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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from
Northern Ghana
Article  in  Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal · July 2018
DOI: 10.1007/s10560-018-0560-6
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child
Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern
Ghana
Mavis Dako-Gyeke
Child and Adolescent Social Work
Journal
 
ISSN 0738-0151
 
Child Adolesc Soc Work J
DOI 10.1007/s10560-018-0560-6
1 23
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Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal 
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10560-018-0560-6
Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence 
from Northern Ghana
Mavis Dako-Gyeke1
 
© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2018
Abstract
Drawing on Bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory, this study aimed to explore key informants’ views about child 
abuse. Using a qualitative research design, thirty key informants participated in the study. Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) 
and In-depth Interviews (IDIs) were conducted to gather data, which were analyzed thematically. The findings of the study 
indicated that children were discouraged from being assertive. Also, it was found that key informants had knowledge of child 
abuse, the variant types, as well as perpetrators and victims of child abuse. Furthermore, different factors (poverty, cultural 
and religious beliefs, ignorance of child protection laws, among others) were described by key informants as underpinning 
the occurrence of child abuse. Moreover, evidence showed that generally, child abuse cases were not reported due to barriers, 
such as concerns about consequences of reporting, poverty, family ties, stigmatization and unavailability or lack of support 
systems. Based on the findings of the study, conclusions were drawn and implications discussed.
Keywords Ghana · Abuse · Children · Protection · Physical · Psychological/verbal · Sexual
Child abuse is a disturbing, pervasive, social and public probable harm to children’s health, survival, development 
health problem, as well as a children’s rights issue in many or self-worth in the context of a relationship of responsi-
countries around the world. Annually, about 95 million bility, trust or power. It comprises any type of maltreat-
children experience abuse globally, with the highest rates ment inflicted on children under the age of 18 years in their 
reported in the African region (United Nations Children’s interactions with adults and such maltreatment could cause 
Fund, UNICEF 2014). Although child abuse is a wide- enduring harm to children (Lazenbatt, 2010). It is important 
spread and major threat to the achievement of the Sustain- that definitions of child abuse take into consideration differ-
able Development Goals (SDGs) in many African countries, ent standards and expectations for parenting behavior within 
including Ghana, the number of children on the continent diverse cultures around the world (Ronan, Wattam, Ikeda, 
who are abused has always been underestimated (Badoe, Hassan, & Ramiro, 2002).
2017). Despite the different cultural definitions of child In Ghana, there seems to be no clear definitions of child 
abuse, experiencing abuse during childhood could lead to a abuse as certain abuses of children, especially physical abuse 
wide range of emotional, behavioral, and social problems, could be considered acceptable due to religious, traditional, 
as well as impaired health and even death (Mutavi, Obondo, socio-economic and cultural beliefs and practices (Mu ̈ller, 
Mathai, Kokonya, & Dako-Gyeke, 2018; Shaffer, Yates, & Tranchant, & Oosterhoff, 2016). For example, corporal pun-
Eageland, 2009). ishment is a normal phenomenon in many households and 
The World Health Organization (WHO, 1999) defined schools where harsh physical pain is inflicted on children 
child abuse as all forms of physical and/or emotional ill- with the aim to deter unwanted behavior (Admassu, Nida, 
treatment, sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or Belachew, & Haileamlak, 2006; Badoe, 2017; Müller et al., 
commercial or other exploitation that result in actual or 2016). Also, it is common to find many children engaged in 
child labor and other forms of hazardous work due to pov-
*  Mavis Dako-Gyeke erty. Extant research findings have shown that these children 
 MDako-Gyeke@ug.edu.gh; mavisdako@yahoo.com are frequently exposed to physical, verbal and sexual abuse 
at their places of work (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014; 
1 Department of Social Work, University of Ghana, P. O. Box Hamenoo & Sottie, 2015).
LG 419, Legon, Accra, Ghana
Vol.:(012 3456789)
Author's personal copy
 M. Dako-Gyeke 
Since definitions of child abuse reflect cultural values and the government’s limited resources and scope, it often cedes 
beliefs, acts that are regarded abusive in one culture may be influence to traditional rulers who preserve cultures and cus-
considered acceptable in another (Baffoe & Dako-Gyeke, toms (Banda & Agyapong, 2016). With this dynamic power, 
2013; Price-Robertson, 2012). As a result, it may be difficult the silence surrounding harmful cultural practices and the 
to determine the incidence and prevalence of child abuse in belief that these practices are in the best interest of girls, 
a country like Ghana, which has diverse ethnic and religious legal sanctions do not have much impact, particularly in 
groups. While child abuse is not a rare occurrence, empiri- rural areas (Collin & Talbot, 2014).
cal and anecdotal evidence suggests that only few cases are 
reported to authorities, even where mandatory reporting is 
required or exists (Boakye, 2009; Coker-Appiah & Cusack, Types of Child Abuse
1999). In Ghana, it is difficult to determine the nature and 
number of child abuse cases due to varied reasons, such as Most often, different forms of abuse may simultaneously 
definitional challenges, sensitive nature of the phenomenon, take place in families and could affect one or more chil-
and absence of clearly-defined child welfare practice struc- dren. Although the abuse of children takes various forms, 
tures and systems (Baffoe & Dako-Gyeke, 2013). these types (physical, psychological/verbal and sexual) 
Over the past few decades, the incidence and prevalence are explored in this article. Child physical abuse includes 
of child abuse have received significant research and policy parental or caregiver actions, such as hitting with the hand, 
attention, as well as widespread international condemnation stick, or other objects, punching, kicking, shaking, throwing, 
(Richter & Higson-Smith, 2004; World Health Organization, burning, stabbing or choking a child (WHO, 2006). Depend-
2006). This positive development has led to the establish- ing on the age and nature of the behavior, physical force 
ment of international and national laws and conventions, could cause harm to children and may be considered abu-
which have resulted in legal and policy reforms on child sive (Hunter, 2000; Ronan et al., 2002). Child psychological/
abuse in many countries. For instance, Ghana is a signatory verbal abuse refers to repeated patterns of behavior that sug-
to many of these international conventions, such as the UN gests to a child that he or she is worthless, unwanted, valued 
Convention on the Rights of the Child, the African Charter only to the point that he or she can meet others’ needs, or 
on Human and Peoples’ Rights, and the Charter on Rights is threatened with physical or psychological attack (Downs, 
and Welfare of the African Child. Moore, McFadden, Michaud & Costin, 2004).
