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THE COPING STRATEGIES OF SINGLE PARENTS: A 
STUDY_OF FEMALE HOUSEHOLD HEADSIDP , 
IN ACCRA 
BY 
ALBERT KPOOR 
THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 
GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT 
FOR THE A WARD OF M. PHIL SOCIOLOGY DEGREE. 
JUNE,2003 
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I declare that this dissertation is the result of my own research work carried out in the 
Sociology Department under the supervision of Professor Clara Fayorsey and Dr Dan 
-Bright Dzorgbo. 
References made in this research work have however been fully acknowledged . 
.•.~ ~H. 
PROF. CLARA FAYORSEY DR. DAN-BRIGHT DZORGBO 
(FIRST SUPERVISOR) (SECOND SUPERVISOR) 
Date ...~...... .-..(...-... ..;.L..o...o...u. .. LP , Date ....C...}./ J .%. : ..7...-...-....<.0..~ 1 ... . 
.. .. ~ . ................ . 
ALBERT KPOOR 
(STUDENT) 
Dat~ . . ..! k. ..~ ./~~. ....... .. 
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DEDICATION 
This study is dedicated to my mother Florence Dansoah, my auntie, Eva Ahenkorah 
and to my sister and brothers "vith \-vhose love and care I have been able to come this 
far 
II 
" 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
TITLE PAGE 
DECLARA TION 
DEDICATION ......... ... ... ...... .. .... . 11 
LIST OF TABLES ... ........... . . . ........ Vll 
LIST OF FIGURES .. ... . ..... . ... ... ... . . . VllI 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IX 
ABSTRACT .. 
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 
1.1 Introduction ... ...... ... .... . 
1.2 Statement of Problem. 5 
1.3 Rational of the Study .. 6 
1.4 Objectives ....... . .. . 7 
1.5 Definition of Concepts .. 7 
1.6 Research Method .. 9 
1.6.1 Research Instruments ... 9 
1.62 Data Collection Procedures .. 10 
1.6.2.1 The Suryey ..... 10 
1.6.2.2 The In-depth Inter\'iew .. 10 
l .(i) Study Area and Sampling .. I I 
l.oA Target Population 14 
1.6.5 Data Processing and Analysis .............. .. ..................... . 14 
III 
1.6.6 ProbleUmns ivEenrcsoiutyn toerfe Gd hina tnhae  Fhitetpld:./ /ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 
1. 6 7 Limitations of the Study. 16 
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .. ... '" ..... 17 
2. 1 Introduction ..... .... . ... ... . 17 
2.2 Trends in Other Parts or the World ... 17 
2.3 Factors That Account For Single Female Parenthood and Female 
Headship ... 19 
2.4 Problems .......... . 28 
2.5 Coping Mechanisms and Strategies 33 
2.6 Conceptual Framework .. . ..... ... .... . 46 
CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA.. 50 
3.1 Introduction ... 50 
3.2 Accra 50 
3.2. 1 Geographical Location . 50 
3.2.2 Population ........ .... . 51 
3.2.3 Historical Background ... 51 
3.2.4 Development of the Area 51 
3.2.5 Political Organisation! Administration 53 
3.2.6 Religious Activities ............. . 54 
3.2.7 Economic Acti,ities . 54 
3.2.8 Social Infrastructure 55 
3.3 Selected Suney Areas ... 58 
3.3 .1 Maamobi .. 58 
IV 
3.3. j. j GeoUgrnaipvheircsailt yL ocf aGtihona na http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
58 
3.3 1.2 Population 
58 
33.1.3 Brief History 
58 
3.3.14 Religious Activities 
59 
3.3.1.5 Economic Activities ... 
59 
3.3.1.6 Social Infrastructure ....... .. .. 
60 
3.3.2 Ne\.\ Dansoman 
62 
3.3.2.1 Geographical Location .. 
62 
3.3.2.2 PopUlation 
62 
3323 Brief'I--liston 
62 
3.3.2.4 Religious Activities 
62 
3.3.2.5 Economic Activities . . ... .. . . . . . 
63 
33.26 Social Infrastructure 
63 
3.3.3 Roman Ridge 
64 
3.3.3.1 Geographical Location 
64 
3.3.3.2 PopUlation 
65 
3.3.3.3 BnefHistor\' 
65 
3.3.3.4 Religious Acti\ities .. ...... . . 
65 
3.3.3.5 Economic Acti\itIes 
66 
3336 Social Infrastructure 
66 
CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS .. 
68 
4.1 Introduction 
68 
4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics .. 
68 
4.3 Socio-economic Factors that account for Single Female Parenthood 81 
4.4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghSocial Support ... ..... . ... ...... . .. .. ... .. . .. . ... . , . . . ...... ... .... ..... ... ... .. . 88 
4.5 Decision Making... .. . ... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... ... .. . ......... .... 121 
4.6 Challenges ... ... '" .. . .. . ... ... ... .. .. ... . ... , .. ....... . ........ . ... .... , . ...... '" 126 
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS.. ...... 131 
5.1 Introduction ...... .. ..... ... .. .. ............. .... ............... .... .... ..... .. ...... .......... .. ...... . 131 
5.2 Summary and Discussion of Findings 131 
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOIVIIVIENDA TlONS .. 141 
6.1 Introduction ... 141 
Conclusion 141 
6.3 Recommendations . 142 
BIBLIOGRAPHY . 145 
APPENDIX A .... .. ........... .. .. ............... .. 162 
APPENDIX B .................... .. . 171 
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PAGE 
Table I Age Group of Respondents . 69 
Table 2 Occupation of Respondents 70 
Table 3 Number of Children or Respondents .. 79 
Table 4 Responses on Factors res ponsible for Single Parenthood 
and Reasons gl\en by IZes pond ents RI 
Table 5 Responses on Who Pro\ id es Children' s Needs. 93 
Table (i Responses on Who Pms Iioli selloid Rent all ci li tilities 
Table 7 Occupational Income or Respolldents and Respo nses on 
Who Provides Child ren's Educational Needs .. 99 
Table 8 Occupational Income or Respondents and Responses on 
Who Provides Children's Health Needs ..... ..... ....... . 100 
Table 9 Occupational Income of Respondents and Respons es on 
Who Pays Rent. . 101 
Table 10 Occupational Income or Respondents and Respo nses on 
Who PaYs Electr icil\ ' Bill s .. 102 
Table II Occupational Income or IZespondents and Responses on 
Who Pays Water Bill s 103 
Table 12 Educational Le\el or Respondents and Responses on 
Who Pro\ides Children 's Educational Needs 105 
Table \3 Educational Le\ el of Respondents and Responses on 
Who Pro\ides Children's Healt h Needs . 
\1I 
Table 14 UEndiuvceartsioitnya lo Lf eGvhela onfa R hetstppo:/n/duegnstsp aancde .Ruegs.peodnuse.gs hon 
Who Pays Rent ... . 108 
Table 15 Educational Level OJ Respondents and Responses on 
Who Pays Electricity Bills .. 109 
Tnble 1(, Educnti onal Le\el oj Respondents and Responses on 
Who Pays Water 8ill s .. lOt) 
Table 17 Household Activities or respondents .......... ... .. ... . 118 
LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure I Monthly Income OJ Respondents 72 
Figure 2 Educational Le\el of Respondents 7<-1 
Figure 3 Religious Affili ation or Respondents 76 
Figure <-I Ethnicity OJ Respondenls 
f7igure 5 Respondents' Major Source or Income .............. . 
Figure (, Responses on Whom some Chi Idren or Respondents are 
Li\ing "ith. . 113 
Figure 7 Residence of Respond cnb .. 116 
Figure 8 Responses on Who Assists Respo ndents in Household 
Acti\ities ...... ............. .. 120 
Figure 9 Responses on Whether Respondents Make I\/ajor 
Decisions .. 122 
\111 
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I am very to thankful and gTateful to the Almighty God for the strength and ability He 
gave me to work on this thesis . 
My sincere gratitude also goes to Prof Clara Fayo rsey. my main supenisor whose 
priceless knowledge, tireless corrections, guidance and long suffering has led to the 
completion of this work. My heart felt gratitude goes to Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorgbo who 
is my second supervisor for his invaluable knowledge and priceless suggestions 
through out this work. 
I cannot also forget my auntie. Miss Eva Ahenkorah and my mother. Florence 
Dansoah through whose financial sacrifice this MPHIL programme has been made 
possible. I e"press my gratefulness to them 
I \\ish to e"press my gratitude to my Uncle. K\\abena Olori. Pas tor Effah Kojo and 
E\elyn Anim for their encouragement and prayer support through out this work. 
Finally. I am grateful to the respondents tor their cooperation during the data 
collection. I say God bless them 
To God be the Glory. 
I" 
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This study investigates the coping strategies of single female parents in Accra. Single 
female parents within Maamobi, New Dansoman and Roman Ridge areas in Accra 
were interviewed through in-depth interviews and a survey. Specifically, the study 
sought to find out the socio-economic factors that account for single female 
parenthood. how single lelllaie parents econoillically support their households. 
examine social support mechanisms for single female parents and whether they make 
mqjor decisions in their households. 
The major findings are that divorce is principally responsible for single female 
parenthood due to mainly the infidelity of husbands In the absence of men 
(husbands), single female parents through earning incomes which are although low, 
bear the bulk of responsibility In the maintenance of children and the household in 
addition to making major decisions. The fathers of the children of single female 
parents mostly do not assist the women in the maintenance of children. In situations 
\\here children's fathers assist the \\omen. the\ mostly do so occasionally. Kin of 
single female parents on the other hand mostly assis t the women \\ith housing and 
household chores. The study thus concludes that single female parents are to a large 
extent heads of households 
Finally, the study offers recommendations such as improving the educational and 
income generating potential of women through sound macro economic policies and 
programmes by the government and NGOs respecti\ely and the enactment of relevant 
Im\s by parlianlent to ensure that single female parents recei \e child support from 
their children's fathers among others . 
x 
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INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 
1.1 INTRODUCTION 
The family \\"orld\\ide is recognized as the basic social unit. It fonns the baseline of 
all economic, social. religious and polItical organization \\ ithin any community With 
increasing social change brought about b\ moderni/ation and commerciali/ation .. 
structural and functional modifications hme taken place \\ ithin the Ghanaian famil~ . 
Notable among these changes IS th e cmergence or a Ile\\ form of single parent 
> 
families: single male parent families and single female parent families These families 
Illa\ bc i'orJllcd through desertioll. sepal·~ltIOll. dl\orcc. trallskrimlgratlon. and death or 
a spouse or b~ ' haying children \\ hile sJJ1g le . 01' conccrn to tillS study IS the emergence 
of sing le female parent households . 
