University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES CENTRE FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES (CSPS) COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION IN THE DELIVERY OF SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE IN THE SHAI OSUDOKU DISTRICT OF GHANA BY ALLAN KASAPA (10240796) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE CENTRE FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES (CSPS), UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES CENTRE FOR SOCIAL POLICY STUDIES (CSPS) JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION This dissertation is the result of my investigations and that it does not contain any material previously published by another person for an award of other degree at any University. All sections of the text and results which have been obtained from other authors/sources have been duly referenced. ………………………… ………………………… ALLAN KASAPA DATE (STUDENT) …………………………… ………………………….. DR. ERNESTINA KORLEKI DANKYI DATE (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the Almighty God, Madam Vivian Alifotse and to the Kasapa brothers who have supported me through the study. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I wish to express my sincere gratitude to God Almighty for seeing through the study. The Lord has been very faithful to my course. Secondly I would like to acknowledge the support of my family especially my mother for her prayers which I believe kept me going during challenging times. I also wish to express my profound gratitude to Dr Ernestina Korleki Dankyi for supervising and guiding my work through this short period. This is also to acknowledge the support of Dr. Antoinette Tsiboe- Darko and CSPS faculty for their valuable inputs in shaping this study. I finally want to thank my brother Manfred Kasapa and Felicity Ansong for their support on the field. I remain thankful to God and all my course mates for their contributions through this process. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The drive for development globally has provided in-depth knowledge on the ways of enhancing the living conditions for all people with emphasis on the poor and vulnerable over the past decades. Ghana over the past 25 years has been implementing decentralization reforms as part of its strategies to enhance development through grassroots participation in the planning, design and implementation of its program and projects. Though the concept of local community participation is an important function in local government structure and decentralization process, local communities’ involvement in charting their development path is considered to be tokenistic. The unintended consequences associated with non-inclusive participation is one of the most structural challenges facing Ghana’s decentralization process and specifically local government objectives. Using the stakeholder participation framework, this study critically examines the concept of community participation in the delivery of social infrastructure in the Shai Osudoku District of Ghana. The qualitative method was used in collecting primary data. Medium Term Development Plans and Action plans from the district were also a helpful source for secondary data. The findings from the study showed that a representation of the substructure of the Assembly and a handful of community stakeholders are involved in determining the social infrastructural needs of the communities through the development of the District Medium Term Development Plan. Findings also revealed that social infrastructure is seen as physical structures but not soft social infrastructure which are services benefited from the physical structures. The study revealed that the planning process is formally initiated by the district assembly with a legal framework from the Local Government Act (Act 462) and that stakeholders within the community are only invited to participate in the process. The process of assessing the needs of the community is representative and the channels of invitation is not inclusive enough leading to the exclusion of significant number of community members. Community stakeholders iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh particularly interest groups have high interest but low influence and therefore are not able do much in the participatory process. Findings also revealed that language is a barrier between district assembly officials and members of the community and this make communication and interaction with the locals a challenging task. Local citizens are not invited for public hearings or meetings organised by the district assembly but for the few influential and privileged in the community. The study argues that a Local Project Management Team (LPMT) constituted by key stakeholders in the community has to be made responsible for planning the needs of the community. Responsible management and coordination of the delivery of social infrastructure within the communities must be recognised in the Local government system. Efforts must be made consciously to build the capacities of local stakeholders to give the right environment for local participation. This will enhance the local government structure and largely the decentralization process to fast track an improved social infrastructure delivery process that has direct impact on the livelihoods of local people in Ghana. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION....................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION.......................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENT .......................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLE ................................................................................................................. viii LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ ix LIST OF ABBREVIATION.................................................................................................... x CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background to the Study .............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of Problem ................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Purpose of study ........................................................................................................... 5 1.4 Aim and Objectives ...................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Organization of Study................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 8 LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................... 8 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 8 2.2 Meaning of Participation .............................................................................................. 9 2.3 Understanding Social Infrastructure ........................................................................... 13 2.4 Stakeholders in Community Participation .................................................................. 15 2.5 Community as Stakeholders ....................................................................................... 18 2.6 Roles of community stakeholders .............................................................................. 19 2.7 District Assembly as Stakeholders ............................................................................. 19 2.8 Role of District Assembly as Stakeholders ................................................................ 20 The Assembly Member .................................................................................................... 21 2.9 Planning of Social Infrastructure ................................................................................ 22 2.9.1 The planning process ........................................................................................... 22 2.9.2 Community Needs Assessment ........................................................................... 22 2.10 Understanding/Perceptions of Community Participation ......................................... 23 2.11 Consultation of Community ..................................................................................... 23 2.11.1 Avenues of Participation .................................................................................... 24 2.12 Benefits of Participation ........................................................................................... 25 2.13 Challenges to Community Participation in Project Delivery ................................... 27 2.14 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................ 30 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 32 METHODOLOGY ............................................................................................................. 32 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 32 3.2 Overview of the Shai-Osudoku District ..................................................................... 32 3.3 Social Infrastructure/Amenities .................................................................................. 33 3.4 Economy of Shai-Osudoku District............................................................................ 34 3.5 Study Design .............................................................................................................. 34 3.6 Study Population and Sampling Technique ............................................................... 35 3.7 Data Collection Instruments ....................................................................................... 37 3.8 Semi-Structured Interview .......................................................................................... 37 3.9 Focus Group Discussion ............................................................................................. 38 3.10 Data Sources ............................................................................................................. 39 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10.1 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 39 3.10.2 Data Validity and Reliability ............................................................................. 39 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 41 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ............................................... 41 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 41 4.2 Respondents understanding of Community Participation, Social Infrastructure and. 43 4.3 Principal Stakeholders and their Roles in the Delivery of Infrastructure in the Communities..................................................................................................................... 45 4.4 Social Infrastructure Projects and Stakeholder consultation in the community ......... 49 4.5 Examining the engagement of stakeholders in the social infrastructural delivery ..... 57 4.6 Challenges to community participation ...................................................................... 61 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 63 SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................................... 63 5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 63 5.2 Summary of Key Findings.......................................................................................... 63 5.3 Conclusions ................................................................................................................ 65 5.4 Recommendations ...................................................................................................... 67 REFERENCE ......................................................................................................................... 68 APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................. 73 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLE Table 2.1 Typologies of Participation ...................................................................................... 10 Table 3.1 Categories of Stakeholders/Respondents ................................................................. 36 Table 4.1 Focus Group one: Youth Group............................................................................... 42 Table 4.2 Focus Group one: Youth Group............................................................................... 42 Table 4.3 Key Informant/Stakeholders .................................................................................... 43 Table 4.4 District Assembly Officials ..................................................................................... 43 Table 4.5 Representation of Stakeholders at Dodowa Town Council Meeting ....................... 60 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework ........................................................................................... 30 Figure 3.1 A Map of Shai-Osudoku District ............................................................................ 33 Figure 4.1 Planning Process ..................................................................................................... 53 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATION APR Annual Progress Reports CHPS Community-based Health Planning and Services DCD District Coordinating Director DCE District Chief Executive DESP District Education Strategic Planning DMTDP District Medium Term Development Plan DPCU District Planning Coordinating Unit FGD Focus Group Discussion KVIP Kumasi Ventilated-Improved Pit LPMT Local Project Management Team MDGs Millennium Development Goals MMDAs Metropolitan Municipal District Assemblies MTDP Medium Term Development Plan NDPC National Development Planning Commission NGO Non-governmental Organization RCC Regional Coordinating Council RPCU Regional Planning Coordinating Unit SDGs Sustainable Development Goals x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SIPs Social Infrastructure Projects UNDP United Nations Development Programme xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Study The drive for development globally has provided in-depth knowledge on the ways of enhancing the living conditions for all people with emphasis on the poor and vulnerable over the past decades. The Millennium Development Goals (MDGS) provides evidence for most development initiatives in many countries world-wide with the start of the millennium (Todaro & Smith, 2012). The emergence of the Sustainable Development Goals which seeks to build on the MDGs and on what it did not achieve emphasizes the desire and commitment globally to improving living standards (UNDP, 2016). The new global development paradigm has identified issues that cut across the consultation processes where people’s quest for participation, inclusion, capacity building and partnerships have been identified as being in the preparatory stage. People’s desire to have participatory opportunities and inclusion were taken into consideration as essential element that all stakeholders demanded and moving forward it was seen an important signal sent by people as expressed in the United Nations Development Group Publication (UNDP, 2014). Participation is not a new phenomenon. It was a part of different cultures prior to the attention it has gained in modern times (Mansuri & Rao, 2012). The focus in contemporary times has attracted different terms in the development discourse based on a multidisciplinary approach of its study. These commonly used terms include community participation, stakeholder participation, citizen participation, people’s participation, public participation and popular participation (Amponsah & Boafo-Arthur, 2003; Garau, 2012; Mansuri & Rao, 2012). The coining of these different concepts ultimately underlines the importance of beneficiary’s involvement in the development process from planning to design through to implementation 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of development projects. The concept of participation according to the World Bank (1996) has been variously thought of to include a process in which interested parties affect and partake in controlling their development initiatives and decisions as well as the resources that influence them. Ghana over the past 25 years has been implementing decentralization reforms as part of its strategies to enhance development. The decentralization process which engenders community participation in the planning and development of communities is underscored by legalities that institutionalizes the participatory process in developing countries (Sanyare, 2013). According to (Ahwoi, 2010a), conscious efforts have been made by Ghana to enact the Local Government Act 1993, ACT 462 to make decentralization mandatory and ensure a decentralized local government system. This drive by government is intended to promote participation in the planning, implementation and delivery of pubic goods and services to improve the livelihoods of its citizenry who otherwise feel far apart from the governance and development process. The local government Act (462) empowers metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies in Ghana as the fulcrum of the local governance. The Act mandates Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies to prepare their Medium Term Development Plans by consulting the local communities to solicit their views on needs which should be considered, prioritized and implemented to improve their living conditions (NDPC, 2014). The projects and programmes captured in the MTDP are enormous and it is the social infrastructure needs demanded by communities that receives the most attention. Teriman, Yigitcanlar, and Mayere (2011) are of the view that social infrastructure is all encompassing and exist to meet the basic needs of communities. Social infrastructure also improves the standard of life, ensures equity, stability and the social well-being of people. Han, Yusof, Hai, and Ismail (2012) alternatively defines social infrastructure as “those buildings, structures and facilities specifically constructed to 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh serve the community at large.” The most visible form of these infrastructure projects are hospitals, schools and communities facilities. The National Development Planning Commission (NDPC), the constitutionally mandated institution provides the guidelines for coordinating and regulating the decentralised planning systems in the National Development planning system Act 1994 (Act 480) (NDPC, 2013). The Act gives authority to the Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies to prepare their Medium-Term Development Plans which has the provision of social infrastructure included as a necessary part of their major development projects. The consultation of local communities to ensure their needs and priorities are considered, captured and implemented in the plan is also mandatory. This is the key to their effective participation in planning, designing and delivery of social infrastructural projects. Participation in development projects has been shown to improve the success of programmes and has implication for long-term sustainability. This can be ascribed to local government receptivity to the voices of local people (Chirenje, Giliba, & Musamba, 2013; Widianingsih & Morrell, 2007). Ayee and Amponsah (2002) similarly see that involving local citizens in development planning enhances the quality of project design. The benefits accrued in meaningful community participation helps in targeting the poor, building social capital, an upsurge by the community for good governance and ensuring local content in terms of knowledge and preferences are represented in the decision process of governments and private sectors (Mansuri & Rao, 2012). The empowerment of local communities and their involvement in the decision making process through the District Medium Term Development Plan is a bottom up approach seen as crucial for supporting pro-poor policies, programs, projects, improved service delivery, poverty reduction and the attainment of the Sustainable Development Goals. It is therefore necessary 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to understand the process through which communities participate in the determination of their social infrastructural needs. These needs directly linked their daily lives/living conditions determines the eventual state of well-being of individuals in the community. 