d s m akers c. f inishers ( w o o d ca rv ings , K ente , B eac s ) d. dea lers ( loca l an d fo re ign ) ac t ive /pass ive e. m i d d le m e n /w o m e n 14 W h ich o f the a b o v e has a m o re d if f icu lt j o b ? 15. G e ts m o re profi t? (Poll and get agreements/disagreements) 16. Poverty7 status o f p eop le in each ca tego ry? 1 7. Wealth rank ing? (Allow debate and get consensus) 18. Are there peop le w h o p e r fo rm m o r e th an one task a b o v e ? W hich ones? B: T h e p o v e r t y s i t u a t i o n in t h e c o m m u n i t y - c a u s e s , p a t t e r n s , t r e n d s ? Do w e k n o w w h o is a p oo r pe rson? N o n poor? V u lne rab le g roups? Is this co m m u n i ty a p o o r one? W h y ? W h o are poorer? M e n o r w o m e n ? W h y ? W hich a rea s /com m un i t i e s are p o o re r? W hat accoun ts fo r the spatial d ispar i ty? W h a t are the th ings that s h o w tha t one is poo r? H o u s i n g ? S ize o f bus iness? In c o m e ? W h a t? W h a t are s o m e o f the th ings tha t cause pover ty in this c o m m u n i t y ? W hich sectors o f the local e c o n o m y car ry the h ighes t bu rden o f pover ty? W h y ? 8. W'hat t ime in the y e a r do people genera l ly ex per i ence hardsh ip in this c o m m u n i t y ? 9. In the last 5 years , w h ic h year(s ) w e re g o o d ? Bad? W h y ? 10. A re all craf t w orkers p oo r? W h ich ca tego ry? Expla in? C: M ajor resources of the community / Livelihood assets - Access and Control, Inequalities? 1. W h a t are the m a jo r na tura l resources in the c o m m u n i t y ? W here are they located? 2. W hat de te rm ines a cc ess? Ease an d equ i ty o f access? G e n d e r and access? T he V ulnerab le? 3. W h a t is the tradit ional p o w e r s t ruc tu re in this c o m m u n i t y ? M ost pow erfu l , least pow er fu l? 4 . W hat are s o m e o f the inputs o f y o u r trade and w h e re do y o u ob ta in t h e m ? 5. W hat is the state o f the phys ica l inf ras truc tu re in the c o m m u n i t y ? R oads? E nergy? Schoo lsE tc? 6. W hat is the state o f h u m a n capital in the c o m m u n i t y ? P opu la t ion? Skil ls? 7. W hat is the state and level o f f inancial capi tal in the distr ict? 8. W h a t is the state and level o f social capi tal in the c o m m u n i t y ? Social s y s t e m ? N e tw o rk s? 9 . W hat are the publ ic g o o d s and se rv ices in the com m uni ty , an d w h o p ro v id es th e m ? 10. A re there any inst i tut ional and cultural b iases aga ins t the p o o r in this c o m m u n i t y ? 11. Is there d iscr iminat ion on the g r o u n d s o f gender , e thn ic i ty an d rel ig ion w i th regards to access o f any ol the resources d iscussed ab o v e ? A n y s tra teg ies for equ i ty? 12. Are there any arti ficial barr iers to entry' into the c ra f t t rade , o r into the touri sm sec to r in genera l? D: Major economic activities / Livelihood strategies • W hat is the p redom inan t eco n o m ic ac t iv i ty in the c o m m u n i t y ? L ive l ihood op t ions? • W hat proport ion o f the populat ion is en g ag e d in C ra f ts an d o the r tour ism rela ted jo b s ? • Arc the act ivi t ies o f c raf t smen and w o m e n sus ta inab le? Econom ica l ly , env i ronm en ta l ly , etc? • Are the act ivi t ies o f craf t smen cons ide red a nu isance by peop le not en g ag e d in the bus iness? 