In Ghana. t\\ice as many female parents are smgle as compared to their male 
counterparts According to the Ghana Demographic and Health Sune\ of 1998 (GS'S 
and MI. 1(99). 12 percent or \\omen are \\Ido\\ed. di\orccd or not li\ing together 
\\ ith their partners as compared to 6 percent or men This gender imbalance mal ' be 
attributed to the responsibility Cor till' carc of children. \\h lch I ~ increaSingly 
becommg that or the \\oman (Bled.:. 1<)7.':;) 
It IS lJl1por(,mt to distingUish the Call1J l\ from a domestic group. \\hlch reCers to 
persons occupying a particular d\\elling A domestic group may be a Camih but not 
all domestic groups are families 
Similarly a househoUldn ivmearys itybe o fa G fhaamnila\  htbtupt ://nuogt spalal ceho.uugse.ehodlud.sg hare families. 
Anthropologists usually refer to the term household as the basic unit of society 
il1\ 01\ ed in production. reproduction. consu mption and socialization (Fayo rsey. 
1995) 
According to th e United Nation s. a household should he considered 011 the bas Is of 
arrangements made b\ persons. indi\ ldualh or in groups fo r providing themselves 
"ith food (md other essentials for hung 
In Ime \\ith the United Nation's criteria. the Ghana Population Cens us of 1984 
considered a household as consisting or a person or a group or persons. \\ho li\·e 
together in the same house or compound. share the same house keeping arrangements 
and are catered for as one unit (GO\ ernment of Ghana. 1981. 19) Thus in local 
parlance. Ghanaians refer to the household as people \\ 110 ""eat from the same pot" 
(Nukuma. IlJ92a 47) Members of the household are therefore not necessarily related 
through blood or marriage and inclutiL' persolls like friends. dOllleSliC assistants and 
lodgers There may ho\\ eyer be relations or other kin like brothers. nephe\\s. uncles. 
and aunties among others. 
The Ghanaian kinship sys tem. \\hich plays a critical role 111 the orgal1lzation of the 
famil). in marriage. the household and 111 thE' society at large. has been found to be of 
great significance in household headship [ormation (Arda\ Ilo-Schandorf. 1994) In 
traditional Ghanaian Society the head or the household is used generall) to refer to the 
old est male in the household In certain cases the household head ma\ not be co-
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resident, but residing elsewhere. He is however consulted in all major decisions by 
either the nuclear or extended family. 
The one who is generally responsible for the up keep and maintenance of the 
household on a day to day basis and who has the power to make major decisions 
within the household is considered as the head. 
With the absence of a partner, single female parents usually have the sole 
responsibility for ensuring the economic wellbeing of their household in addition to 
making major decisions thus assuming headship status. It is important for a distinction 
to be made between single female parenthood and female household headship. Single 
female parents who have no means of looking after themselves and their children are 
not necessarily heads of their households. This is especially the case of young 
unemployed adolescent mothers. They and their children usually live in, and are cared 
for in the household of their parents or the extended kin (GSS, 2000). 
Women as heads of their households is of serious concern. This is because with the 
I' 
responsibility for e{suring the well being of the household, women relative to men are 
" 
disadvantaged in accessing society's economic resources and opportunities. Also 
women as household heads affect both the utilization and disbursement of resources 
within the household and network of the exchange of resources within households 
(Lloyd and Gage-Brandon, 1993; Haddad, 1990; Bruce, 1989). 
It has been revealed that in every country at least 70 -percent of households that are 
made up of only one adult with children are female headed (Kishor and Neitzel~ 
3 
19%) In Ghana femaUlen hiveeadrsedit yh ouf sGehoaldnsa  ahctctopu:n//tu gfosr paa hcieg.huegr .perdoup.ogrhtion of urban 
than rural households. The Ghana Demographic and Health Survey of 1998 (GSS and 
WI!. 19S1Sl) has indicated the 37 percent or households are female headed , \\ith a 
slIghtly larger proportion of females heacill1g households (3 Sl percent) in Urban than in 
rural households (35 percent) 
Ki shor and Neitzel (1996) hme re\ealed that among t\\ ent\ Sub-Saharan African 
Cou ntri es. Ghana ranged highest In fe male headed ho useholds (3 7 percent). 
Circumstances that lead to female headsh ip have become more common: as a result 
fe male headship is now relativel y pre\ alent in many countries. Studies have sho\Yn 
that desertion, separation, divorce. mdowhood, Pol)'gyn)l. migration of men and 
sll1gle female parent hood are some of the ci rcumstances that lead to female headship 
(Fm orse\. 19l)5 . Abu . 19R3) 
When the earli er dell nItion of household hcadship . as the person \\ho is generally 
respo nsi bl e for the upkeep and mall1t enance or the ho usehold on a dm'-to -da\ bas is 
~ lI1d Il ho has thc pOll cr to 111<1 "C Ill<lI OllkcISIOIIS IS ;Ipp l! cd It rClca ls that 1I0l11en In 
for mal ul1l ons are als o becoming household heads. According to Ardayfio-Schandorf 
(1l)l)4) . marri ed \\omen form between 32 to 34 percent of female headshIps IJ1 Ghana. 
o r concern to till s study howe\ er IS slJ1gle female heads of households . These \\o men 
as already noted are disad\'antaged in terms or theIr access to assets and resources. 
The emerging role for single fem ale parents and female heads is thus a challenge not 
onl\ to them as \\omen but their entIre household ThiS stud\ thus purpo rts to li nd out 
the Illechamsms or strate'o=' les used b.\  these \\omen to cope as household heads. 
1.2 STATEMENT UOnFi vPeRrsOitByL oEf MG hana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Single female parenthood and households headed by females have become an 
important phenomenon in the last half of the t\\entieth century worldwide. Ghana is 
no exception to this phenomenon According to the Ghana Li ving Standards survey 
Report of the fourth round (GSS. 2000). 9.4 percent of households contain one 
\\oman liying \vith one or more children. The report also indicated that one in eyer)' 
three households in Ghana has a female as the head of the household. 
Bukh (1979:43) has stated that in relation to male heads of households, female heads 
of households are in a disadvantageous and inferior position, since the head has to 
cope with subsistence responsibilities and yet her access to resources is poor and 
limited. 
Single female parents and female headed households also t~nd to hme fewer adults 
and a high number of children w'hich increase their social and economic burdens 
(Lloyd and Brandon. 1991 : ArdaYflo-Schandorf' I ~)94: Gyekye, Arthur and Dankwa, 
1996) 
The problem of single female parents in supporting their households is exacerbated in 
deyeloping nations such as Ghana. This is because the extended family that used to 
absorb unmarried women with children has been \\eakemng (Nukunya, 19 92a: 
Ardayfio-Schandorf and Amissah, 1996) 
Much of the expansive body of literature has focused on the difficulties that single 
female parents and female heads of households race What is less ob,ious though. is a 
5 
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thorough study on how single female parents and female heads of households cope. 
The interest of the study thus lies in the various mechanisms or strategies these 
women adopt for their everyday survival and that of their households in the absence 
of their male partners (husbands). 
1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY 
In Ghana, evidence points to an increasing trend in the incidence of single female 
parenthood and female headship over the last three decades. According to the 1960 
population census (Government of Ghana, 1971), the proportion of female headed 
households was 25.75 percent. This increased to 28.66 in the 1970 population census 
(Government of Ghana, 1975); showing an increase of 2.91 percent, within a period 
of ten years. The 1984 population census indicated that the proportion of female 
headed households was 28.7 percent (Government of Ghana, 1987). In 1989, the 
Ghana Living Standards Survey Report (GSS, 1989) revealed that 32 percent of air 
households were being headed by females, whilst the 1993, Ghana Demographic and 
Health Survey indicated that 37 percent of households were being headed by females 
(GSS and MI, 1994). The subsequent Ghana Demographic and Health survey of 1998 
also reveale~that 37 percent of households are female headed (GSS and MI, 1999). 
1(1 
Currently theiDhana Living Standards Survey Report of the fourth round (GSS, 2000) 
has indicated that one in three households in Ghana have a female as the head of 
household. 
As their numbers are increasing, it has become imperative to investigate the factors 
responsible for single female parenthood and female headship, their disadvantaged 
socio-economic situation and coping mechanisms. 
6 
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Also less research has been done on sIngle female parenthood in relation to Female 
headshl p in Ghana. Thus this \\ ork \\ ill scn e as a cOlltri butlOIl to the literature. 
Furthermore, the findIngs of thiS \\01"- It IS hopec! \\ 111 ser\e as a guidel Ine to poItC\ 
makers to fashion out lI1tenention programmes to ameliorate the plight of single 
fe male parents and female heads of households 
IA OBJECTIVES 
rhe major objecti\"es of this study include the Identification of single female parents, 
SOCIO - economic factors responsible for Single female parenthood, their coping 
mechanisms or strategies and \\hether they make malor deCISions In the household 
Specifica lly the objecti\es of the stud\" Clre to 
a Identlf, the soclo-economic L,ctors responsible lor sing le female parenthood 
b Determine ho\\ slllgle remale pal·ents cconomlcal ly support their household s. 
c. Identtl) and e'-:amine social support mechanisms for si ngl e Cemale parents. 
d. Determine \\hether singl e female parents make major decisions In the 
household 
e. Make recommendations lor pollc\ makers ba~ec! on the findIngs of the stud \' 
1.5 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS 
There IS the need to deline concepts In a stuch to glllde the researcher into specific 
areas or tnterest to enable hIm come out \\ith results that meet the set obJecti\"es, as 
7 
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\\cll as to guide the reading audience to appreciate Issues being discussed to minimize 
doubts that may arise. \\ith the concepts left \ ague 
Concepts requiring definition in this study are those that form the subject maller and 
those mcntioned in the objecti\cs oCthc stud\ 
a Household is used in the conte:\t or the study to mean a group or people who 
share the same house kecp1l1g and eating arrangements or in other \\ords eat 
frolll the same cooking pot (Nukunya. 1l)l)2a) 
b The head or the household is used 111 the conte:\t or the study to mean the one 
(single parent) \\ ho IS gellcraih l"eSpOl1Slble ItJr the lip-keep ,u ld maintenance 
or the household on a day-to-day baSIS and \\ho has the po\\er to make major 
decisions \\ithin it. 
c, SOCial support is used in the conte:\t or the stud, to mean the assistance (child 
care sen'ices. remittances. gifts 111 the Corm or rood" clothmg. chtld rostering, 
housll1g etc) that IS gi \en (0 the stngle fcmale parent or female head by 
members or her e:\(ended kin. rflends. in-I,m s. child/children's rather and 
others 
d t\ cicpcndant is used in the contnl or Ih...' stud\ to mL':m thc children. members 
or the e'-.:tended kin and other people III the household \\ ho depend on or are 
c<lrcd lor by the SlJ1gle I"emale pnrcnl 
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1.6 RESEARCH METHOD 
Soliciting infonnation on issues in relation to people's marital status and the family 
can be problematic. This is because in many instances respondents are unwilling to 
give infonnation considered as personal to people they do not know or may consider 
as strangers. To curtail this, the study adopted both the quantitative and qualitative 
approaches of sociai research. C!~ 
f~r\ 
1.6.1 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS ~ ~ ... .... 
