Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37  Reproductive Health
https://doi.org/10.1186/s12978-023-01585-0
RESEARCH Open Access
‘Baby mamas’ in Urban Ghana: 
an exploratory qualitative study on the factors 
influencing serial fathering among men 
in Accra, Ghana
Rosemond Akpene Hiadzi1*, Jemima Akweley Agyeman1 and Godwin Banafo Akrong2 
Abstract 
Background Biological fathering, especially in patrilineal societies, was traditionally acceptable only in the context of 
marriage to the mother of the child. Many men were polygynous, often staying in one household with all their wives 
and children. However, this phenomenon has been on the decline in recent times, mainly due to Christianity, which 
encourages monogamy while frowning on polygyny. The Ghanaian family has for the past few years been undergo-
ing changes due to migration, urbanization, and industrialization. With an increase in non-marital births and the 
dissolution of marital unions, multi-partner fertility is likely to increase. Contemporary Ghanaian perspectives on the 
circumstances that lead men to engage in paternal multi-partner fertility, otherwise referred to in this study as serial 
fathering, are scanty, hence this study examines the factors that lead to serial fathering among Ghanaian men.
Methods The study employed the qualitative method, using in-depth interviews with twenty (20) serial fathers and a 
focus group discussion with seven (7) women.
Results It was found that factors such as the attitude of women in relationships, the duolocal post-marital residential 
pattern, and the age at first birth are some of the reasons why some men father children with multiple partners.
Conclusion The study concludes that both situational and personal factors account for the phenomenon of serial 
fathering amongst men in Prampram, Ghana, and these factors bring about distinctions in serial fathering as occur-
ring either within or outside of marriage.
Keywords Serial fathers, Family, Multiple partner fertility, Qualitative approach, Ghana
Plain Language Summary 
In Ghana, men are increasingly having children with numerous women, whom they refer to as their "baby mamas." 
Contemporary Ghanaian viewpoints on the factors that motivate males to engage in this behavior are minimal. 
Consequently, this study examines the factors that predispose Ghanaian men to father children by multiple women. 
In-depth interviews with twenty (20) serial fathers and a focus group discussion with seven (7) women from Pram-
pram, a suburb of Accra, Ghana, were utilized in this qualitative study. The results of the study show that men had 
children with different women due to the negative attitudes of women, which pushed them to frequently change 
*Correspondence:
Rosemond Akpene Hiadzi
rhiadzi@ug.edu.gh
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
© The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which 
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Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 2 of 15
partners. The lack of a friendly relationship with in-laws, duolocal residence patterns, the non-observance of marriage 
rites, the young age of the first birth, and a continual need for companionship and sexual satisfaction were all factors 
that contributed to the practice. If these factors are addressed, it is anticipated that the prevalence of "baby mamas" 
in Ghanaian society will decrease significantly. This study also shows that family therapists and counselors should 
consider involving male clients’ spouses when counseling them about having many "baby mamas."
Background data sources were not built to explore them. Petren 
A man who fathers children with more than one woman [9] also assessed the relationship between paternal 
consecutively is typically referred to as a "serial father." multiple partners (having children with two or more 
This frequently results in having several sexual partners, partners) and environmental chaos indicators among 
which is challenging for the majority of mothers who unmarried, non-resident fathers. Multiple paternal 
end up having children with such men since they end partners are related to environmental instability but 
up being referred to as "baby mamas." The phrase "baby not social support. Indicators include relationship inse-
mama" is applied to mothers who are not married to curity, residential instability, job insecurity, and finan-
the child’s father. Africa is not exempt from this; it has cial difficulties.
evolved into a universal norm over time. Studying serial The study of multiple-partner relationships is, in 
fathering, which is also linked to having multiple part- accordance with Candia and Kisangala [10], a relatively 
ners, requires obtaining relationship data for all births, new area of study. Their study examined male multiple-
which is not normally obtained when conducting fertility partner fertility in Uganda. According to their survey, 
studies [1, 2]. As a result, the study of serial fathering is 42% of males had multiple children. Age, being Muslim, 
a relatively new field of study in Africa because there is and being divorced or separated increased the risk of 
limited data [3]. multiple partner fertility, although being in the West, 
According to Yeboah et  al. [4] and Nyarko and Potter having a first sexual encounter after 19, and being mar-
[5], serial fathering is on the rise regardless of whether or ried or cohabiting decreased it. There was a correlation 
not a man has lost his spouse. Throughout many parts of between the number of wives or partners and lifetime 
the world, divorce and having many children have been sex partners and the risk of having numerous partners. 
linked to having multiple fathers [6]. Serial fathering is Anecdotal evidence from Ghana suggests that men 
distinct from polygamy, which is the practice of marrying have children with multiple partners, (who they may 
many spouses simultaneously. Serial fathering can occur or may not be married to) in turns and one frequently 
without simultaneously marrying multiple partners, but hears men (particularly in urban and peri-urban areas) 
only after a divorce or separation. However, given the dif- refer to the existence of a "baby mother" or "baby 
ficulties that come with serial fathering, it has emerged as mama". Socioeconomic factors, such as the expecta-
a crucial field of research for academics, as it is crucial to tion that men will provide their nuclear families with 
look at the factors that lead men to have several partners shelter, food, clothes, healthcare, education, etc., may 
and consequently become serial fathers. This is because contribute to this phenomenon [11]. One typical com-
prior research has suggested that it is difficult for men munity where this practice can be found is, amongst 
who have children with numerous women to provide for the people of Prampram. Men were permitted to be 
the financial and social demands of all the families [7]. polygynous in traditional Ghanaian society, as well as 
Typically, children from past relationships suffer when in other African communities, and they often lived in 
more resources are allocated to the current relationship a single compound with all of their wives and children 
[8]. [12, 13]. Before marrying the second or subsequent 
Most research on serial fathering has been under- wife, the man often asks for the first wife’s consent and 
taken in Europe and the US, whereas few have been pays her a "pacification price"[14, 15]. Children also 
conducted in Sub-Saharan Africa, although this is a play an important role in such unions as they serve as 
developing phenomenon. According to Guzzo and social capital for their parents [16].
