i REGIONAL INSTITUTE FOR POPULATION STUDIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS AND PAYMENT FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL IN THE GREATER ACCRA REGION, GHANA BY JONES AGYAPONG FRIMPONG (10396073) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.A POPULATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2013 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ACCEPTANCE Accepted by the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of Master of Arts in Population Studies. Supervisor of thesis ……………………………… Prof. Samuel N.A. Codjoe Date ……………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DECLARATION I, Jones Agyapong Frimpong hereby declare that except for duly cited references, this is the result of my original research under the supervision of Professor Samuel Nii Ardey Codjoe and has neither in part nor in whole been presented for the award of another degree anywhere. Jones Agyapong Frimpong ……………………………………… Date ……………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to my sweet wife Patience Oforiwaa Frimpong and my lovely mother Grace Anima Kankam. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ACKNOWLEGDEMENT The success of this dissertation would not have been possible without the immeasurable contribution of very hard working personalities who assisted in different ways. The first and foremost appreciation goes to the Lord of Host for His Grace, mercies, provision and strength bestowed on me throughout the research work and the period of my education. Secondly, my profound appreciation goes to Prof. Samuel N.A. Codjoe, my supervisor for his guidance, encouragement, logical and constructive criticisms, which have made this work extraordinarily outstanding. God bless you Sir for your time. I also appreciate the contribution of Prof. Stephen Kwankye, Executive Director, National Population Council, Accra, Ms. Esther Cofie and the entire management and staff of National Population Council. Appreciation also goes to my colleagues in the 2012/2013 M.A class. Finally, to my siblings, Agnes, Faustina, Sammy and Gloria and my father Mr. Foster Frimpong, I say a big thank you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS ACCEPTANCE ...................................................................................................... ii DECLARATION ................................................................................................... iii DEDICATION ....................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEGDEMENT .......................................................................................v LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xi ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................1 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY ..................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................. 5 1.4 Rationale/Justification of the Study ............................................................11 1.5 Organisation of the Study ...........................................................................12 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................14 2.2 Theoretical perspectives .............................................................................. 24 2.3 Conceptual Framework ...............................................................................27 2.4 Hypotheses ..................................................................................................33 CHAPTER THREE ...............................................................................................34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................34 3.2 The Study Area ........................................................................................34 3.3 Sources of data and study design .............................................................36 3.3.1 Description of variables ...........................................................................37 3.3.1.1 Main Independent variables .....................................................................37 3.3.2 Data Processing and Analysis ..................................................................40 3.3.3 Unit of Analysis .......................................................................................40 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................42 HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS ..................................42 4.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................... 42 4.2.1 Type of dwelling .....................................................................................42 4.2.2 Occupancy status .....................................................................................43 4.2.3 Ownership of dwelling ............................................................................44 4.2.4 Age of household head ............................................................................45 4.2.5 Sex of household head.............................................................................46 4.2.6 Educational level of household head .......................................................47 4.2.7 Household Size ........................................................................................48 4.2.8 Place of Residence ..................................................................................49 4.2.9 Wealth Quintiles of Households .............................................................50 4.2.10 Payment for solid waste disposal ............................................................51 4.3 Conclusion ...............................................................................................52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii CHAPTER FIVE ...................................................................................................54 HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS AND PAYMENT FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ................................................................................54 5.2 Type of dwelling and payment for solid waste disposal .............................54 5.3 Occupancy status and payment for solid waste disposal ............................56 5.4 Ownership of dwelling and payment for solid waste disposal ...................58 5.5 Age of Household head and payment for solid waste disposal ..................59 5.6 Sex of Household head and payment for solid waste disposal ...................61 5.7 Educational level of household head and payment for solid waste disposal62 5.8 Household Size and payment for solid waste disposal ...............................64 5.9 Place of residence and payment for solid waste disposal ...........................65 5.10 Wealth Quintile and payment for solid waste disposal ...............................67 5.11 Conclusion ..................................................................................................68 CHAPTER SIX .....................................................................................................70 DETERMINANTS OF PAYMENT FOR SOLID WASTE DISPOSAL ...........70 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...........................................................................................70 6.2 Determinants of payment for solid waste disposal .....................................71 6.3 Conclusion ..................................................................................................77 CHAPTER SEVEN...............................................................................................78 7.2 Summary of Main Findings ........................................................................79 7.3 Policy Implications .....................................................................................81 7.4 Conclusion ..................................................................................................83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix REFERENCES ......................................................................................................84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Percentage of households by type of dwelling, Greater Accra Region 43 Table 4.2: Percentage of households by ownership of dwelling ...........................44 Table 4.3: Percentage of household heads by age, Greater Accra Region ............46 Table 4.4: Percentage of households by size, Greater Accra Region ....................49 Table 4.5: Percentage of households by wealth quintile, Greater Accra Region ..51 Table 5.1: Percentage of households by type of dwelling and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ...................................................................56 Table 5.2: Percentage of households by occupancy status and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ...................................................................57 Table 5.3: Percentage of households by ownership of dwelling and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ..........................................................59 Table 5.4: Percentage of households by age of household head and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ..........................................................60 Table 5.5: Percentage of households heads by educational level and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region. ....................................................63 Table 5.6: Percentage of households by household size and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ...................................................................65 Table 5.7: Percentage of households by wealth quintile and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ...................................................................68 Table 6.1: Binary Logistic Regression on payment for solid waste……………..76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Framework for analysing the determinants of household waste disposal and recycling……………………………………………………………28 Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework showing the link between housing and household characteristics and payment for solid waste disposal………………...29 Figure 4.1: Percentage of households by occupancy status, Greater Accra Region ....................................................................................................................44 Figure 4.2: Percentage of households by sex of household head, Greater Accra Region ....................................................................................................................47 Figure 4.3: Percentage of households by educational level of household heads, Greater Accra Region ............................................................................................48 Figure 4.4: Percentage of households by place of residence, Greater Accra Region ....................................................................................................................50 Figure 4.5: Percentage of solid waste disposal that is paid for or unpaid for, Greater Accra Region .........................................................................................................52 Figure 5.1: Percentage of households by sex of household head and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ..........................................................62 