~"~/IRe-" 
The main tool in the collection of the quantitative data was the use of questionnaires. -~:;,# 
Self-administered questionnaire was adopted where the literacy and educational level 
of the respondents was judged to be relatively high and the respondent could complete 
the questionnaire herself without help from any person other than the researcher. 
Personal interview questionnaire was adopted where a respondent's fonnal literacy 
and educational level was relatively low and he/she could not read or write . 
Questions on the questionnaire was translated into vernacular and put to the 
respondents and answers given were also translated into English on the questionnaire. 
The questionnaire was structured to cover the main themes of the research which 
included the socio-economic factors responsible I for single female parenthood, 
1'1 
.~ 
maintenance of children, social support for single female parents and their other 
coping mechanisms or strategies. 
A combination of the open-ended type and close-ended type of questions was used. 
The open-ended questions was used to give the respondents the opportunity to express 
themselves on an issue in their own words, and not from answers suggested to them to 
9 
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choose frol11 Open-ended questions also made room ror the use of follo\\-up-
questions or probes 
T\\o research assis tants assisted the researcher \\Ith the admmistration of the 
questionnaires. 
The quantitati,e data collected \las supplemented b\ a quailtati \'e method An-depth 
Inten le\\ \\as conducted with the goal of gall1ln O "" an msio"" ht into some of the mal'or . 
obsen ations acquired through the quantitati \e suney. 
1.6.2 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURES 
\.6.2.1 TIlE SURVEY 
A pre-testing ortlle questionmlire \\as done to ellSlIle its reliahilit\ This \\(1\. the loss 
of \ Ital information due to ambiguous questions \\ as pre\ented This \\as done by 
selectlllg a sillall sample of respondents from the population uni \erse. The pre-testing 
or the questionnaire \\as ,ital also because oj the need to use open-ended questions . 
rhe pretesting indicated \\hether the responses to the open-ended questions \\ere too 
dl\'erse as to generate a large number or \anables. \\ hlch render the analysis of data 
comple:\ Based on the pre-test results l110dilicatlol1s \\ere made. Similarly the pretest 
mdicated \\ hether the choice options 10 the closed ended questions \\ere clear and 
e\.haustl \ e as \\ell as unclear and sensit I \ e 
1.6.2.2 THE IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW 
rhe In-depth Illten le\\ took the rorm or a per~ lln~d racc-to - r~lCe structured mten ie\\ 
In the process. personal rnendshlp . rapporl. eollaboralion and e:\change or 
10 
information beyond Uthnei vsepresciitfyic o ifn Gterhvaienwa  whattsp e:/s/tuagblsisphaecde b.uetgw.eeednu .rgeshpondents and 
the researcher. A tape recorder was used to record the interview after the researcher 
had sought the consent of the interviewees. 
The qualitative information acquired provided a great deal of insight into some of the 
major variables observed during the quantitative survey. 
1.6.3 STUDY AREA AND SAMPLING 
Accra, the capital of Ghana was the area or location of the study. Some of the reasons 
for the choice of Accra are that: 
a. The cost of living is highest in Accra and it is expected that single female 
parents may face difficulties in providing the needs of their dependants. 
b. The population of urban areas presents a mixture of people from different 
v 
backgrounds in terms of education, occupation, ethnicity and cultural 
backgrounds due to in-migration. To ensure an unbiased representation of 
respondents of different backgrounds, i~ was imperative that the study be 
undertaken in a rapidly growing urban area like Accra. 
c. The researcher has lived in Accra all his life and is very familiar with the area, 
and this saves substantial amount of time to be spent on familiarization with 
the survey area and its people. 
11 
The specific areUasn ivoefr ssittuyd yo f Gin htahne a Ahcttcpra:/ /uMgestproapcoeli.tuang .eAdrue.ag hare Maamobi, 
New Dansoman and Roman Ridge. These areas were chosen for this study because 
they represent low, middle and high-income areas of Accra respectively. The rationale 
for choosing these three survey areas is not to make a comparative analysis of these 
three areas but rather to ensure the representation of people of different backgrounds 
in the study. 
The study is concerned with the phenomenon of single female parenthood. This 
phenomenon is not distributed randomly or uniformly in the universe or population. A 
simple random sample may not at all include a unit typical of the phenomenon to be 
investigated, or it may include so few units that their analysis may not be statistically 
significant. For these reasons the researcher adopted a combination of techniques to 
contact respondents for this study. 
To start with, the purposive sampling technique was used to contact respondents. In 
doing this, the researcher and research assistants conducted a house-to-house enquiry 
of single female parents in the selected survey areas. This was done with reliance on 
informants such as rel igious leaders, assemblymen and other opinion leaders. 
The reason for re lying on informants to contact respondents is that people are 
suspicious of strangers, enquiring into their marital status and family life. Unless 
people they can trust introduce such strangers, they are likely not to cooperate with 
the researcher. 
12 
Also the snowball Umneitvheodrs witya so uf sGedh taon rae ahctht po:t/h/uerg rsepsapocned.eungts.e. dInu .tghihs approach the 
few number of respondents who were contacted in the early stages were each asked to 
nominate others for the study. These nominees were in turn added to the number of 
respondents for the study and were in turn asked for further nominations. The 
procedure continued, and the number of respondents was building up like a snowball. 
In the snowballing method, the social relation among the sampling units itself was 
used as a chain for contacting respondents for this study. 
A total of 270 respondents were contacted for the study through the above processes; 
148,92 and 30 respectively from Maamobi, New Dansoman and Roman Ridge. The 
reason for relatively more respondents contacted in Maamobi (148) than those; 92 
and 30 respectively in New Dansoman and Roman Ridge is due to the fact that 
residents in Maamobi as it was observed by the researcher, comparatively had closer 
social relations and therefore readily nominated others for the study which was not the 
same in New Dansoman and Roman Ridge. Initially the intention of the researcher 
was to contact 400 respondents for the study however in going to the field, 270 
respondents were identified as indicated above. Thus all of them were surveyed. 
As regards the in-depth interview, 30 women were also purposively selected. They 
were selected in accordance to age and number of years of single parenthood so as to 
represent the various groupings that were identified during the survey. Thus those 
who were selected were among those who have been single parents for short periods 
to long periods; those who are young and those who are old. Also unemployed 
respondents were selected, as they are most likely vulnerable to social and economic 
pressures in providing the needs of4heir children. Another important consideration in 
13 
the selection of resUponnidveenrtssi tfyo ro tfh eG ihna-dneap thh titnpt:e/r/uvigeswp waacse t.hueg w.eidlluin.ggnhess on the part 
of subjects due to the extensive nature of the discussion. It is important to mention 
that the extensive nature of the discussions primarily influenced the selection of 
relatively few respondents (30) for the indepth-interview so as to cut down on time 
and cost. 
1.6.4 TARGET POPULATION 
This referred to all single female parents, with one or more children who have been 
living in Maamobi, Dansoman and Roman Ridge. 
1.6.5 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS 
Data collected from the quantitative survey was first edited to check for consistency 
in responses as well as grammatical errors. The edited data was then transferred to the 
computer for processing and analysis. Processing began with coding. This was the 
process of assigning numbers to verbal responses. For open-ended questions similar 
responses were collapsed into one category, till all the possible categories were 
obtained to develop a nominal scale category. A coding manual defining the meaning 
of the numerical codes for each variable was developed. ' (~ 
-t' 
. After coding the data was cleaned and edited for entry into the computer for analysis. 
Cleaning involved searching for coding errors that were identifiable by being 
impossible or improbable given the way the variables were defined in the codebook. 
Statistical tables made up of frequencies and percentages were constructed from the 
coded scneme and these were used to build pie charts, frequency distribution tables 
14 
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and bar graphs that are used to provide a picturesque representation and description of 
the data. Cross tabulations was used to establish correlation of variables identified in 
the study to help analyse patterns. No tests of significance have been done in this 
study. The statistical package for social science (SPSS) software was used for this 
purpose. The qualitative data from the in-depth interview was subjected to content 
analysis and categorized into the various themes of the study. This process was 
undertaken after the recorded interview had been transcribed and cross checked many 
times with the verbatim accounts of the recorded interview. Also the transcription was 
cautiously done taking the difficulties inherent in translating from one language into 
another into consideration. The findings were used to provide a qualitative description 
of the observations provided by the quantitative analysis. 
1.6.6 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED IN THE FIELD 
The main problem encountered in the fieldwork was at the Roman Ridge and New 
Dansoman residential areas. This was with respect to the fact that the researcher and 
research assistants had to go back repeatedly to respondents to retrieve the given 
questionnaires. This was surprising, especially because people from these areas are 
mostly relatively highly educated. They claimed they w~1e very busy and always kept 
~ 
giving excuses for not having the time to answer the questionnaires. Some had the 
questionnaires with them for as long as three months. At the Roman Ridge residential 
area some respondents openly displayed an apparent lack of interest in the study in the 
early stages. The probable explanation for this is because these respondents had a 
relatively high level of education and therefore thought that the study would not be of 
any benefit to them. 
15 
On the other hand resUpnonivdeernstsit yf roofm G hMaanaam hobttip :w//huog swpearcee .muagi.neldy up.gehople with 
relatively low educational levels were very sympathetic, cooperative and 
understanding. The explanation is that they believed that the study would go a long 
way to benefit them. Also the researcher realized that conducting an interview 
questionnaire with most respondents in this area was in itself an out-let for these 
women to share the experience of single parenthood and their challenges, hence their 
cooperation. 
Despite these problems, the fieldwork generally helped to enrich the research 
experience of the researcher. 
1.6.7 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 
The methodology adopted in this study was purely to document the cases of single 
female parenthood and female headship and their coping strategies. There was 
therefore the necessity to identify these categories of women and tl:1at was why the 
purposive sampling methodology was used. The data is thus not statistically 
representative of all single female parents and female heads of households, but does in 
fact bring out the essential elements of their coping strategies and challenges. The '«/ 
study is therefore more qualitative than quantitative and that the statistical data * 
collected is statistically representative of the communities under study and not all 
single female parents and female heads. 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERA TURE REVIEW 
2.1 INTRODUCTION 
The literature surveyed in this study focuses on the trend of single female parenthood 
and female headship in Ghana and other parts of the world to broaden the 
understanding of the phenomenon of singl e female parenthood and female headship. 
Also. the literature surveyed in this study includes factors responsible for single 
female parenthood and female headship, and their coping mechanisms. 