Dorius [2], multiple partnerships are being studied in But recently, monogamy has replaced polygamy as 
the US because they may affect parental, child, and the most socially and religiously acceptable option. 
family wellness. In addition, they emphasized that the However, men are still perceived as having children 
first step in studying a novel social phenomenon is to successively with various partners. Men opt to cohabi-
characterize and assess its prevalence. In the case of tate or get married to one lady and have one or more 
multiple partnerships, this is challenging because most children with her. These men move on to new wives 
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 3 of 15
when their marriages end. This occurrence is preva- there is a growing debate among feminist scholars about 
lent among urban and peri-urban residents. Whether how fathers often socialize their male children to aspire 
or not they were married, men might still father chil- to embody particular values and behaviors. Men in 
dren outside of their current families. However, there rural northwestern Ghana are likely to embody hybrid 
is a limited study on the factors that influence males to masculinities where traditionally hegemonic mascu-
have multiple partners. Thus, the current study exam- line ideals—such as men being regarded as independ-
ines the factors that influence serial fathering in Accra, ent breadwinners—and contemporary gender-conscious 
Ghana. This study is significant for two primary rea- norms—such as men as supportive presiding fathers—
sons. It is most likely the first study in modern Ghana coexist. In subtle ways, however, the hybridization of 
to have addressed this significant gap in the sociology masculinity both challenges and reinforces patriarchal 
of the family literature in Ghana, and it is likely to be gender arrangements. By maintaining a keen interest in 
the only one. Second, concerning Dangme’s marriage their heteronormative breadwinning role as a model of 
and childbearing practices, the findings also offer a cul- masculinity, educated and gainfully employed men are 
tural viewpoint. critical of patriarchal norms that may be destructive to 
The remaining sections are as follows: The literature is feminist discourses, but their depictions of masculin-
discussed in “Literature review” section, and the method- ity indirectly strengthen male hegemony in marriage 
ology employed for the study is presented in “Methods” relationships. Also, their results show that there is a lot 
section. “Results” section presents the study findings, and of ambiguity in how men define themselves as feminist 
“Discussion” section discusses them. In “Conclusion” sec- allies by supporting gender equality, but none of them 
tion, a conclusion is drawn. openly asks why women can’t also be breadwinners.
According to Esson et  al. [21], research in geogra-
Literature review phy and allied fields on gendered experiences in Africa 
Masculinities in Ghana has struggled to comprehend the nuances that com-
A limited but expanding body of historical, ethnographic, prise the lifeworlds of young men. Their study examines 
and anthropological research in Ghana has attempted to the thoughts, actions, and experiences of male youth in 
comprehend gender in numerous domains of life before, Ghana through the lens of Guru’s popular song "Boys 
during, and after colonization. Prior to colonial control, are Tired," which is influenced by urban studies theo-
the dominant school of thought contends, the Ghana- ries that demonstrate how music can be used to explore 
ian idea of gender was established as complementary social dynamics in Africa. Based on interviews and focus 
between men and women, although boundary mainte- groups with young people in Accra, the empirical find-
nance remained prominent and pervasive [17, 18]. ings and analysis demonstrate how the phrase "boys are 
Miescher [19] examined the changing meaning of tired" and the attitudes it evokes constitute a subversive 
becoming a man in modern Africa through the life stories critique and protest against the precariousness of con-
of eight senior men. In addition, the report concentrated temporary Ghanaian urbanism. "Boys are tired" encour-
on the ideals and expectations that formed around prom- ages the problematic (re)calibration of gender relations 
inent men in their respective communities when Ghana on patriarchal terms. In two novel ways, these insights 
became an independent nation. How the men navigated advance discussions regarding the geographies of chil-
complex social and economic transformations and dealt dren and youth and gender relations. First, the vernacu-
with their increasing obligations and responsibilities as lar of "tiredness" generates novel theoretical perspectives 
leaders in their kinship groups, churches, and schools on a broader set of questions regarding youth agency and 
was also probed. Nevertheless, it must be acknowledged contemporary gender relations, specifically how young 
that Miescher not only explored masculinity and ide- people are implicated in the reproduction of patriarchy. 
als of male behavior but also provided a new perspective In doing so, their study identifies a troubling set of gender 
on African men in a century of transformation. In addi- relations occurring in Accra that are conceptualized as 
tion to community standards, the findings indicate that "retaliatory patriarchy," which consists of three constitu-
missionaries and other colonial officials had a significant ent elements: entitlement, resentment, and ignorance.
impact on notions of men and masculinity. The study’s Dery [22] further acknowledges that critical studies on 
findings also indicate that the transition to manhood and men and masculinities have gained considerable trac-
a position of power, seniority, authority, and leadership tion in feminist scholarship over the past several decades. 
was not always welcomed or straightforward. However, the expanding focus of feminist scholarship 
Dery and Akurugu [20] acknowledged that there is has been on how individuals with male bodies construct, 
limited academic research on how fathers themselves negotiate, and express masculine identities. Despite this 
construct and represent masculinity in Ghana, although growing interest, there has been insufficient research into 
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 4 of 15
how rural Ghanaian men construct and negotiate their discussed traditional and non—traditional parenthood, 
masculinities in intimate relationships. The findings show masculine roles, and becoming and being a father. In 
that dominant notions of masculinity offer a broad con- fathers’ parenthood experiences, male discourses influ-
text for understanding the narratives, negotiations, and enced their relationships, occupations, and involve-
experiences of intimate partner violence of the partici- ment with childcare. This study shows how uncertainty 
pants. The findings also suggest that father figures play influences the roles of contemporary fathers and how 
significant roles in shaping and enforcing the conform- they oscillate between traditional and contemporary 
ity of their sons to traditionally hegemonic masculine parenthood.
ideals. These hegemonic ideals are so deeply ingrained Global South parenting emphasizes the customs and 
in the larger social fiber that questioning them is rarely experiences of motherhood [29]. A study examined how 
imaginable, thereby stifling alternative discourses. Even males are seen as fathers and how they affect young chil-
more convincingly, this study suggests that fathers shape dren’s development in Botswana. The majority of fathers 
their sons into "men" who emulate their own actions. It is in Botswana feel their primary role is to manage the 
instructive that fathers experience pride when their sons family’s finances while raising children is the mother’s 
can live up to hegemonic masculine norms. The signifi- responsibility. Men don’t use support services because 
cance of these findings lies in their immediate revelation they lack parenting abilities. To promote father engage-
of the range of implicit and explicit cultural messages, ment, a public research agenda is recommended.