308 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh • W'liat is the level o f u n e m p lo y m e n t and u n d e re m p lo y m e n t in the distr ic t? • W hat is the n u m b e r o f reg is tered an d unreg is te red craft en te rp r ises in this c o m m u n i t y ? • O n average , h o w m a n y pe r s o n s are e m p lo y e d the crafts sec to r? • W h a t s tructura l co n d i t io n s obs t ruc t the ques t o f craf t w o r k e r s to m a k e a l iv ing? E c o n ? Socia l? Poli t ical? T echno log ica l? • O n average , w ha t ski lls does o n e requ i re to b e co m e prof ic ient in this t rade? D oes on e need formal educa t ion in o rde r to par t i c ipa te in this bus iness? • What tools and how m u c h m o n e y d o e s on e require to start a bus iness in this craf t? • D o chi ld ren par t i c ipa te in th is c raf t s? Is it im por tan t that ch i ld ren pa r t ic ipa te? A re there roles speci f ical ly for ch i ld ren? W hat can they d o ? W h a t are they requ ired to do? • W h a t p rob lem s w o u ld y o u e n c o u n t e r i f chi ldren s topped h e lp in g out? • H o w does it affec t the ir s choo l a t t e n d a n c e if they par t i cipa te? • W hat ski lls do ch i ld ren learn w h i l e s he lp ing out? A re they pa id? • D o y o u n g p eop le up to 18 yea rs ea rn in com e f rom w o rk in g for t h e m s e lv e s ? D o they help the family with earn ings? E: Perception of the Role of DAs in poverty reduction/alleviation 1. D oes the DA p ro v id e bas ic ed u ca t io n to the c o m m u n i ty ? 2. H o w abou t the p ro v is io n o f heal th faci l it ies in the c o m m u n i t y ? 3. D o y o u m a k e use o f fami ly p la n n in g se rv ices :n this c o m m u n i t y ? 4. How easy d if f icu lt is it to acc es s m ic ro cred it :n this c o m m u n i t y ? 5. W hat has the D A d o n e to p ro m o te S M E s in the distr ict? Craf t en te rpr ises? Faci l i ta t ion? 6. Have you hea rd o f an y spec if ic pover ty al leviat ion p ro g ra m m e targe ted at the vu lne rab le in the dist r ict? The aged? People wi th d isab i l i ty? C h i ld ren ? 7. D o y o u th ink the a s s e m b ly has the capac i ty (skilled m a n p o w e r an d logist ics ) to de l iver on the ir ob ligat ions? 8 What p rob lem s do you th i n k the DA has to deal w i th? W h a t re sources do you th ink they need in o rder to funct ion be t ter? 9. What do they have to c h a n g e o r do di fferently to reduce poverty- in this c o m m u n i t y ? 10. H o w any o f you benef i ted f rom the DA Poverty Allev ia t ion F u n d ? Leve l o f r ep ay m en ts? 11. Did it help y o u ? l , eve l s o f succcss /p rob lems/c l ia l l enges? F: Facilitation of tourism/craft enterprise development - Prospects and Challenges 1. Is the craft bus iness p ro g re s s in g in this c o m m u n i ty ? I f yes, w h a t a cc o u n ts for it? I f no , w h y ? 2. A re there any legal r e q u i r e m e n t s for the es tab l ishment o f a tour ism en terp r ise in this distr ict? 3. A re you a m e m b e r o f an y craf t a s soc ia t ion? W hy are you a m e m b e r ? N o t a m e m b e r? 4. Are there any pub l i c -p r iva te par tne rsh ips in the craf ts bus iness? 5. D o you pay any tax to the distr ict a s sem b ly ? 6. What is the sta tus o f the craf t cen t re, an d how it is (wil l it be) ope ra ted? 7. What factors p ro m o te /co n s t r a in you r associatiDii? 8. A re craft w o rk e r s g en e ra l ly be t ter o f f than w orkers in o the r sec to rs? 9. H o w wil l ing are y o u to c o n t r ib u te to a fund to put up a faci lity that w o u ld be o w n e d by all o f you to ca ter for tourists needs in this c o m m u n i t y ? Abil i ty to cont r ibu te? Perce ived p r o b le m s ? S o lu t ions? 10. In w hat w ay s can the c o m m u n i t y benef i t from the act ivi ty o f all craf ts p e o p le in this c o m m u n i t y ? G:_____ Specific Pro-Poor initiatives in the community - target heneficiaries, results? Specif ic Pro-poor Init iat ives Target beneficiaries Result s / S ta tus Any Other Remarks: 309