Factors that are responsible or contribute to single female parenthood or female 
headship matters, not least because these factors have a strong bearing on the 
subsequeflt fortunes or situation of single female parents or female heads (Hardey and 
Cro\\'. 1991) 
Also reviewing literature on the pllght and coping mechanisms of smgle female 
parents and female heads of households is of immense Importance to this study:. since 
it proyides a background to clearly understanding the situation of single female 
parents. 
2.2 TRENDS IN OTHER PARTS OF THE WORLD 
The typical image that comes to mind when we hear the term' family' in modem 
tImes IS likely to be mother, father and children hying together in a household. This 
Image belies the reality of "hat has been taking place in recent decades, particularly 
the surge in the percentage of families li\ll1g in smgle female parent households the 
\\ orld oyer. In the United States of America for e:-.:ample. over a Span of four decades 
17 
lhe 'lradilional' ramil~U· ans iva epresrictyen otaf gGe hoaranlal  hratmtpi:ly// usgtrsupclaucrees. uhgas.e cdlruo.pgphed more than 
·W percentage points Single remale parent ramilies in that time hme quintupled 
(lOited States Bureau of Census. 1004) 
Bo~deniUnesco (1993) has also stated that nine out of ten sll1gle parents in the wo rld 
are \\ omen The reason for this trend according to him IS because men moye more 
i'reeh in and Ollt of parenting relationships than 1\ omen. Men decline ll1\o!\emenl in 
lh(' maintenance, nurture and upbringing or their children. Bo\den/Unesco ( 1003) 
lurther stales thal in many Cultures male par tl1e rs are orten transient members or the 
household 
"add led \llth the so le responsibilit\ 1'01' supporting themsel\es and their ch ildren, 
5111gle female parents in the maj ority or cases. Ine\itably become heads of their 
households Analysis of household characteristics by Ayad. Barrere and Otto (1997) 
shOll that nine countries. si:--.: in Sub-Saharan Africa and three in Latin America and 
the CarIbbean, at least one in fiYe household s IS headed b\ a female In Kenla and 
'\!amibi a. one-third of all households are headed Lw a ICmale. 
l3U\UniC and Gupta (1007) hUle also obsenecl lhat e\en though female headship is 
less f'reCJucnt In Asia and the near East. it s IHe\ alence is IncreasIng in Cuba. lhe 
L niled States or AmerIca and Barbados among olhers . 
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2.3 FACTORS THAT ACCOUNT FOR SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD 
AND FEMALE HEADSHIP 
Factors that give rise to single female parenthood and female headship are varied and 
encompass a wide range of circumstances. These factors and circumstances are 
discussed below. 
MARITAL DISSOLUTION 
Single female parenthood and female headship occurs most often after the dissolution 
of a marnage through separation, divorce or death of a spouse (Bruce and Lloyd, 
19t)2) 
In developed regions headship rates are very high fo r divorced and separated women. 
On average the proportion of separated or divo rced women who are household heads 
is 74 percent in developed countries (U nited Nations, 1995) Trends in the United 
States for e\.ample suggest that close to two-thirds of new marriages wi ll end in 
dIvorce (Martin and Bumpass, 1989) Nearly 32 percent of couples who divorce \vill 
do so before their flnh anni\ ersary and about (,3 percent before their tenth (National 
Center for Health Statis tics. 1995) 
In the. del eloping regions of Lati n America, Africa and Asia, the average proportion 
of separated or divorced women who are household heads is 54 percent, 44 percent 
and 41 percent respectively (United Nations. 1995). This trend is not surprising as 
many countries studied in Sub-Saharan Africa. Latin America and the Caribbean 
sho\\ that. more than one-third of \\omen e\.perienced marital disruption before age 
40 - 49. and this proportion is as high as 61 percent in Ghana (United Nations, 1995) 
19 
Ardayfio-Schandorf U(1n9i9v4e)r shiatys oalfs Go hasasneart ehdt ttph:a/t/ uign sGpahacnea. usgep.eardauti.ognh and divorce 
contribute to women becoming household heads. According to Ardayfio-Schandorf 
(1994) the absence of men in the household through divorce and separation leaves 
women with children to assume greater economic and decision making 
responsibilities in the household which results in women assuming headship status. In 
countries of Asia and North Africa with data, between 11 and 37 percent of women 
have experienced such marital disruption (United Nations, 1995). 
Widowhood remains a chief factor responsible for marital disruption. Among women 
60 and older, widowhood is significant everywhere from 40 percent in the developed 
regions and Latin America to 50 percent in Africa and Asia. Moreover in Asia and 
Africa, widowhood affects many women at younger ages. In many countries in these 
regions as many as 20 to 25 percent of women aged 45-49 are widowed, and in some 
up to 5 percent of even younger women, aged 25-44, are widows (United Nations, 
1995). 
Buvunic and Gupta (1997) have observed that sex-ratio imbalances caused by war, 
deaths and civil conflicts have resulted in a surplus of females in native populations 
iii 
.~ 
thereby leading to a rise in female headship. 
In Ghana, Ardayfio - Schandorf (1994) found 78.1 percent of widows heading 
households at over 40 years. 
DESERTION 
Rakowski (1985) and Fayorsey (1995) have intimated that men in marital unions 
abscond or desert their wives, leaving behind women to take resp~ibility for the 
20 
l11all1tenance of their hoUunsievheorlsdisty.  Nouf kGuhnyaan a(I  hSltlt)2pb:/)/ uhgass paalsco ei.nutgim.eadteud. gthhat husbands 
desert their \\ i\'es and dependants because of their inability or unwillingness to 
support them Nukunya (I Sll)2b ) is of the op llli on that this IS a sad commentary on 
men's beha\iour and sense of responsibility, that \\hile mothers generally hold 
tenac loush to their children like ltmpets e\en \\hen the situation becomes hopeless, 
men al\\ a~ s seek safety in flight \\ ith the onset o r the sl ightes t trouble. Acco rding to 
NLlklln~ a (I Sll)2b) this is a worl d wide phenomenon \\hlch is found to be associated 
\\ Ith \\Orklllg class families and others of similar socio-economic status. Nukunya 
(I ()()2b) ['urther states that III Ghalla ho\\e\er. thiS phenomenon is round not only Il1 
urban and industrial areas but also in rural areas and that thiS is a de\elopment \\hich 
runs completely contrarY to the trad iti ons and sense or responsibi lity associated \\ith 
Afncan ltCe. Thus in the \ie\\ of Rako\\skl (1985), Fayo~sey (I SlSl5) and Nukunya 
(I SltJ2b) desertIOn IS a factor that leads to female head sh ip . 
POLYGYN\' 
Po" g\ nOlls lInlons often prO\ Ide sep,lrate li\ ing mrangel11ents or households for 
\\I\es or the same man (Abu, 1()83: Appiar. I SlSlO) In Sub-Saharan Coun tnes. 
~)<'" g\ !lOllS Ullions remain C0111111011. but an accurate measure IS dirricult since such 
lIlllons are dellberate/\ under reponed \\here Illegal (Glllled Nations, ISlSl5) In Mali, 
Nigeria and Togo, more than 40 percent of \\omen hme husbands \\ ilh at least one 
other \\ Ife In these countries the merage number of co-\\i\es ranges from 1.2 to 1.9, 
so II IS not uncommon for a \\oman to hme 1\\ 0 or Illore ('0-\\ l\eS (Westoll Blanc 
anei l\ ~b I ade, I (N4 ) 
21 
In Ghana 23 percent oUf ncuivrreernstilty  mofa rGriheda n\\ao mhtetnp :a//rue gins paa pcoely.uggyn.eodusu .ugnhion (GSS and 
\ II. 10()(J) Women in polygynous uni ons tend to hm e great financial responsibilities 
and 0 ['(en bear the responSI bil ities of household management and chi Id care alone (di 
Dlmcnlco. 1083) SlIlce the husband has other Camilles to support. the financial 
support to each child is generally lo\\er than in monogamous unions. 
Ware (19831 G). is thus of the vie\\ that the continued practice of po lygyny which is 
not a dying tradition but a "noun shing II1stltutlon" in \Vest Africa has resu lted in 
female headed households. 
(O~Sf:0iSL'AL AND VISITING UNIONS 
('()ll~enSll:11 and \ isitlng uni ons arc major routes IIIlO single !'email' parenthood and 
lemale headshIP In relat ion to this phenomenon. Comarrof' and Roberts (1977) hale 
a,>~ertcd th'lt the 1110st marked changes in famlh and household patterns are seen in 
the number of children born to unmarried mothers without any officially recognized 
Cathers The result according to Comarrof and Roberts (1977) is the significant 
lIumber or households headed b\ \\omen. Thus single mother heads especially 
teenage child beanng became a senous prob lem In Latin America In the I 08()"s as 
\\ ell as most de\e loping nations including Ghana (8u\llllic. 1(90) 
In Latin '\menca and the Caribbean. female hL'adshlp :lS ,lirea(h 111entloned IS hi gh 
<llId Il~I:Ill:d tu cUllSellsual UI1IUIlS II1Is IS because cUl1~ellsual UIlIOIl~ are socialh 
accepted and are an alternatl\e to mmnage (Ullited Nations. I ()()5) rhe ligures or 
chIldren born to \\'omen not legally marned are striklllg - 53 percent 111 Vene;:uela. 49 
percent in Peru_ 43 Upnericveenrts iitny  oPfa rGaghuaanya  (h8tmtpu:/n/uicg sept aacL e.1u9gn.e)d aun.dg h77 percent in 
Jamaica (StandIng, 198 1) 
GYC"- ~ e_ Arthu r and Dank \\a (I ~)l)() hme noted that \\ hi 1st custo mar~ ' marriage is the 
most common fo rm of marriage among Ghanaians, there is the \\ide spread practice 
of parties not performing the ceremony and ri tes \\ hlch are tradit ionall\ required for a 
ctl,t,)man marriagc Thc SC I'I OUS li ra\\ b~ld \\ itll Stich all ar rangcmcnt IS that this 
Inrormal union is dissoluble_ and Sing le parenthood is the result 
Datil from the Demographic and Health Suneys have also confirmed that informal or 
consensual unions ha\'e been Increas ing in Ghana The Ghana Demographic and 
Health sun e\ of 19W) indicated that 6 percent of Ghanaians \\ere li\ing in 'informal 
unions The number of Ghanai ans in informal unions increased to 12 percent 
accordll1g to the Ghana Demographic and Health Sun e\ of I SlSl3 (GSS and ML 
Il)')-l) Current". according to the Ghana Dellloglilphic and Health Sun e\ or 19l)S 
(GSS ;Uld ML 1l)9l)). 13 percent or Ghanaians :\I"(~ in Iniormalunions 
,'\s these iniorl1lul unions become \\idespread It leads to a \\ oman and her children 
\\ Ithout a supporti\'e partner and rather (L1oyd_ 19(3) hence a matnfocal type of 
household 
I RADI TIONAL PRACTICES 
The traditions In some African SOCieties indicate \\ omen as heads of compounds or 
households Among the Gas for e"ample_ reSidence is duo-local Under this system 
both husband and \\ Ife cont inue to ll\e 111 their natal homes arter marnage Ga 
23 
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compounds are divided into two sections, one for men, and the other for women. The 
adult males and their adolescent boys occupy the men's section known as 'hiamli'. 
