UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES CELEBRITY ENDORSEMENT AND POLITICAL BRAND IMAGE: THE MODERATING EFFECT OF GENDER BY GODWIN KWAWU (10803635) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY (M. PHIL) MARKETING DEGREE DECEMBER 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby declare that this research work is the outcome of my study and has not been submitted for any academic award in this university or any other by anybody. All references used in this work have been duly acknowledged. I, therefore, bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. . 20th December, 2021 ……………………. GODWIN KWAWU DATE (10803635) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii CERTIFICATION I certify that this research work has been supervised according to all the required procedures of the University of Ghana. 20th December, 2021 ………………………… …….….…..………………. DR. KOBBY MENSAH DATE (PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) 20 20th December, 2021 ………………………… …………………… PROF. BEDMAN NARTEH DATE (CO-SUPERVISOROR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION This work is dedicated, first and foremost to the Almighty God for his grace and mercy upon me throughout the programme, to the Kwawu family especially my lovely wife, Kate Ziama Kwawu, my brothers Richard Quao, Jones Kwawu Dzadu, and many others through whom this work has seen the light of day. I say God bless you all abundantly for your immense support throughout this journey. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT With profound appreciation and gratitude, I would like to acknowledge the Lord God Almighty, for His everlasting love and abundant grace throughout the academic journey. Without God, this journey would have been difficult. I express my sincere appreciation to my two thesis supervisors, Dr. Kobby Mensah and Prof. Bedman Narteh for their advice, guidance and contributions to the successful completion of this work. Their tolerance level for my ignorance is much appreciated. My prayer for them is that, may the favour of the Almighty God locate them in all aspects of their lives and replenish whatever they have lost as they invested their time and efforts to bring the best out of me. I also remain thankful to the entire faculty as well as all my course mates, for their encouragement during the study period. I further wish to show gratitude to my family, especially my wife and siblings. I can only pray for good health and the Lord’s mercy for you all. Finally, I thank the entire membership of the church of Apostles Revelation Society (ARS), Abeka branch, especially Rev. Etoko Gbeku for the spiritual support in this journey and more. God richly bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ABSTRACT The nature of politics in Ghana has been shaped by the democratic processes that characterize the electoral process. This new dimension in politics has brought healthy competition into the political environment, mounting pressure on political parties to employ marketing strategies that enable them to stay competitive. One major marketing strategy that has found itself in the political environment, is celebrity endorsement. In recent times, celebrities are widely employed to support political campaigns through advocacy and endorsement. This study sought to establish the impact of celebrity characteristics on political brand image and to ascertain the moderation effect of gender on relationships. The researcher employed a survey approach in collecting primary data for the study. The participants were 270 students of the University of Ghana who are registered voters in the Ayawaso West Wuogon Constituency. The quantitative research approach was employed using the “Structural Equation Modelling (SEM)” for the data analysis. The findings suggest that the attractiveness of a celebrity influences voters’ perception of a political party. The results also revealed that the credibility of a celebrity is crucial in the endorsement process. In addition, the findings point out that gender has no influence on voter perception about a political party image when the “credibility and attractiveness of the celebrity” is the center of discussion. The researcher concludes that the credibility and attractiveness of celebrities constitute value to the voter as it is believed that the reliance on the message of the celebrity leads the voter to make a good choices between contending political parties. It is recommended that political parties should continue to adore celebrity endorsement as a political strategy and in doing so, they should consider the physical characteristics of the celebrity endorser. Keywords and Terms: Advocacy, Celebrities, Endorsement, Political Brand image, Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i CERTIFICATION .......................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... v TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Problem .................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Gap......................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Aim and Objective of the Study ............................................................................................ 6 1.5 Research Question ................................................................................................................. 7 1.6 Significant of the Study ......................................................................................................... 7 1.7 Scope of the Study................................................................................................................. 8 1.8 Chapter Disposition ............................................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9 2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 9 2.2 Theoretical Review ............................................................................................................... 9 2.2.1 Social Influence Theory (SIT)............................................................................................ 9 2.2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) ................................................................................. 11 2.2.2.1 Limitations of the theory ............................................................................................... 12 2.3 Conceptual Review ............................................................................................................. 13 2.3.1 Emergence of Political Marketing.................................................................................... 13 2.3.1.1 Defining Political Marketing ......................................................................................... 14 2.3.2 Branding defined .............................................................................................................. 16 2.3.2.1 Importance of branding to organizations ...................................................................... 17 2.3.2.1.1 Creation of Identity .................................................................................................... 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 2.3.2.1.2 Legal Protection ......................................................................................................... 18 2.3.2.1.3 Mark of Quality .......................................................................................................... 18 2.3.3 Definition of Brand Image ............................................................................................... 18 2.3.4 Various Dimensions of Brand Image ............................................................................... 20 2.3.5 Conceptualisation of Political parties as Brands ............................................................. 22 2.3.6 Dimentions of Plitical brand image .............................................................................. 23 2.4 Meaning of Celebrity endorsement ..................................................................................... 24 2.4.1 Source Attractiveness ....................................................................................................... 26 2.4.2 Trustworthiness / Credibility ............................................................................................ 27 2.4.3 Celebrity Gender .............................................................................................................. 28 2.5 Conceptual Framework ....................................................................................................... 30 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 32 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 32 3.2 Ghana’s Historical Background. ......................................................................................... 33 3.3 Ghana’s Political System .................................................................................................... 35 3.4 Political History of Ghana ................................................................................................... 36 3.4.1 The Political and Constitutional Provisions ..................................................................... 43 3.5 The Post Rawlings Regime ................................................................................................. 44 3.6.1 Executive Branch ............................................................................................................. 46 3.6.2 Legislative Branch............................................................................................................ 46 3.7 The Electoral Commission of Ghana .................................................................................. 47 3.7.1 Departments ..................................................................................................................... 48 3.7.2 Regional Offices ............................................................................................................... 48 3.7.3 District Offices ................................................................................................................. 48 3.7.4 Election Officials.............................................................................................................. 48 3.7.5 The Emergence of Political Marketing in Ghana ............................................................. 49 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 51 4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 51 4.2 Research Paradigm .............................................................................................................. 51 4.3 Research Instrument and Method ........................................................................................ 54 4.4 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 57 4.5 Research Approach ............................................................................................................. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 4.6 Sampling.............................................................................................................................. 59 4.6.1 Target Population ............................................................................................................. 59 4.6.2 Sample Size & Sampling Procedure ................................................................................ 60 4.7 Justification of Study Sampling Techniques ....................................................................... 