Furthermore, several legal and policy reforms have been Acts that result in psychological/verbal abuse have a high 
initiated locally in response to increasing advocacy for rec- likelihood of damaging children’s self-esteem or social com-
ognition and protection of children’s rights, including pro- petence (Bromfield & Higgins, 2005; WHO, 2006). Defining 
tection against exploitation and violence. In cognizance of child sexual abuse, the World Health Organization asserted 
the fact that child abuse is a human rights violation affect- that it is “the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he 
ing all age groups within the childhood period, Ghana has or she does not fully comprehend, is unable to give informed 
enacted various legislative and policy frameworks for pro- consent to, or for which the child is not developmentally 
tection of children. Among these are the establishment of a prepared, or that violates the laws or social taboos of society. 
special unit within the Ghana Police Service known as the Children can be sexually abused by both adults and other 
Domestic Violence and Victim Support Unit (DOVVSU), children who are - by virtue of their age or stage of develop-
the passage of the Criminal Code (Amendment) Act 1998 ment—in a position of responsibility, trust or power over the 
(Act 554), Children’s Act 1998 (Act 560), Juvenile Justice victim” (WHO, 2006, p. 10). It comprises sexual activities 
Act 2003 (Act 653), and Domestic Violence Act 2007 (Act like prostitution, whether or not the child is aware of what 
732). is happening and the activities may involve physical con-
Other policies are the National Plan of Action for tact, including penetrative (e.g., rape, defilement, buggery 
the Elimination of the Worst Forms of Child Labour or oral sex) or non-penetrative acts, as well as non-contact 
(2008–2015), National Plan of Action for Orphans and Vul- activities [e.g., engaging children in looking at or in the pro-
nerable Children (2010–2012) and Child and Family Welfare duction of sexual online images, watching sexual activities 
Policy (2014). Moreover, Ghana has amended its criminal or encouraging children to behave in sexually unacceptable 
code, raised the penalties for rape and molestation, and elim- ways (Badoe, 2017; Borg, Snowden & Hodes, 2014)].
inated the possibility of fines for offences involving sexual In Ghana, child sexual defilement is defined by the Crimi-
abuse (Ronan et al., 2002). These are positive developments nal Offences Act of 1960, as the natural or unnatural carnal 
in efforts aimed at addressing child abuse, exploitation and knowledge of a child under sixteen years of age, whether or 
violence in the country. Nonetheless, not much has been not with the child’s consent. Most often, sexual offenders or 
done to protect children, particularly in deprived areas where perpetrators of child sexual abuse are family members or a 
cultural beliefs and practices are deeply embedded. Given person who is familiar or close to the victim (Miller-Perrin 
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
& Perrin, 2012). Unlike the other types of child abuse, the their daily lives irrespective of their geographical location 
definition of child sexual abuse differs depending on the (Asante & Gyimah-Boadi, 2004).
relationship between the victim and the perpetrator (Hunter, In Ghana, some children live in circumstances that expose 
2000; Ronan et al., 2002). For example, sexual behavior them to abuse. The Ghana 2011 Multiple Indicator Cluster 
between a child and a parent would be considered abusive, Survey (MICS) findings indicated that 94% of children aged 
but sexual behavior between two adolescents may or may 2–14 years were subjected to some form of violent (physical 
not be considered abusive, depending on whether the behav- and/or psychological) disciplinary method. Besides, 14% of 
ior was consensual, whether any coercion was present, or children aged 2–14 years were subjected to severe physical 
whether there was equal relationship between the two young punishment and 73% to minor punishment (Ghana Statisti-
people (Ryan, 1997). When parents subject their children to cal Service, 2012). In terms of sexual abuse, in 2014, data 
sexual or physical abuse, psychological harm and perfidy gathered by UNICEF indicated that Ghana’s statistics on 
of trust could be implicit in these acts, and this could be rape and defilement were very high and comparable to coun-
regarded as a form of emotional maltreatment. tries that have a recent history of violent conflict, such as the 
It is crucial to emphasize that many children who experi- Democratic Republic of Congo and Sierra Leone (UNICEF, 
ence abuse are at risk of more than one form of abuse, and 2014). Furthermore, the UNICEF (2014) study found that 
this is referred to as multi-type maltreatment. Besides, it transactional sex (having sex for money or other needed 
is vital to note that acts of abuse against children consist items like clothes and shelter) and children watching por-
of multiple maltreatment subtypes. For instance, an adult nographic images were the most prevalent forms of sexual 
who sexually abuses a child may simultaneously hit the child abuse in the Volta, Upper West, Upper East, Ashanti, West-
(i.e., physical abuse) and isolate him or her (e.g., psycho- ern and Brong Ahafo regions of the country.
logical abuse). In addition, a fundamental feature of many Other forms of sexual abuse that are prevalent in Ghana 
abuse cases is the dominant position of adults to maltreat or are Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) and 
exploit children. This is disturbing in view of the fact that Trokosi. Notwithstanding Ghana’s efforts aimed at elimi-
in many societies, adults, especially parents and guardians nating FGM/C among girls by 2030 (UNICEF, 2012), there 
are responsible for preventing and managing child abuse. are regional differences with high prevalence rates in the 
Extant research findings indicate that these various types Upper West (41%) and Upper East (28%) Regions (Ghana 
of child abuse are prevalent in Ghana (Ghana Statistical Statistical Service, 2012). Furthermore, 50% of girls under 
Service, 2012). age 15 years had been subjected to FGM/C in the Bawku 
municipality (UNICEF, 2012). Trokosi (meaning slaves of 
the gods) is a traditional fetish practice, that is actualized 
Ghanaian Context and Child Abuse when young virgin girls, sometimes as young as 3 years, are 
sent to fetish shrines as slaves to atone for sins and crimes 
Ghana is a multi-religious, multi-ethnic and multi-cultural committed by other family members, mostly males who usu-
society. About 69% of the population is estimated to be ally were deceased (Ame, 2012; Sossou & Yogtiba, 2009). 
Christians, 15.6% to be Muslims and the rest subscribe to The system is based on traditional religious beliefs and is 
other religions, such as African Traditional Religion and discriminatory against females because they are often denied 
Eastern Faiths like Hinduism, Buddhism, and Shintoism formal education, health care and, are usually often sexu-
(United Nations Development Programme, UNDP 2007). ally abused and impregnated by custodial fetish priests at 
Ghanaians practice both traditional and non-traditional the shrines (Brooker, 1996; Gadzekpo, 1993; Laird, 2002).
religions. Besides, there are social divisions among ethnic Trokosi is practiced in selected areas in Ghana and takes 
groups along economic, cultural and political lines (UNDP, place in secretive initiation rites and therefore creates a con-
2007). The five major ethnic groups are the Akans who con- spiracy of silence between victims and perpetrators. There is 
stitute the largest ethnic group (49%) followed by the Mole- limited data on prevalence as it usually remains unseen and 
Dagbon (17%), Ewe (13%), and Ga/Dangme (8%, Ghana undocumented (Badoe, 2017; Banda & Agyapong, 2016). 