1.2 Statement of Problem Ghana’s 21st century development status leaves a lot to be desired. The country has made strenuous efforts to increase the pace of its development but many policies and programmes contained in development plans have not been substantively realized. Since independence, Ghana has struggled to formulate, implement, and evaluate policies that are geared towards improving the livelihood of its citizens. The gap in the four year National Decentralization Policy Framework (NDPF) and its policy outcomes can be attributed to implementation issues such as improper coordination and the lack of required skills and commitment on the part of implementing agencies. The bulk of developmental challenges faced by local assemblies such as the Shia-Osudoku district in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana cast doubts on how members of communities are actually involved in the planning process of determining their own needs. The strengthening of the MMDAs with the aim of improving participation and engagement through a bottom up approach to bring a difference in the development of the local communities and poverty reduction is one of the current goals of decentralization in Ghana (Sanyare, 2013). The decentralization process in Ghana even though touted as successful faces difficulties in the fulfilment of local community developmental needs (Awortwi, 2010). A lot is jeopardized due to great apathy, lack of support, weak institutional and human capacity (Ahwoi, 2010a, 2010b). Also the lack of ownership and commitment results in limited participation as well as organisational conflicts (Kojo Sakyi, Koku Awoonor-Williams, & Adzei, 2011; Kumi- Kyereme, 2008). 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The awareness of local communities and their participation in development activities is not well defined whilst the strategies adopted and techniques used to encourage participation are highly cosmetic (Kenny, 1997). The problems of the Shia-Osudoku district are on the ascendency due to its location to the capital city Accra and the opportunities it offers for migrant settler’s majority of whom are result of the spill over population in the capital. The demand for schools, clinics, public toilets, markets, roads and other critical social infrastructure outweighs the supply within the district making planning a thing to reconsider. Recognizing the emergence of sub-urban centres as a vehicle that drives growth and hope for the poor, this can be achieved when development plans and programmes are responsive to the needs and aspirations of the local community (Owusu, 2013). Little research is available on the processes of how social infrastructural projects are planned, designed and delivered taking into consideration the participation of local communities in the preparation of the Medium-Term Development plans for the district. Many social infrastructure projects have been left uncompleted, abandoned or poorly managed because it lacks concerted efforts by local government authorities to involve the communities. The very essence behind local governance becomes threatened. The poor citing of a market threatens the livelihoods of the market woman and dependents, lack of engagement in citing a public toilet results in non- usage, poor mobilization of community resources, uncompleted or abandoned projects. It is based on these problems of non-participation and abandoned infrastructure in the local assembly and community that informs the study to investigate participation within the Shai- Osudoku district. 1.3 Purpose of study This study focuses on community participation in the delivery of social infrastructure in local government. Sustaining and deepening local development in Ghana is inextricably linked to community participation and inclusion of grassroots in the delivery of infrastructure. A deeper 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participatory approach to local governance by the communities would better enhance the delivery and sustenance of its infrastructure needs. The study will shed light on dynamics of community participation in delivery of social infrastructure projects and this would serve an invaluable resource in identifying the challenges and as well best practices in community engagement in the local governance process. Community participation in development projects has shown to improve programmes success and long term sustainability. This can be ascribed to local government receptivity to the voices of the citizenry and underscores the importance of this study. Importantly this study will add on to existing literature of knowledge on community participation in planning, designing and implementing projects which are central to their wellbeing. Additionally, it will contribute to enhancing policy discussions and its implementation within the scope of decentralisation and local governance. Planning authorities such as the NDPC can also draw from this study recommendations to support the strengthening of our existing decentralisation and local government policy. It will go a long way to help the Shai-Osudoku District Assembly as well as its communities, by the recommending feasible strategies that can be adopted to improve and increase participation in the delivery of social infrastructure within the district. 1.4 Aim and Objectives The aim of the study is to investigate the processes of community participation in delivering social infrastructure projects in the Shai-Osudoku district. Specifically, the study seeks to achieve the following objectives: • To identify the principal stakeholders in the local assembly and communities • To explore the planning process through needs assessment by the community and local Assembly in the delivery of social infrastructure. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Organization of Study The study is organized in five chapters. Chapter one focuses of the background of the study, the statement of problem, the aims and objectives, relevance, and scope and limitation of the study. Chapter two gives a theoretical review on participation and the empirical literature of on community participation and social infrastructure. It also focuses on the conceptual framework for the study. Chapter three talks about the methodology of the study but sectioned into two areas. The first part focuses on the details of how the research was conducted thus the research design, instruments, mode of selection of respondents and how data is managed and analyzed. The second section focuses on the brief profile of the study district, thus Shai-Osudoku district. The fourth chapter discusses the findings and discussion of the study. Stakeholders and their roles in community participation, the planning and needs assessment process and the engagement of various stakeholders in the delivery of social infrastructure are discussed. Chapter five summaries the findings, concludes and makes recommendations based on the findings of the study. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction Community participation provides an avenue for information about the choices people make, and the benefits they get from information and how this influence their optimal choice. This information has the tendency to increase welfare for the community and better development projects (Khwaja, 2004). It is enough to label a project “community based” if there is no active involvement of the communities at all stages of the project. This is because the communities are the most closest to these “resources” and should be treated as active recipient of technocratic and bureaucratic solutions from the higher level of decision (Chirenje et al., 2013). People’s involvement in making societal choices and decisions is a natural outcome of the endowment of individual dignity because it contributes to the individual self-development. The full involvement of the individual within the local government context contributes to the creation of community solidarity because of the feeling of involvement by everyone. Individual’s involvement is centred on popular participation where a greater percentage of citizens are requested and required to express their wishes on issues of governance. This is achieved through meetings in small and large communities. In addition, major avenues required in the determination of needs and priorities are the grassroots or communities which through their unit committee and Assembly members representing the various interest of their communities are expected to indicate their priority needs (Thomi et al., 2000). On the other side it must be taken to record that there are caveats of stakeholder participation in the delivery of projects. Many problems encountered in stakeholder participation include the variations in the philosophical and theoretical concepts, 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cultural variations, competing organisational goals, political interest, and entry points of evaluations (Berger-Bartlett & Craig, 2002). 2.2 Meaning of Participation A long history of participation in both national and international agencies have made efforts to involve people in aspect of planning and implementation. The evolution of two overlapping schools of thought indicate that participation as a means to increasing efficiency and where the motive involves people it increases the likelihood of their agreement and support to new development or service whilst the other school views participation as a fundamental right which is aimed to initiate mobilization efforts for collective action, empowerment and institutional building. In recent times, increasing number of comparative studies of development projects show participation is a critical component of success. It has been linked with increased mobilization of stakeholder ownership of policies and projects, greater efficiency, understanding and social cohesion, more effective services, greater space for transparency and accountability, increased empowering of the poor and disadvantaged and strengthened capacity of the people to learn and act (Pretty, 1995) The term participation has been used to justify the extension of control of the state as well as to build local capacity and self-reliance. It has also been used to justify external decisions as well as to devolve power and decision-making away from the external agencies. Pretty (1995) identifies typologies of how people participate in development programs and project. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 2.1 Typologies of Participation Typology Characteristics Manipulative Participation Participation is seen as a pretence with people’s representatives on official boards but who are unelected and have no power Passive Participation People participate by being told what has been decided. Unilateral decisions are taken and announced by the project management without giving space to listen to people’s contribution. The information disseminated are from and entitlements of external professionals Consultative Participation People are seen to be part of participation when consulted or by answering questions. External professionals define problems and information gathering processes and so control analysis. Such consultative processes does not concede in share in decision making and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people’s views Participation for Material Incentives Participating is seen when people contribute resources in return for an incentive, example labour in return for food. It is common to see this called participation yet people have no 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stake in prolonging technologies or practices when incentives end Functional Participation Participation here is seen by external agencies as a means to achieve project goals especially reduce cost. People participate by forming groups to meet predetermined objectives related to the project. It involves interaction and shared decision making but tends to arise only after major decisions have already been made by external agents. At worst local people may still only be co-opted to serve Interactive Participation People participate in joint analysis development of action plans and formation or strengthening of local institutions. Participation is seen as a right not just the means to achieve project goals. The process involves interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and structured learning processes. As groups take control over local decisions and determine how available resources are used, so they have a stake in maintaining structures or practices. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Self-Mobilization People participate by taking initiatives independently of external institutions for resources and technical advice they need, but retain control over how resources are used. Self-mobilization can spread if governments and NGOs provide an enabling framework of support. Such self-initiated mobilization may or may not challenge existing distributions of wealth and power. Source:(Pretty, 1995) According to Cohen and Uphoff (1980), it is important to be quite specific on the meaning of participation in any particular situation when it concerns rural development. The framework is based on the key assumption that participation is not a thing that either exits or does not exist. In some studies participation is viewed as a clearly defined concept capable of measurement, however they treat participation as a ‘rubric’ under which a number of clearly defined elements can be gathered. At the centre of the explanation of development participation is the dissimilarities between dimensions and context of participation. Dimension focuses on the kind of participation taking place, the sets of individuals involved in the participatory process and the various features of how the process occurs. Conversely, the context of participation looks at the relationship between rural development project characteristics and the trends of actual participation as an outcome. The context of participation also considers the ‘task environment’ in which the project operates. This directs concern to historical, environmental and social characteristics which frequently have a strong effect on emerging patterns of participation in a given rural development effort. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The kinds of participation that take place in communities are concerned with participation in decision making, implementation, benefits and in evaluation. Decision making specifically focuses on idea generation, formulation and assessment of options, making choices about them and formulating plans for putting selected options into effect. Decision making is distinguished in initial, ongoing and operational decisions. Initial decision begin with the needs assessment of the locals and how they are approached through a particular project and seen as most crucial stage of project development. Such participation provides vital information on the local environment and avoid disagreement as to the nature of the problem and measures proposed for its mitigation. Among the initial decisions which involves local people are whether the project should start, where it should be located, the ways it should be financed and staffed, the paths of participation on the projects and contributions expected from the locals. Also members of the community participate in ongoing decisions which occur after initial decisions has been taken, which might be more critical to the project success than the initial design decision. It explores the various opportunities that exist out of new needs and priorities that the project might respond to and also operating the project in ways that best fits participating needs. Also operational decisions of participation relates to specific local organisation that are established by the project or linked to the project in effort to involve people in the delivery of the project. Operational decisions focuses on voluntary associations, cooperatives, traditional associations, women’s clubs and other organisations participating in the substantive work of the project (Cohen & Uphoff, 1980). 