The women's section or 'Yeiamli' is inhabited by women descended in the female 
line from a sister (or sisters) of the male founder of the 'hiamli' . As the compounds 
are built originally on patrilineage land, the result of this arrangement is that men of 
the same patrilineage live in the same quarter of town, while the female agnates are 
scattered all over town, residing with their mothers and mother's mothers. Boys live 
with their mothers until just before puberty when they move to their fathers even after 
marriage (Nukunya, 1992a:21-22). It is perhaps no surprise that Fayorsey (1995) 
found female headed households to be predominant among the Gas. Also among the 
Ashanti, residence is ideally patrilocal, but since this runs counter to matrilineal 
inheritance children cannot live permanently with their fathers and many never live 
with them at all (Nukunya, 1992a:23). Again it is perhaps not surprising that studies 
by Twumasi (1975), Abu (1983) and Appiar (1990) found a relatively high prevalence 
of female headship among the Ashanti. 
SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD AND FEMALE HEADSHIP BY CHOICE 
It has betW asserted that single female parenthood or female headed households are 
, 
formed by circumstances such as poverty rather than by choice (Ono-Osaki, 1991). 
This may not be true as some women with the ability to support their children 
themselves, choose not to be under the jurisdiction of a man. 
Staying single or being a female head is a conscious choice (Comaroff and Roberts, 
1977; Reinvoize, 1985; BoydenlUnesco, 1993.; Brown, 1996). 
24 
Despite their gro\-\1h iUn nthiveeirr sniutym obfe rGs hIna nreac ehnttt py:e//aurgs shpoa\\cee\e.uLg s.iendgule. gfhemal e parents 
or Ce malc heads by choice remain a minority am ong single remale parenthood 
(Cashmore.19gS) 
Leonard and Speakman ( 198660) sugges t that for Lesbians. beco ming a sing le parent 
b\ choice IS --a \en signi ficant step fOr\\a rd in ra nn ing th eir identi ty 
POOR LCONOI\IIY 
rhe declining economy in the thi rd \\orld has also led to a reduction In real househo ld 
Illcome and Increased po\en y. forcing men to relinquish responsibility for fami ly 
mal ntenance 
In Latin Amencu and the Canbbean regions for e:\umple. reminist researchers ha\e 
h\pothesll.cd thaI. the economic crisis or the eighties and the loss or gainfu l 
employment among men ha\"e increased the number or households that rely basically 
on \\ omen' s Income (Bmunic and Gupta. 1997) 
1 \ llience rrom Ghana has also sho\\ n that \\ omen take Lip a greater share or 
household e"'penses (lS a restllt or' their htlsh,lIlds ilcill g Ill:HIl' rcdllnd:ltlt due to the 
lntcrn ::ll ional l\IIonetan Funds (I 1\11 F) pollc\ of redeployment (Fayorse\. 1<)92) 
MIGRATION 
fh e seasonal migration of men contnbutes to the high number or women headed 
households In some countries. and the number or \\ olllen \\\10 migrate in response to 
economic opportunities in others (Ul1lted Nations. 1995) 
Barros. Fo'\ and MenUdunnivcae r(s1i'0ty'0 7o).f  Ghmhae ninad hictattpe:d// uthgast pleamceal.eu ghe.eaddeucl. ghhouseholds as a 
rami" type has a long history In Bra/.Ii ThcI IIlclicatcd that marrIed \\omen \\ hose 
l1Usballd~ \\cre absent hcackd alillos t 3() percent 0 1' households in the cit\' or Sao Paolo 
111 17(,) I'hls high headship rat e II as attributed to the neecl for adult male migration in 
an eCOlloml that lIas characteri;:ed by plantation Agriculture 
In Afnca. after the abolition of the slm'e trad e and the beginning of colonial rule in 
the earl~ t\lentieth century. there lIas mass migration particularly of nlen. The 
!l1lgr:lllon pattern lIas from the rural areas to the cities and mllllllg centres to meet the 
demands of' the JI1troduction of wage labour and cash economy by Europeans. The 
Illigration lIas also partiall\' 111 respo nse to the ta,es Imposed bl the Europeans and 
the replacement or local goods bl European goocls. 11111ch could onll be acquired 
through Glsh pa\mcnt (C'lI tl'lIldll. I ()X"') Slllce II \\;lS 01111 l11en \\ 110 migrated. thc 
consequence \\ as an increase in female heacled households (Ono-Os<1kl. 1,)<) I) This 
trend In modern times has not changed. In Ghana. for e'\ample. the Ghana II \'ing 
standards sliney Report (GSS. IlJ89). has indicated that migration of husbands from 
rural to urban areas has put a lot of pressu re on th e spouses left behind. who are 
forced to take care of children as \\ell as the actililies and assels of the family 
IIlciudll1g farms and other propeliy. Ardadjo-Schandorf' (19'04) has similarly 
IndIcated that in Ghana the absence of men in the household through migration results 
In II omen becollllllg household he,lcis In her slud\ or household headship and female 
C<lrlling III Chana. Ardlllrio-Schandorr (Il)\)~) sholl s lhal as more men migrate in 
reSj1()11Se to I al'lous economic Ojlj10rlUIlIIIL'S. \\ (llllL'll :l~SlIlllL' I"L'SIH1I1Sliltllll 01" becoille 
sole managers of the household \\ith greater responslbillty for e'\pendlture. lI1come 
and Important decision making. In her study. she realized that no less than 58.2 
26 
percent or marrIed \\oUmneinv e\\resriety  foouf nGd htaon bae  httatkpi:n//gu gmsapj oarc eec.uongo.emdicu .rgehsponsibilities 
~1I1d major decis ions concerning the household in rural areas. 
I\lartlJ1el and 1l01ll1c (I nO) ha\ C IIldicated th at a stnk lng reat ure or female migration 
pattern to cit ies IS the proportion of single women \\ho mi grate \\ith children but not 
to JOIl1 a spouse. Most of these \\omen according to Mal1inez and Ho lme (1980) are 
\ounger \\omen \\i th small children 
I he declinlllg economy and lack of emplo\ment opportunities 111 most third \\orld 
countries has res ulted 1I1 international migration In the past one hundred years. 
II1ternatlOnal migration has imprO\ed the OPPol1unit ies for millions of peop le because 
countrIes ha\ e orten encouraged inmligration to meet their labour needs (United 
Nations. IlJ l )5) According to Marric (llJS(i). a drastic econo mic dcclll1e in Latin 
/\l11erlea gl'nclatcd thc need {or \ (lung \\ ollcrs 10 he sen I across intcrnatlonal bordcrs 
Thc recrlllllllcni e{Torts orcounlncs admitting 1l1lgr,UlI I\orkers ha\e IIltcndeclto target 
men and restrictions are usuall~ Imposed on the admiSSion or Immediate relatl\es of 
the \\orkers imohed. gi\ing \\omen fe\\er opportul1llJes than men to migrate legally 
to labour importing countries (United Nations. 1995) The logical effect is left behind 
female parents to head their households (Bmunic and GUptcL 1997) 
CULON I /\L{SM 
Cutrufclll (llJX5) has asserted that colonialism diSintegrated ramilies in Africa 
\ccordlllg to hll11. since the {'ineenth centur\. actl\ Itles 01' Europeans such as slmery 
caused a lot of Africans to be taken out of the continent "v1en In particular were 
27 
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preferred to women and children. This situation weakened the social cohesion that 
existed before the coming of Europeans. Hitherto intact familie~ were transformed 
into single female parent families and female headed households. 
Ono-Osaki (1991) has also asserted that in countries of Eastern and Southern Africa, 
young men were the first to accept wage employment on white owned farms and 
mines leading to mi:lie out-migration. He thus suggests a link between colonialism and 
the development of female headship. 
2.4 PROBLEMS 
It is often difficult for single female parents and female heads to function effectively. 
Burdened with the primary responsibility for supporting themselves and their 
children, single female parents frequently have too little time and too few resources to 
manage effectively (eherlin, 1981). 
Many single female parents have never worked, have out-dated skills or are now 
working at jobs that have relatively low average pay. They are subject to the problems 
of low income, few fringe benefits, occupational segregation and discrimination that 11(/ 
face all working women (Richmond-Abbot, 1992). 
Tn 1987 for example, the mean household income of two-parent families in the United 
States was $34,700, while that offemale headed households was $14,620 (Norton and 
Moorman, 1987). 
28 
In Ghana CI Idence shoU\\sn itvheatr siintyc oomf eGs hoafn \a\o hmttepn: //huegadsipnagc heo.uusge.heodluds.g ahre low and 
ll1adequate to meet the requirements of their households (Ardayfio-SchandorL 1994) 
Alter di\orce the income of single female parents fall on merage of 73 percent 
(Welliman. 1985 . Arendell, 1987) 
Folbre (ll)90) has also 1I1timated that female headed households pay a lery high price 
III loss of access to male market IJ1come and the\' almost certainly bear an el en laroer 
- . b 
share of the costs of children than In traditional male headed households 
Bcnneh ( 1l)92) contends that IJ1 situations \\here the husband migrates lealing behind 
1m 1\ Ife and chtldren. female headed households mm hme difficul t\' supporting the 
lamJ!~. espeCially If remittances are smal l or Irregular. ThiS may put considerable 
stralll on members of the household. Benneh (1992) fu rther states that single parent 
households \\hich are predom1l1ant ly female shoulder the burden of maintai·ning the 
household alone 111 the midst or ris1l1g cost or Ii I1I1g. 
Lad or chIld support in the Uni ted States ror e.\amp le create 1'lI1ancial difficulties l'or 
s1I1gle remale parents. particularh because less than half of them receJ\e regular child 
support pal mcnts from the fathers of thcII chi ldren (OrliCL' or child support 
CnrOICClllcnl. Il)XX) 
I hc problem or single female parellts III supportlI1g their households IS e.'\acerbated 111 
de\elopll1g nations, such as Ghana. This is because the traditional e.\tended family 
that used to absorb unmarried women (S1l1g le, eli lorce separated, \\ Ido\\ ed) has been 
\\eakelll ng. ThiS system pro\,lded a very sufficient means or guaranteeing the welfare 
29 
of less fortunate meUmnbievres rswiittyh ionf  tGheh afnama ihlyt tpsu:/c/uh gassp asicnegl.eu gf.eemdaule.g hparents. This 
particular situation can be attributed to people being exposed to Jhe western family 
norm, making people prefer the nuclear type of households. In other cases, rapid 
urbanization along with increased economic pressures may be diminishing the sense 
of responsibility to support extra kinswomen (Nukunya, 1992a; Ardayfio-Schandorf 
and Amissah, 1996). 