proverbs, and metaphors that fathers use to define "desir-
able" and "undesirable" masculinity for their sons. In light Multiple partner fertility (MPF)
of these findings, it is essential to emphasize that fathers’ Two types of multiple partner fertility (MPF) exist. The 
rigid enforcement of problematic gender identities can first one takes place outside of marriage. This is typical 
have negative effects on their sons, on women, and soci- among young fathers who are unmarried to their chil-
ety as a whole. Importantly, when fathers strictly raise dren’s mothers. The other type of MPF is found in mar-
their sons and then approve of their unbending behavior, riage. This type of MPF occurs when married males 
they make it harder for boys to find other ways to be men. father children with other women outside of their part-
nerships [30, 31]. MPF is when an individual has bio-
Fatherhood and fatherhood roles logical children with multiple partners [32]. Given the 
Modern fathers must supply, guide, help, and nurture. socioeconomic correlations of MPF and the repercus-
These positions can strain men’s relationships with their sions of entering MPF for individuals and families, 
partners, their sense of purpose at work, and their self- understanding the prevalence of such homes is crucial. 
confidence as responsible adults. Due to the social nature Thomson et  al. [33] admit that multi-partner fertility 
of fatherhood, perceptions of parental engagement have accounts for over 20% of total fertility in the US. Coun-
changed over time. The men’s ties to their own fathers, tries with high rates of first births outside of wedlock 
the nature of those interactions, and the father’s emo- also have high multi-partner fertility rates. Multi-partner 
tional availability all affect how they feel about father- fertility is more uniformly spread across older ages than 
hood [23]. Men emulate their fathers’ parenting styles single-partner fertility, which peaks in the early to mid-
[24]. According to Meyer [25], fathers’ traditional roles 20  s. Although the possibility of multi-partner fertility 
have shifted from being moral teachers and mentors to has increased during the decades analyzed, the rates of 
being breadwinners, role models, and loving parents. multi-partner fertility have remained rather stable.
Industrialization, economic instability and dislocation, 
labor market changes, and gender equality calls report- Factors relating to fatherhood with multiple mothers
edly influenced these outcomes. In the past, fathers sup- Numerous studies indicate that several variables are asso-
ported the family. Fathers now have a wider range of ciated with fathering in families with multiple women, a 
responsibilities, including involvement and child care, as phenomenon commonly referred to as "multiple partner 
a result of women having more access to the workforce. fertility" (MPF). These factors include:
Depending on their socioeconomic situation, fathers 
negotiate these roles with their spouses [26, 27]. First‑birth‑age
Lewington et  al. [28] confirmed that many men find Multiple partner fertility is correlated with the father’s 
fatherhood to be both rewarding and challenging. Their age at first birth. According to U.S. and U.K. studies [1, 
study investigates the effect of contradictory parental 30], men who start having children young are more likely 
responsibilities on men’s identities and how they negoti- to have children with different women. Young fathers may 
ate them. Conventional masculine conceptions of father- live with their children’s moms. Because cohabitation is 
hood were both upheld and rejected by fathers. Men less permanent than marriage, there’s a higher possibility 
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 5 of 15
of remarriage and more children [34, 35]. Young individ- Fathers who report unintended pregnancies
uals may not be able to work and support their families. Fathers who tell their spouses about unwanted pregnan-
The inability to financially support children might lead to cies are more likely to have multiple relationships [49]. 
breakups and new partnerships. Black men between 35 By revealing unexpected pregnancies, they hoped to 
and 44 living in poverty report having children with sev- avoid penalties in the future. Grindlay et al. [50] studied 
eral mothers [36]. Fathers having two or more children unexpected pregnancies in Accra, Ghana. Nearly half of 
from many relationships seem to be at a disadvantage. females said their most recent pregnancy was unplanned, 
Matlakala et al. [37] reported that in South Africa, young and most felt at risk for future unexpected pregnancies. 
men can become fathers as young as 17, but Swart et al. Women were more likely to have an unplanned preg-
[38] concluded that in KwaZulu-Natal, young men can nancy if they had previously given birth, made their 
become fathers as young as 14. Unmarried young men’s sexual debut between ages 8–14 instead of 20–24, or had 
relationships are precarious. Children from a previous 3–4 sexual partners rather than 1–2.
partnership reduce the likelihood of parents marrying, 
causing men to have more children outside of marriage Men’s income
[39, 40]. Couples are less likely to marry or live together The financial status of a man indicates whether he would 
if the father (but not the mother) has previous children father children with multiple women. Numerous studies 
[41]. Having children with several partners can cause show that men with higher incomes are more likely to 
friction and estrangement in a couple’s relationship fol- marry and establish happy families [47, 51, 52]. Poor men 
lowing the birth of a new baby. have more children [53]. They reproduce with multiple 
partners to reaffirm their masculinity. Their relationships 
Race and educational attainment will be unstable, and they will likely have children outside 
Fathers’ race or ethnicity is also associated with multi- of marriage.
ple-partner fertility. Multiple partner fertility is more 
prevalent among African fathers, who are often polygy- Marriage formation in Ghana
nous and take satisfaction in the number of children they Many Ghanaians value marriage because it serves as the 
may have [42, 43]. Men with childless wives want fertile foundation for determining who will perform reproduc-
women. According to Kane et  al. [44], in-kind support tive, economic, and noneconomic roles [54]. Addition-
accounts for a quarter of total support. Children receive ally, Ghana’s pro-family and pro-marriage ideology has 
in-kind support of $60 per month on average. Multilevel repercussions for social relations, and among the various 
regression analyses show that younger children with ethnic and linguistic groups, single women and men are 
longer visiting hours, high school-educated fathers, and frequently viewed differently from those who are married 
no substance abuse difficulties receive more in-kind care. [55]. This is gradually encouraging the majority of Gha-
However, children whose fathers lack stable jobs or are naians to develop the practice of getting married young 
of African heritage receive more support in kind. Later [56]. Amoateng [57] makes the additional claim that 
qualitative research indicated fathers’ incentives for in- marriage is almost universal in Ghana and that having 
kind contributions are relational, not monetary. children is expected of couples. The family serves as the 
Men with more education were less likely to father cornerstone of social structure, the main provider of old 
children with more than one woman and were better age security, and the primary caregiver for the young.
informed about their reproductive choices [45]. They The Children’s Act of 1998 and Ghana’s Constitution 
understand health better, are more likely to be married, from 1992 both specify the legal age of marriage and 
and raise healthy children. They reduce child behavioral union formation as 18 years old and forbid these activi-
issues [46, 47]. ties before this age [58]. Under Ghanaian law, the legal 
age to marry is the same for all, which respects both 
traditional and Islamic unions. The laws of Ghana are 
A woman’s natal count superior to any religious doctrine, although the country’s 
Some believe that the number of children a man has with constitution guarantees everyone the right to freedom 
a single woman indicates whether or not he will have of worship. Therefore, it is forbidden in Ghana to marry 
additional children. According to Nisén et al. [48], father- anyone under the age of 18, whether for religious or cus-
hood decreases a man’s fertility, but this does not prevent tomary reasons. When both families of the woman and 
men from desiring larger families because they can build man are aware of the union, a man and a woman are gen-
social capital. Men are more likely to have children with erally accepted as husband and wife in Ghana. Addition-
other women if they are married and their wives exhibit ally, the formation of marriages in Ghana serves to give 
signs of infertility.