Statistical Service 2002). Additionally, it is estimated that Even though abuses inflicted on children are likely to have 
there are about sixty-three separate ethnic groups in Ghana consequences for their psyche, health, nutrition and edu-
(Ghana Statistical Service, 1999; UNDP, 2007). These eth- cational achievement, girls’ victimization may be compli-
nic groups are made up of other subgroups and the subdi- cated by other intersecting oppressions they face. Based on 
visions make understanding of ethnicity complex (UNDP, a nationwide child protection baseline study conducted by 
2007). Over time, the ethnic groups are not restricted to UNICEF (2012), it was reported that socio-cultural attitudes 
specific geographical areas due to internal migration and prevailing in all the research sites across the country, offered 
intermarriages. Members of the various ethnic groups have males a higher social status and more power than females. 
religious and cultural beliefs and practices that are part of Many girls experienced violence and isolation, some of 
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 M. Dako-Gyeke 
which were rooted in harmful cultural values and practices and social system forces that could be linked to a phenom-
(UNICEF, 2012), which could unduly place them in abusive enon within the broader environmental context (Henry, Ste-
and exploitative conditions. phenson, Hanson, & Hargett, 1993). The theory considers 
Although traditional and socio-cultural practices reflect the environment as an interactive set of systems that are 
the values and beliefs held by members of different ethnic nested within one another (Bronfenbrenner, 1976). The lay-
groups, some of these harmful traditional practices are likely ers within the ecological model comprise the individual, 
to negatively affect the physical, psychological and sexual microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and 
health of girls. These harmful cultural practices are more chrono-systems, all in concentric circles (Bronfenbrenner 
predominant in rural areas where they are deeply rooted. & Morris, 2006).
Also, while the country has several laws and policies that The individual level includes children’s characteristics, 
aim at protecting children, implementation remains weak such as age, gender and geographic location that could 
and also, the laws have not been made suitable for the con- increase the risk of child abuse (Ronan et al., 2002). For 
text (UNICEF, 2013). Furthermore, many legal reforms have instance, in terms of age, while sexual abuse could be 
had limited effect due to inadequate funds to disseminate directed at younger children, it tends to rise after the onset 
information and provide requisite training for stakehold- of puberty and during adolescence (Madu & Peltzer, 2000; 
ers, especially in rural communities (Ronan et al., 2002). Olsson et al., 2000). Also, most often, rates of sexual abuse 
Besides, due to poverty and the culture of silence, many are higher among girls than boys (Böhm, 2017; Mutavi 
parents of child abuse victims, especially sexual abuse, have et al., 2018) and boys are likely to be at greater risk of harsh 
the tendency of settling offences by negotiation rather than physical punishment (Janssen, van Dijk, Al Malki, & van As, 
seeking legal redress in the court of law (Sossou & Yogtiba, 2013). The microsystem focuses on the relations between the 
2009). developing person (child) and the environment in a direct 
Moreover, in Ghana, child protection policies seem to setting where he or she is embedded (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). 
be pertinent on paper than in practice and as a result, many It emphasizes the child’s interpersonal relationship with oth-
children are at risk of abuse. In addition, many families and ers, which form their social encounters, such as parent–child 
children do not usually understand abusive circumstances or caregiver-child relations, which could lead to child abuse. 
and in consequence, may find it difficult to make choices that The mesosystem consists of interactions between two or 
could prevent and respond to abusive situations. Thus, this more microsystems in which the child shifts between dif-
research which is a part of a larger project on human devel- ferent roles as he or she moves among the microsystems 
opment, sought to explore key informants’ views about child (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006).
abuse. Such information is useful because there is limited The exosystem is the interactions between two or more 
data on child abuse in Ghana, particularly in rural communi- settings, of which one is the immediate setting of the per-
ties. As noted by Badoe (2017), there is a dearth of data on son (Bronfenbrenner, 1977) and it consists of relationships 
child abuse from many African countries because compared between two separate systems of which the child is in direct 
to other regions of the world, child abuse research in Africa contact with one (Pittenger, Huit, & Hansen, 2016). Included 
is at the infancy stage. In addition, qualitative data on child in the macro system are micro-, meso-, and exo- systems 
abuse is rare. Hence, this explorative study contributes to that exist, or could exist within the subculture or the cul-
filling this gap by providing information on child abuse in ture as a whole, in addition to any belief system or ideology 
communities included in this study. (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). Thus, it includes government poli-
cies, laws and customs, social class, ideologies, values and 
beliefs that influence societal perceptions of and responses 
Ecological Approach to Understanding Child to child abuse. The chronosystem is the passage of time that 
Abuse mediates the change or constancy in social conditions (e.g., 
historical change) over time in either an individual’s char-
In view of the fact that child abuse is a complex and context- acteristic or his or her environment (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 
specific issue, a plethora of theories have underpinned stud- 1994). Applying this to child abuse it could be noted that 
ies on the phenomenon. Given that child abuse is influenced for centuries, many parents and other caregivers, spanked 
by a myriad of factors, a multidisciplinary model would be children and it was not considered abuse, but rather a way 
useful in providing a better understanding of the problem. of disciplining children.
Thus, child abuse scholars (e.g., Algood, Hong, Gourdine, In contemporary times however, many countries, includ-
& Williams, 2011; Liao & Hong, 2010) have utilized the ing Ghana consider spanking as physical abuse since there 
ecological model by Bronfenbrenner (1976, 1979) to explain have been suggestions regarding alternative approaches to 
the problem. This is vital because the model uses a multi- correcting children who made mistakes. The ecological 
disciplinary approach that incorporates individual, family, systems theory was appropriate for this study as it offered 
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
explanations regarding how the child is an inextricable part Ghana National Planning Commission and Non-Govern-
of the micro-, meso-, exo-, macro-, chrono-system. Given mental (NGOs) that focused on child protection and child 
that child abuse is rooted in a broader social and cultural rights issues. The NSEZ is made up of the three Northern 
context that shapes children and adults’ ideas and behav- Regions (Upper East, Upper West and Northern regions) 
iors (Agathonos-Georgopoulou, 1992), the need to consider and contiguous northern districts of Brong-Ahafo and Volta 
demographic, cultural, political, and economic factors when Regions. It is an economically lagging area and is still rural 
investigating and responding to child abuse cannot be over- compared to the more urbanized southern half of Ghana. 
emphasized. The next sections present the methodology, Many communities within the NSEZ are below national 
findings, discussion, implications, and conclusions. average levels of income and poverty, as well as noted for 
low education and literacy levels, poor health and sanitary 
conditions and poor food security (Government of Ghana, 
Methodology 2015). In view of the fact that socio-economic disadvantage 
may predispose children to abuse, it is important to explore 
Research Design key informants’ opinions regarding child abuse in the NSEZ.