61 4.8 Eligibility Criteria ............................................................................................................... 61 4.9 Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) – Partial Least Squares (PLS) ................................ 61 4.9.1 Model evaluation .............................................................................................................. 62 4.9.2 Measurement Model Evaluation ...................................................................................... 63 4.9.3 Heterotrait-Monotrait Ratio (HTMT) Analysis................................................................ 65 4.9.4 Structural Model Evaluation ............................................................................................ 66 4.10 Chapter summary .............................................................................................................. 66 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 67 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 67 5.2 Respondent Demographics .................................................................................................. 67 5.3 Preliminary Analysis ........................................................................................................... 69 5.3.1 Test for Normality ............................................................................................................ 70 5.4 Measurement Model Evaluation ......................................................................................... 70 Figure 5.1: Direct and moderation path Analysis ..................................................................... 72 5.5 Test of Fitness of Model...................................................................................................... 72 5.6 Validity and Reliability ....................................................................................................... 73 5.6.1 Reliability ......................................................................................................................... 73 5.6.2 Validity ............................................................................................................................. 74 5.7 Fornell-Larcker Criterion for Discriminant Validity .......................................................... 76 5.8 Cross Loading Analysis ...................................................................................................... 76 5.9 Structural Model Analysis ................................................................................................... 78 5.10 Effect Size Assessment (f²) ............................................................................................... 79 5.11 Predictive Relevance (Q²) ................................................................................................. 79 5.12 Hypothesis Testing ............................................................................................................ 80 5.13 Moderation Test ................................................................................................................ 81 5.14 Discussion of Major Findings ........................................................................................... 82 5.15 Chapter Summary .............................................................................................................. 86 CHAPTER SIX ............................................................................................................................. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 6.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 87 6.2 Summary of the Study ......................................................................................................... 87 5.3 Major Findings .................................................................................................................... 88 6.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 89 6.5 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 90 6.6 Limitations and Directions for Future Studies .................................................................... 91 6.7 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 92 APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONNAIRE ........................................................................................... 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Definition of Brand Image by Various Authors……………………………………….20 Table 4.1: Research Paradigms………………………………….……………………………….51 Table 5.1: Descriptive Statistics of Respondents …………………………………...……………67 Table 5.2: Summary of the Test for Normality……………………………………………….…..70 Table 5.3: Model Fitness Indices ……………………………………………………………..….73 Table 5.4: Measurement scale and model indicators……………………………………………..75 Table 5.5: Fornell-Larcker Standard for Discriminant Validity……………………………….….76 Table 5.6: Cross Loadings………………………………………………………………….…….77 Table 5.7: Coefficient of Determination…………………………………………….…………....78 Table 5.8: Path Coefficients along with their bootstrap values and ‘T’ Values……………….…..79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework …………………………………………………………..….29 Figure 5.1: Direct and moderation path Analysis ………………………………………..……….72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AFRC: Armed Forces Revolutionary Council AVE: Average Variance Extracted CC: Celebrity Credibility CFA: Confirmatory Factor Analysis CPP: Conventions Peoples Party CR: Composite Reliability DEO: District Electoral Officer HTMT: Heterotrait-monotrait IBM: International Business Machines NAL National Alliance Liberals NDC: National Democratic Congress NFI: Normed Fit Index NLC: National Liberation Council NLM: National Liberation Movement NPP: New Patriotic Party NPP: Nothern People’s Party NRC: National Reconciliation Commission PBI: Political Brand Image PFP: Popular Front Party PLS-SEM: Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling PNC People’s National Convention PNDC: Provisional National Defense Council University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii NPP Nothern People’s Party PNP People’s National Party PPP: Progressive People Party SA: Source Attractiveness SEM: Structural Equation Modelling SIT: Social Influence Theory SMC: Supreme Military Council SPSS: Statistical Package of Social Sciences SRMR: Standardized Root Mean Square Residual SRMSR: Standardized Root Mean Square Residual TPB: Theory of Planned Behavior TV: Television UGCC: United Gold Cost Convention UP: United Party US: United States University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background This thesis is located within “political branding” and focused on reviewing relevant literature in both Traditional and Political Marketing. The decision to consider reviewing literature in both areas is born out of the significant link that political marketing shares with traditional marketing concepts, and branding for that matter. Major political parties across the globe are gradually embracing marketing concepts and processes (Wring, 1996). Though, political marketing as an academic discipline is relatively new (Speed, Butler, & Collins, 2015), political marketing, and by extension, political branding has occupied considerable space in both academic literature and among practitioners (Serazio, 2017). The global acceptance of democracy as a system for political transitions has introduced a new paradigm into the electoral processes in recent times. This new paradigm has brought healthy competition in the political environment, forcing political parties to employ different marketing strategies that will enable them outsmart their competitors just like any industry player in the traditional marketing environment (Speed et al., 2015). This has been a global phenomenon and Ghana is not an exception. A significant communication tool that finds itself in political marketing, and which is mostly adopted by political parties in the bid to sell themselves to target voters is Celebrity Endorsement (Osei-Frimpong, Donkor, & Owusu-Frimpong, 2019). This has become the primary focus of this research. Over the last decade, trends of using a celebrity to endorse a political brand has become very common in the global political marketing environment. In the United States, for instance, major parts to the presidential election campaigns, and strategists University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 relied heavily on the endorsement of a host of film and music stars to influence the actions of individuals of the civic society (Alasuutari, 2018). For example, Lebron James and Lady Gaga endorsed Hillary Rodham Clinton, while Robertson and Toby Keith endorsed Donald John Trump ( Lilleker, Jackson, Thorsen, & Veneti, 2016). In the context of Ghana, the political environment has also witnessed the extent to which celebrities were employed to support political campaigns. A number of renowned celebrities carefully selected from the entertainment industries threw their weights behind the main political parties in the 2020 presidential and parliamentary elections. For example, John Dumelo, a famous Ghanaian actor openly endorsed the NDC, while a popular Ghanaian comedian Kofi Adu known in the entertainment industry as Agya Koo, also threw his support behind the ruling New Patriotic Party. The situation was the same in previous elections (Hinson & Tweneboah-Koduah, 2010 ; Gyimah-Boadi, 2009). Again, during the 1992 General election, Ackah, a popular musician at the time, composed the anthem for the NDC. This, some political commentators believed, was pivotal to the victory of the NDC in the 1992 general election. The question then is, ‘who is a celebrity?’ There have been few scholarly definitions of celebrity, which this thesis finds relevant to support the study. Gauns, Pillai, Kamat, Chen and Chang, (2018) defined celebrities as individuals who are capable of helping organizations, capture the attention of potential customers towards a particular brand, owing to their attractiveness and likeability. Schimmelpfennig and Hunt (2020), explained that celebrities are individuals who fancy public admiration and also possess distinguishing characteristics such as; attractiveness and trustworthiness. A celebrity may be a comedian, actor/ actress, sportsperson, among others who are recognized by the general public as someone who has an outstanding achievements in his or her field of talent besides the products or services he or she wishes to promote. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Celebrity endorsement occurs when an individual uses public recognition, he or she enjoys to promote a product or a service (Hennayake, 2017). An endorsement is a “stamp of approval” in advertising which could take the form of a written or spoken statement, supporting an idea, a person, or a company (Awobamise & Jarrar, 2018). Celebrity involvement in an advertisement has become a necessity in recent times, as people believe them to be trustworthy enough to give credible facts on which buyers may depend to make their buying decisions (Zak & Hasprova, 2020). In the context of political marketing, celebrity endorsement can take different forms; such as absolute endorsement ‘I endorse this political party’, certainty ‘I belong to this political Party’, repeated ‘Vote for this political party’, or representational (just appearing in party colours). Research has shown that when celebrities endorse a brand, it enhances its (the endorsed brand) chances of acceptability among consumers (Rahman, Subiakto, Admojo, & Hariyati, 2020). Celebrity endorsement is also a form of promotional strategy which employs the services of popular individuals who are willing to lend their reputation to endorse a product or service. Brand image, on the other hand, has been characterised as the collection of mental pictures, cognitive and or emotional resources that groups or individuals assign to a brand (Irani- Kermani & Jaenicke, 2017). Put differently, a brand image is a mental picture of the brand in the mind of the consumer (Bilgin, 2018). The brand is perceived to be distinct from the actual or functional product. Branding offers customers as well as organisations, significant advantages, such as easy recognition and management of a product or service. Narteh, Mensah, and Nyanzu (2017) postulated that the concept of branding is famous in the world of business as a strategy for drawing a distinction and assisting customers in making an informed purchasing decision. As a consequence, the concept of branding as a differentiating factor has University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 been extended to political party administration, candidate grooming, and policy development. The development of brand image involves marketing activities that give life to a normal product or service (Bilgin, 2018). This suggests that the celebrity endorsing the product does so with defined characteristics that enhances the possibility of changing consumers’ buying behavior. Brand endorsement is used in brand communication, to empower the endorser to serve as the mouthpiece for the brand, in different forms necessary to deliver the necessary information that will project the brand. Furthermore, Osei-Frimpong, Donkor and Owusu-Frimpong (2019) noted that celebrity endorsement influences advertising effectiveness, brand recognition, brand recall, purchase intention, and even purchase behavior of consumers. This suggests that consumers are quick to identify themselves with products and or services that are endorsed by celebrities and thus, helps them to recall the message being communicated which, may result in the possibility of influencing their purchase intention in the long run. Previous studies in consumer behaviour have examined the role of gender differences and their impact on consumers’ purchasing intention (Lin, Featherman, Brooks & Hajli, 2019; Mouakket, 2018). However, little is known in political marketing, regards the moderating role of gender on the relationship between “celebrity endorsement” and political brand image; thus informing the researcher’s decision to consider gender as a moderating effect for this study. It is in line with this, that this thesis relied on the Social Influence Theory (SIT) and Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB) to examine the relationship between Celebrity endorsement and political brand image. The fundamental principle behind these theories is that, an individual is more inclined to accept another person if he or she identifies with that person (Till, 1998). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1.2 Research Problem Quite a number of celebrities are often seen throwing their weights behind political parties and endorsing their campaign messages through participation in political events or public declaration of support to the political party or candidate (Idzikowski, 2019; Atikcan, 2015). In Ghana, the just-ended presidential and parliamentary election in 2020 has witnessed massive celebrity endorsement of political parties and candidates across the lengths and breaths of the nation. For instance, Lydia Seyram Alhassan, the then Parliamentary Candidate for the 2020 general election on the ticket of the NPP, in the Ayawaso West Wuogon constituency, had to rely on renowned celebrities for their endorsement when she realized the intensity of the competition between her and the famous Ghanaian celebrity, John Dumelo, who was also the parliamentary candidate for the National Democratic Congress (NDC). Among these celebrities were; Bismark the Joke, Kalybos, Bibi Bright, Prince Davido Osei, Jessica Williams and Jeneral Ntatia among others. Though political analysts and campaign strategists believe in the use of celebrity political endorsements, which places the political party at an advantage and increases its chances of winning the election (Denton, Trent, & Friedenberg, 2019), mere celebrity endorsement of an advertisement does not guarantee success (Dey, & Gayathri, 2021). Understanding the characteristics of a celebrity such as “Celebrity Source Attractiveness” and “Celebrity Source Credibility”, and the impact they have on the brand image of the political party is worth exploring. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1.3 Research Gap It is not in doubt that quite a number of research have been carried out in the field of marketing to examine the influence of “celebrity endorsements” on merchandises (Bergkvist & Zhou, 2016; Knoll & Matthes, 2017). However, Osei-Frimpong et al. (2019), posited that research that examined the role of celebrity endorsement within a larger political marketing strategy is quite marginal. Again, though, similar studies have commenced recently on growing democracy in Latin America and Asia, previous studies in this area principally focused on the United States and European nations (Agyepong, 2017), leaving the context of African with little or no focus. In Ghana, the limited amount of research in the area of political marketing, according to Hinson and Tweneboah-Koduah, (2010), mainly focused on “political marketing techniques”. Lastly, moderating effect of a celebrity’s gender and how this could influence the relationship between “celebrity endorsement” and political brand image has also not been critically examined. This research is an initial effort to bridge the gaps by examining the influence of major celebrity characteristics such as Celebrity Source Attractiveness and Celebrity Source Credibility on political brand image in Ghana, while at the same time, testing the moderating effects of gender on the relationships between celebrity attractive ness and celebrity credibility on political bramd image. 1.4 Aim and Objective of the Study The overall objective of this research is to examine the impact of “celebrity endorsement” on “political brand image”, with gender as a moderator. The following are the specific objectives that this research sought to pursue. 1. To assess the effect of “source attractiveness” of celebrity on political brand image. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 2. To evaluate the effect of “source credibility” of celebrity on political brand image. 3. To examine the moderating role of gender on the relationship between Source attractiveness of celebrity and political brand image. 4. To examine the moderating role of gender on the relationship between Source creditability of celebrity and political brand image. 1.5 Research Question 1. To what extent does the source attractiveness of celebrity influence the political brand image? 2. What is the relationship between “source credibility” of celebrity and political brand image? 3. What is the moderating role of gender on the relationship between “source attractiveness” of celebrity and “political brand image”? 4. What is the moderating role of gender on the relationship between source credibility of celebrity and political brand image? 1.6 Significant of the Study Similar to providers of physical products and services in commercial businesses, political parties employ marketing strategies such as commercial adverts which often feature celebrities endorsing the political party or its candidate, ignoring the risk that might come with this approach. Celebrities themselves may not be aware of the major characteristics of an endorser that might be appealing to the voter. The significance of this study, therefore, is at three levels; it brings to bear a very significant input to the global academic discourse on political marketing. Additionally, it contributes to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 knowledge by offering an empirical understanding of how celebrity endorsement of a political party, influences its brand image. Specifically, it serves as the road map for political parties to select the right celebrities for their campaign. Finally, the findings of this research may be extremely beneficial to students and scholars as it will make available gaps in literature for them to explore further for better understanding with regards to the nature of the relationship among variables such as “celebrity political endorsement and political brand image” in the Ghanaian context. 1.7 Scope of the Study The scope of this research is confined to two main political parties in Ghana (NDC and NPP), with a special focus on the Ayawaso West Wuogon constituency in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. 1.8 Chapter Disposition This research is broken into six chapters. The first, will comprise an introduction, the background, problem statement, research aims and objectives, and the research questions. Review of literature and conceptual frameworks are covered in the second. The third chapter of this research deals with the study's context. The fourth chapter discusses the study's methodology and philosophical perspective. Chapter five covers findings, presentations and discussions, while Chapter six summarizes the preliminary work, draws valid conclusions, and makes further recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The preceding chapter laid the foundation for the background, problem statement, objectives, and significance of the study. This chapter reviews literature that is relevant to the primary concepts and theories and developed the conceptual framework for the study. 2.2 Theoretical Review Theories are well-established principles that have been developed to explain, forecast, and interpret occurrences, as well as, in many cases, to question and extend current knowledge within the limits of critical boundary assumptions. Dunstone and Caldwell (2018) argue that theories explain and assist researchers to better understand the phenomenon of human behavior relative to communication. Through theories, scholars from various traditions have been able to describe and explain the universal human experience. With the nature of this research, it is necessary to back it up with relevant theories that can help form hypotheses and guide conclusions at the end of the data analysis in terms of the research objectives and hypotheses. A thorough examination of the numerous theories justifies the adoption of the Social Influence Theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior to conceptually explain the relationship between “celebrity endorsement” and “political brand image”. 