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 6 of 15
couples companionship, a way to support one another, had a general notion about serial fathering that they 
and a legal means of engaging in sexual activity and pro- wished to investigate, but there was no prior knowledge 
creation [59]. Members of each family are checked for in the Ghanaian setting to explore it.
diseases that cannot be cured or spread, criminal records, 
violent behavior, respectability, occupation, and religious Sampling and procedure
background. However, a potential spouse must also meet For the study, a sample size of 20 male serial fathers and 
some important requirements before being accepted. 7 female participants was purposefully selected from 
Prampram. It excluded men who fathered children with 
Methods a single woman and those who fathered children with 
Study location many women but shared a residence with them and their 
The study was undertaken in Prampram. It serves as the children. For the purposes of this study, the women with 
Ningo-Prampram District’s capital in the Greater Accra whom the men had children were referred to as "baby 
Area. It has a population of 204,673 individuals [60]. In mamas." The inclusion of women was undertaken to 
addition, Prampram has two major suburbs: Upper Town acquire a gendered viewpoint on the subject under study. 
and Lower Town, which are made up of the four (4) com- In-depth interviews were conducted with the communi-
munities of Lower East, Lower West, Kley, and Olowey. ty’s serial fathers, and a focus group included the women.
These communities are home to the four major clans, Due to the nature of their occupation, meetings were 
which include the "Larkpl3," who live in the Lower East arranged with the identified serial fathers who agreed to 
and West, as well as the Kley, Anewey, and Olowey. Dan- participate in the study, and interviews were conducted 
gme and Ga are widely spoken there. at their residences and places of work (see Table  1). All 
One significant reason for the choice of Prampram participants were provided with information regarding 
as the study area is that it is a peri-urban community. the study, the intended use of the collected data, and the 
In other words, it has characteristics of both urban and anticipated interview duration.
rural settlements. According to Tach et  al. [61], multi- An in-depth interview guide was developed to gather 
ple-partner fertility, or serial fatherhood, is prevalent in data regarding the factors influencing serial fathering. 
peri-urban areas and more so among low-income fathers. The in-depth interview collected data on the socio-demo-
Prampam is also a patrilineal society where a child born graphic characteristics of the respondents, while Section 
into the family belongs to the paternal agnatic kin. In Two examined the factors that influenced their decision 
addition, the residential pattern is duolocal. The woman to have children with different women. The participant 
prepares meals at her home and sends them to her hus- interviews were conducted in Dangme and Ga (Ghanaian 
band’s home in the evening, where she passes the night. dialects), which was convenient for both the researchers 
The man could also come and spend the night in the and the participants. Before the interviews commenced, 
woman’s home occasionally. The women basically raised all participants were provided with information about 
their children in a matrifocal setting. When boys reach the study, the intended use of the collected data, and an 
puberty, they are sent to join their fathers on the male estimate of the interview duration. A 45-min-to-1-h-long 
compounds, while girls remain with their mothers. interview was conducted. All participants were consulted 
beforehand on the audio recording of the interview. Par-
Research design and setting ticipants were requested to complete an informed con-
The study employed a qualitative exploratory research sent form upon agreement. Throughout the study, the 
methodology based on phenomenology and the inter- confidentiality of personal information was preserved. 
pretivist paradigm. This research design typically collects Accordingly, no personal identity was associated with 
participant data for analysis through in-depth interviews the interviewees. In addition, the names used to present 
[62, 63] and focus groups [64]. The purpose of phenom- the analysis are all pseudonyms and do not correspond to 
enology is to characterize the meaning of concepts or the true identities of the participants. Due to the fact that 
phenomena from the perspectives of multiple individuals the interviews were done in the local languages (Dangme 
who encounter them [65, 66]. This research phenomenon and Ga), they were back-translated and transcribed into 
was chosen because it allowed the researchers to examine English.
in depth the factors that influence serial fathering among Whenever necessary, field notebooks and interview 
fathers in Prampram- Accra. The sociodemographic fea- tapes were used to fill the gaps discovered throughout the 
tures of the participants and the factors influencing serial translation process. In order to verify audio recordings 
fathering in Prampram were among the issues investi- and transcribe interviews, peer debriefing and member 
gated in this study. The exploratory research approach checks were also employed. Before fieldwork began, ethi-
was equally relevant to the study because the researchers cal approval for the study was acquired from the Ethics 
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 7 of 15
Table 1 Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Serial Fathers Age Current marital status Occupation Number of Children Number 
of “Baby 
mamas”
John 41 Cohabiting Mason 8 4
Adjei 18 Separated Fisherman 3 2
Gabby 63 Married Farmer 5 4
Daniel 65 Married Fisherman 15 5
Joshua 53 Cohabiting Driver 3 3
Mike 30 Married Farmer 5 4
Simon 35 Married Unemployed 5 4
Raman 19 Single Okada Rider 6 3
Kwame 64 Married Carpenter 4 2
James 32 Cohabiting Carpenter 2 2
Kofi 24 Single Barber 4 3
Baba 32 Cohabiting Carpenter 3 3
Kojo 30 Single Steel Bender 5 3
Sammy 31 Married Okada Rider 12 3
Wise 45 Married Driver 4 3
David 19 Single Okada Rider 2 2
Kwesi 45 Cohabiting Civil Servant 4 4
Paul 58 Separated Tailor 6 3
Ali 55 Married Civil Servant 5 2
Ayi 53 Cohabiting Civil Servant 5 3
Women Age Current marital status Occupation Number of Children
Martha 40 Cohabiting Fish Monger 4 -
Abena 35 Separated Hairdresser 3 -
Rejoice 32 Married Trader 2 -
Abigail 38 Separated Seamstress 4 -
Mary 33 Married Baker 3 -
Rose 30 Separated Trader 4 -
Grace 28 Married Hairdresser 2 -
Committee for Humanities (ECH) at the University of prior responses and identify any discrepancies that may 
Ghana, Legon, with approval number ECH 085/18–19. have developed during the interviews and informal con-
Using purposive sampling, 26 respondents were versation sessions.