A qualitative research approach was employed to explore key Data Collection Procedures
informants’ views about child abuse. This research design 
offers comprehensive understanding of people’s opinions, All procedures performed in the study were in accordance 
values, social contexts, and also provides researchers oppor- with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national 
tunity to have access to valuable data that are rich in mean- research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration 
ing (Silverman, 2011). The approach is a useful research and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. 
method when conducting a study on issues that are subtle, Data were collected through two Focus Group Discussions 
complicated, and sensitive (Lewis & Ritchie, 2003). Also, (FGDs, ten participants in each group) and In-depth Inter-
qualitative research emphasizes meanings of the phenom- views (IDI’s, ten participants) in selected communities and 
enon being studied in order to gain understanding rather than during a human development stakeholder consultative work-
generalize findings (Kitchin & Tate, 2000). The qualitative shop that was held in Tamale. For the IDI’s, key informants 
research paradigm was appropriate for this study because in selected communities were first contacted by telephone, 
exploring key informants’ views was imperative in providing the purpose of the study was explained to them, and an inter-
useful information about child abuse. This offered a broader view was requested at a place and time suitable to them. 
understanding of sensitive and contextual issues that need With regard to the FGDs, an information sharing session 
to be considered in the design of strategies that could help was organized by the researcher and willing key informants 
protect children from practices and traditions that are detri- offered to participate in the discussions.
mental to their development and wellbeing. Open-ended questions were used to collect data and the 
questions allowed participants to express themselves freely, 
Participants and Study Area offered the researcher opportunity to probe participants’ 
responses for clarification and enabled both the research-
The study sample consisted of 30 key informants (18 males ers and participants to discuss emerging issues in greater 
and 12 females). Creswell (2012) argued that as regards sam- detail. The FGDs and IDI’s were employed to explore key 
ple size in qualitative research, it is usual to study few indi- informants’ opinions about child abuse and protection. The 
viduals or cases. Furthermore, within qualitative research, purpose of the study was explained to participants before the 
the sample size is normally small mainly because phenom- data collection began and they were informed of their right 
ena need to occur once in order to be a part of the analyti- to withdraw their participation at any point in time during 
cal map (Legard, Keegan, & Ward, 2003). Data saturation the data collection. As well, participants were informed that 
could occur within the first 12 interviews and subsequently they could stop responding to any question they felt uncom-
very little new phenomena are likely to transpire (Guest, fortable with. Participation in the study was voluntary and 
Bunce, & Johnson, 2006). In this study, recruitment of key informed consent was obtained from participants.
informants was continued until saturation was reached when Information obtained from participants was anonymized 
repetition of responses was observed. and confidentiality was assured throughout the data col-
The participants were 18 years and above and were drawn lection process. Both the FGDs and IDI’s were conducted 
from the Northern Savannah Ecological Zone (NSEZ) of in English and facilitated by the researcher and a research 
Ghana. They were made up of police officers, social wel- assistant who took notes. On the average, each FGD lasted 
fare officers, community and traditional leaders, representa- between one and a half and two hours and each IDI lasted 
tives from Ghana Education Service, Ghana Health Service, between forty-five minutes and one hour. The FGDs were 
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 M. Dako-Gyeke 
moderated by a facilitator and co-facilitator who proceeded children were not encouraged to be assertive as doing so was 
according to guiding questions. The use of two facilitators regarded as disrespectful. A male community leader stated: 
allowed for tracking and managing group dynamics like “our children are not allowed to voice out their feelings and 
turn taking, engaging and managing quiet and dominant opinions, we make decisions and impose on them because 
participants (Gibson & Mykitiuk, 2012). With participants’ they are not matured”. In addition, a female social welfare 
permission, the FGDs and IDI’s were audio-recorded. Ques- officer explained:
tions asked during the FGDs and IDIs included “how would 
you describe children’s agency in your community?”, “in Children are to be seen, not to be heard and because 
what ways are children treated differently based on their gen- of that they are left out in decision making, adults 
der?”, “what do you consider to be child abuse?”, “who are push their ideas on them and when children do not 
the victims and perpetrators of the different types of child obey, they are often punished. Adults feel children 
abuse?”, “why are children abused in your community?”, must grow up before they could contribute to deci-
“are child abuse cases reported in your community?”, and sion making. Adults hold the view that children do 
“what are the barriers to reporting child abuse cases in your not have opinions and therefore cannot make useful 
community?” contributions.
Furthermore, some key informants indicated that many 
Data Analysis Procedures parents considered children as one of the properties they 
owned. Such parents normally have the belief that they 
Following the data collection, the audio recorder was could punish their children and cannot be sanctioned by any 
replayed several times for the purpose of transcribing the authority, as was disclosed by a male NGO officer: “since 
data. The meanings of participants’ perspectives were many parents consider their children as their own prop-
interpreted through reading and rereading of interview and erty, if children misbehave, they treat them the way they 
focus group transcripts (Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Miles & want as parents have absolute authority over children. On 
Huberman, 1994). The data was then broken down into cat- the other hand, some key informants indicated that due to 
egories and interpreted with the aim of making sense and changes in society, some parents allowed their children to 
understanding the coded data (Miles & Huberman, 1994; be assertive: 
Sargeant, 2012). Emerging themes and concepts that were 
repeated in the data were identified based on the objectives Some years ago, adults believed children were not 
of the study. The researchers extracted from the text themes capable of speaking about their concerns so parents 
that considered statements of importance and meaning pre- insisted on absolute obedience, but that perception has 
sent in most of the data. In order to ensure credibility of the changed. Some parents interact with their children to 
findings, the transcriptions were augmented with the field find out their needs and encourage them to speak up, 
notes taken by a research assistant during data collection. especially when they are maltreated (Male, Ghana 
Moreover, themes that were developed independently were Education Service).
interpreted and consensus was reached through discussions This participant placed emphasis on the importance of 
with academic colleagues who had professional and/or aca- non-verbal communication and had this to say:
demic knowledge in the field. As children behave differently, it is crucial for adults 
to understand their non-verbal cues. They do things 
Findings through their actions, for instance, if a child refuses to eat a particular type of food, he should not be coerced, 
The findings of the study are presented in this section and but effort should be made to find out the reason behind 
organized under the following themes: agency of children that decision. Adults who cultivate this habit are able 
and gender; definitions of child abuse; types, victims and to consider children’s opinions (Female, Ghana Health 
perpetrators of child abuse; reasons for child abuse; report- Service).
ing child abuse cases; and barriers to reporting child abuse. In terms of gender, participants shared their views regard-
ing perceptions about boys and girls, which influenced how 
Children’s Agency and Gender they were treated. Key informants described how girls were 
discriminated against, which placed limitations on their 
Many of the key informants included in this study described agency and freedom:
the agency of children in their communities. They further 
explained how children were treated based on their gender. The traditional belief is that boys will inherit the fam-
In many Ghanaian communities, especially in rural areas, ily property and name so they are usually respected. 
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
Also, it has to do with how women are treated, they are regarded as abusive only if the child did nothing wrong but 
subjected to harmful cultural practices and girls are not was punished:
spared from these practices (Female, NGO). An action can be considered child abuse depending on 
According to some key informants, compared to some the severity or strength of the act. For example, beating 
years ago, there have been improvements in how girls are a child who has intentionally done something wrong is 
treated generally. In this regard, many girls are enrolled in not abuse. Child abuse takes place only when a child 
school and other programs that would enhance their develop- is beaten or called bad names by an adult if s/he did 
ment and wellbeing. A male traditional leader noted: not misbehave.