2.2.1 Social Influence Theory (SIT) Herbert Kelman, a Harvard psychologist, proposed the Social Influence Theory in 1958. The primary idea behind the SIT is that referent persons influence the attitudes, beliefs, and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 subsequent actions or behaviors of others via three processes; “compliance, identification, and internalization”. Kelman (1958) hypothesized that social influence alters attitude and behavior, and that these ariations may happen at different “levels.” According to him, these differences can be attributed to variations in how people accept influence. The theory explained three principal processes of influence. According to the theory, compliance occurs when people accept influence and adopt the induced behaviour in order to gain rewards (or approval) and avoid penalties (or, disapproval). With this, “the social effect of accepting influence is responsible for the gratification obtained by compliance.” (Kelman, 1958, p.53). “Identification is perceived to occur when individuals adopt the induced behavior in order to form desired and beneficial relationship with another person or group”. As a result, “the act of conforming provides satisfaction” (Kelman, 1958, p.53). “Internalization is thought to occur when people accept influence after seeing the induced behavior's content to be gratifying, with the content indicating other people's thoughts and actions”. “Individuals embrace the induced behavior because it is consistent with their value system, according to the study”. “In this case, therefore, the satisfaction occurs due to the content of the new behavior” (Kelman, 1958, p.53). According to the author, each of these processes may be described as a function of the three influence determinants: (a) the significance of the desired effect, (b) the intensity of the influencing agent, and (c) the potency of the induced reaction (Kelman, 1958). The social influence theory (SIT) can be used to explain celebrity endorsement (Osei-Frimpong et al., 2019). SIT, according to Li (2013), describes how individuals or groups are influenced by referent others to act in a certain way. This notation was supported by Venkatesh and Brown (2001). Again, Osei-Frimpong et al. (2019) emphasized that referent people tend to influence University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 others via exchange of knowledge. More so, Li, (2013) believes that people have a strong drive to adhere to meet the expectations of others. “This shows that celebrity endorsements communicate genuine and actual messages or information about brands, which may alter an individual's impression of the brand as a result of some kind of social identification” (Osei-Frimpong et al., 2019, p. 105). In the works of Munnukka, Uusitalo, and Toivonen (2016); Ilicic and Webster (2015); as well as Samu and Wymer, (2014), “celebrity credibility” is seen as vital in assessing the information buyers receive. The theory has been employed by a number of scholars to establish conditions under which endorsement of a political party will encourage people to make decisions that reflect their desires (Osei-Frimpong et al., 2019; Boudreau, 2020). Boudreau (2020) again noted that ordinary citizens are generally uninterested in paying attention to political messages due to their beliefs that the costs outweigh the advantages. As a result, the average person frequently avoids gatherings that sought to give political messages and instead, rely on proposals from relevant sources, such as celebrities (Downs, 1957). This thesis extends the theory to political marketing to help explain the relationship between celebrity endorsement and political brand image. 2.2.2 Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB) Martin Fishbein and Icek Ajzen developed the Theory of Planned Behaviour in 1988, based on the theory of reasoned action in 1980 (Conner & Sparks, 2015). The theory aids in predicting and comprehending the individual’s intention to engage in certain behavior. The theory suggested that behavioural success is driven by intention (motivation) and ability (behavioural control). There are six key constructs in this theory; attitudes, behavioural intention, subjective University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 norms, societal standards, perceived authority, and perceived behavioural control. An individual's negative or positive thinking about doing an activity is referred to as their attitude. The motivational elements that influence the performance of a behaviour are referred to as behavioural intention. The stronger the desire to conduct the behaviour, the more likely it will be carried out. The individual's belief in the approval or disapproval of the behaviour by others (friends, family members) is referred to as the subjective norm. The behaviour of a group in a cultural setting is referred to as social norms. Perceived authority refers to the factors that are thought to assist or hamper behaviour performance. Perceived behavioural control refers to a person's sense of how difficult it is to do the desired behavior (Francis et at., 2004). The TPB is founded on the concept that humans are rational and utilize available information in a methodical manner. People also examine the consequences of their acts before deciding whether or not to engage in particular behaviours’ (Conner, 2015). 2.2.2.1 Limitations of the theory The weaknesses of TPB include the assumption that the individual gained the opportunity and resources required to succeed in doing the intended behaviour, independent of purpose. Other elements influencing motivation and behavioural intention, such as anger, fear, mood, or past experience, are ignored. While it considers normative influences, it disregards environmental and economic factors that may affect a person's decision to engage in an activity. It also assumes that behaviour is the result of a linear decision process that ignores the possibility of change throughout. While the idea of perceived behavioural control was a significant contribution to the theory, it says nothing about genuine behavioural control. The theory makes no mention of the temporal gap between "intent" and "behavioral action." University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 The theory has been successfully applied for this reason in similar study (Cuomo, Foroudi, Tortora, Hussain, & Melewar, 2019; Ndlela & Chuchu, 2016). It emphasises that (a) sentiments toward the candidate or during vote casting for the aspirant, (b) “subjective norms” and “social stress” associated with voting, and (c) “perceived behavioural control” over voting for the aspirant may all impact the willingness to vote for the aspirant (Atikcan, 2021). When it comes to voting, the process is often conducted in the shadows, which means that individuals cannot be held responsible for their actions and that social tension is generally low. As a result, social norms are rarely used to predict the outcome of a vote (Rosema, 2004). Perceived behavioural control is even less of an influence. With this line of reasoning, the research examines voting intentions in relation to candidate attitudes and attitudes themselves in relation to candidate emotions. The approach backs up the notion of Planned Behaviour, which sees emotions as a necessary antecedent to approaches (Fishbein & Ajzen, 2005). 2.3 Conceptual Review 2.3.1 Emergence of Political Marketing Political marketing has come into the limelight in recent times as one of the most promising marketing concepts, attracting study interest from all around the world. Scholars like Scammell (1999) have used terms like political communication, political marketing, political management, and political packaging to describe the concept as far back as the 1990s. Political marketing, according to Ormrod (2011), may be seen as both a social construct and a service, with distinct characteristics. Nor, Asaari, Karia and Haron, (2006) contend that political marketing has been discussed since the 1950s when a definition was proposed for the concept by Kelley (1956). Rothschild (1978) was among the first experts in both developed and developing countries to apply marketing ideas such as segmentation and advertising to political marketing research. In the US, media University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 shifts, the necessity for professionalism in political crusades, and the increased power of pressure groups affected the evolution of political marketing (McNair, 2017). Major authors to the political marketing literature include, Scammel (1999), Butler & Collins (1996), Newman (1994), and Narteh et al. (2017). Political marketing was considered in this age as an exchange relationship that enables political parties, and electorates communicate with one another in a manner that leads to productive partnerships (Hughes & Dann, 2009). Similarly, Wring (2002b) claims that political marketing began after World War II, with the introduction of mass commercial television and the concurrent rise of the advertising sector. Political marketing, as defined by Baines and Osuagwu (2008), is a comparatively new phenomenon, in spite of the fact that the processes involved in political campaigning have been in existence for a long time. A recent study in the area, has, however, found that marketing terminologies like branding, market segmentation, marketing mix, brand equity, etc are crucial in formulating strategies for political campaigns (Lees-Marshment, 2001; Kolovos, 2005). 2.3.1.1 Defining Political Marketing Political marketing has grown in popularity since its inception in the 1950s, giving rise to a variety of definitions. Various meanings have emerged from literature during the previous two decades. Political marketing, according to Buttler and Collins (1996), is the selling of ideas and opinions on a political party or a candidate. Political marketing, according to this definition, is a method of promoting a political product. O’Shaughnessy et al. (2012) defined the concept as the planning, executing, and controlling political programs aimed at generating, building, and maintaining positive exchanges relationships between the political party and electorates towards attaining the party's objectives. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 According to Osuagwu (2008), political marketing is the application of marketing concepts, principles, and approaches to political challenges by individuals, groups, organizations, and governments. “Although in Ghana political marketing communication is a new phenomenon, its focus on the deployment of strategies for informational and communication requirements of democracy have been great” (Mensah, 2017 p.10). Fairchild et al., (2003) suggested that political marketing, is the act of building, sustaining, and enhancing long-term partnerships for the benefit of society in order to meet the goals of individuals in an organization. Again, Political marketing, according to this concept, is the exchange of values at the global and local levels. Hughes and Dann (2009) also explained that political marketing is a set of activities, employed by political parties or candidates in an attempt to add their voices to the conversation. Lees-marshment and Marland (2012), identified; competitive advantage, excellent customers service, innovation, and marketing research as essential functions employed to support political movements. They emphasise that they are roles that could influence numerous political goals, as Mensah (2007) has described them as political functions. Mensah (2007) and Venu (2008) divide the “political marketing mix” into four categories: “product, cost, distribution, and communication” respectively. Meanwhile, according to Lees-Marshment (2001), marketing functions such as branding, positioning, and segmentation are necessary for political success. O’Shaughnessy (2001) and Henneberg (2004) explained that political marketing involves developing, and maintaining long-lasting relationships with target voters at profit for political parties and society at large, while at the same time, ensuring that the aims of the different political parties and institutions engaged, are satisfied via reciprocal exchanges and campaign commitments. “Political marketing” is a strategy adopted by leaders of political parties to improve their chances of winning elections. It also allows them to modify some part of their behaviour and strategies, such as policy, membership, organogram, electoral system, etc. so as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 to fit well into the circumstances and character of the political market (Lees- Marshment, 2001). Marketing had such an impact on political activities to the extent that the approach used to promote products and services is now repeated in the promotion of political candidates, policies, and ideologies in order to support today's politicians to win an election and attain political effectiveness. Existing literature (Kotler, 1998; Smith & Hirst, 2001; Newman & Sheth, 1985; Smith & French, 2009; Butler & Collins, 1996; & Lees- Marshment, 2001) have all pointed to the fact that political institutions' marketing principles and strategies are relevant in electoral activities. 