approached, but 6 of them declined, citing "I am terri-
fied." Oh, as for you guys, you are interviewing me so that Data analysis
you can send me to the Family Tribunal" and "I hope you The obtained data were analyzed thematically using 
won’t give my response to the media." With this feed- NVIVO software version 12 to run the codes, catego-
back, the researchers utilized a gatekeeper to sample the rization of themes, and subthemes that arose from the 
remaining responders. This made the respondents more interview transcripts of the participants. The thematic 
at ease, as the gatekeeper informed them that the study analysis was conducted using both inductive and theo-
was conducted only for scholarly reasons. retical coding techniques. Inductive and theoretical cod-
The focus group was also held with seven (7) women ing approaches were utilized in the analysis since they 
in Prampram. This was conducted to determine the gen- assisted the researchers in identifying, analyzing, and 
der dimensions of fatherhood. It allowed the women to presenting data patterns.
openly express their opinions on the topic under inves- For inductive coding, the researchers began by read-
tigation and gave a woman’s perspective on the issue. ing the interview transcripts and paying close attention 
Several of the concerns examined were similar to those to relevant data concerns, which led to the development 
raised during the interview sessions. The primary pur- of descriptive codes. This was immediately followed by 
pose of the focus group discussion was to confirm the the identification of cluster themes, whose meanings 
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 8 of 15
were evaluated in the context of the study objectives and realized she could not take care of me, let alone the 
refined in light of the reviewed literature. Similarly, the children, so after having one child with her, I left the 
reliability of the findings was ensured by contacting eight relationship. (Kojo, a 30-year-old father of five chil-
of the participants to confirm the reported results as part dren with three different women)
of the participant validation method.
b. Suspected infidelity: A few fathers who decided to 
Results enter into new relationships with other women did so 
Research participants because they suspected their legally married wife was 
In the study, there were a total of 20 male serial fathers licentious. They often heard rumors from their fam-
and 7 female participants. As was discussed in “Meth- ily members that these women had been seen with 
ods” section, the inclusion of women was undertaken other men in the neighborhood. As one respondent 
to obtain a gendered perspective on the phenomenon intimated:
that was being studied. Table 1 provides a further pres-
entation of the findings derived from the data that was My wife was flirting. Anytime I came back from work, 
gathered. my sister told me that my friend was in our room watching 
TV. When I confront her, she denies it and calls me names. 
Factors leading to fathering with different women One day, I saw my wife in a very compromising position 
The findings of the study show that six major factors con- with a man. I decided to leave her and go for another 
tribute to the prevalence of serial fathering among men woman. I am now with a different woman who just deliv-
in Prampram, and these factors are discussed in greater ered a baby boy. (Ayi, 53-year-old father of five children 
detail below. with three different women).
 iii. Involvement in social vices: Alcoholism is one of the 
The attitude of women in relationships vices that discourage some fathers from staying in 
This theme describes the various ways in which the a relationship with their baby mamas. Alcoholism 
women that the men in this study had fathered children was seen as acceptable for men but not for women, 
with showed attitudes that were not favorable to them especially married women. As such, although 
and thus caused them to move on to father children Simon loved to enjoy his bottle of alcohol, he 
with other women. These unfavorable attitudes have could not accept similar behavior from his spouse. 
been grouped into four sub-themes, namely: disrespect According to him:
and non-performance of wifely duties; suspected infi-
delity; involvement in social vices; and maltreatment of I went on to marry a fourth woman because my 
stepchildren. third spouse started drinking. I was surprised that a 
married woman could drink so much. I know that I 
a. Disrespect and non-performance of wifely duties: also drink, but I could not understand how a woman 
Some men got involved with other women and had could drink the way she did. The worst part was 
children with them because, according to them, that, sometimes, she gave some of the alcohol to our 
their first baby mamas were not submissive and did 5-year-old son to also drink. I mean, how could she 
not perform their "wifely" roles to their satisfaction. do that? (exclaims...) Teaching a child how to drink? 
According to Joshua: No, I will not accept that. (Simon, 35-year-old father 
of five children with four different women)
She did not respect me. If I ask her to cook for me, 
she will refuse. She did not wash my clothes. She  iv. Maltreatment of step-children: The results from 
kept our room untidy always. When I complain, she the study also show that for some other men, their 
insults me very well. I could not contain her behav- motivation to have children with multiple women 
ior, so I went for another woman and left the room stemmed from the maltreatment their current 
for her. (Joshua, 53-year-old father of three (3) with partners meted out to children they had with previ-
three different women) ous partners. Although at the onset of the new rela-
That woman was dirty and lazy. She will watch TV tionship, the women displayed love towards their 
all day. Sometimes, when she is cooking, she leaves stepchildren, they soon changed their attitude once 
the food on the fire and goes to sleep. When I try to they had children with the men and began to show 
talk to her nicely about doing housework, she will preferential treatment towards their own children 
ask me if I don’t have hands to also do the work. I 
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 9 of 15
while maltreating their stepchildren. According to they nearly fought. I had no option but to let her go. 
James, The woman I am married to now was suggested to 
  Things began to change when I me by my mother. (Sammy, 31-year-old father of 12 
brought Sandra (my 9-year-old daughter from a children with three different women)
previous marriage) to stay with us. I observed how For others, it was the spouse’s family that did not accept 
my second wife, Mamle, tried to prevent Sandra or acknowledge them as spouses for their daughters. 
from interacting with her daughter, Benedicta. San- Kwame was forced to divorce his wife since his in-laws 
dra was not allowed to touch any item bought by disapproved of their union from the beginning. Accord-
Mamle. I was not happy with what was happen- ing to his assertions,
ing in the house. I spoke about it to my wife, but it 
always ended up in a quarrel. The situation became I had two children in my first marriage, but that 
worse by the day. It has gotten to the point where she relationship eventually ended simply because my 
will not even allow Sandra into the house when I am in-laws never approved of my relationship with their 
not at home. I have decided to end my relationship daughter. They kept interfering in the marriage until 
with Mamle because I love my daughter Sandra very we went our separate ways. The children stayed with 
much and I cannot afford to see her being maltreated their mother after the divorce. My ex-wife remar-
by Mamle. (James, 32-year-old father of two children ried, but I am able to visit her and the children 
with two different women) anytime I feel like it. I am also married to another woman now. (Kwame, 64-year-old father of four 
children with two women)
Strained in‑law relationships
This theme describes how, according to the findings, Whatever form these strained in-law relationships took 
some fathers were compelled to leave their first baby and wherever they originated, it was viewed as a reason 
mamas for new relationships due to the constant quar- to end the partnership and seek out other partners with 
rels and misunderstandings that ensued between their whom they might develop healthier in-law relationships.