Figure 5.2: Percentage of households by place of residence and payment for solid waste disposal, Greater Accra Region ...................................................................66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii ABSTRACT Rapid urbanisation, population growth, introduction of environmentally unfriendly materials like plastics and changing lifestyles have created serious environmental problems in most districts and localities within the Greater Accra Region especially in the area of solid waste disposal, management and financing. This study analyses the factors that influence household’s payment for solid waste disposal in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Using the Ghana Living Standard Survey data set, 2006, a total of 1, 257 households were selected for the study. A binary logistic model was employed to estimate household payment for solid waste disposal. The results indicated that all the variables but the household size had significant influence on respondents’ payment for waste disposal at the bivariate level of analyses. However, only type of dwelling, place of residence and wealth quintile were significant at the binary logistic analysis level. The study further revealed that a larger segment of households in the high-wealth quintile bracket subscribe mostly to waste disposal methods that are paid for. The study, therefore, opines the need for increase in budgetary allocations to the various District Assemblies in the region. Subsequently, there is the need for the various District Assemblies to consider adopting an economic funding model by raising fees on high-income households to cover the services of low-income neighborhoods to facilitate broad service coverage. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY Events in the 21 st century clearly indicate that waste in whatever form of classification: solid, liquid or toxic, has become a major consequence of modernization and economic development (Mahamadu, 2011). Waste basically connotes an unavoidable consequence of the consumption and productive activities of man and the generation of these wastes, both domestic and industrial continues to increase globally due to technological advancement, rapid rate of urbanization, increasing population growth rates and growth in human consumption patterns (Aklilu, 2002). Hanley (2001) simply defines waste as almost anything that has served its original intended purpose and is being discarded or stored prior to being discarded, thus, in essence there is no human endeavour that does not result in waste creation. All survival and life- improving activities go with the creation of one type of waste or the other, making waste everyone’s business (Oteng-Ababio, 2010). Solid wastes by definition include refuse from households, non-hazardous solid waste from industrial and commercial establishments, refuse from institutions, market waste, yard waste, and street sweepings (Tadesse, 2004). Economic development and rising living standards globally, have further led to increases in the quantity and complexity of generated waste, whilst industrial diversification and the provision of expanded health-care University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 facilities have added substantial quantities of industrial hazardous waste and biomedical waste into the waste stream with potentially severe environmental and human health consequences (World Bank, 1999). In general, the developed countries generate much higher quantities of waste per capita compared to the developing countries. In Europe, over 1.8 billion tonnes of waste are generated each year which equals 3.5 tonnes per person. This is mainly made up of waste coming from households, commercial activities, industry, agriculture, construction and demolition projects, mining and quarrying activities and from the generation of energy (Alhassan, 2012). On the income threshold, high-income countries produce between 1.1 kg and 5.0 kg per capita per day; middle-income countries generate between 0.52 kg and 1.0 kg per capita per day, whilst low-income countries have generation rates ranging between 0.45 kg and 0.89 kg per capita per day (Oteng-Ababio, 2010). This buttresses the fact that waste generation increases with increasing development and industrialisation. The African situation is no different. Many environmental problems are increasing at alarming rates one of which is increasing solid waste generation. According to Regassa et al (2011), solid waste generation in the city of Addis Ababa increased from 482,550 m 3 in 1987 to 787,305 m 3 in 1998 and currently stands at 1,024,010 m 3 per year. This situation in the city of Addis Ababa paints a true picture of what pertains in most developing and especially in many African countries. These increases in waste generation all over Africa, however, do not correspond to adequate waste management initiatives (Sheehan et al., 2006). Between 20 percent and 80 percent of solid waste in African cities is disposed of by dumping in open spaces, water University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 bodies, and surface drains as a result of inadequate infrastructure (UNEP, 1999). According to Amoah-Twum (2006), Ghana generates an average daily solid waste of 0.45 kilogram per capita, culminating into about three million tonnes of solid waste annually. This presents a more difficult problem for many cities, towns and villages in Ghana in terms of managing solid waste. The mere volumes and quantities of waste generated is not so much the problem, but the consequences thereafter. The waste management challenge in Ghana and by extension the Greater Accra Region can be described as having reached a crisis point (Anomanyo, 2004). The region is faced with the problem of rapid expansion due to population increase and massive urbanisation and this, no doubt, has brought increasing strain on waste-related infrastructural facilities. One area in which this strain has become obvious is in waste generation, disposal and management where the existing system appears to be incapable of coping with the heap of waste generated on daily basis. The urban areas within the region including Accra, Tema and Ashaiman are experiencing an increased rate of environmental deterioration, with refuse dumped along drainage channels (Oteng-Ababio, 2012). In 1998, solid waste generated in the capital city, Accra, which is also within the study region was estimated at 765,000 m 3 and that of liquid waste 75,000 m 3 . The total quantity of solid waste collected in the same year in Accra was 669,000 m 3 , implying that around 96,000 m 3 of the waste was unaccounted for. As at December 2002, the total volume of solid waste generated in Accra was between 500 and 1,800 tonnes per day out of which only 1,200 tonnes was disposed on the average (Mahamadu, 2011). Presently, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 the tonnage of waste collected is about 1000 - 1200 tonnes and up to 1300 tonnes depending on the season. This trend reflects the general waste generation and collection patterns within the Greater Accra Region. Critical to solving the waste problem in the region, the principle of paying for solid waste disposal also known as pay as you throw was introduced as a variable rate or unit based pricing charged to customers based on the amount of solid waste they discard. This strategy for pricing local solid waste collection and disposal services is analogous to that used by local utilities for electricity, gas, water, and sanitary sewerage services where customers pay for what they use, except in this case, citizens pay for how much they throw away (Robin Jenkins et al, 2000). This system has been in operation in Ghana barely a decade and was prompted by the need to tackle the indiscriminate disposal of waste by persuading citizens to pay for solid waste collection and disposal based on the volume of waste discarded. The question that arises then is why adopt this method of financing and abandon reliance on local taxes as the primary funding mechanism, especially when many citizens might conclude that they must now pay for a service previously “free”. There are several purported benefits of payment for solid waste disposal, key amongst them being to reduce solid waste collection and disposal costs for the community, reduce the volume of waste generated by households, and increase the levels of solid waste recycling and composting (Canterbury 1998). Further, a key component in studying waste generation and payment for waste disposal thereof is the housing characteristic of the household, the individual and household per capita income, the educational level of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 household head, and the size of a given household. This further lends itself to the age, sex and place of residence of a household head in a given household. For example, Van Beukering et al (1999) identified four socio-demographic factors that were of greatest relevance in modelling waste arisings: size of household, a composite variable called ‘family life cycle’, whether or not the head of the household was a male or a female and type of housing tenure. This is because household characteristics including age and family status tend to influence the rate of household formation and waste generation, which in turn, is a key driver of waste disposal and management (GSS 2005, p. 15). Gilbert (2008) notes that rental housing is a vital option and indeed, one in three urban dwellers across the globe (around one billion) are tenants. This dwelling type comes with its difficulties in terms of facilities, especially waste disposal facilities. According to him, even though many factors influence metropolitan solid waste management, population size is an important factor and there exists a positive correlation between city population size, the percentage of waste moved and the rate of households enjoying regular waste collection. This suggests that increasing city size poses a greater problem to solid waste disposal. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The most challenging issue in most urbanized regions has to do with tackling problems pertaining to waste management. For instance, the Friday, December 13, 1966 edition of the Daily Graphic in a caption “Poor Sanitation threatens lives in Accra” vividly painted a disturbing picture of waste disposal situation in the city. The opening paragraph of the article stated that “Accra is rapidly becoming one big refuse dump. Refuse is thrown almost everywhere University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 and it is left there to pile up into mounds”. The second paragraph continued that “the drains are not cleaned and some are so sand-logged that they overflow whenever there is little rain” (Mahamadu, 2011). If in 1966 it was said that Accra was becoming a refuse dump, the city has indeed become so in the present time in view of the fact that nothing significant has since been done to correct the factors that led to the problem even then. By extension, Accra vividly provides evidence of what pertains in the entire Greater Accra Region. The various districts within the region including the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (AMA), Tema Metropolitan Assembly (TMA), Adenta Municipal, Ashaiman Municipal and so forth have made several attempts at addressing the waste menace which is on the rise as a result of high rate of urbanisation in the region. The cities’ by-laws and policies on waste and sanitation seek to address the waste challenge in its entirety on individual basis. The assemblies, among their efforts and strategies, have contracted some waste companies to handle waste collection and have also been implementing the polluter-pays principle to get individuals to pay for waste management services. Furthermore, some effort is being made to educate the public and create some level of awareness to enable members of the public to play a role in reducing waste and handling waste efficiently (Awunyo et al, 2012). However, the level of achievement of this objective leaves much to be desired as there is the presence of piles of wastes on the streets, market centres, campuses, gutters and homes. Unattended solid wastes are threatening the lives of millions in the region. It has resulted not only in an unpleasant and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 often unsafe environment to live or work in but also a potential source of fire hazard. Unattended waste lying around attracts flies, rats, and other creatures that in turn spread diseases in addition to non-negligible economic burden on the residents (Oteng-Ababio, 2012). Since solid wastes ferment, they create conditions favorable to the survival and growth of microbial pathogens which in turn contribute to the creation and spread of variety of diseases. Especially, solid waste dumped directly into water bodies (rivers, ponds, seas, lakes) causes contamination of the water bodies and results in the accumulation of toxic substances in the food chain through the plants and animals that feed on it. To these effects, there are a number of diseases associated with improper waste handling. Among others, skin and blood infections resulting from direct contact with waste, eye and respiratory infections resulting from exposure to infected dust, different intestinal diseases that result from the bites, infections that are transmitted by flies feeding on the waste, and risk of cancer associated with exposure to hazardous dust wastes (Kosuke, 2005). This is a health hazard for all inhabitants especially for children in deprived neighbourhoods who play on these streets and open grounds contaminated by dirt-bearing refuse or in stagnant pools (Cuentro et al, 1990, p.169). The most pressing environmental health problems today, in terms of deaths and illness worldwide are those associated with poor home and neighbourhood environments in developing countries. According to WHO and the World Bank, environmental improvements at the household and community level could lower the incidence of major killer diseases by up to 40% globally, (World Resources Institute, UNEP, UNDP and World Bank, 1998, p.75). The 1993 World University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 Development Report which focused on health also estimated that improving household environments could avert the annual loss of almost 80 million ‘disability-free’ years of human life more than the feasible improvement attributable to all other identified environmental measures combined (McGranahan, Songsore and Kjellen, 1996, pp.111). These health problems have serious implications for the current and future human capital of the region and by extension the whole country and in the long run impacts negatively on economic development. Indiscriminate disposal of waste which is the most adopted household means of waste disposal in most parts of the region is inextricably linked to health, both physical and mental illness through direct and indirect pathways (Shaw M., 2004). The wealth of any nation is determined to a large extent by the strength of its human resource and the strength of a nation’s human capital directly affects its productivity and ability to be competitive with international markets. However, one cannot speak of achieving a strong human capital without improving health of people and promoting health equity. An increasing body of evidence has associated wrongful waste disposal with morbidity from infectious diseases, chronic illnesses, injuries, poor nutrition, and mental disorders. The recent increases in cases of cholera and other related diseases in the region especially within the major cities including Accra and Tema have highlighted the importance of inefficient management of waste. It is also estimated that 60 percent of diseases reported at the out- patients departments of the health institutions in the country are directly linked to poor environmental sanitation ((Post, 1999). Sporadic outbreaks of cholera, typhoid and the endemic nature of malaria including the annual rituals of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 flooding in Accra and other cities all point to poor or inadequate waste disposal. It has been noted that inability of the various District Assemblies to maintain the environment through proper waste management systems is one of the threats to massive economic growth. If a more positive attitude to waste management is in place, all the huge sums of money the District Assemblies pay to ensure a certain minimum level of appropriate waste collection and disposal could be put to more productive ventures (Oteng-Ababio, 2012). In Ghana serious environmental problems arise in and around people's homes, often creating health hazards. Inadequate sanitation and uncollected solid wastes are correlated with urban poverty and lack of environmental services. Many people especially women, children and the elderly, spend much of their time close to the home and as such their health is directly threatened. The health implications resulting from housing conditions and waste disposal cannot be over emphasised since it impacts directly on the human resource of the country through loss of man hours and complete loss of competent human capital through morbidity and mortality. Most District Assemblies in the region channel 50-70 percent of their budget into disposal and management of wastes. In Accra, solid waste haulage alone costs the Assembly GH¢450,000 (US$237,340) a month, with an extra GH¢240,000 (US$163,910) spent to maintain dump sites (Oteng-Ababio, 2010a). These huge amounts render the Assemblies financially incapacitated to extensively embark on development projects which further have implications for the development of the Assemblies and the nation at large. If Ghana is to achieve its targets under the United Nations Millennium Development Goals especially (MDG 7, on environmental sustainability) then much needs to be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 done in the area of waste management in improving upon the current sanitation and thus the health of the people. The health, economic, and environmental impacts of solid wastes are sufficient reasons to compel concerned areas (Institutions) to adopt an integrated and continuing effort to improve solid waste disposal practices. Therefore, preventing excessive solid waste by taking certain preventive measures is a must (Songsore et al, 2003). Against this background, the study responds to the following questions; i. Does housing characteristics determine payment for solid waste disposal? ii. What are the effects of selected household characteristics on payment for solid waste disposal? iii. What are some of the plausible reasons for these impacts and associations between housing and household characteristics and disposal of solid waste? 1.3. Objectives The primary objective of the study was to investigate how housing and household characteristics predict payment for solid waste disposal methods in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana; Specifically, the study: i. Describes the housing and household characteristics in the Greater Accra region; University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 ii. Assesses how housing characteristics influence payment for solid waste disposal methods; iii. Assesses the impact of household characteristics on the payment for solid waste disposal methods; iv. Makes recommendation(s) to inform policy. 1.4 Rationale/Justification of the Study In the past, attempts to improve waste disposal and management especially in cities have focussed on the technical aspects of different means of collection and disposal (World Bank, 1992). More attention has now been paid to enhancing institutional arrangements for service delivery, with special emphasis on economic incentives to encourage better behaviour that acknowledges the underlying self-interested nature of human beings. These institutional arrangements include privatisation of waste collection services, which previously were largely undertaken by Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies. However, a major problem has been the generally slow pace at which the private sector is developing with respect to the management and disposal of solid waste. For example, after over 10 years of private sector participation in waste management in the region, the private sector has not expanded their operations to include recycling and composting but has restricted their operations to just solid waste collection and landfill disposal (Oteng-Ababio, 2012). Over the years, Ghana has not enacted any specific waste law that solely controls activities of waste management. However, general regulations and frameworks that embrace issues of waste management include Local University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 Government Act (1994), Act 462; the Environmental Protection Agency Act (1994), Act 490; the Pesticides Control and Management Act (1996), Act 528; the Environmental Assessment Regulations 1999, (LI 1652); the Environmental Sanitation Policy of Ghana (1999); the Guidelines for the Development and Management of Landfills in Ghana; and the Guidelines for Bio-medical Waste (NDPC, 2008). Despite all these laws in place to direct affairs in the waste management process, they seem not deterrent enough in ensuring clean, safe and healthy environment possibly due to lack of general enforcement and follow-ups. Further, the literature on economic valuation or payment for improved waste management in Ghana and in the region is rather sketchy. The Government has for about a decade introduced the principle of “polluter pays” whereby industries and households are required to pay fully for the disposal of the waste they generate. It will be very helpful to know the extent to which households are willing to pay and how this will transcend into the larger picture of payment for waste management. The 2011 NDPC report on the implementation of the MDGs clearly indicate that Ghana is way off in its attempt to achieve MDG 7 on environment and sanitation. This makes the study very timely in trying to assess how increases in the coverage of payment for solid waste disposal can help the country to move close to achieving MDG seven (7). 