Kossoudji and Mueller (1982) in their study of the economic and demographic status 
of female headed households in rural Botswana also observed that contact with 
western customs and education seems to have disrupted the traditional system of 
patriarchal governance. This according to them has weakened the explicit and implicit 
contracts that enforced income transfers from fathers to mothers and their children. 
The effect of the weakened extended family bond in Africa and elsewhere has 
increased the poverty among female headed households (United Nations, 1992). 
A study by Mavis Hetherington and colleagues found that another major problem for 
single parent mothers and fathers is ro~~ overload. This is a problem particularly for 
,," 
the single female parent, as she is often unable to buy replacement services such as 
house cleaning he lp as most single fathers are able to do. Custodial female parents 
have to deal with tasks normally performed by two parents: earning an income, taking 
care of a house, having time for children and doing all the errands and maintenance 
chores that are needed. They are concerned about areas that may be new to them. 
Such as insurance mortgages, taxes, wills and judging the appropriateness.of charges 
by service people (Hetherington, Cox and Cox, 1978). 
30 
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Lloyd and Brandon (1991) based on a data from the Ghana Living Standards Survey 
Repo rt (GSS.1989) have sho\\n that 30 percent of the ho useholds with a reported 
female head contributes the majority of market \\orking hours to the household . 
particularly \\ hen the head IS of working age Lloyd and Brandon ( 199 1) further stated 
that the Cemale head contributed the majority share of the domest ic work . 
Oppong ane! Abu (Il)K7) hm e argued that the role c,pectatlons and acti\ Ities mos t in 
Lulil11Ct \\ 11h maternal res ponsibili ties are those assocl<lled \\ ith an occu pati on. 
l' ul1lekpor (I l)74) therefo re concl ud es that this connict makes a lo t of demand s on the 
tll11e lilt! energy of \\ omen. 
Gyck\e Arthur and Dank\\a (ll)%) ha\e also indicated that \\omen. especially si ngle 
parents or female heads are compell ed b\ cirCulllst:Ulces to cngage in a \ar iety or 
,tctl\ Illes Lo pro\lde fo r their household members. sometimes at a great cost to the ir 
physical and mental health . 
. \rdalliu-Sci1alldorf (1l)l)4) has pointed Ollt that the plight 01' female headed 
11111 ,eholds I, \\ orsened bY the Ltct thaI. they tcnd to ha\ e a high nlllll her 0 f ch i lei rell 
111 hel ,tud\ or hOllsehold IleaLislllp alld i'cmalc earning III Ghana. Ardayfio-Schandorf 
( I <)l),t) round that more than 50 percent of the \\omen had up to four children \\ ith 
1:-; ~ percellt ha\ Ing more than SI, children According to \rli,!\ rlo-~chandorf (1l)')4). 
hi' lurther Increases the social and economic burdens or rcmalc heads or households. 
31 
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I he burden of being the only mailable female parent may lead also to feelings of 
s0ctallso lation (Hethenngton. CO\ and CO\. I lJ7X Wallerstein and KellY . I lJXO) 
In ~plle of their many roles. single female parents or remale heads of households ha\'e 
les~ access to certain critical resources such as lanel. credit and education (Lloyd and 
Brandon. 199 1) One of the major consequ ences of the prob lems of single female 
parent fam il ies discussed above has been its negatl \e Impact on the children from 
,-pch familIes 
Resl:'.arch has sho\\l1 that children \\ho enter a single parent family as a resul t of 
di\ oree may suffer from depression and emolional distress (Hethenng10n. CO\. and 
CO\. Il)X5: ""cGrab, i lJ7X. Wallerstein and Kelly. Il}XO). 111m e\hibit beha\loral and 
learnIng dilTiculties m schoo l (Astone and McLanahan. 1l J91: Hetherington et al.. 
ll)tl5). ancl ma\be forced to take on adu lt responsibIl ities at an ea rl\' age (G lel1\\id 
and I'vio\\ re\. 1l}86: Wallerstem. Il)XS) 
When the. reach adulthood. ch il dren I"rom SIngle-parent families are more likely to 
hm e 10\\ er educatIOnal and economic achie\ ement (Amato and Keith. 1991. Keith 
and ~lnla\. 1l}8X. Krem and Beller. I lJ88). hme an Il1creased likelIhood of [arming 
smgie-parent famil ies themsehes (Glenn and Kramer. 1l}87, McLanahan. IlJ88: 
\-lueller and Cooper. Il}X6l- and ma) have dilliculty forming lastmg relationships 
\\ th partners (Wallerstein and Blakeslee. 19X1J) 
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Some researchers have noted that many of these negative consequences can be linked , 
ho\\ever, to the financial difficulties faced by most single-parent families (Acock and 
Klecolt, 1989~ Demo, 1992; McLanahan, 1985). 
2.5 COPING MECHANISMS OR STRATEGIES 
Despite their role overload, financial difficulties and feelings of isolation, single 
female parents and female heads have \arious strategi es or mechanisms by which they 
are able to deal with their predicament 
EMPLOYMENT 
Basically, single female or female heads provide the needs (food. clothing, shelter. 
health) of their children or dependants by earning an Income through employment. 
Accordmg to Papanek and Schwede (1988) and the United Nations (1995), one basic 
factor that has increased women's participation in the labour force is the 'need for 
female headed households to find employment to support their families 
Women's participation in the labour force increased more in the 1980s than In the 
I 'nOs in many regions or the \\orld. In the de\eloped regions out-side Eastern 
Europe, overall. women's rates increased by 5-() percentage points from 1970 to 1980 
and by R - 0 percentage points from 1080 to 1990. Rates in Northern Africa went 
from 8 percent of women economically acti \e In 1970 to 12 percent in 1980 to 21 in 
1990, and Latin America from 22 to 25 In the 1970s to 34 in 1990. In western Asia, 
\\here rates went from 22 in 1970 to 30 in 1990. the percentage increases were the 
same In each decade. Eastern Europe. Eastern Asia and Central Asia reported smaller 
increased or flight Udencilvineers, itbyu ot ft hGehy aanlrae ahdtyt ph:/a/vueg shapda cheig.uhegr. eradtues.g than any other 
region (United Nations, 1995). 
Unfortunately, increase participation of women in the labour force cannot be said of 
Sub-Saharan Africa. According to the United Nations (1995), women's average 
reported labour force participation dropped from a high rate of 57 percent in 1970 to 
53 percent in 1990. Thus, this trend does not hold good prospects for single female 
parents who solely rely on their participation in the labour force to provide for theiJ;'" '""'6-&~, 
. ~~;" . .~ . 
households. I _ " 
In Ghana, the situation of women 's participation in the labour force however seems to 
be different. This is because 3 in 4 women are employed. Among women employed 8 
in 10 (63 percent) work full time (GSS and MI, 1999). According to the Ghana Living 
Standards Survey (GSS, 1989), female household heads who have better jobs, 
substantial education or are engaged in business are in a better position to take care of 
themselves and their children. This is because they earn relatively higher incomes and 
are therefore able to provide their own needs and that of their children. 
In all African Countries, except Egypt, more than one-third of women economically 
active out-side of Agriculture work in the informal sector. The percentage is as high 
as 72 percent in Zambia and 62 percent in Gambia (United Nations, 1995). 
In Ghana, the majority of women are self-employed or unpaid family workers. They 
engage in a variety of productive activities inside and out-side the home, farming, 
34 
process lI1g and markeUtingiv eagrsriictyu lotufr aGl hparnodau hcett pa:n/d/u galsop atcraed.eu gIn. eldouca.lg hand imported 
co 111ll1od It ies 
Accordll1g to the Ghana Demographic and Health Suney 01' 1998 (GSS and ML 
llYN). \\ omen are t\\lce as likely to be emp loyed 111 the no n- agricul tu ral secto r (G7 
percelll) lhall 111 the agricultural sec tor en !ll'rcenl). Nl'arh' one ill 1\\0 \\Ol11en IS 
engaged 111 sales and the pro\ision orsenices 
II IS \\ Ithm the informal sector that many Ghanaian \\ omen fi nd it relati \ ely easy to 
perCorm domestic chores. care Cor their children and also engage In their numero us 
ecunOllllC actl\ It ies (Bro\\n. 199()) 
Manu (I 9l)O) has thus stated that. it IS mdeed the inCormal sector. \\ 'hich is the key 
sector Cor the suni\al oC a large proportion or the Ghanaian population. especiallY 
\\omen Though. the informal sectol' is ke\ to the sun i\ al or' \\omen 'ill Ghana. Manu 
(ll)lJl) has rurther obsened that \\hile al I \\orkers in the mformal sector share the 
ClI1stralnts associated \\ith the sector. the Situation or \\omen is e:\acerbated b\ their 
o\\n peculiarities and lesser access to resources m the Ghanaian Society These 
peCUliarities accordmg to her are namel\. their reproductl\e roles. their position In the 
Cal11l h and the se:\ual dl\islOl1 0 I' labour 
Contra!") to the assertion (United Nations. (995) that \\omen's participation in the 
labour Corce has declined in Sub-Saharan ACrica. Cald\\ ell (I9GR) IS or the \ie\\ that 
educatloll 11(15 on the other hand opened up ne\\ horilOns Cor \\omen and as a result. 
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Ill\\re \\o lllen are nOlI integrated in the labour market or formal sector competing \\'ith 
tilcil male co unt erpart s. 
Clld\\ ell (I W)il) noted that three-fift hs of \\omen In both rural and urban Ghana \\ere 
III employ ment other than "home duti es". Al so accordll1g to the Ghana Demographic 
and Health Suney of 1<)98 (GSS and MI. I ()t)9 ). highl\ ed ucated \\o men are most 
llkel~ to be in sales and sen ice (45 percent) or in professional. techn ical or 
managerial jobs (36 percent) This positio n has risen largely because \\ omen hme had 
to 5h,Lre much or e\en alL the responsibilill [or supporting themsel\es and their 
chllJn~n (Addai-Sundlata. 19%) 
-\rda~ Ilo-Schandorf (I <)94) has indicated that 0\\ ing to their high economic burden. 
!l:malc hcads In Ghana hale part time .lobs or occupations that they perform 
sl1l1ultaneous" \\ith their major occupations. 
Thus earnll1g an income through employment in the informal and formal sectors b\ 
slIlgle female parents IS one basic strategy or mechanism the\ adopt to support 
members o[thelr households. 