Frankly speaking, things are getting better as many While participants had knowledge about child abuse, 
girls attend school and are exposed to other activities building a consensus on the nature of the phenomenon to 
that would enhance their development. Many men are inform national policies would not be easy in a multi-reli-
recognizing that girls can contribute meaningfully to gious-ethnic, and -cultural country like Ghana.
their families and national development if they are 
educated and given opportunities. Victims and Perpetrators of the Different Types 
As explained by key informants, children were discour- of Child Abuse
aged from being assertive, and this could make it difficult for 
children to express themselves, even when they were abused. The key informants had knowledge about the various types 
Thus, it could be challenging for many children to distin- of abuse, especially physical abuse. In addition, they pro-
guish between abusive and non-abusive situations. vided information on victims and perpetrators of the types of child abuse. In terms of the types of abuse, participants 
described physical abuse as: “slapping or beating a child 
Definitions of Child Abuse with a stick or belt”, “inflicting pain on a child”, “forcing a child to sit in hot water”, using hot iron or fire to burn a 
Mostly, people have diverse understandings regarding child”, “hitting a child’s head against a wall” and “when 
child abuse and this reflected in responses provided by key children’s fingers are cut and pepper put in the wounds as 
informants. Although there are misconceptions and beliefs punishment for stealing food”. Within these responses from 
about the phenomenon, participants had knowledge about it. participants, there is use of intentional violent acts, which 
This was not surprising given that many of them were pro- could result in injury with possible short and long term harm 
fessionals who worked in human service organizations and to children.
institutions. A male representative of the Ghana National With regard to psychological/verbal abuse, key inform-
Planning Commission said: “I will define child abuse as any ants provided these expressions: “The most common is 
act that will infringe on the fundamental human rights of the verbal abuse as adults don’t think before they yell at or 
child”. Other definitions were: call children bad names”, “when an adult insults a child, it is psychological abuse because the child becomes sad 
An act that is not meant to correct the child, but rather or worried…occurs very often”, and “cursing or calling 
place some kind of fear in the child. For instance, when children bad names is psychological abuse…many adults 
a child makes a little mistake, but he or she is beaten insult children before and after they abuse them physically 
severely, this is not meant to correct the child, (Male, or sexually”. Key informants’ responses suggest that this 
Department of Social Welfare). type of abuse is frequent and conveys to children that they 
Adding his voice, a participant explained how some are worthless, which could negatively affect children’s self-
adults physically abused children with the sole aim of inflict- worth. Narrating their perspectives on sexual abuse, partici-
ing pain on them: pants had these to say: “sexual abuse occurs when an adult engages in sexual activities with a child”, “when an adult, 
Child abuse can be described as any action that is especially a male engages in inappropriate sexual activities 
meted out by an adult to a child that is excessive and with a girl child” and “when an adult inappropriately touches 
could lead to suffering. Sometimes children are sub- the private parts of a girl or forces her to touch his private 
jected to these harmful acts even when no wrong doing parts”. The responses from participants demonstrate that 
had been established (Male, Police Officer). girls face a higher risk of child sexual abuse with potential 
For a male community leader, an action can be classified harm to their dignity.
as abuse depending on the harshness of the action taken Besides, key informants provided information regarding 
by an adult against a child. The adult’s behavior could be victims and perpetrators of the different types of child abuse. This is important because most often, children are not able 
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resist abuse and as a result, perpetrators take advantage and developed breasts and other attractive features, they 
abuse them repeatedly. In this regard, a male police officer regard them as ready for sexual activities. Such people 
revealed: “usually, boys are victims of physical abuse as they are ignorant of the law that an adult cannot have sexual 
are perceived to be stubborn. .. girls are often victims of psy- intercourse with a child below the age of 16 years with 
chological/verbal and sexual abuse”, and “frequently, boys or without consent… this is regarded as defilement.
are beaten and girls are verbally abused”. With respect to 
perpetrators, some male key informants disclosed: “women This female community leader did not believe ignorance 
(mothers) are perpetrators of psychological/verbal abuse could be a reason for child abuse:
because they are quick tempered. .. always yelling at chil- Everyone is mentioning ignorance, but many men con-
dren, and men (fathers) are perpetrators of physical abuse”, tinue to defile young girls. Although they are punished 
and “in our communities, girls are usually victims of sexual if reported, they still defile girls as young as five years 
abuse while men are perpetrators”. Irrespective of who vic- old. It has to do with the character of perpetrators and 
tims or perpetrators are or the type of abuse a child experi- not ignorance of the law. Some people have uncon-
ences, its outcomes could be harmful to a child’s  physical, trolled lust to the extent that anything in skirt they 
psychological, and emotional development and wellbeing. want to make use of it.
It is important to note that many children are at risk of more 
than one form of abuse. Thus, the concern is how children Since children are susceptible to different types of abuse 
would handle the effects of abuse(s) they might have suf- resulting from a plethora of issues, identifying and under-
fered and their thoughts about why the abuse occurred. standing why they are abused is crucial. This could help in preventing or finding solutions to the problem, which has 
become an impediment to children’s survival.
Why Are Children Abused?
Key informants described that children were abused due to Reporting Child Abuse
several reasons. Among these were: poverty; cultural and 
religious beliefs; and ignorance of child protection laws. In view of the fact that child abuse is a complex phenom-
Some children were abused due to poverty, as noted by two enon, sometimes, it is difficult to identify and report child 
social welfare officers, a female and a male respectively: abuse cases. As indicated by key informants, among the 
“sometimes girls are given to men for financial reasons and different types of child abuse, physical abuse was mostly 
these men end up sexually abusing them”, and “children who reported. A male representative of the Ghana Education 
do not live with their biological parents are often abused. Service noted: “people usually report physical abuse. Occa-
.. poor parents send their children to live with extended or sionally, children themselves or community members report 
non-family members who may abuse the children”. physical abuse that are perpetuated by parents and teachers”. 
With regard to religious beliefs, a key informant revealed: Likewise, a  participant  had this to say: 
“many Christian parents and adults spank children because 
they base their actions on the passage in the Bible that states It is mostly physical abuse that is reported as  it is vis-
‘spare the rod and spoil the child’. Another key informant ible, but for the others, especially sexual abuse, people 
revealed: do not report because of stigma that is associated with it” (Male, NGO).