2.3 Understanding Social Infrastructure The idea of Social Infrastructure projects came to light over the decade mainly as a result society’s great interest in public infrastructure. According to Argy, Lindfield, Stimson, and Hollingsworth (1999), social infrastructure can be placed into two different categories thus hard which includes clinics, schools, community centers and the soft infrastructure which 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh includes services that are rendered from the hard social infrastructure structures such as health care, education, and social security. The focus of the study is much on the delivery of hard social infrastructure within the local communities. The delivery of SIPs considers a broad range of stakeholders usually from government agencies, private organization and non-profit organizations with other user groups, independent consultants and the academic research institutions. In terms of scale and size of SIPs, they are much smaller compared to economic infrastructure but SIPs are much complex as generic construction projects due to the after construction and maintenance stage which involves the engagement of the community (Wai, Yusof, Ismail, & Ng, 2013). Teriman et al. (2011) says infrastructure generally refers to the structures established to facilitate the delivery of goods and services between places and places. The categories of infrastructure can be placed into physical and economic infrastructure of which some examples are roads, railways, airports, water supply, energy and sewerage systems. On another side social infrastructure includes housing, health and education facilities. It is however important to note that concept of social infrastructure cannot only be simplified as physical or hard infrastructure that supports the provision of services for mankind. Consideration for what is termed as soft infrastructure such as social environment, services and programmes are also looked at to improve a greater human investment. The following can be categorized as examples of soft infrastructure which are health, education, employment and training and public safety (Wai et al., 2013). It also seen by Hall and Jones (1999) as the structures of government policies that shapes the economic space within which there are skills accumulation by individuals, capital accumulation and output production by firms. This gives both political leaders and economist to term social infrastructure as an investment in human capital and it is provided through physical elements that support the provision meted out to humans (SACOSS, 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2009). 2.4 Stakeholders in Community Participation The question about stakeholders of participation and also the excluded is of crucial concern. Participation is hardly seen as a unified process but rather an environment of competition amongst power blocks each with their own projects, determine the line of action. While there might be an available framework set by outside stakeholders, much relies on who participates and where their agency and interest direct projects. It is not rare to hear reports or read policy statement that there should be full participation by various stakeholders. A deep and wide participatory process is seen as the way to go but even this has its challenges in practice and proves to be cumbersome and time wasting which in the long run diminishes the interest of stakeholders. In this instance, it requires the need to look at options of optimum participation, thus balancing between depth and inclusion right for participation (Cornwall, 2008). Most often participatory processes cannot involve everyone. The approach used to select must focus much on participation of representatives. These are people who speak for a particular interest group or groups and those that seek more of a direct democratic way of participation. Also, the reality dictates that voices of some are to taken to represent others being the poor or the undifferentiated community and raises concern about representation and voice. Frequently used as a mechanism of inclusion is the predetermination of stakeholder categories whose opinions are taken to represent their homogenous groups. It sometimes occurs by default that those who engage in participation are often times those who come to public meetings. These distribution as analysis show are culturally relevant and those who fall within these categories can be said to be representatives who speak for others and about others (Cornwall, 2008). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Cohen and Uphoff (1980) distinguish four general categories of participants who are more significant than others in the participation process. These are local residents, local leaders’ government personnel and foreign personnel. Local residents and leaders are considered to have local roots whilst government and foreign personnel are seen to be outsiders in the participation process. The local people are seen to be in the residual category and they include a huge and heterogeneous group comprising of peasant farmers, tenants of landowners, farm labourers, craftsmen and herdsmen. These are seen as the focus of rural development projects. Also, local leaders have long-run participation in the area of their work. They are usually seen as local elites, thus land owners, custodians of the land, merchants and professionals. Local leader varies in definition from one jurisdiction to the other. Some leaders are seen to be clan chiefs, religious figures, influential professional and local notables. The second is associational heads who are elected or appointed for a formal organisation such as cooperative league president chairman of a voluntary association or a leader of a local trade union. The third are the local office holders such as headmen, elders, mayors or tax collectors. The nature of office holding sometimes makes it challenging to differentiate local leader from government personnel given requirement to uphold government interest. Also government personnel are tasked to a location for a period of time and whether or not they are from a local area, their duties are determined by the bureaucracy by the central government and their positions is not an outcome of the happenings within the area. These appointees are subject to transfer. The government personnel are more qualified and have a higher education and social status in comparison to the locals. These government officials are also important to look at with respect to their level of participation and evaluate the roles the roles they play to promote, control and block project activity. Foreign personnel are also given some consideration as stakeholders of participation because their roles can be crucial. These categories of stakeholders include foreign donor employees, 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh head of private voluntary associations, missionary personnel, expatriates or immigrants who live and operate at the local level (Cohen & Uphoff, 1980). According to Thomi et al. (2000), the interest of youth groups in the development process in districts is high but with low power to influence the process. The representative of the community termed ‘Assembly man’ have high interest in the development of community but seems powerless with low level of influence. The other actors of community participation are women and farmers and they are less interested in the involvement of development process in the district. Also, women have a high interest in the development process but their powers are low in influencing decision making due to socio-cultural factors. “Most of the issues affect us and our children, so we are interested in the development of the district. We fetch the water, grow the food crops, take care of the children but when they discuss things that affects us nobody consults us” Functions of the District Assembly The 1992 constitution of Ghana and the Local government Act (Act 462) of 1993 spells out explicitly six broad functions of the metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies. These are to give political and administrative guidance, give direction and to supervise all other administrative authorities in the district. It also serves to exercise deliberative, legislative and executive functions, it is responsible for overall development of the district and ensure the preparation of development plans of the district and budget of the district related to the approved plans. The district assembly is also responsible for the effective mobilization of resources necessary for the overall development of the district. The other functions are the promotion of productive activity and social development, coordination, integrating and harmonizing the execution of programmes and projects under the approved development plans for the district and other developments (Crawford, 2004). 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Community as Stakeholders Development projects in local communities have project beneficiaries in the communities. Their contributions are crucial to the success of community projects. According to Boon, Bawole, and Ahenkan (2013), members of the local project management team are identified and selected through a fair, all-inclusive and democratic process. They are of the view that upon entering a community with an approved project, a meeting of opinion leaders and other various stakeholders is conducted for a discussion on forming a local project management team. The Local Project Management Team are then mandated to be in charge of the local management and coordination of the project activities. Boon et al. (2013) posits the representatives that are considered includes the chief who represents the traditional authorities because of the influence and respect they hold in the community. Considerations are sometimes made to select representatives of the youth, women, farmers, religious organizations, NGOs, teachers and any influential groups in the community. It must be noted that the representatives are usually not there on their own decision but elected by their groups to represent them. The criteria for selecting the representatives includes selfless and committed devotion in championing the goals of the group and as well must have gained the trust of the members of the local community. Munt (2002), is of the view that these must be known personalities within the communities and must be well vested with cultural dynamics, complexities, traditions and practices of the community. The interest and various level of influence of stakeholders were revealed by Boon et al. (2013) through focus groups and indebt interviews in the planning and budgeting of the district. The level of influence much depended on the type and quantity of available resources that can be mobilized as power force in participation. The stakeholder analysis revealed youth groups, farmers, women, civil society organization, assemblymen, opinion leaders and local 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh authorities. The interest of farmer group was seen to be low whilst the CSOs and local authorities had power and influence amongst the lot to influence participation. 2.6 Roles of community stakeholders The functions of the LMPT varies slightly depending on the type of project and the community where it is being executed. It also includes community members mobilizing themselves for communal work, project activities being coordinated and managed at the local level, taking community members contributions, managing of project accounts, identifying and selection of artisans and local professional to provide technical support, monitoring and evaluating progress of projects, participating in the fees negotiation, recommending disciplinary actions and reporting to field supervisors on project progress(Boon et al., 2013). 2.7 District Assembly as Stakeholders The local government structure functions for planning and public administration are at three levels, the regional, district and sub-district levels of governance (Botchie, 2000) The Regional structure is represented as the Regional coordinating council which is mandated for coordinating, harmonization, monitoring and evaluating responsibilities over the metropolitan, municipal and district assemblies at the regional level. The Local government Act, 1993 (Act 462), mandates the MMDAs with legislative, development planning and implementation responsibilities within their jurisdiction. The sub-structures of the MMDAs which are the sub- metro’s, urban, zonal, town and area councils are also tasked to perform functions of supporting local community and grass root planning, management function within the areas location and operation (Maple Consult, 2010; Asante et al., 2014). The local government Act 480 recognizes the District Assembly as the planning authority at the district level. It points out key stakeholders within the district setting as the stakeholders when it comes to community participation in the planning of their infrastructural needs. The 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stakeholders are referred to as the District Planning Coordination Unit (DPCU). The membership that constitutes the DPCU are the stakeholders within the district assembly responsible for the routine management of the district and headed by District Planning Officer. The unit is constituted by core professional and technical staff in developing the District Medium Term Development Plan for a period of four years (Maple Consult, 2010). The table gives the composition of the DPCU. They are the stakeholders within the district assembly structure in participation process of delivering social infrastructure in the local communities. 2.8 Role of District Assembly as Stakeholders The district assembly is constituted by various officials and these officials perform their duties as is in the line with the development agenda of their districts. The officials are the District Chief Executive Officer, who assumes the role as the political, executive and administrative authority of the district. Amongst the functions of the DCE are; he/she presides over the executive committee and assembly tender, reviews committee meetings, performs routine executive and administrative functions of the assembly, supervises the decentralized departments of the assembly and government representative at the district level (Friedrich- Ebert-Stiftung & Institute of Local Government Studies, 2011). Another official within the district assembly is the Presiding Member who is elected from the members of the district. The assumption of office of the presiding member is subject to the approval of at least two-thirds of all assembly members. The functions of the presiding member includes the following; he/she chairs the general assembly meetings, facilitates the deliberations to ensure assembly members appropriately conduct themselves and are of good behavior at assembly meetings, presides over the public relations and complaints committee 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and also presides the credits approval committee meetings and consulted in selecting members to be appointed to urban or zonal or town councils. The District Coordinating Director is the official among the functionaries who is neither elected nor appointed to the position as DCD. The position of the DCD is more of the coordinating head of the district assembly. Amongst the roles assumed by the DCD are; responsible for running the day to day activities of the coordinating directorate of the assembly, implements plans and decisions of the assembly, and serves as secretary to the district assembly, executive committee and assembly tender committee. The Assembly Member The intermediary between the District assembly and the community is the Assembly member. He plays a crucial role in the development of the community. The following are some of the roles of the assembly member; participating in committee meetings of the assembly, serves as member of a committee in the assembly, educates the locals community on government policies and assembly projects, they are in touch with their electorate and interact with them frequently and they consult and collate the views, opinions and proposals of the problems that affect the district and present them to the assembly. The unit committee are also functionaries of the district assembly who perform the following functions; supervise the staff of the district assembly in executing their duties in its electoral area, they also assist the assembly in the collection of revenue, they organize communal work and mobilize community members to volunteer in doing public work, they are also responsible for educating the citizenry of their rights, privileges and obligations and they monitor the delivery of communal effort projects within their electoral area (Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung & Institute of Local Government Studies, 2011). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9 Planning of Social Infrastructure 2.9.1 The planning process According to Maple Consult, (2010), the planning process begins with the preparation of the medium term Development plans which is spearheaded by the DPCU of the district assembly. The process of preparing DMTDPs generally entails the following, the issuing of guidelines to all RCCs and MMDAs by the NDPC; the MMDAs then constitute a plan preparation team referred to the DPCU; then follows a review of the performance of previous plan; after that data is collected collated and analyzed with stakeholders who include traditional authorities, communities, sub structures and decentralized unit of government within the district; this follows the first public hearing to present the status quo and ascertain the development priorities; the next step is a draft of the DMTDP, then follows a second public hearing to review development proposal and strategies, this is followed by the submission of a draft plan to the RCC and NDPC for vetting; after which the draft DMTDP is reviewed based on the comments from the RCC and NDPC; then the general assembly gives its approval of the DMTDP and finally the copies of the DMTDP is submitted to the RCC. 2.9.2 Community Needs Assessment Needs Assessment is defined according to Altschuld and Kumar (2009) as “the process of identifying needs, prioritizing them, making needs based decisions, allocating resources and implementing actions in the organizations to resolve problems underlying important needs.” They identified some agencies who spearhead the needs assessment as businesses, community agencies and government institutions among others and smaller groups usually are the lead facilitators through the process. Tools for needs assessment is also very crucial because its serves as data gathering techniques in identifying various needs of the community. Gupta, 2011 confirmed this by stating “data 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh gathering is the cornerstone of any needs-assessment project.” He identified some commonly used means of data collecting data for needs assessment as interviews, focus groups surveys/questionnaire and observations. The combination of these methods are mostly used for assessing the needs of communities. Others identified as data collection by Cordero (1997) for needs assessment are office techniques, social indicators, nominal group process, community forums, key informant interviews and survey. An expanded scope to involve a large number of people to participate in development programmes and projects provides them the power to determine their own needs. Participation offers local people the opportunity to identify their needs and also determine the important goals of the programme (Mathbor, 2008b). Local people who participate in decision making and implement programmes and projects also help project officials to identify needs, provide strategies to meet those needs and equip them with the necessary resources needed to implement the various ideas as cited by (Mathbor, 2008b). Using an example (Mathbor, 2008a) stated “community participation will be discouraged if environmental issues are given priority in agendas without addressing issues such as poverty, homelessness, health, and other basic necessities perceived to more important by the coastal communities.” 