SOC 1·\\ Sl'PPORT 
Th')llgh SOIllC rescmches (Nukll1l\il. I ()()2a. Kossoudj! and Mueller. 1()~2: and the 
L Illtl!d ~alIOI1S. I ()92) lu\\ e noted the \\ cakenlllg support oj' the e.\.tellded kll1 to single 
IClllak parents and female heads of households In del eloping countries. other 
researches on the contrary hale indicated that single female parents and female heads 
or households are able to fulfill their responsibility for pro\Jdmg Cor theIr households 
36 
because they receivUe nfiinvaenrcsiaitly  aossf iGstahnacne af rhotmtp :t/h/euigr sepxtaecnede.udg k.eind. uT.og hillustrate this 
Guyer (1988) found that in Colombia, transfers from people other than a woman's 
husband, mostly her kin accounted for 34.4 percent of her income. 
Ardayfio-Schandorf (1994) has also indicated that in Ghana, female heads of 
households receive assistance from relations like mothers, uncles, brothers and sisters. 
According to her, the assistance takes the form of food, clothing, school fees, rent, 
money and in other innumerable ways. 
Gyekye, Arthur and Dankwa (1996) also concluded in a study in Ghana that in 
situations where parents were unable to ensure the welfare of their children, friends 
contributed towards the provision of food, shelter, clothing, and payment of 
educational and medical bills. 
The Ghana Living Standards Survey Report (GSS, 1989) has indicated that in 
matrilineal societies, where inheritance is through the female line, women who are 
heads of households may not necessarily face serious problems of survival for 
themselves and their children. 
It 
Ardayfio-Shandorfs (1994) indication of monetary transfers or assistancre to women 
is further supported by the findings of the Ghana Living Standards Survey Report of 
the fourth round (GSS, 2000). According to the Survey, about 76 percent of all 
households remit money or goods to persons who are not their household members. 
The bulk of these remittances go to relatives (93 percent) and in particular to parents 
and children (50 percent), brothers or sisters (18 percent) and other relatives (23 
percent). Such income flDws from the household benefited females (64 percent) more 
-;r 
37 
than males (3() percentU) nAivbeorust it4y7  opfe Grcehnat noaf  hretmtpi:t/t/aungcessp aarce es.eungt .oend au .rgehgular basis (7 
percent \\ eekh'~ 19 percent monthly ~ I I percent quarterly. and 10 percent annually 
;lIld .:; I perCL'llt on an irregular basi s. 
\llllost all remittances l'or households (l)(i percent) are Cree. in that they are not to be 
repaid The repoli further indicated that 40 percent of remittances are from abroad . 
Womell recel \e ass istance from their e.\tended Kin because they 1m est in e:\tended 
1--..111 e:\change or shanng net-\\orks . Guyer (1l)g8) has int imated that among patrilineal 
people~ l'or e:\ample. one of the reasons \\omen need their o\\n Income is to maintain 
tlll'l llbllgatlons or e:\changes \\Ith their natal e:\ tended Kill . 
Ihlls 1\ hCIl a 1\ oman's independ enth ' cOllt rolled incoille drops. so 111m her ab ility to 
l1la1l1ta1l1 kin lies. to her family's detriment as \\ell as her own detriment. The 
Importance or poor wo men 's kin based "shanng net-\\orks" for keeping their 
households abo\ e the "sun 1\ al IlIle" has been documented emplflcall ) lor the United 
Slates b\ Lombardi (1973) and stack (1974) and also 111 the Dominican Republic by 
1.510\\11 (J ")75) 
A \\oman's ab ilIty to e:\change resources and sen ices \\ith k1l1 are especlalh 
lIllport~l1lt \\ hcre\ er marriages are poh g\·nol1~. unstable 01' \\ here 111alTrage rates are 
11\\ \ \\lIlll,Ul'~ e\tellded fallllh e\change nCl\\ ork Illil\ then prO\ c a more relIable 
';(III1CL' 01' ;lId thall :1 husb:1I1d III L'e lll' r;" . \\ ilere I\Ullll'lI partlCljl;JtL' III a silarlll g 
c\change net\\ ork. the poorer she is. the more Important the 1I1surance nsk spreadmg 
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Iu nc tIO n sen ed by her net\\ork . Thus \\ omen ' S use of Kin shari ng or exchange 
net\\o rk IS bo th insurance and resource (Blumberg. 1<)<) J) 
\\'Ith regards to childcare. members of the extended kin also support women to 
e\ecute this res ponsibility Extended kinship net- \\o rks and complex ho useholds 
pr(1\ Ide a relati\e h secure institu tional sc tt lllg fo r the rearing of the young, wh ich is 
nut c\cessl\eh \ ulnerable to the death. migration or out-side employmen t of a paren t. 
rlll~ e.\tent to \\ hlch \\o men ha\ e access to chIld rearing support therefore depends on 
residential mrangements and the social organi/.atl on of family life. 
(()-re\ILicl1ce \\ ith extended famih members. such as parents. Siblings and 
grandparents. seems likely to increase the probability of child care shared by other 
ramlh members (Ardayfio-Schandorr and Amissah. 1996) This assertion is also 
'iuppo llecl Iw the lIndlngs or the Ghana Demographic and I lealth Sur\ey of 1<)<)8 
(GSS ,mel M L 19<)9) According to the Sun ey. 22 pel-cent 0 r emp loyed mothers \\ it h 
a chtid unclel Sl,\ hm e relati\es to look after the child. The suney rurther states that G 
pl'rcent or mothers of children ['e\\(~r than 51'.. hm e another rell1ille child to look illter 
Ihe chtld 
OPPlll1g (I l)7)) hilS noted thilt. it is the norm III households of the educated elites for 
the \\ orklng remale parent to delegate many or the chlldreanng chores and 
responsIbilities to related and unrelated cmployces 
:\ccorlilllg to Oppong (I <)75) mone:- is c\changed 1'01' domestic sen Ices \\Ith distant 
kill and strangers \\ho act as nurses or maIds . ThiS IS l11ilde pOSSible because poor 
39 
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parents send their children to the city to sen e In the households of the rich_ get them 
Ico, clothed and accommodated and hopefully paid in return for their labour In this 
\1.1\ the burdens of childcare In terms 01' linanclal strain and the use of time and 
energ~ are distributed alllong dilTerent households. both ru ral and urban. nch and poor 
educated and illiterate. related and unrelated (Oppong. 1')75) 
Cohen (Il)X8) has intimated that in the Uni ted Kmgdom, local Authority Nurseries 
prO\ Ide essentially residual service [or children considered to be in special need due 
tJ the dlsad\antaged situation o[their family (single female parent family), 
IlL Ilbtltutlon of child fostering IS another mechanism through \\hlch \\ omen cope 
\\ Ith the burden of childcare and nnlntenance 
f'u~lenl1g nl- childl'en has been noted as a COlllillon occurrence \I Ilhin the African 
Ia n II h s\'stem (Goody. 1')82: Isuigo-Abani he. 1l)8,). Lloyd and Desai. 1')9 I: Desai 
I ')') I) In e:--:aminmg the Issue o[ fostering. Goody distinguished bet\\een CriSIS 
ro~tenng \\ here children are gl\en to be brought up b\ people other than their 0\\11 
I,ar,:nts becClllse the natal [amily of oncntatlon IS unable to l'ulfill ItS roles clue to a 
critical sltuatlon_ and \oluntar}, or purposi\e fostering. \\here the decision to [oster is 
\\ Ithout compulsion, In this form of fosterage. the initIati\ e IS normall, leA to \lould 
he parents In the Coster home, Gooch (I ')X2) notes that a child could be under 
ll!tLlr~ult !ustcrage \\here foster children are lIli"ants and are pro\lded \\lth food. care 
rccel\e educatlOn and trainmg in adult role skills and \alues o[the societ) 
--10 
Thus \\ ith regards to Udnisicvieprlsinitiyn go ft hGeihr acnhail dhrtetnp :/s/ul'ngsl parc e.uI g.edu.gh
. e ema e parents may not face 
\ en serious problems in Ghanaian society This is because in the Ghanaian societ)' 
\\here formal education is not uni \ersaL child foster ing is a mechanism for the 
soclall/utlon or children (Goody. I n2) 
In their mdl\ idual \\orks \\here the Issue or child fostenng \\as e:\amined. authors lJke 
I me (1%2). Good\ (I n2). and Gue\e ( 1993) mention the follo\\ing circumstances 
leading to the transfer of a child fl'om hiS biological home Int o a foster home 111 
11;ldltlll llal tlllles, To strengthel1 or reaJ'iirlll i'aillily tics. children \\ere transferred from 
thm O\\n homes to reside with other relations (Goody. 1982) 
On the occasion of th e death or parents or pm"ents ' dl\orce. ne\\ homes had to be 
fOllnd for the children Such children \\ere fostered b\ relatl\ es. on their lineage of 
affiliation (Kaye. 1962. Goody. 198 2) Child arrangements where a child \\as 
transferred to a couple who hare no ch ildren or their o\\n for conipanionship and 
secunl\ In old age. \\as another comillon form of fosterage (Good:- . I 9~2 Gue\e 
11)\)3) 
fhe transfer oj' a child from his biological home into a ne\\ home due to economic 
constraints has been a long standing occurrence dating back to traditional times , 
Gooch (I 9X2) recounts that \\here a famll\ had l11al1\ and closel:- spaced births. 111 
lradilional tlilles. a \\ oman \\as likely to foster out at ieast one of her children to her 
O\\n parents to reduce th e financial burden of her f~'ll11ih 
-+1 
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rhus \\ ith regards to disciplining their children. single female parents may not face 
\ en serious prob lems in Ghanaian SocIety, This IS because in the Ghanaian society 
\\here formal education is not uni\ersal. child lostering is a mechanism for the 
~ocIaII /.atlon of children (Goody. 19S2) 
III theII Il1di\ idual \\orks \\here the iss ue of child fostenng \\as e'\amined. authors like 
k~!\e (I % 2). Good\ ( In2). and Gue\ e (I <)<) 3) mention the lo ll o\\lng circumstances 
!_'cldlllg to the transrer or a child rrom hI S b,ologic,d home into a roster home in 
tr: lti lll(lll:i1 lilll CS To sirengthcn or rearJirtll l~lJllily Ilcs. children \\ere transferred from 
thel! o\\n homes to res ide with other relations (Good \. 1982) 
On the OCC1SIon of th e death of pareJl t ~ or parents ' e1I\ orce. ne\\ ho mes had to be 
found 1'01 the children Such children \\e re lostered b\ rebtl\ 'es. on theIr li neage of 
afTilJat lon (Kaye. 1962. Goody. 1982) Child arrangements \\ here a child \\as 
lrallsrcrrecl to a co upl e \\ho have no chil dren of thell 0 \\/1 lo r co mpanionship and 
seellflt\ In old age. \\as another comillon lorm of foste rage (Goody. I <)X2, Gue\e 
I he Ir;:LI1s ler of a child from hi s bi ologIcal home int o a ne\\ home due to eco no mic 
constraInts has been a long standing occurrence datl!1g back to tradItional tImes 
ii1l0e1\ (I <):-:2) recounts that \\ he re a famlh had mam and c1osel~ spaced bll1hs. Il1 
trad IIIOIWI tlilles. a \\ oman \\ as likel y to fos ter out at least one 0 f her chIldren to her 
O\\n piU ents to reduce the financial bu rden of her L'lmih 
41 
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Also 111 most societIes especiallY in Northern Ghana a we ll-off relati\e \\dling to 
rellc\c a famil\' of the number of nl()uths to reed lIas orten \ery \\elcome (Good\. 