2.3.2 Branding defined Several entities have misread and misunderstood the term branding, which refers to the process of imbuing organisations and products with brand features and other external characteristics or attributes (Hair, 2015). There appears to be no agreement regards the true meaning of the term branding, resulting in several scholars proposing their own definitions to suit their study interests (Olsen, Chung, Graf, Lee, & Madanoglu, 2004). Chapleo (2010) argues that branding has a brand problem as a result of the absence of agreement on how the concept is defined. Several writers have defined the concept in terms of its goal. Branding is the act of distinguishing a product or service (Field et al., 2012). Likewise, Ballantyne and Atike (2007) believed that branding is the tactics of distinguishing a product, service, event, or an idea, in order to allow for differentiation. Brands, according to Casey and Daniel (2013), are neither trademarks nor risk reducers, nor are they simply names. Brands, according to Jones and Bonevac (2013), are a "definition of a particular company or product." They interpreted branding to mean the act of situating a firm or product in the correct category, including developing brand recognition and identification, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 as well as separating it from the rest of the offers in that area, with reference to their definition of brands. “Branding is the process of endowing products and services with the power of a brand, and it involves giving a specific product a meaning by building and defining a brand,” (Kotler & Kotler, 2016). Businesses use branding to make it easier for customers to recognise their products and organisations, and also offer reason to prefer the organisation's products over those offered by competitors (Kotler & Kotler, 2016). According to the author, branding is the intangible sum of a product's features, such as its brand aspects, price, and reputation, as well as how it is sold. The process of endowing a political party with brand elements that enhances the chances of being preferred by voters, in an election is defined as political branding in this study. 2.3.2.1 Importance of branding to organizations Branding offers several advantages for both the organization, service, and product, as well as the wider public (Keller & Kotler, 2016). The advantages of branding for businesses are listed and explained below; 2.3.2.1.1 Creation of Identity Branding enables a company to build its own identity by utilising brand features and other parts of its visual corporate identity (Low & Fullerton, 1994). According to Keller (1993), branding also allows an organisation to distinguish itself in an aggressively competitive market by allowing them to be differentiated from other businesses that offer similar goods and services. Corporate identity covers all visible and non-visual identification aspects that establish the organization's visibility and distinguish it from other organizations (Balmer, 2008) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2.3.2.1.2 Legal Protection Businesses can use branding to legally protect some of their products' and organizations' distinguishing traits. According to Keller and Kotler (2016), Branding offers an organization the opportunity to safeguard the distinctive aspects of their goods and services from possible replication by competitors in today's congested commercial climate. Branding allows firms to own intellectual property rights, giving the brand owner a sense of protection. This legal protection allows the company to sue any competitor who tries to illegally duplicate the brand. Obtaining legal protection for a brand allows companies and in this case, political parties to keep competitors at bay (Keller, 2000). 2.3.2.1.3 Mark of Quality Branding, according to Casey and Daniel (2013), serves as a quality signal to consumers. Buyers make decisions based on their views of product quality (Chen, Tseng, & Lin, 2011). Organizations can use branding to address any concerns customers may have about the quality of their products (Keller & Kotler, 2016). Customers can be informed about the quality of a company's offerings through marketing and corporate communications channels (Aaker, 1996). In the twenty-first century, branding is critical for businesses since it serves as a means through which customers are assured of quality products and services. 2.3.3 Definition of Brand Image Good marketing activity involves the transfer of a positive brand image to the public (Bian & Moutinho, 2011). Brand image is very crucial in influencing consumers' brand choices and buying decisions, as well as contributing to brand equity (Bian & Moutinho, 2011). Keller (1993), postulated that a positive brand image helps to position a company, protects it from competitors, and increases market share. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 The concept has been a topic of discussion in consumer behavior research as far back as the early 1950s and has since not adopted a fixed definition of the concept for past decades (Dobni & Zinkhan, 1990). It is therefore not surprising that there is little agreement on how the concept should be implemented (Dobni & Zinkhan, 1990). As a result of the absence of a clear basis for the operationalization of the concept, brand image has been defined in a number of ways subject to the study goal. Various authors have presented various definitions for brand image in the existing literature. While Faircloth, Capella and Alford (2001) believe that the concept is a summation of emotional components associated with brands, others define it as a combination of physical and emotive components (Martinez & Pina Perez, 2009; Aaker, 1991). The table below summarizes the many definitions offered. Table 2.1: Different definition of Brand Image proposed by some Authors Authors Definition of brand image Ofosu-Boateng & Agyei (2020) “Brand image is simply how a brand is perceived by consumers”. Daama (2018) “Brand image is the a collection of brand associations preserved in the memory of a customer”. Keller (1993) “Brand image is the set of perceptions about a brand the consumer forms as reflected by the brand associations”. Hayes (1999) “Brand image consists of three major components; the product attributes, perceived product benefits and the brand personality”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Davis, Golicic, & Marquardt (2009) “Brand image is a product of physical and emotional attributes consumers associate with brands”. Nandan (2005) “Branding is the set of beliefs held about a particular brand” Source: Author’s Construct (2021) 2.3.4 Various Dimensions of Brand Image The phrase "Brand Image" is often employed to describe a variety of things, including concepts, products, and services (Bauer, Stokburger-Sauer, & Exler, 2008). To succeed in business, a company's branding should be linked to the expectations, values, and lifestyles of its customers (Dadzie & Boachie-Mensah, 2011). According to the authors, a brand can be defined as a property that transmits an assurance, which includes hedonic and utilitarian characteristics that customers associate with a brand. They also stated that internally formed requirements for personal rewards, recognition, approval, or ego pleasure are satisfied by affective characteristics, whereas “functional features” externally induced consumption issue. Brand image is defined as "the consumer's set of perceptions about a brand as expressed through brand associations" (Keller, 1993). Martínez, Montaner and Pina (2009) claim that image of a brand is determined by the thoughts that customers associate with it. Academics and practitioners have been developing scales for measuring brand image for decades. While some writers believe that brand image consists of cognitive or functional features as well as emotional attributes of brands (Aaker, 1996; Alwi & Kitchen, 2014; Da Silva & Alwi, 2006), Others argue that brand image includes both functional or cognitive and emotional aspects of a brand (Aaker, 1996; Faircloth, Capella, & Alford, 2001; Alwi, 2009; Martinez & Pina, 2000). Aaker (1996) developed dimensions of brand image based on brand personality; nevertheless, the model was challenged for including firms that ranked high due to “functional advantages”. The functional University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 or cognitive component of an image is tied to concrete characteristics such as quality and pricing, whereas the affective or emotional dimension is associated with brand personality (Aranda, Evangelina, Mar Gómez, & Arturo Molina, 2015). Keller (2003) claims that, though intangible parts of branding such as emotion may assist in lighting up consumer components of brand knowledge, other brand image characteristics such as cognitive attributes of brands are equally significant in grasping a company's image. Keller (2003) goes on to say that incorporating both cognitive and emotive characteristics of brands into understanding brand image will improve researcher's ability to model buyers' emotions and practitioners' ability to target their marketing operations. Malhotra (2005) backs up Keller (2000), arguing that, for years, purchasers' purchase choice research has focused on cognitive factors, and calls for a shift. Individuals' perceptions of reality vary based on their personal experiences and circumstances, and these disparities account for each individual's subjective sense of reality when establishing brand perceptions (Da Silva & Alwi, 2005). According to the Author, this reality has significant consequences for theory and practice, having revealed that each individual has a distinct brand representation. The results from related studies indicate that brand knowledge can be acquired through a variety of methods, including customer satisfaction, objective reality, communications derived from marketing communication efforts, constructed reality, as well as word of mouth recommendations (Da Silva & Alwi 2005; Triantafillidou & Siomkos, 2014 ). The cognitive and affective components of a consumer's brand image perception are possible (Alwi & Kitchen, 2014). Researchers have attempted to study the role of cognition and affect in brand image studies (Da Silva & Alwi, 2005). According to Agarwal and Malhotra (2005), attitude and consumer purchasing decisions are the results of a combination of dimensional University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 attributes, major brand attributes, and general effects on feelings and emotions. The model proposed by Agrawal and Malhotra (2005) contributes significantly to the understanding of consumer behavior, since Da Silva and Alwi (2005) developed a brand image model based on this concept. Grimms (2005) researched into the relative importance and impact of affective, conative, and cognitive behavior on their ability to forecast brand preferences. The result found that the whole component of attitudes toward the brand is distinct and relevant in an attempt to clarify brand choice, with cognitive brand features having the most influence. Other related studies in the literature also pointed to the importance of effective and cognitive aspects in the establishment of a consumer's brand image (Keller, 2003; Agarwal & Malhotra, 2005). Major literature on a brand image focused on the traditional marketing system, leaving the political system with little attention (Scammell, 1999). 