2.10 Understanding/Perceptions of Community Participation 2.11 Consultation of Community Communities play a major role in the implementation of programs, project and activities. The supply of labor, local materials and sometimes local knowledge for the development of project is invaluable for the management of resources (Chirenje et al., 2013). Consulting stakeholders involves extending the scope of including people’s opinions on intended plans and actions and engaging them through dialoguing. Information flow through this process is a two way approach between the proponent and the local community. It provides 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the platform for the local community to express their thoughts on proposed projects that are initiated by the proponent. Consultation requires that planning and implementation of projects be rigorous and should be executed only after the opportunities for discussion and consultation have been exhausted. The consideration for consulting usually includes education, information sharing, and negotiation, with the intention making a good judgement of decisions through consulting with the general public. This provides the opportunity for the marginalized to be heard and also have a say on impending projects or programs (Mathbor, 2008a). According Mathbor (2008b) consideration must be given to local community to tap into their knowledge and also be brought on board as experts in planning and designing of projects. This should translate into ideas where they are encouraged to articulate and as well considered in the design of proposed projects. 2.11.1 Avenues of Participation The grounds for participation of stakeholders in a project can be seen in various forms which includes what Smith (2003) terms as the traditional forms of participation. These forms are identified as publications, public meeting, open house, advisory committee/task force, workshops, target briefings, focus group, bilateral meetings, toll-free phone line, interviews surveys and public hearings as the key forms of stakeholder participation. Some communities are more involving than others but almost all local government provide the opportunity for residents to speak in public hearing and a large number of people were given the opportunity to participate in town hall meeting and this approach only collects views of those who show up and are bold to speak up openly(Berner, 2001). According to Berner (2001) some local government officials go beyond the meeting room to elicit community opinions on issues of concern. Officials with their staff and department representatives usually visit civic groups and neighbor associations. The other methods of 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh involvement identified were finance committee composed of citizens and commissioners that make recommendation to the board, focus groups, community meetings on budget, neighbor forums with their representation and employee meeting. According to Ahenkan, Bawole, and Domfeh (2013) the planning officers facilitate the the planning process by bringing on board the local community in decision making however this has not made participation effective in the community through town hall meetings. Mathbor (2008b) suggests several methods used when consulting local people and this usually depends on the project. These are usually in the form of public hearings, public meetings displays, general public information meetings, informal group meetings, public displays, field trips, site visits, letter request for comments, material for mass media and response to public inquiries. 2.12 Benefits of Participation Invariably the benefits of participation is espoused by several studies and its contribution to the delivery of social infrastructure projects. The relevance of people’s participation is fundamentally to help them make informed decisions and actions that pertains to their development (Mathur, 1986). Mpolokeng (2003) posits participation increases efficiency, effectiveness, self-reliance and sustainability of development projects. Wema (2000), in a study in Tanzania outlines the advantages of deliberately involving community members as a result of substantial improvement in the road carriage, education structures, health facilities and livelihood and skills training for the youth. According to Thomas (1995), a well-structured assessment of the needs of the community, conditions and attitudes are crucial to the success or failure of development projects and programmes and this can be result of inclusive efforts through participation. There is also clear identification of the needs of the community and the modalities for its provision and this would 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh result to the acceptance and buying into the project and programmes by the community (Olujimi & Egunjobi, 1991). According to Oakley (1991), the flow of information to local communities reduces the tendency of conflict and waste of limited available resources. The relevance of participation also gives the opportunity for locals to choose projects they think are of benefit to them (Wema, 2000). Paul (1987) puts it across that participation enhances the delivery of service, promote cooperation, build agreement and interactions amongst the beneficiaries of projects and implementing stakeholders reducing the cost and avoiding delays. This according to Golooba‐ Mutebi (2004) provides the platform to bring more development and also arouse the civil duties of the locals. Paul (1987), indicates that intended outcome of projects can satisfy the specific needs of communities when local expertise in terms of knowledge, skills and resources are considered. This he termed as co-production which required a collaborative effort with beneficiaries. Salmen (1987) also puts it that people’s well-being can be enhanced when the opinions of beneficiaries are taken and considered during planning and implementation stage. According to Thomas (1995), community participation is encouraged by knowing that it is a requirement to successfully implement a project. A well-practiced participatory process provides a learning log that is used to build the capacity of the local people. The involvement of community creates an informed citizenry who become expert and understand the technicalities of tough situations and develop initiatives to solve them. It also provides opportunities for local authorities to be informed on issues that are related to the community. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.13 Challenges to Community Participation in Project Delivery Takyi, Anin, and Asuo (2014) found out in study in Salaga district of the Northern region of Ghana, some contributing factors such as inadequate funds/resource, time wasting, terrain and lukewarm attitude among community stakeholders contributed to the apathy amongst community member in the participation process. The district assembly was of the opinion that inadequate funds for support activities in community participation was a major hurdle towards planning and implementation of the District Education Strategic Planning to improve the quality of education at the basic level in Salaga town Council. Some items that challenged the participation process are per-diem, training resources and logistics. The study revealed the cost incurred in community participation is astronomical and beyond the budget allocation of the district (Takyi et al., 2014). According to Takyi et al. (2014), assembly members feared not meeting deadlines for the planning and implementation of the DESP because involving the community was time wasting. They were of the view that high level of illiteracy among community stakeholders can be attributed to why it was time wasting. Also the district assembly stakeholders talk about the apathy amongst community stakeholders as a barrier to effective community participation in the planning and implementation of the DESP. The causal factor attributed was stakeholders not deriving the needed benefits from participating in the projects and programmes of the district (Takyi et al., 2014). The participation process is an important element in the concept of decentralization but it is not exclusively justified to the success of delivering social infrastructure. It also comes with its limitations and may not be applicable to each situation (Khwaja, 2004). In a study by Khwaja (2004) it was realized that participation becomes a challenge in the cases where participants 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh have conflicting stands and ideas and each wants their interest represented. This dilemma requires that a good facilitation approach be adopted to benefit the minority and disadvantaged groups. It can be worsened by the power play of several interest groups and have different needs with limited resources to meet such demands and the effect if not managed well can lead to conflicts. According to Khwaja (2004), community participation is usually helpful for making non-technical decision but it is erroneous to assume that it implies to a fit for all situation to sustainable development. The study stipulates that some decision require people with technical know-how and should not be handled by an ordinary member of the community. According to (Aguilar, 1988), community participation may favor the elites in society and fail to involve majority of the ordinary people particular in local communities, thus consideration is given to the educated, politically advantaged and middle class within the communities. Another point made by Aguilar (1988) is that the distance from the settlement where community members dwell to where the planning process is organized is a quite a journey and therefore hinders well-meaning community members to part take in the planning process. Dorcey (1994) outlines the cost burden of participatory planning as a challenge in effective community participation. Mansouri and Rao (2013), says it is seen in terms of the financial commitment required for mobilization the participation process and also a time-consuming venture. Another challenge to consider according to Kolkman, Kok, and Van der Veen (2005) is the level of knowledge gap between local residents and government official’s breed mistrust and discrimination which affects community participation at the local level. Language sometimes serves a barrier for effective participation at the local level. The reality of government officials not being able to speak the language of the local people alienate the local residents form participating in decision making (Addae-Boahene, 2015; Kolkman et al., 2005). 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Stakeholder consultation is also seen to be costly especially the cost of preparation and implementation resulting from the need to consult and negotiate with other stakeholders involved. This may require some advisory and administrative resources which may require some form of human and financial commitments (Boon et al., 2013). There is a clear observation of a web of actors in stakeholder participation and their idiosyncrasies which makes participation a complex and expensive concept in practice. Although the World Bank (1996) advocates for all stakeholders to work together to champion development projects, distinguishes different categories of power, interest and resources and cautions that building consensus and reconciling key stakeholder interest is not all the time an easy process. The Bank argues that it may entail risk that may arouse conflicts among groups with competing interest and priorities. Ghana has a number of community projects initiated by central and local government but have been either opposed by community or have be never been patronised by community after completion. Toilet facilities, market structures boreholes among others have been abandoned due to the absence of stakeholder participation (Boon et al., 2013). 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.14 Conceptual Framework Figure 2.1 Conceptual framework STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATION COLLEGIATE COLLABORATIVE CONSULTATIVE CONTRACTUAL SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE DELIVERY Source: Author’s Construct, 2017 The study adopts Vernooy’s (2005) framework in analysing four different types of stakeholder participation. The choice of the framework is considered appropriate as it provides a multi- layered approach to participation and a multi-layered ownership of initiatives in participation on the delivery of social infrastructure. The concept of stakeholder participation variously include the process by which parties of interest affect and partake in controlling development initiatives and the decisions and resources that influence them (World Bank, 1996). Vernooy’s different types of stakeholder participation provides different dynamics of its features and effectiveness in the delivery of development initiatives in communities. The contractual type of participation focuses on one stakeholder having a sole decision making power over most decisions and seen as the “owner” of projects. This type of stakeholder 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participation defines roles for other stakeholders and are formally or informally contracted to provide development initiatives. Consultative participation is defined by one stakeholder making the most decisions. It also consults and gathers information from other stakeholders. This type of participation draws from other stakeholders to help identify opportunities and constraints, priority setting and evaluation of project initiatives. Vernooy’s third type of participation is more collaborative in nature. This concept of participation considers different stakeholders collaborating and each stakeholder considered equally important in the drive for development. This is usually achieved through stakeholder linkage in knowledge sharing and sharing of decision-making power during the innovation process. The collegiate type of participation considers stakeholders who work together as colleagues and partners and this translate to equal distribution of responsibilities and ownership. This means that decision making in this type of participation is by consensus. However, the linkage between the four types of stakeholder participation to development projects provides a deeper understanding of the types of participation that effectively engages stakeholders at all levels to deliver successful social infrastructure projects. This study adopts the collaborative and collegiate types of participation as having a strong linkage to the delivery of social infrastructure projects. The contractual and consultative types of participation provides an unbalanced approach to stakeholder engagement and this results in a weak linkage to effective delivery of social infrastructure projects. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This section gives an overview of the study area and focuses on research design for the study. The first part captures the overview of features on the Shai-Osudoku district assembly where the study was conducted and the second phase looks into the study design, sampling procedure, research instruments and techniques for data collection and analysis. 3.2 Overview of the Shai-Osudoku District The Shai-Osudoku District is situated in the South-Eastern part of Ghana in the Greater Accra Region. In all, the district occupies a total land area of about 968.361 square km. The district has Dodowa as its capital. Based on Legislative Instrument LI 2137, Dangme West District was split into two in June 2012 to have Ningo Prampram District and Shai-Osudoku District. It shares boundaries with the North Tongu District to the North-East, Yilo and Lower Manya Districts to the North-West, Akwapim North District to the West, Kpone Kantamanso District to the South-West, Ningo Prampram District to the South and the Ada West District to the East. (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014) The total population size is 51,913 and 51.3% are females whilst males represents 48.7 %. The district constitutes 1.3% of the regions population. The local economy is dominated by agriculture and this reflects 58.6% of population engaged in farming related activities whilst 22.1% of the population are into trade. (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014) The political and administrative structure of the district has 32 members out which 22 are elected from the 22 electoral areas whilst 10 are appointees of government. The gender distribution places the male who are 26 in dominant position compared to the females who are 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh six. The presiding member is elected from amongst the assembly members by at least two- thirds majority. The district has three (3) area councils one (1) town council namely Ayikuma, Asutsuare, Osuwem area councils and Dodowa town council (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). Figure 3.1 A Map of Shai-Osudoku District Source: Ghana Statistical Service, GIS (2014) 3.3 Social Infrastructure/Amenities The educational infrastructure within the district comprises 48 preschools, 49 primary schools, 35 Junior High Schools, 5 Senior High Schools, 2 integrated community centres for employable skills in Dodowa and Agomeda, Dipo vocational school and Kordiabe and secretarial and Accountancy School at Ayikuma. The health facilities comprise of a district hospital at Dodowa, five CHPS zones strategically located at Agomeda, Ayikuma, Agotor, Osuwem and Tokpo. The district also has a private maternity home at Dodowa as well as a quasi-government 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh institution at Kordiabe. There are three police stations at Dodowa, Doryumu and Asutsaure (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). 