1.5 Organisation of the Study The study is organized into seven chapters. Chapter one presents the background to the study, the statement of the problem, research questions, the objectives of the study, justification and organisation of the study. Chapter two University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 presents the review of related literature, the theoretical base of the study, the conceptual framework and definition of variables with Chapter three describing the various methods that were employed in the study which comprise the study population, data sources, research design and sample size and methods of analysis. Chapter four presents the description of housing and household characteristics, whilst chapter five presents the interrelationships between the independent and dependent variables. Chapter six presents the logistic regression analysis of the study. Chapter seven summarises the entire study and further presents conclusions and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This Chapter reviews the literature as well as relevant works that have been done about the influence of housing and household characteristics in determining payment for solid waste disposal methods. Among the issues covered are; waste generation including the extent of indiscriminate disposal of waste, factors influencing waste generation as well as the willingness to pay for waste disposal services and finally disposal methods of waste. The indiscriminate disposal of waste is not a new phenomenon the world over and the Greater Accra Region in particular, which persist till date, despite the long realisation of the consequences. According to Allotey (2011) it is safe to say, with regard to solid waste, that the amounts produced by each person every day and everywhere is increasing. This is as a result of social, economic and technological changes. In rural settlements solid waste generated are in modest quantities and therefore do not pose so much problems as in urban areas where the problem associated with waste is predominantly high. As cities grow, the problems caused by solid waste become enormous and Ghana, for that matter Accra, is not an exception. Many reasons can be assigned to the increase in the quantity of waste produced worldwide. Allotey (2011) notes that the additional weight and volume of solid wastes has created and will continue to create many problems. The rapid urbanisation taking place in many countries uses up vast areas of land for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 housing and industrial development. While more refuse is created by these developments, there is a shortage of land for purposes of waste disposal. Oteng-Ababio (2012) acknowledges that there are significant and disturbing changes in the characteristics and composition of wastes. Cost of collection, treatment and disposal is rising year by year and often represents a high proportion of municipal budget. Waste characteristics and per capita generation rates are two important parameters in designing any effective solid waste management programme. The generation rates vary depending on various factors. Normally developed countries produce more solid waste per capita compared to middle income and low income countries (United Nations Centre for Human Settlements, 1994). In order to plan the development of a waste management facility, therefore, the waste manager requires information about the quantities and types of waste that are generated within and around the municipality which may be included in the waste management plan including projected increases in quantities (Rushbrook and Pugh, 1999). According to Hoornweg and Thomas (1999), population growth is one of the major causes of increase in solid waste volume in many cities. The problem is severe in cities of developing countries where about 0.76 million tons or approximately 2.7 million m³ of municipal solid waste is produced per day. They further mention that higher living standard results in higher solid waste generation rate and change in waste characteristics. The presence of degradable organic compounds, moisture contents, particle size and composition, density and compressibility are some of the solid waste properties that play a major role in degradation rate in landfills. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 Excessive packaging, though nice to the eyes, is as good as buying problems with money. In Ghana today, if you visit the market and buy five (5) items, you are likely to have as many as six (6) packaging materials. Each item is put in a polythene bag and all are then parceled again in a bigger bag. Food items including fufu and soup, oil, and many others are all packaged in plastics which end up in our environment and finally at the landfill site. These plastics are non-degradable materials and are known to remain in the ground for several years and contribute to soil infertility. Solid waste policies in most advanced countries are geared toward reducing waste volumes but this is not so in most developing countries especially Ghana (Hogarh, 2007). In terms of pricing, Miranda et al (1994) examined 21 smaller cities with unit pricing that the authors admit are not nationally representative. They found out that waste generation decreased by 30% while the amount of tonnes landfilled decreased by an average of 40%, and the mean number of tonnes recycled increased by 126% after these communities adopted unit-pricing programmes. They also found that cities with a completely variable fee structure have a higher average level of reduction in waste landfilled compared to the two cities that had a multi-tier fee structure. The authors noted that they could not control for the effects of other policies or demographic factors on waste generation or recycling behavior because of their small sample size. Bauer and Miranda (1996) studied 13 larger U.S. cities with unit pricing and found that this policy encouraged greater waste diversion (through recycling), but not necessarily greater waste reduction. While twelve of the cities in their study experienced recycling rates higher than the national University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 average, they found little evidence to suggest that unit pricing resulted in source reduction behaviour. Fullerton and Kinnaman (1996) studied the responses to pricing garbage by the bag or container among 75 households in Charlottesville. The city operated a voluntary curbside recycling programme and required residents to purchase a $.0.80 sticker to affix to each unit of garbage (approximately 32 gallons) set out for collection. Containers without stickers were not collected. The authors counted and weighed bags or cans of garbage and recyclables and found evidence to suggest that people generated somewhat less garbage, by weight, and recycled more after the sticker system was adopted. They also found that waste reduction was greater among households with higher incomes and that married residents were more likely to overstuff garbage receptacles to minimize disposal costs. Only a few residents disposed of waste illegally. They estimated that waste was reduced by 10 percent and concluded that the overall incremental benefit of unit pricing was small. A study by Awunyo (2012) on urban willingness to pay for waste disposal services in Kumasi identified tenancy/housing arrangements as playing key a role in determining a household’s willingness to pay for waste disposal services. Those living in their own houses were found to be more willing to pay for the improvement of waste management as compared to their tenants. This is because the house belongs to the owners and as such the cleanliness or otherwise of the house may have a higher value for their properties. A study by Vermande and Ngnikam in 1994 in the city of Yaoundé, Cameroon, identified population size as playing a key role in waste generation University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 and disposal. According to them, there is a positive correlation between city population size, the percentage of waste moved and the rate of households enjoying regular waste collection. This suggests that increasing city size poses a greater problem to the solid waste. In a clinical example about the research in the city of Yaoundé, the statistics showed that the population had grown from 600, 000 thousand people in the 1960s to 1.2 million people in the 1990s. Not only did the quantities of the waste increase from about 300 tons to 1200 tons per day but also the variety. Another study by Hoornweg and Thomas (1999), identified population growth as one of the major causes of increase in solid waste volume in many cities. The study categorically stated that the problem is severe in cities of developing countries where about 0.76 million tonnes or approximately 2.7 million m³ of municipal solid waste is produced per day. They further mentioned that higher living standard results in higher solid waste generation rate and change in waste characteristics. Tadesse et al (2007) undertook a study on the influence of demographic characteristics on waste disposal in Mikelle city, Ethiopia and discovered that demographic factors such as age, education and household size have an insignificant impact over choice of alternative waste disposal means whereas the supply of waste facilities significantly affects waste disposal choices. They further identified that higher income levels invariably decrease the propensity of disposing off waste indiscriminately. Bisson (2002) in a study on attitudes to waste disposal methods by households discovered that the presence of solid waste disposal by households are influenced by factors such as socio-economic status of the household, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 urbanity, supply of waste disposal infrastructure and regulation by the municipal authorities as key factors that influence waste disposal methods. Rogat (1998), in a study in Santiago, Chile aimed at eliciting factors influencing willingness to pay for waste disposal interviewed one thousand households, half of which were interviewed in the summer season and the rest in winter. The results showed that willingness to pay for waste disposal was found to be affected by income, education, and degree of concern about future generation. Factors such as gender, age and whether individuals suffer from pollution-related diseases or not had lesser influence on the willingness to pay. Further, a number of studies have identified and confirmed various variables to be influencing one’s willingness to pay for waste disposal and management. Yusuf et al (2007), discovered in the state of Oyo, Nigeria that price of the service, age, educational level, household size and household`s monthly expenditure affected the willingness to pay for waste management. Also, a survey by Massito in 2009 in residential areas in Dařes-Salaam, Tanzania identified income of the household, the bid value and the size of the household to be influential in determining willingness to pay for garbage collection. In a separate survey by Rahji and Oloruntoba (2009) also found income, asset owned, education and occupation as defining factors that significantly and positively influence one’s willingness to pay for waste management in Ibadan, Nigeria. The authors, however, found the coefficient of age to be negative and significant. Another study by Khattak et al in 2009 amongst urban dwellers in the Peshawar, realized that a household’s size, income levels, and higher educational levels greatly determined household’s University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 willingness to pay for better solid waste management. In another study, Ekere et al (2010) also found that in the Lake Victoria crescent region of Uganda, income of the household