2.3.5 Conceptualisation of Political parties as Brands Individual bits of information (referred to as nodes) that join together in memory to create more complicated associative networks constitute brand knowledge (French & Smith, 2010 ; Till, 1998;Srull & Wyer, 1989). As a “node” gets triggered by the others, a condition or process known as activation takes place, and information is recovered from memory (De Groot, 1989). Voters can also use brand personality to lower the perceived danger of casting their votes in favour of the wrong candidate. Politics is a "credence service" in that, it is impossible to tell whether promises will be kept at the time of purchase or voting (Mahajan & Wind, 2002). Voters' perceptions of political parties and candidates are influenced by the political brand. Keller (1993), noted that political brands are not material but intangible, consisting of information about a certain thing that people retain in their minds. It was suggested that politics is a "credence service" as it is impossible to tell whether policy promises will be kept at the time of purchase (voting). Brands influence voters’ perception and evaluation of political University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 parties and candidates (Mahajan & Wind, 2002) 2.3.6 Dimentions of Plitical brand image Dimension Applied to a Political Brand Performance / Truck record Performance has to do with the expected operating characteristics of a product or service (Crozet, & Milet, 2017). In the context of political marketing, it is conceptualized to mean the consistency with which political parties satisfy the needs of the citizens. Some of the performance requirements are related to subjective preferences, but when they are the preference of almost every consumer and in this case voters, they become as powerful as an objective requirement (Gal, & Simonson, 2021). Reliability The dimension of reliability shows the probability of the product having signs of error within a specific period (Parsons, Kruijt & Fox, 2019). In the case of a political brand, the dimension measures the consistency with which a political party or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 candidate can be trusted to deliver on its promises. Perception of service quality / Public image The perception of something is not always reality (Grace, 2016). Meaning that a product or service can have high scores on each of the seven dimensions of quality, but still receive a bad rating from customers as a result of negative perceptions from customers or the public. In the context of political marketing, voters sometimes beleved to lack valuable information to enable them to make an informed decision regards the choice of candidate. Public image of a candidate or political party is enhanced with the quality of campaign messages, wchich shape how the public perceive a candidate or a political party. 2.4 Meaning of Celebrity endorsement A celebrity endorser is someone who is well-known for accomplishments outside of the product category he or she supported (Masato, 2021). The use of celebrities by multinational corporations to promote their brands is an additional effort to complement advertisements in an attempt to increase the product's popularity and ease of recognition for the objective of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 purchase incentive. People are drawn to stars or celebrities because of their level of association with them (Nouri, 2018). Adnan, Jan , Ali, and Shah (2018) noted that Celebrity endorsement techniques have a huge positive effect on communication. Celebrities are individuals who use their status to persuade people to buy a product or service. They have more influence in advertisements than anybody else because of their credibility and unique position, which leads to purchase intent. In today's marketing environment, endorsers are also used to draw attention to advertisements, resulting in favorable effects and increased buy intentions. Because of their likeability and attractiveness, celebrities are said to draw attention to advertisements (Adam & Hussain, 2017; Jamil & Rameez, 2014). Celebrities in advertisements are picked not just for their fame, but also for the best fit with the product they are advertising. For example, how acceptable is Junaid Jamshed in an ad for toilet cleaners, or a guy for endorsing women's fairness creams? Similarly, the physical attractiveness of the endorser is a significant factor in high social acceptance. As a result, celebrity traits are just as important for a product's success as brand attributes. Nagar (2021) emphasized that a celebrity's persuasion and persuasion techniques are based on traits associated with a celebrity, which make endorsement more effective. On the other side, researchers have conducted counter-analyses such as over-endorsement, or if a celebrity becomes unprofessional, there would be a detrimental impact of celebrity endorsement on the product. As the number of products sponsored by celebrities grows, so does the celebrity's worth and influence (Hearn & Schoenhoff, 2016). Celebrities’ involvement in the negative event makes them less encouraging or appealing to the product or service they endorse (Awobamise & Jarrar, 2018; Jamil & Hassan, 2014). As a result, celebrity traits are just as important for a product's success as brand attributes. Nagar (2021) again emphasized University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 that a celebrity's persuasion and persuasion techniques are based on traits associated with the celebrity. This, according to the author, makes endorsement more effective. 2.4.1 Source Attractiveness Attractiveness is another factor that influences the communicator's first assessment. (Samarasinghe, 2018). According to Enke and Borchers (2019) appealing communicators are continuously perceived to have a greater positive influence than less attractive communicators. Several additional investigations have confirmed similar results, suggesting that beauty boosts positive sentiments. (Wang & Scheinbaum, 2018; Ohanian, 1990; Kahle & Homer, 1985). According to Samarasinghe (2018), Purchase ambition is more likely to be influenced by attractive endorsers. Given the nature of the political climate in recent times, beauty and attractiveness remain important elements in the selection of political brand endorsers. Physical attractiveness, according to Chaker, Walker, Nowlin and Anaza (2019), is an informational signal that has subtle and enduring impacts, establishes a defined pattern of observable differences, and transcends culture in its influence. Pisulkar et al., (2019) claim that beauty is a higher recommendation than any letter of introduction. The physical look of celebrity endorsers received high social approval and acceptance. Physical attractiveness has a positive effect on consumer behavior toward a product and service when compared to an unattractive person (Agam, 2017). Similarly, all items linked with a person's physical attractiveness or face looks, such as facial treatments, beauty soaps, clothes, hair colors, and shampoos, are greatly influenced by celebrity physical attractiveness. Attractiveness is a strategy for changing attitudes (Seiler & Kucza, 2017). As a result, a physical appearance is a powerful tool for influencing voter perceptions through their appearance and style. Despite the fact that the literature on source attractiveness has been University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 confirmed, some research studies contend that physical attractiveness has a greater impact on the brand image (Onu, Nwaulune, Adegbola, & Kelechi, 2019). While attractive celebrity endorsers increase perceptions about advertising and organizations, their influence on developing recurring purchase intentions is ambiguous (Cuomo et al., 2019). In today's crowded media environment, attractive celebrities are still considered to have "stopping power" and appeal to voters (Mahamah, 2018; Puomisto, 2020). As a result, voters’ opinions of the political brand image improve. Furthermore, the attractiveness of a celebrity can improve brand memory and a good attitude toward a political party ( Abdurrahaman, et al., 2021). Based on these discussions the study hypothesis that; H1: Source attractiveness has a positive significant impact on political brand image. 2.4.2 Trustworthiness / Credibility The term "trustworthiness" relates to an endorser's "honesty, integrity, and credibility" (Lu, 2021; Erdogan, 2001). The widespread perception among consumers is that celebrities are reliable sources of information (Cooley & Parks-Yancy, 2019; Goldsmith et al., 2000). It is believed that a person you trust may easily persuade you to believe in invisible things, and that person is more credible than everyone else in society. Furthermore, if the individual is an expert in the field for which he or she is advocating, he or she will be more convincing. It is supported to the extent that the recipient views the source to have appropriate knowledge, skills, or experience, as well as the capacity of the source to deliver impartial, objective information (Belch & Belch, 1994; Gupta, Agarwal, & Singh, 2020). In similar ways, a celebrity in a marketing context can be quite powerful if it is known, who is speaking, what is being said, and how believable that person is. According to Jenkins, Ilicic, Barklamb and McCaffrey (2020), commercial celebrity with competence is more trustworthy or believable. Brubaker, (2020) suggested that a celebrity endorser's credibility is a useful source that has cognitive and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 positive effects on purchase desire. It is also the celebrity's trustworthiness that mitigates the negative consequences of rumors. Also, Khan and Zaman (2021) found that celebrity credibility is a crucial component in raising the trust of voters for political brands. However, it is important to state that celebrities who endorse several brands are likely to be less credible compared to those who endorse individual products (Santos, Barros, & Azevedo, 2019; Silvera & Austad, 2004). Source credibility, according to Browning and Sweetser (2020), is a manifested attribute that impacts voter perceptions. Without credibility, the other traits of the endorser are unlikely to be useful in changing voters' attitudes and perceptions about a political party (Nisbett & DeWalt, 2016). This is consistent with the findings of Kumar, Kalidas, and Abbas (2016), who claim that celebrities are seen to be more trustworthy than non-celebrities and are able to impact voter perception towards a political brand. This discussion has led to the following hypothesis: H2: Source credibility exert a positive and significant influence on Political brand image. 