In our traditional African culture, many adults are sup-
posed to discipline children when they misbehave… Echoing his concern, this key informant described the 
they do not see anything wrong with spanking chil- discriminatory approach to reporting child sexual abuse 
dren. This belief has been passed on from generation cases and this view was shared by other participants:
to generation since it is regarded as useful and normal. It depends on the relationship between parties 
Furthermore, ignorance of child protections laws, accord- involved. If a father or a family member sexually 
ing to a female representative of the Ghana Education abuses a girl child, family members are not likely 
Service, contributed to child abuse: “many adults abuse to report the case…a neighbor, the case would be 
children due to ignorance…while verbal abuse can lead reported” (Female, NGO).
to emotional problems, many adults don’t know that their Two female community leaders, as well as other key 
actions are detrimental to children’s wellbeing”. Similarly, informants were of the view that many victims of child 
a male police officer asserted: sexual abuse did not report the cases due to fear: “many 
Some adults are unaware that a child is a person below girls are afraid to report sexual abuse because perpetrators 
the age of 18 years. Once men see girls who have threaten them with death if they report” and “usually in our 
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
communities, sexual abuse cases are not reported because police, rather, community elders sit together to resolve 
victims and their families are afraid of the consequences”. it without making it public (Female, Ghana Education 
Additionally, a male traditional leader revealed: Service).
Some form of reporting of child abuse cases exist, In addition, key informants indicated that poverty could 
but only a few. In the Northern Region, we have the be a barrier to reporting child abuse cases. This could be 
‘Nakyina’ that is youth chief. Compared to other child challenging as victims received financial assistance from 
protection agencies, people feel comfortable reporting perpetrators. A participant from the Ghana National Plan-
child abuse cases to the youth chiefs who are supposed ning Commission noted: 
to enforce discipline and resolve issues in their com-
munities. Some girls who are compelled by parental poverty to live with other people, find it difficult reporting their 
Dreading the consequences that may be associated with guardians when they abuse them. In my community, a 
reporting child abuse cases, some families refused to report girl’s hands were swollen and she was in pain because 
such cases: she was beaten for stealing money. When a neighbor 
Many people do not report child abuse cases to author- decided to report the case, the girl begged her not to 
ities because they are not sure of the consequences. do so due to fear of being sacked.
They are afraid that perpetrators will be arrested, par- Other key informants indicated that unavailability or 
ticularly if they are family members. Also, parents do inadequate support systems served as a barrier to reporting 
not want to be seen as not taking good care of their child abuse cases: 
children. .. families are concerned about how they are 
perceived in the community (Male, Ghana Health Ser- A key barrier to reporting child abuse cases is lack of 
vice). support systems. In our schools, if teachers abuse chil-dren, there are no avenues for reporting. I have expe-
In spite of the existence of legislation and legal conven- rienced verbal abuse by a teacher so you can imag-
tions to protect the rights of children in Ghana, key inform- ine what children would do should they be abused by 
ants mentioned that child abuse cases, particularly psycho- teachers (Male, Community Leader).
logical and sexual abuse cases were usually not reported. 
Many people find it difficult breaking their silence because As described by key informants, the non-existence of law 
most often, issues concerning evidence are raised when peo- enforcement agencies, professionals, and poverty hindered 
ple report suspected child abuse cases. some people from reporting child abuse cases: 
Child abuse cases are common in our communities, 
Barriers to Reporting Child Abuse but many people do not report because in our villages, 
there are no police stations, social welfare offices or 
Generally, people have hesitations when it comes to report- hospitals. The people are poor and cannot afford trans-
ing child abuse cases. This is normally due to apprehensions portation cost to make such reports. The police are not 
regarding reporting requirements, procedures, consequences, close to the people so when girls are sexually abused, 
as well as social and structural challenges, among others. families meet to resolve the issue (Male, Traditional 
Commenting on the issue, a male police officer explained: Leader).
I think a major reason why people do not report abuse Moreover, another barrier to reporting child abuse cases, 
cases is the consequences. If a girl is sexually abused particularly sexual abuse is stigmatization. As a result, sex-
by her father and the case is reported to the police and ual abuse cases are often kept as family secret:
he is arrested, how will the case be handled? It will be 
a challenge because he is the same person who pro- In many rural communities, sexual abuse is regarded 
vides resources for the child’s upkeep. Sometimes they as a taboo due to stigmatization. If the issue comes 
consider these things and refuse to report such cases. out, the girls who are often victims are stigmatized and discriminated against. Sometimes, their parents send 
This key informant explained how child abuse cases were them out of the community to avoid further stigma. It 
usually settled informally: is not only the girls who are stigmatized, but their fam-
A major barrier is the extended family system in our ilies, as well (Female, Department of Social Welfare).
rural communities. There are about five other close Sexual abuse cases were often concealed with the inten-
villages in our area and all the people are related. It is tion of evading stigma, and this assertion was endorsed by 
difficult to report a person who abuses a child to the other participants:
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As for sexual abuse cases, they are kept as secret and and harmful acts. Aside traditional and cultural beliefs 
not reported because victims will be stigmatized if the about childhood in Ghana and differences in perception of 
issue becomes public. This type of abuse is hidden in what constitutes child abuse, the point at which an act is 
our villages so that only the victim and her family will regarded abusive could be difficult to determine. In view 
know. Even the family is stigmatized if the issue comes of the fact that definitions of child abuse mirror religious, 
out (Male, NGO). ethnic and cultural values and beliefs, (Baffoe & Dako-
If problems associated with reporting child abuse cases Gyeke, 2013; Price-Robertson, 2012), it is usually difficult 
are not addressed, the task of protecting children from abuse to determine the nature of child abuse. Since child abuse 
would be elusive. Consequently, the rights of many children is a complicated phenomenon, the existence of a clearly 
would be violated and they may continue to suffer abuse in defined and understood macro level polices would help 
silence. protect children, especially those at risk of child abuse.As regards types of abuse, key informants’ experiences 
suggested that physical abuse occurred often with boys 
being victims and fathers or adult males being perpetra-
Discussion tors. Scholars of extant studies have indicated that physical 
abuse often occurs and reoccurs (Bornstein, Kaplan, & 
This study explored key informants’ views on child abuse in Perry, 2007) and it is more common toward boys than girls 
the Northern Savannah Zone of Ghana. With regard to the (Lansford et al., 2010). Additionally, participants indicated 
agency of children, key informants indicated that children their concern with girls being viewed as victims of sexual 
were generally viewed as submissive members of society abuse and males, particularly adult males as perpetrators. 
and as a result, their innate capabilities concerning thought Consistent with previous studies that reported gender dif-
processes and initiatives were intensely subsumed in the ferences, key informants reported that girls were more 
demands and desires of adults (Ofosu-Kusi, 2017). Chil- likely to be sexually abused than boys and those believed 
dren may be discouraged from being assertive since they are to be responsible were males (Böhm, 2017; Finkelhor, 
mostly seen and not heard in the various microsystems, such Turner, Shattuck, & Hamby, 2013; May-Chahal, 2006; 
as the home and school. As noted by Bronfenbrenner (1977), Mutavi et al., 2018).
the microsystem emphasizes children’s interpersonal rela- In their study on sexual abuse among children in Kenya, 
tionship with others, which form their social encounters. It is Muatavi et al. (2018) found gender differences among vic-
important to emphasize that in contemporary society, some tims, where girls were seven times more at risk than boys. 