3.4 Economy of Shai-Osudoku District The district is largely rural and this reflects an occupational distribution of agricultural related activities. The active labour force is in agriculture related employment and this sector employs 58.6 percent of its people. Trading is the next highest employer in the district of which 22.1 percent of the population are into trading. The district is also noted for the production fruits such as mangoes, pineapple and banana (Ghana Statistical Service, 2014). 3.5 Study Design Research design is fundamental in guiding the researcher through the collection of data and its analysis and interpretation. It addresses the connection between research questions, data, and analysis. Yin (2003) defines research design as “a logical sequence that connects the empirical data to the study’s initial research questions, and then ultimately, to its conclusions.” This research objectives determined the data collected. The unit of analysis (themes), and logic linking with research objectives supported the interpretation of data set. To this end the research used the qualitative method to collect data and provided in-depth analysis. Shai-Osudoku was chosen for this study as a case representing districts in Ghana experiencing the problem of low community participation in the delivery of social infrastructure. The highest incidence of poverty (55.1%) in the Greater Accra Region is observed in the Shai-Osudoku district (Ghana Statistical Service, 2015). It is one of the two less developed rural districts in the Greater Accra Region lagging behind in social infrastructure delivery. The suitability of a case study is noted in literature. According to Bryman (2015) a basic case has the components of detailed and intensive analysis of a single case. Stake (1995), states that case study research is concerned with particular nature of the case at hand. Research of case study design usually 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh involve example single community, single school, single family, single organization, a person or a single event or may also involve multiple cases (Bryman, 2015). The case study helps to describe systematically a phenomenon of interest (Bromley, 1990). A case study design is justified for this study particularly for the following reasons. First and foremost, a case study is appropriate to answer the objectives of the research in this study. Also this approach would help give a deep understanding on how community participation is practiced in the Shia-Osudoku district as compared to what is written in the Medium Term Development Plan guideline. It is also appropriate to use case study when the researcher has minimum control over the research participants. Case study has multidimensional sources of evidence thus documents, interviews, direct observations and physical artifacts. 3.6 Study Population and Sampling Technique The study considered heads of directorates of the local assembly, assembly men, unit committee members, traditional authorities, opinion leaders, civil society organizations and community members who are interest groups in community participation in the delivery of social infrastructure. These are representatives of the local assembly and community acting in the interest of the communities and government respectively in delivering social infrastructure needs within the district. The study used a non-probability sampling technique. Cohen, Manion, and Morrison (2005) the selectiveness which is imbedded into non-probability sample emanates from the researcher targeting a particular population and in respect that they do not represent the wider population, but itself. In the light of this, this study adopted the purposive sampling technique. Creswell (2007), purposive sampling technique is used in qualitative research and that the researcher selects individuals and sites for the study because they can inform an understanding of the research problem and central objective of the research. This gave the researcher the 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh opportunity to select the Dodowa town council and Ayikuma area council as sites for the study. In this approach the researcher organized a sample that was satisfactory to the specific objectives (Cohen et al., 2005). The purposive sampling was used for the selection of thirty three (33) stakeholders in the study. To be precise the study purposively selected officials of the district assembly including District Planning Officer, District Budget Officer, Community Development Officer and District Engineer, Presiding member, Assembly members and at the community level, the Unit committee members, Opinion leaders, a youth and disabled group. The reason for the wide selection of respondents was to bring their rich experience and knowledge base in the local governance delivery and their lived experiences working within the local government system. This follows suggestions that such techniques is founded on the need to select specific units or respondents to elicit some relevant information that is will be helpful in answering the research questions which otherwise will be difficult to get (Teddlie & Yu, 2007). The study identified all relevant stakeholders who engaged with the assembly directly or indirectly on its delivery of social infrastructure. The identification of stakeholders was appropriate in the public hearing setting with their key representative present at the assembly’s meeting. Table 3.1 Categories of Stakeholders/Respondents CATEGORIES OF INTERVIEWEES NUMBER District Planning Officer 1 Community Development Officer 1 District Budget Officer 1 District Works Department 1 Presiding Member 1 Assembly Member 2 Unit Committee Member 2 Opinion Leader 2 Interest Group Youth Group 14 Persons living with Disability 8 Source: Field data 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A sample represents a proportion of the population that participate in a study. Alternatively, sample is defined as a representation of a group which is drawn from a population. This study used a sample size of 33 respondents of which 22 were ordinary community members and 11 were key informants. According to the sample size of 44 is satisfactory for analysis and for credible findings as the minimum of 30 respondents are adequate for study in social sciences (Bailey, 1994) 3.7 Data Collection Instruments The instruments used in gathering data were semi-structured questionnaires and focus group discussion. These instruments were piloted to ensure it suited the objectives and relevant to the context of the study. This helped refined questions and response options that were inapplicable and also set the tone for the questions to suit the understanding of the local environment and respondent. The interview guides help solicit responses on the respondent’s knowledge and perceptions on social infrastructure delivery, the needs assessment process, the stakeholders involved and their roles and their level of satisfaction with the social infrastructure delivery. 3.8 Semi-Structured Interview The semi-structured interview allowed a focused, conversational and two way communication during the collection of data. Both parties had the flexibility to delve into details when there was the need. The use of semi-structured interview in the study was appropriate for exploring the views and opinions of respondents in relation to the dynamics of socially and politically complex and nuanced issues rooted in the local government process in community development (Louise Barriball & While, 1994). This gives room for open ended options in the semi-structured interviews to elicit responses that requires deep investigation, asking for information, confirming views and clarifying responses which was helpful in understanding 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and determining the true meaning implied by respondents. Bryman (2015), a semi-structured interview refers to the process where “the interviewer has a series of mostly general questions that are in the general form of an interview guide but in which the interviewer is able to vary the sequence as well as ask further questions in response to what are seen as significant replies”. The study used interview guide to provide guidelines in interviewing four (4) departmental heads of the district assembly, two (2) assembly men, a presiding member, and two (2) unit committee members and two (2) opinion leaders at the community level. The interview guide had a list of open ended questions in respect to local assembly’s contribution to the process of social infrastructure delivery in these communities. Also the researcher adopted strategies of tape-recording the interviews and transcribing the tapes for data analysis. Observations and key highlights in the interview process was jotted in field notes to enrich the discussion. 3.9 Focus Group Discussion According to Morgan (1996) focus group discussion is a form of group interview that focuses on interactions within the group on areas of discussion provided by the researcher. This leads to an interaction between participants rather than the interviewer so that their views can emerge (Cohen et al., 2005). Focus groups are usually in an unnatural setting mobilizing a chosen sector of the population to discuss specific areas of a topic, where interactions results in data outcomes. Three focus group discussion was organized in two communities with the youth groups and disabled groups. Stakeholders were purposively selected from a representative sample of a specific target group. The identification and selection of these groups was based on the homogeneity of the socio-demographic characteristics and this helped facilitate easy dialogue and elicit the needed responses from the group for the study. The focus group generated knowledge about participants understanding on decentralization, local governance and participation in the development of community infrastructure. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10 Data Sources Bryman (2015), documents are those sources of data not produced at the request of the researcher but are already existing data out there that are to be assembled and analyzed that may include such forms as letters, diaries, photographs, newspapers, magazines, videos, audios and autobiographies. Such document are necessary in research to corroborate or disprove evidence from other sources. The documents used were the Medium Term Development Plan (MTDP) and the Annual Progress Report (APR) of the district. These have the social infrastructure projects and their status of completion. Primary data was collected from the members of the District Planning Coordinating Unit (DPCU), Unit Committee members, Assembly members, NGOs and the general community 3.10.1 Data Analysis Qualitative data was recorded using tape recorders and field notes. All data was transcribed verbatim and analysed thematically. The data was analysed by making sense of the participants’ definition of the situation and in doing that patterns, themes, categories and regularities was noted. Findings was discussed with various theories and empirical literature reviewed. The data was analyzed and finding and discussions presented in themes based on the objectives of the study. 3.10.2 Data Validity and Reliability According to Yin (2003), the collection of data, its interpretation and analysis follows a logical set of statements (research design). This however requires some logical testing from the collection of data through to its conclusion to determine the quality of study. It is unwise to think that the threats to validity and reliability can ever be taken out of the equation. Rather the effects of these threats are weakened by the attention to validity and reliability throughout a piece of research (Cohen, 2008). 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In qualitative research, Cohen (2008) recommends that the validity of qualitative data might be addressed through honesty, depth, richness and scope of the data collected, the participants approached, the extent of triangulation and the objectivity of the researcher. In the same view reliability in qualitative research assumes the possibility of replication, thus if the same methods are used with the same sample, it is expected that the outcome should be same. Yin (2003), states that the purpose of reliability test is to eliminate bias and errors within the study. In this regard, I introduced myself as a researcher, expressed the objectives of the research and assured confidentiality of information from participants and documents. This decreased the level of receiving incorrect or misleading information from field participants or inaccurate secondary data. Also to minimize errors in collecting data, the researcher was guided by the semi-structured and focus group guides designed for data collection. A good researcher uses many sources of evidence as possible for establishing multiple measures for corroborating evidences for the same fact. Multiple source of evidence which aids in data and investigator triangulation adds strength to construct validity (Yin, 2003). The study gathered data from communities, district assembly, and civil society through semi-structure questionnaire and interviews and these evidence from multiple sources was compelling and robust for the overall study. Also field notes was taken as part of the interview process. Secondary data was derived from the District Medium Term Development Plan and Annual Progress Report as part of the evidence for the study. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the analysis of data and presentation of results based on the research objectives. Qualitative method was employed in the data collection as well as the data analysis. The general focus of the study was to investigate the processes of community participation in the delivery of social infrastructure projects in the Shai-Osudoku district. The following were addressed under this chapter: demographic characteristics of respondents, understanding of community participation and social infrastructure, the principal stakeholders in the local assembly and communities and their roles in the delivery of infrastructure, the planning process through needs assessment by the community in the delivery of infrastructure and examining the engagement of various stakeholders in the implementation of plans in the delivery of infrastructure project. Two local councils were sampled for the study and they are Dodowa town council and Ayikuma area council in the Shai-Osudoku district. In all thirty-two participants were selected for the study. Twenty-three (23) of the respondents participated in the focus group discussions. In addition, four (4) District Assembly officers, two (2) Assembly members, a presiding member, two (2) unit committee members and two (2) opinion leader were also interviewed. 