head, location of the household, gender of the household head, level of environmental concern, and age of the household head were significant in explaining the household’s willingness to pay for waste management. Banga et al (2011) remark that both the decision to pay and the amount households are willing to pay for improved solid waste collection services are influenced by income, education, age, and home ownership. This became evident in a study in Kampala, Uganda which also sought to find out factors influencing choice of waste disposal methods. This was confirmed by Mahanta and Das in 2011 in a similar study. In another study by Amiga in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, in 2002, a further confirmation was made in the fact that income, time spent in the area, quantity of waste generated, responsibility of solid waste management, education, house ownership, number of children and age are very significant variables in explaining maximum willingness to pay for waste management. Finally, Adepoju and Salimonu (2002) also found in the Osun state, Nigeria that sex, household expenditure and years of education were statistically significant determinants in household’s willingness to pay for waste management. There are various methods for the final disposal of solid waste. Among these are crude dumping on land, barging to sea, incineration and controlled tipping (land filling for the purpose of land reclamation). Allotey (2011), however, maintains that open dumping of solid wastes on land, though considered unsanitary, is still the most common disposal practice, especially in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 African countries. There are three generally accepted methods of treatment and disposal of solid waste; landfilling, incineration and recycling. Various hazards are associated with each method of disposal. However, when the necessary precautionary measures are put in place at the planning stage of the process, most of the hazards are minimised if not eliminated completely. The final disposal of solid waste, operation procedures, final cover system, after care, and after use of landfill depend on the waste characteristics. Landfill is a form of disposal that causes many environmental impacts that are in need of addressing. A major effect of landfills is leachate, a contaminated liquid that percolates through the waste in a landfill and probably the most addressed issue. This contaminated liquid can soak into the ground and cause water contamination according to the Department of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Oklahoma State University, USA. Another effect of landfills is air pollution. Not only can air pollution from landfills contribute to acid rain and greenhouse gases but it can also have an impact on the citizens around it. Soil gas migration can cause a four-fold elevation of risk for bladder cancer and leukaemia among women, reported a study at the New York Health Department’s website. However, controlled landfill is the key to curbing these problems. This practice of controlled landfill is rarely applicable in most developing countries with few exceptions. Most of the cities dispose of their waste in open dumps which lack proper equipment and trained manpower for effective operation (Anomanyo, 2004). The second form of waste disposal is incineration. This type of disposal releases many air pollutants to include lead, mercury, dioxin, sulfur University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 dioxide, hydrogen chloride, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter according to the Environmental Protection Agency. Gases such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide contribute to acid rain and smog. The incinerators mainly contribute to air pollution but the ash left over from burning waste has to be buried in landfills thus contributing to ground pollution too. The last waste management system is recycling. Recycling consists of processing used or abandoned materials for use in creating new products. This method was created to address issues created from the other two forms of waste management and has a positive impact on the environment. It helps to reduce the amount of waste needed for disposal by making a portion of it available for reuse. The obvious solution to handle solid waste is through recycling. There are many useful products that can be created from the recycling of glass, plastic, paper and many other items. The major factor that should be focused on is the recycling of paper. This is because paper contributes to 40 percent of a landfill’s contents. Another aspect of recycling that should be focused on is the pay-as-you- throw program utilized in many cities today. The pay-as-you-throw program directly affects a consumer’s wallet by charging for the amount of waste a consumer disposes of. Considering solid waste (refuse) disposal in Ghana, Cunningham and Cunningham (2002) state that open, unregulated dumps are still the predominant method of waste disposal. Cunningham and Cunningham report that the third world megacities have enormous garbage problems. Solid waste delivery has evolved through various strategies and methods of collection under different political administrations, from local authority led delivery of services to private sector service delivery. Waste collection became a viable University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://hubpages.com/topics/education-and-science/geography-nature-and-weather/environmental-protection/3621 http://hubpages.com/topics/technology/materials-and-industrial-technology/6044 http://hubpages.com/topics/technology/renewable-and-alternative-energy/recycling-and-repurposing/5461 23 venture from the early 1990s when the German Government supported the Accra Metropolitan Assembly to collect waste from various residential areas and the central business district (Asomani-Boateng, 1994). Collecting, transporting and disposing of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) present formidable challenges for many third world cities which usually account for 30-50 percent of municipal operational budgets for collecting only 50-80 percent of the refuse generated (Medina, 2002). The disposal of solid waste has always been an intractable problem throughout Ghana. Landfills in Ghana are primarily open dumps without gas recovery systems. Several landfills are located in ecological or hydrological sensitive areas. They are generally operated below the recommended standards of sanitary practice. Recycling facilities are not common and small incinerators have been provided in most hospitals for disposal of health care and hazardous waste. Open refuse dumps are most commonly located at the perimeter of major urban centres in open lots and wetland areas. The recent proliferation of plastic bags for packaging has seriously aggravated the negative impact of uncontrolled dumping creating very unsightly conditions. Generally, conditions in Ghana are very conducive for composting in terms of the waste composition and weather conditions. However, composting has never flourished as an option for refuse treatment and disposal. The only composting plant now operates for demonstration purposes. In the Greater Accra Region, just like other regions in the country, responsibility for waste management is the responsibility of Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies (MMDAs). This means that all waste deposited in the public domain is the property of the District Assembly. These University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Assemblies are further required to ensure that they make available adequate sites for the present and future storage, treatment and disposal of wastes by identifying, acquiring, demarcating and protecting suitable areas for such purpose (MLG&RD, 1999). The Act of Parliament of the Republic of Ghana (1993), Act 462, Section 10, Subsection 3 (d and e), makes it mandatory for District Assemblies to initiate programmes for the development of basic infrastructure and provide municipal works and services and also be responsible for the development, improvement and management of human settlements and the environment in the district. The selection of a site for developing a landfill is, therefore, one of the most important decisions District Assemblies make in executing their waste management responsibilities. According to Rushbrook and Pugh (1999), the inadequate final disposal of solid waste thrives because of the mistaken belief that it is the cheapest disposal method. Depositing waste along roads and riverbanks or in abandoned quarries and hoping that the waste will go away is both naïve and dangerous. This review has brought to the fore key determining factors influencing choice of waste disposal methods. These variables included housing types, population size (household size), income levels of households, sex of household head, educational status and so forth. These variables are applied to this study to test for how they influence a household’s choice of subscribing to waste disposal methods that are paid for or those that are unpaid for. 2.2 Theoretical perspectives Global efforts at controlling and handling the menace posed by waste resulted in the development of the concept of the waste hierarchy with its University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 components emphasizing prevention, reduction, reusing, recovery and recycling and disposal. By hierarchy, waste prevention is the most preferred choice in the management process followed by waste reduction in that order of priority with disposal being the last resort. However, increasing population and urbanization, changes in lifestyle, consumption and financial problems become drivers that seem to down-play the potency and effectiveness of these options especially in the developing countries (Tadesse, 2007). The consequent effect is the generation of large volumes of waste raising issues of concern predominantly in the urban centres where socio-economic activities are at high peaks. To safely dispose municipal solid waste is to minimize or prevent the danger it poses to environmental media and human health requires efficient application of waste treatment and disposal techniques. The techniques could be employed with or without energy recovery and these methods broadly include recycling (composting in terms of organic portion), incineration and land-filling. Despite the availability of such technical solutions, municipal solid waste still presents major environmental challenges partly due to financial constraints limiting highly engineered practices and lack of technological knowhow; a scenario with evidences clearly manifesting in poor countries. Considering these problems and available technologies, composting stands as the most simple and cost-effective recycling option for intercepting considerable volume of municipal solid organic waste on its way to landfills. The method has been identified to be one of the best opportunities for managing organic wastes (Rahji et. al., 2009). This assertion spells out the principal role that composting plays in a waste volume reduction process. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 In view of this, promoting and opting to reintroduce an efficient composting programme to take care of the organic portion of waste as a means of reducing waste volume prior to disposal at landfills contributes significantly not only by saving landfill space required for disposal but also preventing the dangers posed by waste. This calls for support in various forms such as the provision of research studies providing and suggesting meaningful approaches to finding lasting solutions to improve on the existing situation if not solving it completely. In terms of paying for the waste generated, O’Leary et al. (1999) observes that if the goal is to achieve waste reduction and efficiency, a system of volume-based garbage pricing would be more logical. The theory implicit in a market incentive such as quantity-based fees for waste disposal is that households are required to internalize the full costs of their consumption and waste disposal practices. By contrast, the largely invisible costs paid through local tax levies or flat fees may lead people to generate inefficiently high levels of municipal solid waste because they face a zero price increment for using more collection service. In other words, if households face a marginal or incremental cost of refuse disposal equal to zero, they may dispose of greater than optimal quantities of waste (Jenkins, 1993). Theoretically, households that desire to minimize waste disposal costs in a pay as you throw pricing regime may reduce the amount of waste generated, dump its trash unlawfully, or if such programmes are available, participate in local recycling and yard waste collection programmes. Households also may reduce the amount of waste disposed by reusing certain items or by changing purchasing behaviour. For example, they might buy fewer discretionary items, select products that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 have less packaging, or purchase more products that have recyclable packaging. Households also may recycle more of the materials that are included in local collection programmes. Any increase in recycling presumes, of course, that this option is available and that residents find it to be more convenient than disposing of trash through various illegal or undesirable means (Fullerton and Kinnaman, 1996). In a larger context, volume-based fees for solid waste services are just one example of the promising use of economic incentives and market-based environmental policy instruments to encourage behaviours that advance both individual interests and collective policy goals (Stavins, 2000). 2.3 Conceptual Framework Following the review of related literature in the preceding section, the study adapted a framework (Figure 2.1) developed by Jenkins et al (2000) to analyse determinants of household waste disposal and recycling amongst households residing in Metropolitan areas in the United States of America. Essentially, the framework implies that decisions on waste handling should take into account economic, social and pricing dimensions. The socio- economic aspects may include the household size, income, and place of residence. The pricing consists of how much is paid for each gram of waste generated by a household and whether a household will subscribe to a particular pricing tag or may adopt other forms of waste disposal methods. The integrative aspect lies in the trade-off between these dimensions. For example, in certain situations, a household may prefer paying for waste to be collected and recycled but the economic costs (pricing) involved may prevent the household from using waste collection channels (Jenkins et al, 2000). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Figure 2.1 Framework for analysing the determinants of household waste disposal and recycling Source: Robin R. Jenkins, Salvador A. Martinez, Karen Palmer, and Michael J. Podolsky, (2000). From the framework by Jenkins et al (2000) in Figure 2.1, the author developed a new framework to show the relationship (link) between housing and household characteristics and payment for solid waste disposal (Figure 2.2). Energy  Biomass / Wood fuels  Petroleum  Electricity (-) - - Socio-economic characteristics  Income  Household Size  Education  High and low income areas Type of waste  Organic waste (food)  Paper  Plastic  Metals  Glass Unit price  Yes  No Dummy for Presence of unit pricing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 Figure 2.2: Conceptual Framework showing the link between housing and household characteristics and payment for solid waste disposal Independent Dependent Source: Adapted from Robin R. Jenkins et al, 2000 This framework modified from Jenkins et al (2000), conceptualises waste disposal methods into categories that give an overview of methods that are paid for and those that are unpaid for. According to the conceptualisation, it is most appropriate to have waste collected and this includes incineration, re-use, recycling, and collection by waste management companies. The services that are not paid for and which cannot often be avoided especially in Housing & Household Characteristics  Type of dwelling  Occupancy status  Ownership of dwelling  Age of Household Head  Sex of Household Head  Educational level of Household Head  Household Size  Place of residence  Wealth quintile Solid Waste Disposal Paid for  Collected Unpaid for  Public Dump requiring no payment  Dumped elsewhere  Burned by household  Buried by household University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 developing countries including Ghana comprise; using public dumps that require no payment of money, dumping waste indiscriminately (elsewhere), burned by household and buried by household. In terms of the waste disposal categorisation, household heads were asked: “how does your household dispose of refuse?” The options available were: collected, public dump, dumped elsewhere, burned by household, and buried by household. Household heads who responded to ‘collected’ were asked how much they paid for the collection of their waste. In view of this, all waste that was collected was categorised as paid for methods of solid waste disposal. From the framework, it is hypothesised that the linkages shown in Figure 2.2 exist between housing and household characteristics and methods of solid waste disposal which is measured as a service that is paid for or unpaid for. The independent variables are expected to influence a household’s payment for solid waste disposal method directly. A household’s type of dwelling determines whether that particular household will opt for a waste disposal service that requires financial obligations or otherwise. For example, households living in separate houses (bungalows), flats and semi-detached houses will more often than not opt for solid waste disposal services that require a kind of monetary payment compared to households living in compound houses, huts, impoverished homes and tents. Thus, a household’s dwelling type is a determinant of their choice of waste disposal method. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 A household’s occupancy status (categorised as owning, renting, rent- free and perching) is also a measure of the choice or type of solid waste disposal method a household will adopt. Households living in their own houses might preferably subscribe to services that are collected and paid for rather than burning or burying waste. On the other hand, households that are perching or renting houses more often than not use solid waste disposal methods that require no monetary payments. Ownership of dwelling in this context depicts houses owned by a relative who is not a household member, private ownership of houses as well as government ownership. As evident in the mismanagement of anything government owned in Ghana, households living in government/public buildings are very much likely to dispose of waste by burning or burring, or disposing waste indiscriminately, thus indicating the link existing between who owns a type of dwelling and the choice of solid waste disposal method. Age is a demographic variable which has been found to have an influence on the choice of solid waste disposal method. Generally, the older the household head, the higher the probability of opting for services that are paid for. This is due to the general belief that older people behave more responsibly and are expected to dispose of waste in a manner that fits responsibility. Males in the Ghanaian society are usually the heads of household and also the bread winners of households. This puts men in a much better position financially than their female counterparts and as such are very much likely to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 go for waste disposal services that require payments even though the financial gap is closing up. The educational level of a household head is a key variable which has the potential to affect choices of individuals. Education has been known to be an empowering tool for people at both the household and society levels. A higher education level affords a household head a greater knowledge of proper waste disposal methods resulting in good health status. Furthermore, an educated household head is more likely to secure a well-paying job, meaning more money and as such are more likely to subscribe to waste disposal services that are paid for compared to household heads who are not educated. The household size depicts the number of members within a given household. This variable plays a key role in determining payment for solid waste disposal method since the numbers determine the extent of pressure on household resources. A smaller household size is very much likely to save a portion of available resources and as such might have the well withal to subscribe to waste services that are paid for. The type of place of residence in which a household resides (urban or rural) is included in the framework because it determines availability and access to waste disposal services and resources. The place of residence may also have an impact on choice of waste disposal method if adherence to social norms on cleanliness is strong. Finally, the wealth quintile of a household head determines financial access to waste disposal services. It may also influence the choice of method a household head would subscribe to. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 2.4 Hypotheses i. Households living in separate houses are more likely to subscribe to waste disposal methods that are paid for compared to households living in impoverished homes; ii. Households whose occupancy status is ‘perching’ are less likely to subscribe to waste disposal methods that are paid for compared to households who own their own houses; iii. Households in the richest wealth quintile are more likely to subscribe to solid waste disposal methods that are paid for compared to those in the poorest wealth quintile. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter presents detailed research methods and design (techniques) that were employed in the study. The outline involves the background of the study area and justification of the choice of the study area, research design, sources of data, population sample, data processing and analyses. The fifth round of the Ghana Living Standards Survey, like the previous rounds, was designed to provide regional level indicators. A regionally representative sample of households was therefore selected in order to achieve the survey objectives. 