2.4.3 Celebrity Gender Previous research into the relationship between endorser gender and consumer gender has yielded two opposing conclusions: endorser gender has no significant impact on consumer attitudes toward products and endorser gender has a significant impact on consumer attitudes toward products (Freiden, 1984 as cited in Samarasinghe, 2018). The researcher used a durable and neutral product to see if the gender of the endorser had any effect on consumers' attitudes toward television ads (Samarasinghe, 2018). As a consequence, the gender of the endorser had no bearing on the attitudes of the consumers (226 adults and students). In a similar study, Carsky and Zuckerman (1991), as cited by, Samarasinghe (2018) studied the association between male and female endorsers and three neutral products: Tylenol, a pain reliever tablet, Bailey's Irish Cream drink, and Club Med vacations. They discovered that when it came to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 chance of purchase and attitude toward the advertising, there was no connection between the endorser's gender and the respondent's gender. Spasova and Taneva, (2021), on the other hand, discovered a link between the endorser and the consumer. Attractive female models elicited better responses than attractive male models in both genders, with males showing a distinct advantage. Consumers respond differently to female celebrity endorsers than to male celebrity endorsers (Huang, 2021), and advertising featuring female celebrities is rated higher than ads featuring male celebrities. Female supporters have also been demonstrated to be more trustworthy than male supporters (Mensah, 2021; Klar, 2018). Caballero and Pride (1984) as cited by Arora, Prashar, Parsad, and Tata (2019) studied whether the gender of the endorser in a direct mail campaign had an impact on the recipients' purchasing decisions. They discovered that exhibiting an extremely attractive female on a photograph raised recipients' purchasing intentions more than showing an unattractive male, female, or even an appealing male. Tom et al., on the other hand, challenged TV viewers to identify the brands of products linked with the spokesperson broadcasting television advertising, such as dishwashing products, beer, and toilet tissue. Female spokespersons were more effective for female audiences, whereas male spokespersons were more effective for male audiences. One probable explanation is that female spokesperson have more referent power when dealing with female customers, but male spokespersons have more influence when dealing with male customers. This supports the argument posited by Boyd and Shank (2004), that customers consider endorsers of the same gender as more trustworthy, regardless of product category. Su and Tong (2016) also published a study that indicated that, while female respondents did not show a preference for female or male endorsers, male respondents were affected 2.51 times more by male endorsers in terms of purchasing intention than female respondents. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 Voters, on the other hand, evaluate an advertisement featuring a model of the opposing sex higher than an advertisement featuring a model of their own sex, according to Baker and Churchill (1977). Su and Tong (2016) have arrived at a different conclusion. The researcher claims that a celebrity's gender has an impact on the type of product they are most suited for, with male celebrities being preferred for banking, financial services, and apparel, while female celebrities were preferred for cosmetics, soaps, and food products. Academic studies on the role of gender in studying the relationship between celebrity endorsement and political brand image are quite ambiguous. Grounding on this argument the study hypothesis that; H3a: Gender significantly moderates the relationship between source attractiveness and political brand image. H3b: Gender significantly moderates the relationship between celebrity credibility and political brand image. 2.5 Conceptual Framework Celebrity Endorsement Political Brand Image Figure 2.1: Conceptual Framework Gender  Male  Female Source Attractiveness Source Credibility  Truck record  Reliability  Public image  Delivering on campaign promises University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 Source: Author’s Construct (2021) Figure 2.1 reflects the pictorial representation of the variables in the study and how they interplay in the objectives. Figure 2.1 shows the thematic areas of the objectives of this study and how the main variables in the study hold up and theoretically link up to one another to achieve the stated objectives. The conceptual Framework as it is pictorially shown in Figure 1 reveals the four main variables employed in this study: source attractiveness, source credibility, political brand image, and gender. The independent variables in Figure 1 are source attractiveness and source credibility which are theoretically believed to have an influence on a political brand image which is the dependent variable. Also, there is an independent variable that plays a mediating role in the relationships between source attractiveness and political brand image on one side and source credibility; and political brand image on the other side. The link between source attractiveness and political brand image reflects objective 1 which sought to assess the influence of source attractiveness of celebrity on the brand image of political parties. Secondly, the link between source credibility and political brand image portrays objective 2 which sought to examine the influence of credibility of celebrities on political brand image. Further, objective three of this study examined the mediating role of gender on the relationship between source credibility, source attractiveness, and political brand image and this is evidenced by the link that settled on the path between source attractiveness and political brand image; and source credibility and political brand image. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 CHAPTER THREE CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 3.1 Introduction Political marketing has grown in popularity over the years (Hinson & Tweneboah-Koduah, 2010; Dankwah & Mensah, 2021; Munoz & Towner, 2017; Narteh et al., 2017; Lilleker, Lees- Marshment, & Jennifer Lees-Marshment, 2005; Schafferer, 2006), with political parties all over the world adopting traditional marketing practices to help them develop competitive strategies that put them ahead of their competitors. Despite the fact that political marketing is a global phenomenon, some countries have been sluggish in adopting it. Scholars in political marketing like Scammell, 1999; O’cass, 1996 and Lilleker and Lees-Marshment, (2005) raised some concerns about the influence of marketing orientation on political activities, questioning the application of the traditional marketing theories in the political environment. Meanwhile, research has also suggested that political marketing has gained grounds in the global market as a result of the nature of democracy, which holds that voters are capable of holding elected politicians responsible (Ley, 2017). In principle, this democratic process allows voters to assess political parties' brand image in order to make an informed decision about whether or not to vote for the political parties. In this regard, the political brand's attractiveness and credibility are critical. Celebrity endorsement is one of the key marketing methods that has been borrowed into the global political scene. In order to attract votes, prominent political parties around the world frequently hire celebrities to advocate for their businesses. In the context of Ghana, the situation had not been different. As a result, the research in this chapter looks at the influence of celebrity endorsement on political brand image in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 In context, this thesis focused on examining the impact of celebrity endorsement as a political marketing strategy, on the political brand image in Ghana. Due to time and financial constraints, the University of Ghana situated within the Ayawaso West Wuogon constituency in the Greater Accra region has been purposely selected for data collection. This chapter covers the history of Ghana, Ghana’s political history, the emergence of political marketing, the political and constitutional provisions, and the overview of the electoral commission of Ghana. 3.2 Ghana’s Historical Background. Ghana is a country on Africa's western coast that is often known as the "Gateway to Africa." Ghana is bounded by Togo on the east, Cote d'Ivoire on the west, Burkina Faso on the north, and the Gulf of Guinea on the south. Ghana has a population of over 32 million people, who are divided into over a hundred ethnic groups, each with its own culture and language. However, the English language has become the country's lingua franca as a result of colonization (Ghanaweb, 2021). There are 16 administrative regions currently in Ghana. These territories are comparable to internal colonial borders drawn by colonialists before independence in order to keep traditional administrations and tribes intact. (Oelbaum, 2004). Ghana has over seventy ethnic groupings. The Akan make up 47.5 percent of the population, followed by the Mole-Dagbon (16.6%), the Ewe (13.9%), the Ga-Dangme (7.4%), the Gurma (5.7%), the Guan (3.7%), the Grusi (2.5%), the Kusaasi (1.2%), and the Bikpakpaam (3.5%). According to Mwakikagile (2017), in Ghana, socio-economic differences between ethnic groups contribute an important component to ethnic identity. Ethnicity combines culture, geographic, developmental and economic variables, transforming political criticism into ethnic expression. It is worth noting that history has led to some disparity—particularly among the Akans—that is likely to return in the 2024 general election. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 Although it is supposed that most Akans vote in unison, it was discovered that the other groups like the people of Fanti, Akyem, and Brong Ahafo, do not mostly vote with the people of Ashanti due to the Asantes' imperialist tendencies in the “pre-colonial era”. Within this time, the desires of the Asante King to extend his realm and have direct access to the British at the coast resulted in conflict among the Akans in Ghana's south. In the year, 1958, the then Conventions Peoples Party (CPP) led by Dr. Kwame Nkrumah enacted the Emergency Powers Act, separating the Ashanti and Brong Ahafo regions and allowing them to run their own administrative issues. This, Asante and Gyimah-Boadi (2004) noted that the people of Ashanti opposed, creating another source of contention between the two Akan groups; Brong and the Asante. These intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic conflicts have persisted in Ghana's northern areas since pre-colonial times, and are not limited to the Akans. Smaller ethnic groups seeking power and a way out of their status as second-class citizens with little political or traditional clout are said to be the source of these disputes. Conflicts over land and resources have also occurred between the various communities, which are identical to those found within the Akan tribe. The word "northerner" refers to someone from the country's north. Though not an ethnic group, the term has become a means of identity and is frequently mistaken to represent the ethnicity of someone from the north. Asante and Gyimah- Boadi (2004), posited that there are approximately fifteen ethnic groups in Ghana's northern region, each with its own traditions, dialects, and customs. Nonetheless, they all share certain social and cultural