4.2 Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Most of the interviewees and the FGD participants engaged in the study were males. It is important to mention that there was some representation of females. All the interviewees and FGD participants were above 18 years. Their ages ranged between 21 and 57 years. The educational backgrounds of the respondents varied. The highest level of education being tertiary education and the lowest being primary. Stakeholders with the highest level of 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh education within communities, particularly the local assembly have greater influence when it comes to planning the delivery of social infrastructure in communities. All of these diverse educational backgrounds added divergent expression of views to the discussions. Similarly, most of respondents were craftsmen and women. Below is a table of the demographic characteristics of respondents. Table 4.1 Focus Group one: Youth Group Respondent Age Sex Marital No. Of Educational Occupation Status Years In Qualification Community R1 44 M Separated 44 Form 4 Tailor R2 38 M Single 14 JHS Contractor R3 45 M Single 18 Diploma Business Man R4 21 M Single 20 Form 4 Mason R5 57 F Married 3 JHS Seamstress R6 41 F Married 41 JHS Seamstress R7 30 F Single 5 Vocational Hairdresser R8 36 F Married 10 JHS Seamstress R9 27 F Married 27 JHS Seamstress R10 40 F Married 21 JHS Seamstress R11 25 M Single 9 JHS Welder R12 28 F Single 5 JHS Hairdresser R13 37 F Married 1 SHS Beautician R14 34 F Married 2 JHS Hairdresser Source: Field data Table 4.2 Focus Group one: Youth Group Respondent Age Sex Marital No. Of Educational Occupation Status Years In Qualification Community R1 54 M Married 15 O’level Farming R2 52 M Married 52 Primary Cobbler R3 36 M Married 36 SHS Farming R4 54 M Married 54 Vocational Electrician R5 54 M Married 54 Tertiary Teacher R6 50 F Married 40 Middle School Seamstress R7 40 M Married 40 JHS Farming R8 46 M Married 46 SHS Farming Source: Field data 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.3 Key Informant/Stakeholders Respondent Position Age Sex Marital Educational No Of Years Status Qualification In Position R1 Presiding 45 M Married Tertiary 2 Member R2 Assembly 40 M Married SHS 1 Member R3 Assembly 35 F Single Tertiary 1 Member R4 Assembly 48 M Married Middle Form 4 1 Member R5 Unit 51 M Married JHS 6 Committee Member R6 Unit 42 M Married SHS 2 Committee Member R7 Opinion 54 M Married Vocational/Tech 5 Leader nical R8 Opinion 51 F Married JHS 6 Leader Source: Field data Table 4.4 District Assembly Officials Respondent Position Age Sex Marital Educational No Of Status Qualification Years In Position R1 Principal 49 M Married Tertiary 9 Planning Officer R2 Principal Budget 50 M Married Tertiary 4 Officer R3 District Engineer 48 M Married Tertiary 14 R4 Senior 35 M Married Tertiary 7 Community Development Officer Source: Field data 4.2 Respondents understanding of Community Participation, Social Infrastructure and In this section, both the interviewees and FGD participants were asked to indicate their understanding of community participation, social infrastructure and the role played by district assemblies in the community. The data revealed that, most of the respondents understood 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh community participation to mean involving people living in the community in taking certain key decisions or coming together to participate in the activities of their communities. These are some excerpts from interviewees: “… Community participation, I think means involving the person in the district for the planning. They should also involve in the planning of the district. Let’s say for instance, if they want to build a hospital, they have to meet the people in the district. Not everybody but some few leaders of the communities and then they have to participate and then think of what, how the hospital for instance is going to be built. Because within the district we have persons with disabilities and how these things are also going to be put up there to serve their purpose but in actual fact we don’t see this…”(Male FGD participant, Dodowa town council). Another interviewee made this remark: “…Well, participation as my colleagues has already said mean our involvement in certain decisions that are taken by the district administration. When we talk of community participation most people think it’s the responsibility of the assembly to do. But they don’t understand that when we talk of community participation it is we the individuals or those living in the community who are supposed to gather ourselves and get involved…”(Male FGD participant, Ayikuma area council). The responses reflect Cohen and Uphoff (1980)’s definition of participation which suggests that the kinds of participation that take place in communities are concerned with participation in decision making, implementation, benefits and in evaluation. It also revolves round collective interest that drives the delivery of projects and programmes of a particular community. Respondents gave their understanding of social infrastructure. The diverse responses from the data indicate that respondents understood social infrastructure as building physical structures in communities to serve the needs of the community members. This understanding covers almost all respondents’ responses. Some respondents mentioned schools, pipe borne water, bore holes, toilet facilities, good roads, hospitals, clinics as examples of social infrastructure. The following two extracts from the interviews conducted summarized the understanding of respondents: 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “…when we talk about social infrastructure, let me say, are the things the community needs that the assembly will build which the community will benefit from. Let’s take for instance, our hospitals, libraries, even our public KVIPs are all part of the infrastructure…” (Male FGD participant, Dodowa town council). The understanding of social infrastructure by participants was not entirely exhaustive because Teriman et al, (2011) explains that that concept of social infrastructure cannot only be simplified as physical or hard infrastructure that supports the provision of services for mankind. Consideration for what is termed as soft infrastructure such as social environment, services and programmes are also looked at to improve greater human investment and that some examples of soft infrastructure are health, education, employment and training and public safety (Wia et al, 2013). 4.3 Principal Stakeholders and their Roles in the Delivery of Infrastructure in the Communities This section seeks to identify the main principal stakeholders in the communities as well as the local assembly and the role they play in the delivery of social infrastructure. Various stakeholders emerged when respondents attempted to identify the principal stakeholders involved in assessing social infrastructural needs of a community. Prominent among these stakeholders identified by respondents were chiefs, chief executive officers, assemblymen, opinion leaders and interest groups. Most respondents made the point that chiefs basically work hand in hand with the assemblymen to run the day to day business of the community. Here are some excerpts from some of the interviewees on the role of chiefs: “.. when something is going wrong in the community they do go to the Chief and inform him/her so that he/she takes the necessary action…”(Female FGD, Dodowa town council). “… when the assembly draws his attention that they are going to do a project in the community and they explain to him the kind of project that they are coming to do, the assistance or the opinion that he can give like the location of the land or whatever assistance needed from the community we make sure they are done to make sure the project is done…” ( Male Unit Committee Member, Ayikuma area council). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chiefs are considered the custodians of local communities and are key stakeholders when development is being considered in their communities. The findings is in line with Boon et al. (2013) who posit that representatives that are considered includes the chief who represents the traditional authorities because of the influence and respect they hold in the community. This they say when entering a community with an approved project, a meeting is organised on the formation of a Local Project Management Team. The LPMT are then mandated to be in charge of the local management and coordination of the project activities. Though they are regarded as an important stake in the planning of social infrastructural and its delivery, their roles played is seen to be tokenistic and this is emphasized in Pretty (1995) typology of participation as passive participation. In this instance it regarded that people participate by being told what has been decided. Unilateral decisions are taken and announced by the project management without giving space to listen to people’s contribution. The information disseminated is from and entitlements of external professionals. Regarding the role of Assemblymen, most respondents were of the view that assemblymen supervises and monitor projects undertaken in their electoral area or community. Some also hold the view that assemblymen act as the representative of the people in a particular electoral area in the district assembly. An interviewee expressed this view: “… the duty of the assemblyman is to see to it that the member in his or her constituency or electoral area, gets their needs – their problems – the problem affecting the area. Let’s take for instance when there is too much rainfall or a wind blow scatter buildings; he has to see to it that the problems in his electoral area is solved…”( Female Assembly Member, Dodowa town council). The Assembly man is a very popular stakeholder when it comes to local community development, He is seen as the intermediary of the community and the district assembly. Thomi et al. (2000) puts it that the representative of the community termed ‘Assembly man’ have high interest in the development of community but seems powerless with low level of influence. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This might be as a result of limited resources available to mobilize and facilitate work. In interview with one Assembly man this was what he said; “Anytime you are planning you plan with your funds. So if it just about the planning and you don’t have the funds then you will just be planning, planning, you can’t execute it.” (Female Assembly Member, Dodowa Town council). Though the Assembly members are interested in the development of their communities they are handicapped because the resources to execute their plans are not available for their use. Respondents mentioned that the key role played by opinion leaders is the collection of information from community members and delivering it to the appropriate quarters for action to be taken. This information centres on the problems community members are facing. The opinion leader gathers those problems and discuss it with the assemblyman or chief who then report the said problem to the chief executive officer of the district for the necessary action to be taken. One of the discussants in a focus group discussion, for example, indicate that: “… opinion leaders I think they collect information from the community members – the problems, their needs and send it to the chiefs. I think they communicate with the assemblymen and they also send the problem to the assembly…”(Male Opinion Leader,, Ayikuma area council). Another respondent made this remark: “… opinion leaders are with the chiefs. The chief may delegate some of the responsibilities to them. For instance, if they have to call for a meeting, they call for the meeting and share ideas on how best the project will be done so that they will not end up doing any shoddy work for the community…”(Male Unit Committee Member, Dodowa town council). Cohen and Uphoff (1980), gives further insight that opinion leaders are considered as local residents and leaders who have local roots. The local people are seen to be in the residual category and they include a huge and heterogeneous group comprising of peasant farmers, tenants of landowners, farm labourers, craftsmen and herdsmen. Also, local leaders have long- run participation in the area of their work. They are usually seen as local elites, thus land owners, custodians of the land, merchants and professionals. Local leader varies in definition 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from one jurisdiction to the other. Some leaders are seen to be clan chiefs, religious figures, influential professional and local notables. Concerning the role of DCE’s, most of the respondents believe that they are responsible for the development in districts and for that matter the communities. According to the respondent’s chief executive officers present the problems or needs of a particular district to the government for solution to be proffered. This is what an opinion leader said in relation to the role of chief executives: “… the Chief Executive, that’s where the assemblyman and chiefs take the issues to. So when the issues are brought to his/her attention, he/she also takes them up to the government so that whatever the needs of the community are, the government can assist…” (Male FGD, Ayikuma area Council). The findings corroborate with Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung and the Institute of Local Government Studies, (2011), that the functions of the DCE are as follows; presides over the executive committee and assembly tender, reviews committee meetings, performs routine executive and administrative functions of the assembly, supervises the decentralized departments of the assembly and government representative at the district level. It striking to note that role of the DCE as a government representative at the district level is what was highlighted as the common role associated with being a Chief executive officer. The other functions observed is related to the functions of the DCE in the internal operations of the district which reveals that the ordinary citizen is not in consonant with those functions. This explains a gap in the lack of citizen’s knowledge or awareness in the operations of their district assembly. Respondents also identified interest groups as one of the principal stakeholders in the communities. To them the interest groups assist in the developmental and environmental programs of the communities. Their assistance usually comes in the form of communal labour or mobilizing more hands to work on sanitation issues. This is an excerpt from a respondent: “… you talked about interest groups. In this community we have clubs – keep fit clubs –that most youth are part of. We have social groups like Tsui Anaa and Moko Sane. I think most of the youth are part of these groups. So they are also part 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the stakeholders who assist in the development of the community because there are so many things they get themselves involved in, in terms of development and sanitation programs…” (Male FGD, Dodowa town council). On the contrary Thomi et al. (2000) see the interest of youth groups in the development process in districts as high but with low power to influence the process. Also, women’s group have high interest in the development process but their powers are low in influencing decision making due to socio-cultural factors. Their study also identified farmer group as stakeholders who are less interested in their involvement of development process in the district. The distinction of interest among groups when participation is talked about could also be attributed to social cohesion within each community. 4.4 Social Infrastructure Projects and Stakeholder consultation in the community This section seeks to identify the largest social infrastructure that has been completed in the district over the past two years and how these projects has benefited the community. In addition, this section tried to find out if stakeholders are consulted before the construction of a project. The interviews and FGDs revealed that through the effort of the District Assembly, GETFund and Millennium Challenge Account and NGOs, the district had gained a new district hospital, Community-based Health and Planning Services, schools, boreholes, public toilets, portable water, disability centre, roads among others. Most of these social infrastructures were derived from projects executed by the Government through the District Assembly. Through the provision of the new district hospital, community members do not need to be transferred from their community to other facilities for emergency surgeries. This provision has improved the service delivery time of patients which has also translated into an improved health of the community members. The new hospital has also created jobs for the community members and attracted health related businesses into the community. The construction of CHPS compound has helped in treating minor diseases like malaria, fever, cholera among others. The CHPS compound has also helped in reducing the pressure on the 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh new district hospital. Community members do not have to travel long distance to seek medical assistance especially for minor cases. Through the school project, children in the district are now attending school and this has increased enrolment in the basic schools. This is because the school edifice attracts the children to attend school in the community. The children are now safe as compared to when they were learning under shed. Participants explained that through the provision of portable water, the community members have gotten safe drinking and bathing water, which has reduced the contraction of water-borne diseases such as cholera and diarrhoea. In addition, public toilets provided in communities have helped reduce the incidence of open defecation, resulting in improvements in sanitation and health in these communities. The following excerpts from the In-depth interviews are summarized views of the respondents: “… the new hospital has benefited us. This is because initially we didn’t have mortuary here. When someone dies unless we go to Pantan or Ridge or Korle Bu but because of the hospital we now have a mortuary. And also when there is an emergency and you go there but realized it’s beyond them you now have to go for an ambulance. But with this new hospital they do handle emergencies. So if it’s really your time to die, you will die but if not they will treat you there…” (Female, FGD Dodowa town council). “… the CHP Compound that they built, maybe when you are sick of malaria or something like that and you go there, they treat you early and you leave because there is less pressure there. So it helps…” (Female, FGD Ayikuma area council). “… the facility they built for the disabled has really helped us. I have been sleeping there ever since they built the facility including my wife and children. And whenever the tap is not flowing the borehole helps a lot…” (Male, FGD Ayikuma area council). The findings agree with Wai et al. (2013) that delivery of SIPs considers a broad range of stakeholders usually from government agencies, private organization and non-profit organizations with other user groups, independent consultants and the academic research institutions. This implies that social infrastructure provision is not just the mandate of the district assembly and community but involves the collaborative efforts of other external stakeholders who most often than not fund and offer technical support for the planning and delivery of these social infrastructural projects. This is further reinforced by Teriman et al. (2011) that the categories of infrastructure can be placed into physical and economic 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh infrastructure of which some examples are roads, railways, airports, water supply, energy and sewerage systems. On another side social infrastructure includes housing, health and education facilities. Our findings revealed that a market can be a social infrastructure project and also serve as economic project where community members earned a livelihood through selling and also the district generate income through taxes, fees, and toes that is accrued from the market. Respondents were further asked to indicate whether the stakeholders were consulted before the project identified commenced. The narratives emerging from the interviews and the focus group discussions all point to the fact that most of the stakeholders in the communities are not consulted in planning and execution of a community project. Some participants made the point that they are only informed at the initial stages of planning, however when the project is about to be executed, they are not informed. A section of the participants also holds the view that only the chiefs are consulted when a particular project is about to be constructed. Respondents again made accusations that some actors are often not consulted because of