3.2 The Study Area The Greater Accra Region is the smallest of Ghana's 10 administrative regions in terms of area, occupying a total land surface of 3,245 square kilometres or 1.4 percent of the total land area of Ghana. In terms of population, however, it is the second most populated region, after the Ashanti Region, with a population of 2,905,726 in 2000; 4,010,054 in 2010 accounting for 16.3 percent of Ghana’s total population (GSS, 2010). The Greater Accra Region currently harbors the seat of government in Accra. The region is also divided into 14 districts comprising; Accra Metropolitan Area, Tema University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashanti_Region http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashanti_Region 35 Metropolitan Area, Adentan Municipal, Ashaiman Municipal, Dangme East, Dangme West, Ga Central, Ga East, Ga South Municipal, Kpone Katamanso, La Dade-Kotopon Municipal, La-Nkwantanang-Madina, Ledzokuku-Krowor Municipal, Ningo/ Prampam and Ada District. 3.2.1 Justification for the choice of the study area Regional analysis of the country shows that Greater Accra has remained the most densely populated region in the country since 1960. The population density has increased from 167 persons in 1960 to 441 persons in 1984 and to 895.5 persons per square kilometre in 2000. Currently, the Greater Accra Region is still the most densely populated region with a density of approximately 1,236 persons per square kilometre and this is, in part, a reflection of migratory movements to the region (GSS, 2010). The densely populated nature of the region is brought into sharp focus when it is compared with the other regions and this account for the choice of the region as the study area. Secondly, the region is the most urbanised in the country (GSS, 2010). Urbanisation has been described as one of the most significant processes, which has affected the human society since the last century (UNFPA 2007). Rapid urbanisation characterized by city expansion and urban sprawl is a major feature of the region and much of the growth of the region especially Accra and Tema can be attributed to in-migration. For instance, a 2002 GSS report notes that several localities adjoining the Accra Metropolitan Area which were rural in 1984 have now attained urban status, mainly as a result of the spillover of growth of the Accra Metropolitan Area (GSS 2002). Despite University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/?news&r=1&_=169 http://www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/?news&r=1&_=168 http://www.ghanadistricts.com/districts/?news&r=1&_=168 36 the numerous challenges faced by the region, it still continues to attract residents, particularly rural-urban migrants simply because the region is still perceived as a better proposition than other regions. Already evident in urban areas of the region are the effects of rapid urbanisation manifested in socio- economic, environmental and institutional challenges for residents and local authorities (Yankson et al, 2006). Thirdly, the state of sanitation in the region especially in Accra is currently very unsatisfactory since it is characterised by choked drains, indiscriminate waste disposal and uncollected refuse in central waste containers and so forth. Also, most waste management companies are located within the region. For example, Accra alone has been delimited into six waste collection zones. These zones are awarded to waste collection companies for fees, which are charged according to specific contractual agreement they have with the City Authority. In low-income areas, the central container system is in operation. Containers are placed at designated points for households to dislodge their domestic waste for on-ward carriage to final waste disposal and incineration sites. The other system, door-to-door collection, is prominent in affluent areas of Accra, Tema, Ashaiman, Adentan and so forth. The companies charge fees from households for services rendered on monthly or fortnightly in respective contractual arrangements between the contractor and clients. 3.3 Sources of data and study design The study uses a secondary source of data from the 5 th Round of the Ghana Living Standard Survey (GLSS 5). The GLSS 5 is a nation-wide survey University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 which collected detailed information on topics, including demographic characteristics of the population, education, health, employment and time use, migration, housing conditions and household agriculture. It also introduced a special module on Non-Farm Household Enterprises. The overall sample size was eight thousand, six-hundred and eighty seven (8,687) households. Out of this figure, the study used 1,257 households representing the number of households in the Greater Accra Region. Other secondary sources of data including published articles, and books were used. 3.3.1 Description of variables Household: A household was defined as a person or a group of persons, who lived together in the same house or compound and shared the same house- keeping arrangements. In general, a household consisted of a man, his wife, children and some other relatives or a house help who may be living with them but might not necessarily be related by blood or marriage. Head of Household: The household head was defined as a male or female member of the household recognised as such by the other household members. The head of household is generally the person who has economic and social responsibility for the household. All relationships are defined with reference to the head. 3.3.1.1 Main Independent variables Type of dwelling: The UN recommended definition of a house as “a structurally separate and independent place of abode such that a person or group of persons can isolate themselves from the hazards of climate such as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 storms and the sun’’ was adopted (UN-HABITAT, 1994). Respondents were asked “In what type of dwelling does the household live? The responses were: Separate House (Bungalow), Semi-detached houses, Flat/Apartments, Compound Houses, Several Huts in the same compound, Several Huts/Buildings on different compounds and tents/Impoverished Homes”. Occupancy status: The respondents were asked “what is your present occupancy status? The options were: Owning, Renting, Rent-free, and Perching. Owning referred to households living in their own built or purchased house whilst renting pertains to paying for accommodation. Rent-free meant no rent is paid either in cash or kind. Perching means a temporary accommodation. Ownership of dwelling: Who owns this dwelling was the question used in assessing this variable? Respondents had the following categories of responses to choose from; Dwelling owned by relatives who are not members of the household; private individual; private employer; private agency and public/government ownership. 3.3.1.2 Other Independent variables Age of Household Head: This represents the age of the household head. The variable age was examined with the question “how old were you at your last birthday?” The lowest age of a household head in the data set was 15 years and the highest age was 99 years. These were re-categorised into 5-year age groups beginning with the least. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 Level of Education of Household Head: This variable is taken to capture the level of understanding of the respondent about the desirability of proper management of solid waste. Level of education refers to the highest level of formal school that a person ever attended or was attending. Respondents were asked “what is the highest level of school you attended: no education, primary, middle school, senior high, training college, polytechnic, and university. Household Size: The household size represented the number of people within a single household. The least number was one (1) household member and the highest was twenty-nine (29). Place of residence: The respondents had no hand in determining whether where they lived was a rural or urban place. This was predetermined at the sampling stage. Therefore the place of residence of each respondent, according to the household questionnaire, was assigned as living in urban or rural area. Wealth Quintile: Wealth quintile here represents a measure of economic status. It presents household income limits by quintile and further presents a more permanent status than does either income or consumption. Based on various statistics recorded for each household, each household was placed in a wealth quintile of Poorest, Poorer, Middle, Richer or Richest. This quintile distribution of the wealth status of each household was adopted for this study. This variable was used as a measure of the household’s economic status. Studies have shown that as the economic condition of a household improves, so does their ability to pay for services. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 Waste disposal: Household heads were asked: “how does your household dispose of refuse?” The options available were: collected, public dump, dumped elsewhere, burned by household, and buried by household. Household heads who responded to ‘collected’ were asked how much they paid for the collection of their waste. In view of this, all waste that was collected was classified as paid for methods of solid waste disposal. 3.3.2 Data Processing and Analysis The computer software programme, Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17 and Microsoft Excel version 2010 were used in data sorting, re-categorisation of variables and further in the generation of tables, graphs, charts and models. 3.3.3 Unit of Analysis The unit of analysis was the household. The Ghana Statistical Service definition of a household being “a person or a group of persons, who lived together in the same house or compound and shared the same house-keeping arrangements” was adopted (GSS, 2010). 3.3.4 Methods of Analysis Univariate level analysis using simple frequencies, tables and charts was extensively used. This was followed by the bivariate level of analysis which involved cross tabulations amongst the various independent and dependent variables. The Binary Logistic Regression model was also used to model household heads’ decision to pay for improved waste disposal services University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 or not to pay. The model was adopted because of its ability to deal with a dichotomous dependent variable and a well-established theoretical background. The binary model provides information only with respect to the household heads’ decision to pay for improved solid waste disposal services or not to pay, but not on the amount of money they are willing to pay. 3.4. Limitations of the study This study could not have been completed without some difficulties which affected the smooth running of the study. These included the fact that: The survey did not provide district level data that could have made localised analysis possible. This led to the choice of the Greater Accra Region as the study area since it had the largest share in terms of access to solid waste disposal facilities. There were also wide disparities in terms of access to solid waste disposal facilities amongst households living in the urban centres and those living in the rural communities. This might have skewed payment for solid waste disposal in favour of households living in urban centre. However, this was to bring to the fore the seriousness of virtually non-available solid waste disposal services in the rural areas. The data set did not also make it possible to look at other waste disposal methods like recycling other than just collection of waste at the household level. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 CHAPTER FOUR HOUSING AND HOUSEHOLD CHARACTERISTICS 4.1 INTRODUCTION The chapter responds to the first objective of the study which was to describe housing and household characteristics in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. It further provides detailed analysis of individual variables including selected housing characteristics as well as household variables. The understanding of such variables provides a basis to understand the interrelationships between the independent and dependent variables. 4.2 Housing and Household characteristics 4.2.1 Type of dwelling Table 4.1 indicates that more households reside in compound houses in the region than any other dwelling type and this account for 52.3 percent of the entire type of dwelling. This result confirms the 2010 Population and Housing Census findings that 51.5 percent of households in the country reside in compound houses. Rooms (other types) accounted for 20 percent whilst separate houses accounted for 8.6 percent. Also, 7.6 percent of households live in semi-detached homes whilst 5.1 percent of households stay in buildings on same compound/several huts. Flats/apartments, buildings on different University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 compounds and impoverished homes account for 1.7, 0.9 and 3.8 percent respectively of the dwellings used households. Compound houses and other types of houses represent over two-thirds of the entire type of dwellings occupied by households in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. Table 4.1: Percentage of households by type of dwelling, Greater Accra Region Type of dwelling Frequency Percentage Separate House (Bungalow) 108 8.6 Semi-detached House 96 7.6 Flat/Apartment 21 1.7 Compound House 658 52.3 Rooms (other type) 251 20.0 Several Huts/Buildings (SCP.) 64 5.1 Several Huts/Buildings (DCP.) 11 0.9 Tents/Impoverished homes 48 3.8 Total 1257 100.0 Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.2 Occupancy status As shown in Figure 4.1, there are more households occupying rented apartments/houses in the Greater Accra Region compared to other occupancy statuses. This accounted for 39 percent and was an expected result since there are very limited or virtually non-existent housing schemes that enable households to secure their own dwellings. Households occupying their own houses also accounted for 32 percent of the entire responses and this deviates University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 from the national average of 47. 2 percent as presented in the 2010 Census Report. Households living in rent-free houses accounted for 26 percent whilst only three percent of households were living in temporary dwellings (perching). Figure 4.1: Percentage of households by occupancy status, Greater Accra Region Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.3 Ownership of dwelling Table 4.2 shows that 44.4 percent of households live in houses owned by private individuals whilst 32.7 percent of households in the Greater Accra Region reside in apartments owned by relatives who are not part of the household. Households living in homes provided by private employers, private agencies and government owned flats account for 9.1; 4.1 and 9.7 percent respectively. This result indicates that over half of the households in the region 32% 39% 26% 3% Occupancy Status Owning Renting Rent-free Perching University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 live in either houses owned by private individuals or relatives who are not part of the household. The result for households living in privately owned houses was expected since there are more compound houses in the region than any other type of dwelling (GSS, 2010). Table 4.2: Percentage of households by ownership of dwelling, Greater Accra Region Ownership of dwelling Frequency Percentage Relative not household member 411 32.7 Private Individual 558 44.4 Private Employer 115 9.1 Private Agency 52 4.1 Public/Gov’t ownership 121 9.7 Total 1257 100.0 Source: Computed GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.4 Age of household head Thirty six percent of household heads were found to be 50 years and above. This result was expected since household headship in most families in the region and in Ghana as a whole is a preserve for older individuals. Household heads age 25 – 29 and 30 – 34 account for 11.3 and 11.1 percent respectively. The results in Table 4.3 shows a particular trend that household heads in the region mostly fall within age categories 25 – 49. Age category 15 – 19 represents 0.7 percent of the total percentage and further lends itself as the lowest age group with the least number of household heads. This further University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 confirms the fact that household headship is solely the responsibility of older household members. Household heads age 20 – 24 also accounted for 5.6 percent of the total number of household heads in the survey. Table 4.3: Percentage of household heads by age, Greater Accra Region Age of Household Head Frequency Percentage 15 - 19 9 0.7 20 - 24 70 5.6 25 - 29 142 11.3 30 - 34 140 11.1 35 - 39 148 11.8 40 – 44 152 12.1 45 – 49 141 11.2 50+ 455 36.2 Total 1257 100.0 Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.5 Sex of household head Most households (70 percent) were headed by males whilst 30 percent of them were headed by females (Figure 4.2). This confirms the fact that there are still more men than women serving as household heads even though the number of female-headed households continue to increase gradually whilst the proportion of male-headed households also continues to dwindle. These percentages are quite close to the national avaerage of 65.3 percent of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 households headed by males with female-headed households constituting 34.7 percent (GSS, 2010). Figure. 4.2: Percentage of households by sex of household head, Greater Accra Region Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.6 Educational level of household head The educational background of respondents in Figure 4.3 shows that 15 percent of the respondents had no formal education whilst 42 percent had at least primary level of education. Also, 33 percent had had Junior High School/Middle School education, with 8 percent of the respondents having had Senior High education. This result depicts the fact that basic level of education (Primary to JHS) constitutes about two-thirds of overall educational attainment and further confirms the true educational trend in a typical region in a developing country. Those with higher levels of education (above SHS) accounted for the remaining two percent of the total number of household 70% 30% Sex Male Female University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 heads. This result was not expected considering the number of higher institutions of learning found in the region. The region accounts for more than 50 percent of all institutions above senior high education. Figure 4.3: Percentage of households by educational level of household heads, Greater Accra Region Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.7 Household Size The household size from Table 4.3 basically indicates that single household size is the most common household size in the region. It accounts for 27 percent of all the responses. This could be due to the highly urbanised and modernised nature of most cities and towns in the region where standard of living is very high. Household sizes ranging between 6 and 9 also show an inverse trend where the total percentage declines as the household size increases and they represented 9.3, 6.5, 2.9 and 2.8 percent respectively. This 15% 42% 33% 8% 2% No Education Primary JHS/Middle Sch. SHS Higher University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 further confirms the fact that people are gradually moving away from the preference for large family sizes as used to be the case in the region where children were seen as sources of wealth, prestige and security against old age (Awusabo et al, 2003). The household sizes above 9 were quite insignificant as it accounted for only 2.2 percent of the total responses. Table 4.4: Percentage of households by size, Greater Accra Region Household Size Frequency Percent 1 340 27.0 2 160 12.7 3 161 12.8 4 155 12.3 5 145 11.5 6 7 8 9 10+ 117 82 36 35 26 9.3 6.5 2.9 2.8 2.2 Total 1257 100 Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.8 Place of Residence The distribution of place of residence from Figure 4.4 shows that there are more households in urban areas than in rural areas within the region. Households living in urban centres account for 89 percent of the total with households in rural areas accounting for only 11 percent. This result was very much expected since the region even though is the smallest in the country, is the most urbanised (GSS, 2010) and this confrims the basis (urbanisation) for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 the choice of the region for the current study. However, the national averages for both urban and rural households are quite close with urban households accounting for 50.9 percent whilst the rural households account for 49.1 percent (GSS, 2010). Households in urban localities are expected to increase further as a result of the increasing rate of urbanisation (Songsore et al, 2003). Figure 4.4: Percentage of households by place of residence, Greater Accra Region Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.9 Wealth Quintiles of Households As shown in Table 4.5, the proportion of those in the richest quintile accounted for 45.9 percent of the total responses with households in the richer category accounting for 23.9 percent. The richest and richer quintiles account for over 50 percent of the households. This was not quite expected since poverty levels in the region are very substantial despite the highly urbanised nature of the region (GLSS, 2006). This could partly be explained by the fact 89% 11% Urban Rural University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 that the national capital happens to be in the region. Households in the middle quintile were 15.8 percent whilst the poorer and poorest quintiles accounted for 9.7 percent and 4.7 percent respectively. These results quite deviate from what actually pertains in the region where there are more people within the poorer and poorest categories compared to those within the richest and richer quintiles (GLSS, 2006). Table 4.5: Percentage of households by wealth quintile, Greater Accra Region Wealth quintile Frequency Percent Poorest 59 4.7 Poorer 122 9.7 Middle 198 15.8 Richer 301 23.9 Richest 577 45.9 Total 1257 100.0 Source: Computed from GLSS 5 data, 2006 4.2.10 Payment for solid waste disposal The data on solid waste disposal services that are paid for and those that are unpaid for show that majority of households (62.8 percent) subscribe to waste disposal methods that require no monetary obligations whilst households that subscribe to waste disposal methods that require payment account for 37.2 percent (Figure 4.4). This result depicts the