spouses and their family members. To them, such 
unhealthy relationships did not need to be perpetuated, The Duolocal pattern of residence
and the best way to avoid them was to end such rela- This theme describes a cultural element existing among 
tionships since there was no end in sight to the strained the Ga that was seen by both the men and women in the 
relationships between their spouses and their family community as facilitating the incidence of serial father-
members. For some, it was their spouses who did not like hood. In the interviews, twenty-five (25%) of the fathers 
their family members, as indicated in the quote below: who did not share the same residence with their spouses 
I never thought I would have children with more reported that they found it easy to get into other relation-
than one woman. I grew up in a polygynous home. ships based on this residential arrangement. It is a com-
I saw how my late father had a hard time manag- mon practice in Prampram for couples to live apart, as is 
ing his home. Hardly a day passes by without one characteristic of the Ga-Adangme. The following narra-
fight or another. Anytime my stepmother fought my tives illustrate the theme:
mother, I was always sad. I vowed to marry only In my heydays, I slept with different ladies anytime 
one wife. But things didn’t go as I planned. The first I wanted because I was staying in my father’s house 
woman I courted was a thorn in my flesh. She always while my wife was also staying in her father’s house. 
had issues with my mother. I tried my best to get her I had money and I could take the women out. I only 
to stop, but it was not working. I eventually had to had to pick a fight with my wife whenever I wanted 
break up with her because I was tired of the fact that to be with a different woman. She will get so offended 
she always quarreled with my mother. I did not like that she will refuse to bring my food and sleep in 
it at all. (Gabby, 63-year-old father of five children my house at night for even more than a week some-
with four different women) times. Then bingo! I got the opportunity to explore 
As the following quote shows, for some individuals, it and have fun. Those were the good old days. That 
was the members of their own families who did not get made me have children with many women. (Daniel, 
along with their spouses. 65-year-old father of 15 children with five different women)
My mother always had issues with the woman who We have a young men’s room in the family house. 
had children with me first. She just did not like her. Once I get a girl who agrees to my proposal, I just 
One day, when she came to visit me at my house, send her there. My girlfriend is not aware of it. 
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 10 of 15
(Adjei, 18-year-old father of three children with two money for it. She became pregnant again. Hmm... 
different women) Her family was asking me to perform the rites or 
On days that my woman does not come to sleep in risk losing her. Unfortunately, I still could not per-
my house for one reason or another, I just go to town form the rites, so eventually, her father asked her not 
and get myself another woman. It is not too difficult to see me again. It was difficult for me, but being a 
to get a woman to sleep with you. Unfortunately for man, I have also moved on. (Joshua, 53-year-old 
us, some come with pregnancies. (Wise, 45-year-old father of 3 children with 3 different women)
father of four children with three different women) A discussant from the female focus group believed that 
This notion about the residential arrangement fueling the men in the community were just not committed to 
the practice of serial fatherhood was corroborated by the having a relationship with a woman that would lead to 
women in the community during the focus group discus- marriage simply because they preferred to have multiple 
sions as well. According to one discussant, sexual partners. According to her,
My father married my mother, and they had three Men here don’t like marriage. They propose to you, 
of us. I did not know my father till I was about 10 and as soon as you agree, they start sleeping with 
years old when he visited us at my mother’s father’s you. When you become pregnant, they present two 
house. All along, my father had been living in his bottles of schnapps to your parents, and that is all. 
father’s family house. My mother told me that she Before you know it, they are sleeping with other 
used to spend the night at my father’s family house. women and having children all over the place. I call 
Being a fishmonger, on nights of bumper catch, she them "yεnk⊃ nkoaa " (translated as "let us keep 
had to stay all night to smoke the fish and so could going"). (Martha, 40-year-old, cohabiting)
not spend the night with my father at his family 
house. Unfortunately for my mother, she had the This shows that it is somewhat simpler for males to 
shock of her life when she found out that my father seduce women without following the customary proce-
had impregnated another woman. That was the end dure of formally seeking the woman’s hand in marriage 
of their marriage. Thinking of the incident now, I from her family and then performing marital rites. This 
believe this residential arrangement made it easy for phenomenon pushes men (who may already be fathers) 
my father to cheat on my mother. (Abigail, 38-year- to have children with various women at various times.
old,Separated)
First‑birth‑age and related factors
The findings from the study also show that the early onset 
Non‑performance of marriage rites of childbearing facilitates multi-partner fertility among 
In this section, the study shows how men who have chil- men in Prampram. About 10% of the fathers in this study 
dren with women they are not married to or have not stated that they started giving birth at an early age and 
completed marriage rites within patrilineal descent sys- at a time when they were not prepared to handle the 
tems have weaker social identities. Such men are not responsibilities that came along with having children. 
recognized by their would-be in-laws as legitimate hus- The following narratives exemplify the theme:
bands. Daughters are therefore requested by their family 
members, especially their fathers, to end their relation- My first child was born when I was 17 years old. My 
ship with such men until they perform the marriage rites. parents were farmers, and I would go to the farm 
The responses from some fathers indicated that their with them. Though I had wanted to be enrolled in 
unions were not approved by would-be in-laws because school, it did not happen for me. I had a number of 
of their non-performance of the required marriage rites. female friends. One day, I slept with one of them, 
Thus, anytime they had a problem or disagreement in and she became pregnant. My parents took respon-
their relationships, the women were advised by their sibility for the pregnancy till she delivered. They 
relatives to quit. According to the study’s findings, one warned me not to sleep with her again. By age 26, I 
respondent responded by retracing how his relationship realized I had three children. Hmmm... now I have 5 
with his first baby mama ended, stating: with 4 women. (Mike, 30-year-old father of five chil-dren with four different women)
We had been seeing each other for about three years, While I was in secondary school, I impregnated one 
although I must admit I had not yet performed the of my classmates and had a son (Isaac) with her. 