the hidden agenda of the authorities. The following excerpts from the In-depth interviews are summarized views of the respondents: “… what I can say is, they didn’t consult some of us before putting up the structure. What we knew was they are bringing a project into our community but to say that the youth are involved or social groups are involved to understand that this is what they are going to do and seek our opinions, they didn’t consult us…”(Male, FGD Dodowa town council). An interviewee indicated that: “… I also believe that some of the chiefs were consulted you cannot just enter a community and do a project. By all means they will consult a chief that they are coming to do this project. I have been here for three years but I think they do consult some of the chiefs…” (Female, FGD Dodowa town council). This is the view of a discussant: “… they have constructed a disabled facility and borehole. By then I was a unit committee member but they didn’t inform us. It was in our last meeting that they informed us that they brought the borehole machine to start work. So they started 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Monday and have completed. They brought the machines before informing us that they are here to construct the borehole…” (Male, FGD Ayikuma area council). An interviewee indicated that: “… what I can say is, they didn’t consult some of us before putting up the structure. What we knew was they are bringing a project into our community but to say that the youth are involved or social groups are involved to understand that this is what they are going to do and seek our opinions, they didn’t consult us…” (Male, Opinion Leader Ayikuma area council). Findings from the study is supported by Pretty (1995) categorization of participation to mean manipulative and passive is the status quo within the communities understudied. The explanation being participation is seen as a pretence with people’s representatives on official boards but who are unelected and have no power which is more manipulative and also people participate by being told what has been decided. Unilateral decisions are taken and announced by the project management without giving space to listen to people’s contribution and this a passive participation as explained by (Pretty, 1995). However, to say that consultation of the community stakeholders is done before putting up a SIP is a very simplistic way of explaining it because of the social dynamics and power play that revolves around the delivery of such infrastructure projects. Chiefs are always consulted but their participation is seen to be passive. This means that the power play among stakeholders exist and those who yield high influence within communities overrides the interest of stakeholders with low influence. This corroborates with Wai et al. (2013) that SIPs are much complex as generic construction projects due to the after construction and maintenance stage which involves the engagement of the community. Exploring the planning process through needs assessment by the community This section seeks to explore the planning process through needs assessment by the community and local Assembly in the delivery of social infrastructure. Thus the District Assembly officials were asked to outline the major steps or activities involved in the planning process. The planning process is summarised in the diagram below. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.1 Planning Process Request for plan preparation guideline Formation and inaugration of Plan Preparation task force Drawing of work plan Memos to stakeholders Needs assement Data validation costing Validation and implementation Source: Author’s construct, 2017 According to the district assembly official before the planning process starts, they request for the district medium-term plan preparation guidelines from the National Development Planning Commission. After receiving the planning preparation guidelines, a plan preparation team or taskforce comprising of the twenty-one (21) members is formed. All the 21 members are not used in the preparation of the plan. Normally, a core team or a smaller team referred to as Plan Preparation Team or taskforce are used in the preparation of the plan. After meeting the District Planning Coordinating Unit (DPCU), the plan preparation taskforce which is a core team is constituted and inaugurated. This is what the head of the planning unit of the assembly said: 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “… the first step is the receipt of the plan preparation guideline. The second step is the constitution or putting in place the plan preparation team or taskforce…” (Male, District Assembly Official). The next step is the drawing of a work plan. After the inauguration the plan preparation taskforce is tasked to draw or prepare a work plan for the plan preparation process. The work plan usually gives an indication of the activity to be undertaken, the cost involved and then the stakeholders and the timeline for the activity. This is how the head of the planning unit summarized this step: “… the taskforce prepares a work plan that this is the first activity they will do and this is how much it will cost us. After they have done that, normally because like I’m saying, it has cost implication, preparation of the plan has a cost implication…” (Male, District Assembly Official). The next phase of the planning process is the writing of memos to stakeholders. After the plan preparation taskforce have developed the work plan for the activities, a memo is written to the stakeholders to inform them about the plan preparation process. The stakeholders refer to the decentralized department of the assembly. The decentralized department are informed of the exercise and their work plans are requested. This means that all the departments, which is education, health, agriculture, community development and social welfare as well as all other departments are told to submit plan for the four years. A memo is also written to other stakeholders in the various area council inviting them to be part of the exercise. However, the council is informed of the type of people who are to attend the meeting. This is how the head of the planning unit summarized this step: “… in our district here we put up a memo to request funds for the activity. We then write to our stakeholders. Some of them are staff of the assembly, some of them too are in the area councils. So they will also be aware of it and then we also demand that they bring their work plans to the assembly…” (Male, District Assembly Official). The next phase is the needs assessment. Needs assessment is a kind of data collection or a form of identifying the problem that exist in the community. In planning terms, it is sometimes referred to as the problem identification. The taskforce indicates to the area councils and even 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to the people that as part of the plan preparation process that there will be a community needs assessment. This stage requires that the taskforce go to every community within the assembly to collect data or to do the needs assessment. However, it is not practically feasible to visit every community because of resource constraints. Due to this reason the needs assessment is done on area council basis. After the problems have been identified, the data collected is then analyse the data. The communities are assisted to prioritize their problems and their problems are turned into programs and projects. The head of the planning unit summarized this process as follows: “… so we go to the community to conduct the community needs assessment where we guide the people for them to come up with their own needs and of course by needs I’m talking of felt needs. They may have several needs but the prioritized one because we are dealing with resources…” (Male, District Assembly Official). The next stage is the data validation. After the data collation, the next stage is the data validation which is normally done through public hearing. The public hearing is part of data validation. Having collated the data, the taskforce goes back to the communities to find out if the information we have captured is the very information they gave us or we have misrepresented them. The essence of the public hearing is meant to validate the data collected from the community people. The final stage is the costing. After the data validation, the taskforce meets with the budget committee and the development planning subcommittee to also validate the data. The budget committee assist the taskforce to come with the cost of the activities. After the costing, it goes to the development planning subcommittee for another validation. From there it goes to the executive committee of the assembly who will also look at it and validate it. Then finally, it is sent to the general assembly for endorsement. The assembly members will meet at the general assembly level which is the parliament of the district assembly where they will then also look at it and they will validate it. When they say it’s okay then a draft plan is sent to the regional coordinating council, that is the regional 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh minister’s office and to the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC). The head of the planning unit summarized this process as follows: “… after the public hearing at the community level we come back and then we send the data to the budget committee of the assembly. They will also do further validation and do the costing. Then it goes to the development planning subcommittee. Sometimes it even goes to F&A. okay. Joint F&A and development planning subcommittee. Before it goes to executive committee, executive committee will also look at it and validate it…” (Male, District Assembly Official). Planning and needs assessment process is laborious and starts at the district assembly level and it involves various stakeholders within the assembly, the community, civil society, region and national government to effectively plan prioritize the needs of the community. This process involves the development of the DMTDP for a four year period of which the projects and programmes includes the social infrastructural needs of the community. It must be pointed out that SIPs are a sub-set of the programs and projects of the DMTDPs. Maple Consult (2010) summary of the preparation of the DMTDP corroborate the findings of the planning and needs assessment process this way; the planning process begins with the preparation of the medium term Development plans which is spearheaded by the DPCU of the district assembly. The process of preparing DMTDPs generally entails the following, the issuing of guidelines to all RCCs and MMDAs by the NDPC; the MMDAs then constitute a plan preparation team referred to the DPCU; then follows a review of the performance of previous plan; after that data is collected collated and analysed with stakeholders who include traditional authorities, communities, sub structures and decentralized unit of government within the district; this follows the first public hearing to present the status quo and ascertain the development priorities; the next step is a draft of the DMTDP, then follows a second public hearing to review development proposal and strategies, this is followed by the submission of a draft plan to the RCC and NDPC for vetting; after which the draft DMTDP is reviewed based on the comments 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh from the RCC and NDPC; then the general assembly gives its approval of the DMTDP and finally the copies of the DMTDP is submitted to the RCC. The findings revealed that the district assembly is responsible and spearheads the planning and needs assessment process. This corroborates Altschuld and Kumar (2009) who identified some agencies who spearhead the needs assessment as businesses, community agencies and government institutions among others and smaller groups usually are the lead facilitators through the process. It is instructive from the findings that the needs of the community are identified as problems and are converted into programs and projects and this is usually done through data collection. The finding is not far fetch from Gupta (2011) who confirmed this by stating that “data gathering is the cornerstone of any needs-assessment project” and identified some commonly used means of data collecting data for needs assessment as interviews, focus groups surveys/questionnaire and observations and that combination of these methods are mostly used to for assessing the needs of communities. The current practice of data collection by the assembly is through the town and area council where various stakeholders meet as representatives of their electoral areas, communities and interest groups and one cannot be certain if the problems they provide are in the interest of their constituents or represent their own interest and as Boon et al. (2013) puts it must be noted that the representatives are usually not there on their own decision but elected by their groups to represent them. 4.5 Examining the engagement of stakeholders in the social infrastructural delivery In executing the community development projects, a number of steps are undertaken and one such steps in the engagement of the various stakeholders in the implementation of plans in the social infrastructural delivery. In view of this respondents were asked about who influences the location of the social infrastructural project in their community. Gleaning through the 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh transcript, it emerged that Chiefs, Assemblymen, district chief executives and sometimes the Member of Parliament influences the location of a project. Most of the respondents indicate the main person who influences the location is the chief. This is because it the chief who mostly offer lands for specific project to be constructed in the community. They alluded to the fact that the current location of the new district hospital at Dodowa was influenced by the chief and so are many other projects in the various communities. An opinion leader from one of the communities strongly confirmed this assertion when he said that: “… I can say it’s the chief in collaboration with the assembly and District Chief Executive they influenced the location of a project…” (Female, FGD Dodowa town council). Another interviewee had this to say: “… I also believe that the chiefs were consulted for land for project purposes, you cannot just enter a community and do a project. I have been here for three years but I think they do consult some of the chiefs….” (Male, FGD Dodowa town council). This assertion points out the relevance of traditional authorities in the engagement of community members which agrees to Boon et.al, (2013) who posits that the representatives that are considered includes the chief who represents the traditional authorities because of the influence and respect they hold in the community. Respondents were also asked if district assembly or town council ever hold public meetings to dialogue on development priorities for the community. This question revealed an interesting response from most respondents. Most of the respondents mentioned that meetings are often not organized. Some even don’t remember the last time town council organized something of that sort. According to most participants, the public meetings are organized once in every four years and even when it is even organized most people are not invited. In recent times public meetings have been organized in communities such as Ayikuma, Dodowa and Asutsuari. Respondents attributed the non-attendance to the lack of announcement by the information service department at the local level. Another reason provided by respondents was political 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh differences. According to the respondents due to political differences, stakeholders who belong to the other political divide especially when in opposition are not invited to the meetings even if the person has good intentions for the community. This is the view expressed by an interviewee: “… I don’t remember the last time town council organized something of that sort. Because if an issue pops up pertaining to, take for instance chieftaincy issue is what they mostly take there or they deliberately put their minds on. But to organize a meeting and invite the youth to come and have interactions, I don’t remember the last time…” (Male FGD, Ayikuma area council). Another interviewee had this to say: “…the district engineers and the technocrats they met the people of the Asutsuari area, told them the plans of what they are going to do and that’s what we are expecting because it is the ground that everybody can express his view. But I will be very grateful if that will continue because somebody called me from there twice. They came and the following time but I don’t know if it is because there is something under it because he told me all participants were given something. …”(Male, Dodowa town council). The views of responders contradict Mathbor (2008b), that consulting stakeholders involves extending the scope of including people’s opinions on intended plans and actions and engaging them through dialoguing. Information flow through this process is a two way approach between the proponent and the local community. It provides the platform for the local community to express their thoughts on proposed projects that are initiated by the proponent. However even though it is a difficult and expensive for the district assembly to call every citizen to participate in public hearing and meeting attempts must be to circulate information on the purpose of such meetings outcomes and the way forward so people also feel part of the decision-making process by giving their views to their representatives rather being left outside the process which results in apathy on the side of the constituents. The researcher had the opportunity to witness a public meeting organized by the Assembly which was spearheaded by the District Planning officer and interpreted in Dangme by an assembly man for all to understand and participate. The agenda was to develop a medium-term development plan for the next four years which will end in 2018 to 2021. The district planning 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh officer together with other officials collating the needs of the various communities to