children are becoming assertive due to protection from The authors further indicated that gender was not an equiva-
macro level policies like international conventions (e.g., lent factor, but the susceptibility and vulnerability of girls 
United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child) and were factors behind the large number of girls being sexu-
national legislations (e.g., Ghana’s Children’s Act), as well ally abused in Kenya. This buttresses the fact that personal 
as exposure to experiences of children in developed nations. individual characteristics like gender could place a child at 
In some communties however, children are forced into a higher risk for abuse. Also, Bhana (2012) opined that in 
submission due to the assumption that they would be dis- some African societies, young girls are not only perceived 
respectful if allowed to speak their minds. Given that chil- as sexual victims, but agents as well. Moreover, while girls 
dren are a part of their families, it is crucial that their views are mostly at risk of sexual abuse, it is possible that societal 
are heard. Once children withdraw, it would be difficult for expectations could force boys not to disclose when they are 
them to voice out their concerns, including abuse. This could abused.
be more challenging for girls compared to boys because in Concerning psychological/verbal abuse, key informants 
some areas in Ghana, girls are subjected to harmful cultural indicated that in their experience, this was more common 
and traditional practices and abuses, which have negative and women were generally the perpetrators. Earlier stud-
implications for their development and wellbeing. While ies (e.g., Hibbard, Barlow, & MacMillan, 2012; Rizvi & 
there are improvements in essential aspects of girls’ lives Najam, 2014) have reported that psychological abuse was 
in modern society, persistent challenges exist, mostly due to the most prevalent form of child abuse. Compared to physi-
deprivations and constraints that often violate their funda- cal abuse, psychological abuse is difficult to define and 
mental rights (Badoe, 2017; World Bank n. d.). assess (Gelles, 2000) and has been regarded as the most 
Admittedly, many key informants included in this study developmentally damaging with adverse outcomes, such as 
had knowledge about child abuse and  the types, even helplessness, aggression, and emotional unresponsiveness 
though consensus as well as differences existed in their (Black, Smith, & Heyman, 2001; Trickett, Mennen, Kim, & 
definitions. Key concepts that were emphasized, included Sang, 2009). This is because it would be difficult to know 
violation of children’s rights, inflicting pain, brutality what victims are going through or experiencing.
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
Given that child abuse is a complex issue, a myriad of abuse. Nonetheless, sexual abuse and psychological/verbal 
factors are likely to underpin its occurrence. Compounding abuse require equal attention if not more because these types 
the issue is the fact that mostly, these factors are interac- of abuse could have dire and long-term effects on victims’ 
tive and operate within the individual, microsystem, mes- wellbeing and survival. It is crucial to report all child abuse 
osystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chrono-systems cases no matter the type in order to ensure that victims are 
(Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2006). Thus, it could be diffi- protected and perpetrators are punished. If child abuse cases 
cult identifying all the factors that contribute to child abuse are not reported, it would be difficult to protect children from 
due to lack of reliable reporting systems and other possible potential abuse and provide abused children with requisite 
contributing factors (Badoe, 2017). In this current study, support services. Failure to report child abuse cases would 
key informants reported that children were abused mainly keep families from accessing support services that could 
due to poverty; cultural and religious beliefs; and ignorance prevent maltreatment and help children to remain with their 
of child protection laws. Surprisingly, apart from gender, families (Lynne, Gifford, Evans, & Rosch, 2015). How-
no other individual attributes or characteristics were among ever, some barriers, especially cultural beliefs and practices 
factors that could place children at higher risk for abuse. could inhibit people from reporting suspected incidences of 
Previous studies (e.g., Ronan et al., 2002; Sprang, Clark, & child abuse, particularly child sexual abuse (Böhm, 2017; 
Bass, 2005) found other individual characteristics, such as Mutavi et al., 2018).
age and disability. Complicating the issue is the fact that even child abuse 
The link between poverty and child abuse is documented experts have different views regarding the threshold of rea-
in the literature (Doidge et al., 2017; Pelton, 2015). Besides, sonable suspicion of child abuse (Levi & Crowell, 2011). 
neighborhood poverty has been found to influence child In the present study, key informants described barriers, 
abuse (Maguire-Jack & Font, 2017). These suggest that chil- such as concerns about consequences of reporting, family 
dren from low-income families and communities are likely to relations, poverty, stigmatization, and inadequate support 
be abused. Also, evidence showed that cultural and religious systems. Many people, mandatory reporters inclusive, may 
beliefs influenced child abuse. As noted by Ferrari (2002), in believe that reporting their suspicion of child abuse would 
order to correctly interpret parental or adults’ behaviors as not be beneficial to the family (Kenny, 2001). In addition, 
abusive, contextual factors must be taken into consideration. due to family cohesion and extended family networks that 
Additionally, cultural and religious beliefs could nurture, exist in many rural communities (Dako-Gyeke & Oduro, 
encourage, and rationalize child abuse (Böhm, 2017). These 2013), the possibility of generating crisis in families if child 
beliefs and practices could threaten efforts aimed at protect- abuse cases are reported is a major concern, especially if the 
ing children’s rights and their welfare. perpetrator provides financial or other forms of support to 
It is important to emphasize that although culture and the victim.
context could influence the definition, etiology, prevention, Additionally, girls who were able to exercise their agency 
and treatment of child abuse, the exact routes and mecha- and made attempts to report sexual abuse cases were con-
nisms have remained somehow elusive (Nadan, Spilsbury, strained by structural and social inequalities, as well as gen-
& Korbin, 2015). However, cross cultural literature proposes der norms that emphasized male sexual violence (Bhana, 
that child abuse is less likely in cultures where children are 2012). Also, due to concerns about stigmatization and dis-
valued for their economic services, for preserving family crimination of victims and their families, as reported by key 
lines and cultural heritage, and as sources of emotional informants, many sexual abuse cases were concealed. Nor-
pleasure and gratification (D’Antonio, Darwish, & McLean, mally, stigma is a major reason for nondisclosure of child 
1993; Ferrari, 2002). Furthermore, some key informants sexual abuse due to concerns and beliefs about destroyed 
suggested that ignorance of the law could be a reason for innocence (Böhm, 2017), which could negatively affect vic-
the occurrence of child abuse. However, this assertion was tims’ chances for prospective intimate relationships. Extend-
not endorsed by all participants. Child abuse may occur due ing sexual abuse related stigma to families of victims (cour-
to adults’, especially parents’ ignorance and lack of knowl- tesy stigma or stigma-by-association) is worrying as it may 
edge of laws that protect and or prevent children from abuse contribute to nondisclosure. This suggests that challenges 
(Badoe, 2017; Admassu et al., 2006). This may have impli- faced by stigmatized people are likely to spread among their 
cations for reporting because parents may not be aware of close associates (Dako-Gyeke, 2018; Goffman, 1963).
the existence of child protection agencies and the services Experiences of courtesy stigma could lead to isolation, 
they provide. blame, negative social interactions and reduced social sup-
With regard to reporting child abuse, key informants port (Dako-Gyeke, 2018; Phillips, Benoit, Hallgrimsdottir, 
reported that physical abuse cases were often reported com- & Vallance, 2012) from extended family members, particu-
pared to sexual and psychological abuse cases. This could be larly if perpetrators are family members. Moreover, inad-
due to the fact that physical abuse is the most visible form of equate or lack of social support systems were perceived by 
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 M. Dako-Gyeke 
key informants as contributors to underreporting child abuse Issues regarding sexual abuse stigma should be taken seri-
cases. The importance of adequate and effective formal and ously because many abused girls and their families may not 
informal support systems at the micro, meso, exo, and macro receive justice due to stigma. The importance of this study 
levels cannot be overemphasized as it would encourage and partly lies in the finding that sexual abuse related stigma 
enhance people’s confidence to report child abuse cases. extends beyond victims to their close associates.