necessary marriage rites for her. In the second year, My mother took him and cared for him while I sent 
she became pregnant. Initially, I was preparing her money occasionally for his upkeep. After my 
to perform the marriage rites, but I could not get polytechnic education, I got married by ordinance 
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 11 of 15
to Maku. It was a big wedding which was the talk As previously alluded to, this demand and the failure of 
of the town. We stayed in one of my father’s houses. certain women to meet it led some of the fathers in our 
After 8 years of marriage, I went to have a child with study to end their relationships with their first, second, or 
another woman in my village. My wife found out third baby mamas and begin seeing other women.
and filed for a divorce. (Ayi, 53-year-old father of 
five children with three different women) Discussion
I had my first child when I was seventeen years This qualitative study examined the factors that drove 
old. I was then in JSS Two. I had to stop my studies men in Prampram, Ghana, to have children with numer-
because my mother, who was then taking care of me, ous women, a phenomenon referred to as "multi-partner 
could not afford to take care of me, my girlfriend, fertility." For the study, "serial fathering" refers to the 
and our baby. When she delivered, my mother asked practice of fathering children born to multiple women. 
her to come and stay in our house so that things Serial fathering thus occurs both inside and outside of 
would be easy for her. But that was where all the marriage. It occurs in marriages when there is suspicion 
problems started... I saw that she wasn’t a wife mate- of adultery, poor spousal behavior, and/or in-law inter-
rial and decided to call it quits (Joshua, 53-year-old vention, all of which are grounds for divorce in Ghana.
father of three children with three different women). According to the thematic findings derived from 
Having a first child at a relatively young age (in this the study, it is evident that men had children with sev-
case, during adolescence) creates a situation in which eral women due to women’s negative attitudes, which 
men are unable to financially support their first baby prompted them to regularly change partners. Hence the 
mama and child, resulting in the breakup of the rela- study proved that men’s intolerance of attitudes such as 
tionship. Because these men were young, they were not disrespect and non-performance of wifely responsibili-
mentally ready to make a long-term commitment to their ties, suspected infidelity, maltreatment of stepchildren, 
first baby mamas. In addition, the findings from the study and alcoholism resulted in the dissolution of their rela-
show that several men fathered children with multiple tionships with women who exhibited these attitudes. 
women at an early age due to peer pressure. As stated by This is because the patriarchal character of Ghanaian 
a respondent: society places males in a position of control within their 
marriages, hence granting them certain societal privi-
I was exposed to sexual activities early. We were leges that women do not have. In Ghana, marriage con-
a group of friends who dared each other about the fers uxorem privileges to the man, such that the married 
number of ladies we could sleep with. At the time, woman is obligated to do domestic duties like cooking, 
we had no idea it would result in pregnancies. The cleaning, etc., and to sexually satisfy her husband, and the 
reality dawned on us when the ladies started get- avoidance of such acts leads to intolerance on the path of 
ting pregnant for us. It was not easy for us. (Raman, most men. This adds to the study’s findings, which show 
19-year-old father of six children with three different that men in Prampram who had children with multiple 
women) partners considered respect from their partners and the 
performance of traditional roles of Ghanaian women as 
caregivers to be critical for the sustenance of their rela-
The constant need for companionship and sexual tionship with them and continued childbearing with 
gratification
This theme describes how internal factors such as the the woman. The absence of these, therefore, led them 
need for companionship and satisfaction of the sex to move on and have children with other women. The 
drive interact together to make men in the current study results were in line with the study by Van Hedel et  al. 
always desire to have women by their side, even though [35].
they may have had a previous negative marriage experi- Some fathers, according to the study, also felt the need 
ence. Such motivations are seen to be innate and related to move on to new relationships because they were con-
to personal desires and characteristics. As indicated by a cerned that the vices that their current spouses were 
respondent: involved in would be picked up by their children. To prevent that from happening, therefore, they chose to 
Being a man and at my age, I cannot stay alone opt-out of those relationships. Also, although some 
without a woman. Beyond the satisfaction of my fathers had children with their current spouses, they still 
sensual urges, I need a woman to provide me with regarded the children from their previous marriages as 
domestic services; wash my clothes; cook for me to very important to them and would not allow them to be 
eat; keep my house tidy; etc. (Mike, 30-year-old maltreated by their current spouses. If current spouses 
father of five with four different women) did not show affection and love to their stepchildren, the 
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 12 of 15
men did not hesitate to end such relationships and move in multi-partner fertility and become serial fathers even 
on to others if necessary. when they are on the wrong side of their marital part-
Women in Ghana are typically expected to be more ners. The findings further state that fathers who did not 
faithful to their spouses than men. As Johnson and Young share the same residence with their spouses reported that 
[43] argue, a woman suspected of infidelity runs the risk they found it easy to get into other relationships based on 
of losing her marriage, but the same law does not apply this residential arrangement. Hence, it was identified that 
to men. A woman’s involvement in alcoholism is like- this is a common practice in Prampram for couples to 
wise culturally taboo, and such women are avoided by live apart, as is characteristic of the Ga-Adangme.
men since they are regarded as a disgrace, and they are The results of the study also identified that the non-
also scared of such behaviors negatively affecting the observance of marriage rites can also cause people to lose 
children they have with such women. This result was their spouses. This is because, in Ghana, marriages are 
consistent with Matebese et  al. [67] study. The findings not considered valid unless all marriage rights required 
further acknowledged that fathers who are close to their for legal recognition have been accomplished [74]. The 
children are sensitive to the quality of care they receive various ethnic groups have certain conditions that a 
and, as a result, will guarantee that their children receive man must meet for the union to be considered genuine. 
the utmost affection and care from their caregivers. In Hence, when a man does not fully fulfill the marriage cer-
the absence of this, such fathers may take severe actions, emony, the bride’s or wife’s family may request custody 
such as abandoning their relationship with a woman who of their daughter until the man completes the marriage 
refuses to love and care for their children since they are payments. This is in accordance with the study con-
not the woman’s biological children. This result is con- ducted by [75–77]. The study further acknowledges that 
sistent with the findings of the studies that were con- when women enter into consensual unions with men 
ducted by [22, 53]. who have not begun or completed the customary mar-
The study also argues that strained in-law relation- riage rites required to be recognized as a married couple 
ships also prompt men to regularly change partners. This in contemporary Ghanaian society, micro-level factors 
is because, in Ghana, marriages are between families; it such as the need for survival, the need for a safe haven 
is not only the man and woman who unite for this pur- and the influence of a love charm are the driving forces. 