traits. Due to the fact that the British concentrated more on developing the country's urban and southern regions during colonial times, there has always been a divide between the north and south, as well as rural and urban Ghana. The people of the Northern sector of Ghana and rural residents lack basic social amenities such as electricity, portable water, medical care among others enjoyed by those in the southern sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 3.3 Ghana’s Political System Ghana's political system is democratic, with competitive elections. The electoral politics have been infused with a well-institutionalized party system between 1992 and 2020. The country has gone through many political revolutions throughout the years, from enslavement to colonial authority, “multi-party democracy”, “post-independence transition” to a military regime, and eventually restoration of the “multi-party democracy” in 1992 (Handley & Mills, 2001; Bob- Milliar & Paller, 2018). Many party structures, communication infrastructure, and other “pro-democratic entities”, including, the election committee, were all brought in on the trail of military intrusion throughout these years. These incursions exposed political institutions to vulnerability and disrespect, keeping them in the gap until the general election in 2000 (Mensah, 2012). The socio-cultural, economic, and political environment started to transform during the momentous referendum in 1992 that witnessed the development of a constitutional mandate. This sparked the need to conduct presidential and parliamentary elections on December 7th every four years, under the supervision of credible electoral authority. As a result, elections are held in all 275 constituencies in Ghana's sixteen (16) regions, using a secret ballot system in accordance with the policy of democratic elections. In December 1992, the first elections under the fourth republican constitution were conducted, with national elections following in 1996. In the year 2000, slightly more than 90% of eligible voters registered to vote, and six parties were completely represented on the legislative and presidential ballot boxes (Agyeman-Duah, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 3.4 Political History of Ghana Politics in Ghana appears, to have always been marked by ethnic divisions. According to Kisaka and Nyadera (2019), the politicization of ethnicity was brought about by the African state democratization and multi-party politics, which can be witnessed throughout Ghana's history and continues to influence politics in recent times. Michalopoulos and Papaioannou, (2015) also remarked that ethnicity grew more prominent in Ghanaian politics as a result of the diverse intensities with which successive regimes through their policies and varying degrees of success, have politicized ethnicity. The military and civilian regimes in Ghana have replicated “pre-independence voting patterns” between the “Danquah-Busia bloc”, principally Asantes, and the Nkrumahists (Amponsah, 2020). These two parties were led by J.B. Danquah and Kwame Nkrumah, respectively (Whitfield, 2009). Both of these parties had opposing philosophical perspectives, with one appealing to the elite and perceived to be ethnically exclusive (UGCC) and the other more ethnically inclusive CPP) and viewed as a people's party. In recent years, both the NPP and the NDC have been accused of engaging in similar methods. The NPP has been connected to the pre-independence Danquah/Busia heritage, while the NDC has been likened to the CPP's (Whitfield, 2009). Ghanaian politicians were already dividing the nation along ethnic lines prior to independence, with ethnicity as a unifying system and a method of eliciting public support. These ethnically related organizations, founded in response to the CPP's strong resistance, have formed coalitions to fight the “governing party”. The election was won by the CPP in 1952, 1954, and 1956. Since 1954, a plethora of new political parties has emerged to contest in elections along ethnic and regional lines (Ghanaweb, 2008). The Northern People's Party (NPP), for example, was created by its leaders and elites to defend the interests of the northern people. “The Togoland Congress” was another example. “This organization which was founded in 1951 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 combine “Togoland's British” and “French-defined regions” (Morrison, 2004). Three months after the National Liberation Movement's (NLM’s) elections, an Asante nationalist movement arose. The Asante people controlled the leadership of this group, which was established to protect the people of Asante as well as their institutions. The NLM was battling for national authority in the Volta Region and attempted to form coalitions with the Anlo Youth Association and the Northern People's Party (Allman, 1993). The expansion of the NLM in Ghana has resulted in a number of challenges. The NLM brought with it an age of insecurity and violence in the Ashanti region and its surroundings, as well as the issue of whether elections would be conducted before independence and what sort of constitution Ghana would choose. The NLM promoted elections, stating that they had emerged after the 1954 elections and that further polls were required to establish if either party was popular (Whitfield, 2009). Though the CPP won elections in 1956, it performed badly in the Asante, Volta, and Northern regions, encouraging the NLM to continue its call for a federal government. Southern Togoland did not participate in the independence festivities, and disagreement between the people of Ga and the CPP called for the establishment of “the Ga-Shifimokpee” or “The Ga-Standfast Association”. The “Ga-Shifimokpee” combined forces with the group to resist the CPP. In December, 1957, “Avoidance of Discrimination” Act was passed, which outlawed the establishment of political parties along regional, religious or ethnic lines. The Togoland Congress Party and the National Liberation Movement, as well as the concept of federalism, were all crushed as a consequence of the passage of this legislation. The “quasi-federalist regional assemblies” established by the Independence Constitution of 1957 were also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 dismantled in 1959. The CPP abolished the NLM and demanded an investigation into its practices. In addition to removing the British, Chief Regional Commissioners were appointed by Nkrumah. He also approved the Emergency Powers Act in January 1958, which gave him the ability to separate Brong Ahafo and form its own House of Chiefs (Asante & Gyimah-Boadi, 2004). As a consequence, recurrent clashes between the Asantes and the Brongs have persisted to this day. At the same time, Nkrumah promoted all pro-CPP chiefs in the Ashanti region to the level of paramount chiefs (Jallow, 2014). Ethnic conflicts persisted throughout Ghana's First and Second Republics, and the politics of ethnicity exacerbated ethnic tensions. The opposition united in 1957 to institute the UP, headed by an Kofi Abrefa Busi, an Akan. In 1966, Major Afrifa (Asante) and Colonel Kotoka (Ewe) conducted a coup, but the unity was short-lived. In 1967, Akan junior officers conducted a coup attempt, during which Kotoka was slain. In the same year, Afrifa was able to capture control of the military administration and the “National Liberation Council, without the assistance of Kotoka, signifying the start of the divide between the Akans, mainly the Asante and the Ewes (Okai, 2017). When the NLC was handed over to Busia in 1969, the division became even more obvious. The dismissal of 568 workers in the public sector, under the 1969 constitution's Transitional Provisions, allegedly due to an overrepresentation of Ewes in high positions, and the fact that the National Alliance of Liberals ( NAL) leader, K.A. Gbedemah, was an Ewe, all helped to heighten conflict (Asante & Gyimah-Boadi, 2004). The people of the Volta region have voted against alleged “Akan- based parties”; the Popular Front Party (PFP) due to the fact that it was led by Victor Owusu, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 an Ashanti, who the “Voltarian” overwhelmingly opposed due to his claims about the “Ewes” being inward-oriented (Adu-Amankwaah, 2008). In several Ghanaian newspaper stories, the two main regions; Ashanti and Volta have been tagged, the "World Banks" in terms of the number of votes for the NPP and NDC respectively, in the Fourth Republic. Ghana has gone through various stages where the governing leadership attempted to separate governance from the country's ethnic politics. However, ethnicity appears to have emerged on the political stage on multiple occasions. Under I.K. Acheampong's leadership, the “National Reconciliation Commission” (NRC) came to power in 1972 and made a concerted effort to limit the influence of ethnicity in Ghanaian politics. The ex-CPP and ex-Progress Party's activities were banned, and political opposition and activity were restricted. To combat the challenges generated by “tribalism” in Ghana’s political system, the NRC prohibited the term "tribe" from all national papers and urged against ethnic expressions to promote national unity (Glate, 2015). The NRC went further to encourage ethnic harmony by asking that the surnames of ethnic origin and tribal face markings be abolished. I.K. Acheampong was credited with forming Ghana's most ethnically balanced government; yet, Acheampong's interactions with Ewes in Ghana, as well as his tense relations with Togo as a result of rejecting their goals, drove Ewes away and generated widespread dissatisfaction. After a series of coup attempts, Acheampong and the NRC was deposed in 1975, much like the majority of Ghanaian administrations. Following the collapse of the NRC, the coup brought the Supreme Military Council. The SMC's goal in gaining power was to disrupt Acheampong's political center and replace it with an isolated ruling alliance to run the country. This new type of government jeopardized people's clientelistic ties and cut them from accessing direct and indirect opportunity to the decision- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 making apparatus on which they relied (Glate, 2015). This served to unite the various ethnic groups and elicited responses based on class and ethnicity. The Ewe, Akan, and several northern groups showed their displeasure with the SMC, but the hotbed of opposition was supposed to spread from the coast to Kumasi. Another area of society became politicized as a result of the SMC regime's displeasure. Local community organizations began to politicize and participate in political activism in 1977, three major causes prompted ethnic factions who had previously opposed the government to ultimately mobilize against it. They criticized the government's shrinking resource availability and demanded compensation, as well as the government's declining benefits (Glate, 2015). Though some literature on Ghanaian ethnic cohesion gives the impression that some ethnic groupings are never able to reach an agreement, especially Ewe and Asante in Ghanaian history, the research revealed that ethnic groups in Ghana value power and the significance of patronage relationships above ethnic divides. Economic growth at the time, and even still in Ghana, as well as the government's capacity to fulfill its commitments and pledges made to voters, are vital to a regime’s success, and the primary reason for the SMC's opposition. During the SMC administration, the “urban ethnic” elite had a key role as the principal speakers in p