More importantly, children’s exercise of agency in terms Moreover, given that child abuse is a complex, contextual 
of reporting abuse cases, especially victims of sexual abuse and multi-dimensional phenomenon, it is suggested that a 
should be recognized and regarded as a human rights issue multi-disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach should be 
(Bhana, 2012). adopted to help prevent and understand child abuse cases. 
In this regard, the need for professionals, particularly social 
Limitation of the Study workers to design and implement effective child protec-
tion and prevention intervention strategies cannot be over 
It is crucial to emphasize that as this is a qualitative study, emphasized. Social workers could collaborate with commu-
the findings do not represent views of the general popula- nity members, especially traditional and religious leaders to 
tion or the entire country. However, it might be possible to strengthen cultural and religious practices that abhor child 
apply the findings to other similar situations provided there abuse and emphasize the rights of children. This is essen-
is a certain degree of similarity between the contexts (Lin- tial because it could inform policy and result in improved 
coln & Guba, 1985). In addition, this study is vital because service provision and support for children, families and 
the findings offer evidence regarding key informants’ views communities.
about child abuse. Nevertheless, more research studies that 
utilize a quantitative approach to assess the prevalence and 
incidence of child abuse would be useful. This could help Conclusions
reduce the evidence gap and provide support for highlighting 
research in this crucial area. In conclusion, while there exist international and national 
child protection legislations, key informants included in this 
study reported that children were abused in the study areas. 
Implications Generally, children were expected to be submissive, which 
placed limitations on their involvement in family decision-
In order to prevent or reduce manifestations of child abuse in making and opportunities to voice out their concerns. In 
Ghana, there is the need to encourage children to be asser- addition, evidence showed that compared to girls, boys were 
tive so as to bring to light issues that negatively affect them, preferred as they were normally perceived as representing 
such as child abuse. Given that sexual abuse and psycho- family continuity and were socialized accordingly. Even 
logical/verbal abuse are often concealed, more education, though children are important in many African societies, 
resources and interventions should be directed at these types including Ghana, girls are usually discriminated against and 
of abuse. Information should be available on risk and protec- subjected to abusive and harmful cultural practices.
tive factors, as well as support services. Thus, it is impera- Indubitably, key informants had knowledge about child 
tive to educate children on the threshold of abuse, as well abuse and the various types, although they had different 
as risk factors. Although this could be difficult in countries views on what comprised child abuse or a reasonable sus-
like Ghana where many children are not assertive, it is vital picion, as well as victims and perpetrators of child abuse. 
to encourage them to report abuse cases since their agency is Also, key informants described different factors within the 
crucial in efforts aimed at reducing child abuse. This could micro-, meso-, eso-, macro-and macro-systems as contribut-
minimize the extent to which children suffer in silence with ing to child abuse. Furthermore, key informants suggested 
adverse effects for their development and wellbeing. How- that compared to physical abuse, sexual and psychological 
ever, it should be recognized that this may be challenging as abuse cases were not often reported. This could be due to 
many children in abusive and unsafe situations are vulner- the fact that physical abuse is the most visible type of abuse. 
able and would find it difficult asserting themselves as this Even though girls were mostly sexually abused, such cases 
could endanger them. were hardly reported. Among the barriers to reporting child 
Furthermore, because they have distinctive routes into abuse cases identified by key informants were concerns 
family situations where abuse could occur (Lynne et al., about reporting requirements, procedures, consequences, as 
2015), key informants’ understanding of child abuse and well as social and structural challenges. Another obstacle to 
mandatory procedures should be enhanced. Additionally, reporting child abuse cases, particularly sexual abuse was 
barriers to reporting child abuse cases and suspicions, espe- possible stigmatization and discrimination of victims and 
cially stigmatization, should be considered and addressed. their families.
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Perspectives of Key Informants on Child Abuse: Qualitative Evidence from Northern Ghana 
Acknowledgements This project was made possible with financial sup- Boakye, K. (2009). Culture and nondisclosure of child sexual abuse 
port from the UNDP Country Programme for Ghana. Also, apprecia- in Ghana: A theoretical and empirical exploration. Law & 
tion is expressed to key informants who participated in this study, as Social Inquiry, 34(4), 951–979.
well as the research assistant. Böhm, B. (2017). “She got spoilt”: Perceptions of victims of child 
sexual abuse in Ghana. Journal of Child Sexual Abuse, 26(7), 
Funding This research was supported by the UNDP Country Pro- 818–838.
gramme for Ghana. The findings and conclusions in this report are Borg, K., Snowden, C., & Hodes, D. (2014). Child sexual abuse: 
those of the author and do not represent the official position of the Recognition and response where there is a suspicion or allega-
UNDP. tion. Paediatric Child Health, 24(12), 536–543.
Bornstein, B. H., Kaplan, D. L., & Perry, A. R. (2007). Child abuse 
in the eyes of the beholder: Lay perceptions of child sexual and 
Compliance with Ethical Standards physical abuse. Child Abuse & Neglect, 31(4), 375–391.
Bromfield, L., & Higgins, D. (2005). Chronic and isolated maltreat-
Conflict of interest The author declares no conflict of interest. ment in a child protection sample. Family Matters, 70, 38–45.
Bronfenbrenner, U. (1976). The experimental ecology of education. 
Ethical Approval All procedures performed in studies involving human Educational Researcher., 5(5), 5–15.
participants were in accordance with the ethical standards of the insti- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an experimental ecology of 
tutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki human development. American Psychologist, 32(7), 515–531.
declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards. Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: 
Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
Informed Consent Participation in the study was voluntary and versity Press.
informed consent was obtained from participants. Also, participants Bronfenbrenner, U. (1994). Ecological models of human develop-
were informed about the purpose of the study and were informed that ment. In T. Husen & T. N. Postlethwaite (Eds.), International 
they could withdraw from the study at any time and could stop respond- encyclopedia of education (pp. 1643–1647). Oxford: Pergamon 
ing to any question they felt uncomfortable with. Information obtained Press.
from participants was anonymized and confidentiality was assured Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (2006). The bioecological model 
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