pose [68]. Families have a crucial role in the preparation It does not, however, imply that such relationships are 
for and maintenance of marriage [69]. Hence, to prevent socially acceptable. Thus, social structural factors such 
the dissolution of marriages, families not only approve as family influence prohibit such couplings, resulting in 
of prospective partners but also mediate marital issues. serial fathering. The findings from the study show that 
Therefore, if in-laws disapprove of the union, it becomes in Prampram, it is customarily expected of a man to first 
difficult, if not impossible, for the couple to maintain give notice (si womi) to the family of the lady they intend 
their relationship, even if they are ready to do so. Thus, to marry by providing two bottles of champagne plus 
strained in-law relationships have contributed to the dis- one hundred Ghana cedis (Gh₵ 100). This is followed by 
solution of marriages in Ghana and other Sub-Saharan knocking (Agbo simi), which requires the man to present 
African nations, a circumstance that pushes men to form to the family of the woman two (2) bottles of champagne, 
new relationships and father children without women. one (1) crate of malt, and one (1) bottle of Akpeteshi plus 
This is also in line with the study from [70]. five hundred cedis (Gh₵ 500). The man is then required 
Among the Gas in Ghana, the duolocal residential sys- to carry on with the request (sibimi) and acceptance 
tem is followed, in which the man and his wife continue (kplemi), for which they must provide two (2) bottles of 
to live in separate family residences after marriage [7]. champagne plus two hundred Ghana cedis (Gh₵ 200.00) 
At her husband’s request, the woman only visits the man respectively. According to the men who participated 
with meals she has prepared for him, cleans the house, in the study in Prampram, this was difficult for them to 
washes his clothes, and spends the night with him. Due achieve due to their low wages, which made them unwill-
to the flexibility afforded to both men and women to have ing to marry the woman with whom they had children. 
several sexual partners, this living arrangement leads to This is consistent with numerous studies cited in the pre-
a significantly greater frequency of promiscuity among sent study, which show that a man’s financial standing 
the population. According to studies conducted among determines whether he would father children with mul-
Ga, this residence style also contributes to the preva- tiple women and that men with higher salaries are more 
lence of teen pregnancy among Ga [71–73]. As a result, likely to marry and establish happy families [47, 51, 52]. 
the people’s duolocal residence pattern—a practice Poor men have more children [53]. They procreate with 
unique to the Gas of Ghana—as reported by this study several partners to confirm their masculinity, resulting in 
provides a favorable environment for men to participate unstable relationships.
H iadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 13 of 15
First-birth age and other related factors have also been run, social services such as health education in primary 
identified as factors that contribute to men having mul- and junior secondary schools increased access to family 
tiple partners. The findings from the study show that the counselling services, and increased access to reproduc-
early onset of childbearing facilitates multi-partner fertil- tive health services in Prampram should also be made 
ity among men in Prampram. This is because the study available. Future policies and interventions aimed at 
shows that about 10% of the fathers in this study stated reducing the prevalence of serial fathering among men 
that they started giving birth at an early age and at a time in Ghana should include sexual education in peri-urban 
when they were not prepared to handle the responsibili- communities.
ties that came along with having children. These findings 
concur with the studies from [1, 30, 45, 53]. These results 
all support the findings of the current study, which show Conclusion
that the practice of serial fathering is influenced by first This study employed qualitative approaches to examine 
birth age in addition to other factors, such as low edu- the factors that lead men to father children with mul-
cational attainment and low income as a result of the tiple women. Because of the unfavorable attitudes of 
early start of fathering. These factors all contribute to the women in relationships, the duolocal pattern of residence 
environment in which men father children with multiple strained in-law relationships, the failure to perform mar-
women. riage rites, the first-birth age, and the constant desire for 
Finally, the persistent need for companionship and companionship and sexual gratification, it was discov-
sexual fulfillment was also identified as the reason why ered that men ended up having different baby mamas. On 
men have multiple partners. According to the find- the surface, it could seem that these men made a mainly 
ings of the study, although men may have had unpleas- deliberate and planned decision to practice multi-partner 
ant experiences with marriage in the past, they still want fertility. However, a close look at these choices in light of 
women by their side for the company and the fulfillment the outlined factors shows that certain circumstances in 
of their sex drives. Additionally, this was a result of per- which the men found themselves influenced their actions. 
sonal preferences. In Ghana, men usually look to women Although the men admitted that they had hoped to have 
for assistance when it comes to providing domestic ser- long-lasting relationships with their spouses, the afore-
vices, making them reliant on women for such services. mentioned issues had hindered them from doing so. This 
As a result, when their wives are unable to provide these explains why they initially began having children with 
services, they turn to other women, whom they occasion- them. We acknowledge the role that individual attributes 
ally impregnate and end up using to father their children. play in the tendency toward serial fathering and come 
According to the findings of the study, men’s continual to the conclusion that both situational and personal fac-
need for companionship and sexual gratification sig- tors contribute to its occurrence. The limitation and 
nificantly influence their likelihood of having multiple avoidance of serial fathering will depend on an individ-
children. This is in line with the findings of the study by ual’s capacity to avoid and/or control such factors. While 
[79–81]. social and cultural norms may not always push men into 
serial fathering, paternal multi-partner fertility or serial 
Practical implications fathering appears to be a way out of difficult situations for 
The study has implications for family heads in Ghana them. As a result, serial fathering occurs both inside and 
as well as for family counsellors and therapists. When outside of marriage. It happens in marriages when there 
providing men with counselling services on having sev- is suspicion of adultery, poor spousal behavior, and/or 
eral baby mothers, family counsellors and therapists in-law intervention, all of which are grounds for divorce 
should consider incorporating the partners of their in Ghana. It happened among the unmarried because of 
male clients. Additionally, the counsellors should lead early childbearing, a lack of marriage rites, and a persis-
both spouses through pre-planned sessions for atti- tent demand for sexual fulfillment, which occasionally 
tude improvement. Furthermore, the family counsel- led to unintended pregnancies.
lors and therapists should make every effort to inform Acknowledgements
men of the need to form the habit of performing obliga- We thank all the respondents from Prampram-Ghana for their valuable 
tory marriage rites for their partners. The family heads feedback.
in Ghana ought to counsel the spouses of these men Author contributions
to develop the practice of getting along well with their RAH, JAA, and GBA conceived and designed the study, participated in the 
in-laws. The men’s families should also counsel them data collection, performed analysis and interpretation of data, drafted the 
paper, and revised the manuscript. RAH and GBA revised drafts of the paper 
to exercise more patience in their relationships, espe- prepared and revised the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final 
cially when young children are involved. In the long manuscript.
Hiadzi et al. Reproductive Health           (2023) 20:37 Page 14 of 15
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