prioritize them and put them into the 2018 to 2021 medium-term development plan for the district. On the issue of the needs of the community the assemblymen from one electoral area to another, unit committee members, market women were all there and they spelt out their felt needs – the needs of their various communities. Some assemblymen mentioned that they need street lighting, others too, public toilet, several needs cut across board. Stakeholders were given the opportunity to raise pertinent questions affecting the community. Questions were raised about the implementation of the old medium term development plan, this saw a back and forth response as to where they’ve gotten in terms of implementation. People also raised issues about the cost of electricity and the ECG personnel who was also at the meeting had to come and address their challenges. The list of stakeholders present at community needs assessment at the Dodowa town council meeting are provided below. Table 4.5 Representation of Stakeholders at Dodowa Town Council Meeting Stakeholder Number Of Representative DA staff/representatives of decentralized 12 Departments Regional Coordinating Council 2 Assembly members 8 Member of Parliament 1 Traditional Authorities(Chiefs, Queens, Sub 5 chiefs, Community heads) Opinion Leaders 3 Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) 5 Civil Society Organizations(CSOs) 3 Political Party Representatives 6 Women’s Group 6 People with Disabilities(PWDs) 2 Youth Groups 5 District Chief Executive or his 1 Representative Convener/Chairman of Development 1 Planning sub-committee Cultural groups 3 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Teachers/Educationists 6 Health workers 4 Community Members 14 Development partners 4 Private sector operators(the business 5 communities Utility service providers(water and 2 electricity) The media 2 Total number 100 Source: Shai-Osudoku District Assembly 4.6 Challenges to community participation This section seeks to identify the challenges associated with community participation. Thus, this section seeks to find out if community member’s participation is a problem in terms of the delivery of planning of social infrastructure. Some of the key questions were lack of people participating in the planning of social infrastructure a problem, are people interested in participating in the social infrastructure needs of your community or there is apathy. Based on the responses provided by respondents, it became obvious that community participation in social infrastructure is a problem. Most respondents indicated that there are lot of people who are not interested in community participation hence tend to have negative impact on decision making in the community. They explained that some community members have the mind-set that most of the work in the community is the responsibility of the District Assembly, hence they refuse to participate in decision making. Also, most respondents indicated that due to political issues, people are not interested in community participation because to them when they participate they will be helping their opponents and in the long run it tends to affect the social or development of the community. Again, participants indicated most community members consider community participation as a waste of their time because their views will not be taken into consideration. A section of the respondents argued that community participation in a way prolongs development process because every member in the community 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh would have his/her opinion on how a particular project should be handled. The following excerpts from the In-depth interviews are summarized views of the respondents: “… there are a lot of people when we talk of community participation they feel it’s others responsibility but they don’t form part of them. So such person has not made up his/her mind to contribute something better to the community and the little progress the community has too he/she is spoiling it…”(Male, Unit Committee Member Ayikuma area council). “… some says it prolongs the work because some may want it done this way and others want it done that way and too many opinions rather delay the process…”(Female FGD, Dodowa town council). “… partly it’s a problem. Because just like we are sitting here they don’t know our views will be useful so they don’t involve us. So if the person doesn’t invite you, you can’t go there and contribute...” (Male, FGD, Ayikuma area council). These challenges identified as findings from the study is supported by a study by Khwaja (2004) where it was realized that participation becomes a challenge in the cases where participants have conflicting stands and ideas and each wants their interest represented. This dilemma requires that a good facilitation approach be adopted to benefit the minority and disadvantaged groups. Also findings corroborates with Takyi et al. (2014) that district assembly stakeholders talk about the apathy amongst community stakeholders as a barrier to effective community participation in the planning and implementation of the District Education Strategic Planning. The causal factor attributed was stakeholders not deriving the needed benefits from participating in the projects and programmes of the district. 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION 5.1 Introduction This section summarizes the findings of the research based on the analysis of the data in previous chapters and its implication for community participation within the Shai-Osudoku district assembly. The outcome of findings will determine recommendations to be made to improve the participatory process in the delivery of social infrastructure. The study’s main focus was to understand community participation in delivery social infrastructural projects in Shai-Osudoku district assembly. The qualitative research method, design, techniques and tools were employed in the study. The interview guide was used to solicit responses from the focus group and one on one interview with the district assembly officials and some community stakeholders with the objectives to identify the principal stakeholders in the local assembly and communities and their roles, explore the planning process through needs assessment, examine the engagement of various stakeholders in the implementation of plans in the delivery of social infrastructure within the Shai-Osudoku district. 5.2 Summary of Key Findings The study identified the principal stakeholders involved in assessing the social infrastructural needs of the community. Prominent among these stakeholders identified by respondents were chiefs, chief executive officers, assemblymen, opinion leaders and interest groups. The stakeholders who were easily identified within the community by respondents were the chiefs and assembly members probably because of the influence and respect and also their frequent interaction with local communities to address their basic needs. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study identified key roles played by the aforementioned stakeholders. The Assembly member’s role was to supervise and monitor projects undertaken in their electoral area or community and also act as the representative for the community at the district assembly. Also, the opinion leader’s role is the collection of information from community members which are the concerns and problems of the community and delivers it to the appropriate quarters for action to be taken. The opinion leader is seen to liaise with the assemblyman or chief concerning the problems of the community. The role of interest groups is to assist in the developmental and environmental programs of the communities and this is in the form of communal labour or mobilizing efforts. The role of Chief Executives is to develop the district and for that matter the communities. The chief executive officers role is seen to present the problems or needs of a particular district to the government for solution to be proffered. The planning process is initiated by the district assembly and this is done through the development of the District Medium Term Development Plan. Social infrastructure projects are imbedded in the District Medium Term Development Plan. The study found that the planning process begins with a request for the district medium-term plan preparation guidelines from the National Development Planning Commission then follows a plan preparation team or taskforce comprising of the twenty-one (21) members is formed. Normally, a core team or a smaller team referred to as Plan Preparation Team or taskforce are used in the preparation of the plan. After meeting the District Planning Coordinating Unit (DPCU), the plan preparation taskforce which is a core team is constituted and inaugurated. After the inauguration the plan preparation taskforce is tasked to draw or prepare a work plan for the plan preparation process. The next step is the drawing of a work plan. After the inauguration the plan preparation taskforce is tasked to draw or prepare a work plan for the plan preparation process. A memo is written to the stakeholders of decentralised department and area and town councils to inform them about the plan preparation process of which the decentralised department work plans are 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh requested. The council is then informed of the type of people who are to attend the meeting as part of the plan preparation process of a community needs assessment. The problems are identified, the data collected and analysed. The communities are assisted to prioritize their problems and their problems are turned into programs and projects. The next stage is data validation which is normally done through public hearing. After the data validation, the taskforce meets with the budget committee and the development planning subcommittee to also validate the data. The final stage is costing. From there it goes to the executive committee of the assembly who look at it and validate it. Then finally, it is sent to the general assembly for endorsement and when it’s okay a draft plan is sent to the regional coordinating council, that is the regional minister’s office and to the NDPC. The study revealed that Chiefs, Assemblymen, District Chief Executives and sometimes the Member of Parliament influences the location of a project. Most of the responses pointed to the chief as a key stakeholder who influences the location of social infrastructure projects. The study also found that public meetings are hardly organised by the district and the few ones organised are not announced and the respondents are not invited. The needs of the communities are accessed through the area and town council meetings where these needs are identified and prioritized by the stakeholders invited by the assembly. Through the effort of the District Assembly, GETFund and the Millennium Challenge Account and NGOs, the district had over the last two years built a district hospital, CHP compound, schools, boreholes, public toilets, portable water, disability centre, roads among others. 5.3 Conclusions Conclusions of the study revealed that a representation of the substructure of the Assembly and a handful of community stakeholders are involved in determining the social infrastructure needs of the communities through the development of the District Medium Term Development Plan of the district. The understanding of what social infrastructural projects is assumed to be 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh more of physical or hard structures but the soft social infrastructure which is services provided through the hard infrastructure is hardly talk about as social infrastructure. The planning process is formally initiated by the district assembly where stakeholders within the community are only invited to participate in the process. The planning process has been formalised and the mandate given to the district assembly to initiate the process. The stakeholders within the community cannot initiate the planning process because the Local governance Act (Act 462) does not give them such authority. The process of assessing the needs of the community is representative where stakeholders represent the interest of their constituents but there is no guarantee that their interest is effectively pushed through by the representative. Also, the means of invitation is not inclusive enough leading to the exclusion of significant number of community members. The community stakeholders particularly interest groups have high interest but low influence therefore are not able do much in the participatory process. Findings also revealed that language is a barrier amongst the district assembly officials and this make communication and interaction with the local community a challenging task. Fewer meetings are organised by the district assembly through the area and town councils and this is usually done every four years. The conclusion of findings also revealed that when public hearings or meetings are organised by the assembly, ordinary members of the community are not invited and are barely informed about such meetings. There is limited education for community members on the process of planning and assessing the needs of the community because it is open to a few stakeholders from the community. This has resulted in apathy amongst community members in the participating process. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Recommendations In light of the findings, the following recommendations can be proffered • Considering the complex nature of participation of stakeholders in the determining the social infrastructural needs of the community, measures must be put in place to expand scope from town/area councils meeting to community meetings where participation can absorb the views of each member of the community.` • Also considering that the assembly structure is responsible for planning the development of the District Medium Term Development Plan which is recognised in the local government system, there must also be a Local Project Management Team (LPMT) constituted by key stakeholders in the community responsible for planning the needs of the community and responsible for management and coordinating the delivery of social infrastructure within the communities. • When planning the delivery of social infrastructure what comes on the table for consideration by the district and communities is hard or physical infrastructure but consideration must also looked at soft infrastructure such as the social services accessed by the community for which the hard infrastructure was constructed. These services provided to the community is what improves their well-being. • Measures must be put in place for targeted and timely sensitization of programmes to educate members of the community on the relevance on participating in the planning process. • There is also the need to consider the language and communication gap that exists between the Assembly officials and local communities. Strategies must be put in place for assembly officials to breach the language gap especially the officials from the District Planning Coordinating Unit who are in direct touch with community stakeholders to enhance effective communication and consensus. 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCE Addae-Boahene, A. (2015). Ghana: aid effectiveness and the education sector: implications for civil society. An alliance. Aguilar, A. G. (1988). Community participation in Mexico City: A case study. Bulletin of Latin American Research, 7(1), 33-46. Ahenkan, A., Bawole, N., & Domfeh, K. (2013). 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What is your understanding of social infrastructure, Can you give me some examples in this community? When we talk about community participation, what first comes into mind? Does this community participate in determining its Social Infrastructure needs? Can you walk me through the process of community participating in determining what Social infrastructure it requires? How do you prioritize these needs? Who are the stakeholders involved in assessing the Social Infrastructure needs in this community? What are their roles? Who spearheads this process? Is it the District Assembly/Community/civil society? Has this community benefited in any way in determining its Social Infrastructure needs? Give me some of these benefits 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh What do you think would have been the effect of non-participating in determining your social infrastructure needs? Can you give me instances of the community’s non-involvement in needs assessment and planning of a social infrastructure project and the effect? What do you think are the challenges involved in Community participation in needs assessment and planning of social infrastructure in this community? Is your local government involved in the assessment of your needs? Explain Is your community represented at DA in the planning phase of infrastructure delivery? Who are your representatives? Are they representing the interest of your community? Are the needs of the community being met by your District Assembly and are you satisfied with their level of engagement Does the DA consult your community before initiating a Social infrastructure project? Which kinds of input do you give when they consult your community? 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Community Participation in delivery of Social Infrastructure Interview Guide for District Assembly Officials Name: Sex: Age: Position: Number of Years in Position: How many plan development processes have you been involved in MTDP development process? Which interested groups within the community do you consider in the decision making process of a social infrastructure What are the major steps/activities of the planning process? What are your roles in this process? What are the ways of assessing/identifying the needs of communities under your assembly and planning for it? What are the various avenues created through which communities participate in the planning of social infrastructure? Which is commonly used and most effective Which types of social infrastructure do you encourage community participation and why What are the benefits derived by the assembly in engaging communities to participate in the determining and planning their infrastructure needs What challenges/difficulties do you encounter in community participation at your assembly? 75