19K2) b idence from the Ghana Demographic and Health Suney. 1<)<)8 (GSS and 
11.11 I')'N) indicate that I () percent or households include children \\/10 are fostered. 
tlwt IS chddren less than IS "ears oldlilll1g \\lth neither parents. 
\\ ('IS~ ( I 'J78) has observed that feelings of social IsolatIon and problems e:-.:perienced 
h~ most Sl ngle mothers is red uced in that single mothers sometimes dIscuss their 
prohlems \\ Ith their mature children. Richmond -Abbot (I <)02). has obsen ed also that. 
the ~lI1gle l'emale parent usually made nell friends lIi th other single or dl\orced 
pi'upk \\ ho acted as a support system. 
\\' elss (I ()] g) has asserted that three themes repeated II appear in many \\ido\\s' 
;1CCC'lInt or their recOler\' from the state and efTects of II idoll ·llOOd and these are 
keq)IJlg themseh es occupied. developing nell skills and returning to acti\ e social 
pat tilipation 
Another means b~ \\ hlch sll1gle female parents cope \\ ith the financial pressures for 
prO\ Ilill1g lor theIr chIldren IS their reliance on social \\ elfare. Miller (I <)g<)) has 
Indicated that there has been a long aSSOCIallOn bel\\een lone parellls' households and 
del1enclellcc upon Social SeCllril~ It IS eSlimated thai 111 the United Kingdom lor 
c\alllpic three-fourths or all sIngle parents \\ ere entllied to some means-tested 
bencrlh 111 I ')X5 (Berthoud. I <)X5) 
42 
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iarflnklc and McLanahan (I 0RCi) and Popkin (I (00) hme also intimated that in the 
linIted States smgle parent mothers orten times hm'e to rely on \\elfare at least for a 
pCllod of time. 
In Ghana ho\\ e\ er. government transfers to smgle mothers and female heads of 
households are non -e:\istent (ArdayJ'io-SchandorC I t)t)4) Single female parents 
IIl,Ulagc to cope \\ ith child maintenance in situations \\here they recei\'e child support 
from their e:\-spouses In the United Kingdom. child support contribu tes 111 a 
,1"1111 ICclI1t \1 a\ to the household income or onll about () percent or single female 
parents (~Iiller. Il)Rt)) Miller (10gt)) runher states that lor these single mothers \\ho 
ell! Ill) [ depend on social securi ty or \\elfare, child support is an important part of 
houschold Income. 
111 Gh,ln;1 some \\omen seek legal aiel to reduce theil' c:\tra burden due [0 neglect or 
children by J biological father Family tnb unal s, the Social Welfare Department and 
The FederatIon of International Women Lamers (FlDA) report that 10\\ income 
\, 'IllCIl lorm the maJority or their CllCllts as thc\ hm e greater problems coping \\ Ith 
th~ silic rcsponslbillt\ or child carc (Al1l1Ssah and Ardmflo -SchandorC 10%) 
\1 lia, Iltl-Scl1:lIldorl' (I l)l)...() h:1S also ,-''\pl:lilll'd th:ll tillS IS bec:lLl:>e reports or the 
'lllCl:ll WclC:nc Department suggest th:lt \\Olllen especlall\ III the Illiddle and upper 
'lClot'conOIllIC classes hardh attend their 1~'1mlh' tribunals as the\ reel thel can cope 
\\ Itl, c.\tra responsibIllt}. 
Ardm fio-Schandorf (1994) has noted that though some \\omen in Ghana seek 
Institutional support, most do not because of customan practice. According to 
...(3 
Ardayfio-SchandoUrfn i(v1e9r9s4it)y,  onfo Grmhaallnya  whhttepn: //tuhegrsep aisc ea .ufagm.eildyu .cgohnnic!. customary 
prescriptions are applied in relation to marital rol e performance and responsibilities 
rather than to pro\'isions und er the 13\\, though the \\o men co ncerned m3\ knoll \\ hat 
to do, Ardmfio-Schandorf (1 994) thus concludes that \\ here ins titut ional su pport to 
ICll1aic hcadcd houschold s c"i sts, th L'\ lend 10 he spo l ~Kll c 
In a rare study of health~ single parent famili es, Hanson (I ()X(i) reported that parental 
and child health out comes \\ ere related to good communicat ion and social suppo rt , 
Hanson (ll)8o) noted that single parent famil ies \\ith larger networks of social support 
had better physical and mental health, Good communication withll1 the single parent 
family lIas al so related to pos iti le mental and physical out-comes, 
Ri chmond Ab bo t (I () X-l) has I nli l11~ ll Cd lh al III Sp itC or thc ll1an~ problems lhat 
seemed to co nfront many singlc rc l11~dc pill'cnts sO lll e or thcm l'c po l'teci that. the\' 
dcm cd "consldcrablc satl srac tl on frOIll thcir slI cccss rul ncgo tl atlon or the progress ion 
or pro bl ems th at conli'onted them as th ey \\ ent about the busrness of earni ng a living, 
carrng lo r their children, and atlemp tlllg to mect thclr nceds 1'01 I nlI mac~ and ad ult 
Interaction Ri chmond - Ab bot (I ()X4) further ohscnc cl that mam men ti oned 
increased autonomy and independence, There lIas also a ree ling of lI1d ividuai 
achie \ ement and self-ful Ci llment on the part Orl11a11\ dl\ orced \\o men 
Fo lbre ( 1990) has al so obsen ed th at. though I'emale heads or household s 111m face 
cert ain I'in anclal dI ITicul tlL' S, thc\ CIl IO\ Illll rc dL'C ISIOIl Illak lllg p()\\cr thall thosc \\ 11 0 
II \ e \\ It h ad ult 111 ales, 
CONCLUSION University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The review of the literature has revealed that factors that account for single female 
parenthood and female headship in Ghana are principally divorce, polygyny, duo- -
locality and migration of men. 
It also revealed that many single female parents faced a lot of financial constraints due 
to their lack of access to vital resources such as education, credit and land. 
It was also found out that governmental transfers to single female parents and female 
heads of households do not exist. On the other hand where institutional support to 
single female parents did exist it tended to be sporadic. Thus single female parents are 
forced to rely on various mechanisms such as reliance on earning an income and the 
extended kin among others to cope. The extent to which these and other mechanisms 
are adopted by single female parents to enable them effectively cope in an urban 
setting is thus the focus of this study. 
",.  
.,.L 
45 
2.6 CONCEPTUUAnLiv FerRsAityM oEfW GOhaRnKa  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
THE STATUS OF WOMEN 
According to F ayorsey (1994) the concept the "Status of Women" presents a series of 
problems. This is because of the variations in definitions assigned to it by various 
writers on the concept. There is no agreement on what the concept connotes and the 
appropriate term for describing it. The explanation for this is that, the status of 
women denotes different meanings, which are often culturally determined and 
sometimes even biologically determined. Thus depending on which ideological stand 
one holds one could conceive of the status of women in various ways. Fayorsey 
(1994) further explains that different authors use the concept to refer to different 
concepts. Dyson and Moore, (1983) used "FEMALE AUTONOMY", Cain et al 
(1979) referred to the concept as "PATRIARCHY", and Safilios Rothschild (1980) 
described it as "RIGIDITY OF THE SEX STRATIFICATION SYSTEM", while 
Caldwell (1981) sees it as "MEN'S SITUATIONAL ADVANTAGE OVER 
WOMEN" (Fayorsey, 1994). , 
Fayorsey (1994) emphasizes that though there are variations in the use ofthe concept, 
'((I each definition depicts an aspect of gender inequality, which favours men. This kind 
of social arrangement places women under men. Epstein (1982) further explains the 
status of women by their lack of prestige, while Dyson and Moore (1983) and Cain et 
al (1979) see it in terms of lack of access to power. Cain et al (1979) conclude that 
women's status is due to lack of their control of material and non-material resources. 
From the foregoing, it is obvious that a wide range of factors account for women' s 
status. Safilios-Rothschild (1980) mentions these factors as the degree of women ' s 
access to wealth and income, power, credit, skills, food, ~ealth and income, 
46 
~~ eneratin~~  activitiesU. niHvee rsliintkye od f tGh ehsae nlc:a c htotrtsp :t/o/u tg.h s ep saexc es.turagt.iefidcaut.igonh s.y stem , \.vhich 
fa\ours men since they occupy major positions \"hich deal with the control of 
resources. 
Fayorsey (1994) further emphasizes that the variations in the explanation of gender 
inequality have led Mason (1985) to analyse such inequality into three dimensions 
I. Inequality in access to or control over resources 
2. Inequality in Prestige 
3 Inequality in Power 
'"Mason (1985) explained further that \.vith gender inequality the sexes are equal in 
one or more than one dimension and occurs in more than one social situation. Mason 
(1985) further stated that there are three different kinds of resources which either men 
or women control and this arrangement results in gender inequality. The access to and 
control of certain productive resources by men make them wield more power and 
enable them to inevitably have control over other resources. Land IS one· of such 
resources controlled by men. Mason (1985) supports this assertion with Marx's 
theory, which states that owners of the means of production wield power. control the 
economy and have prestige. ll1\'ariably it is men who o\\n the means of production 
especially land hence their control o\er \\omen'" (Fayorsey. 1994) 
The degree of inequality or the status of \\·omen, should not, ho\yeyer be viewed as 
uniform in all situations (Mason, 1985) It varies in different social units such as the 
household, neighbourhood, the community or yoluntary associations. In the domestic 
realm for example women have considerable control oyer the household economy 
47 
(Fayorsey, 1995). ThUuns ivtheer ssittayt uosf  oGfh waonmae hn ttsph:o//uuldg saplwacayes. ubge. eddeusc.rgihbed vvithin the 
actual conte:-;t within which it e:-;ists (Mason, 1985) 
Another source of variation on the meaning of the status of "vomen is that of class and 
gender which are two main systems of social stratification. In gender stratification 
systems, men and women are assigned different roles in the social division of labour 
hence the differences in the access and control of resources. The stratification affects 
the socio-economic status of each person. Therefore the socio-economic status of one 
is due to one's position in either one or a combination of the class and gend er 
stratification s~·stems. Ho\\ever distinctions are not made bel\\ 'een the two in the 
definition of the status of women even though it alTects it. Though women by their 
class may have access to resources, they may not due to gender have the right to 
control them. Lack of control thus becomes very crucial in determining the status of 
women while only having access is misleading. This situation can further be 
e:-;plained by the fact that women do not generally have property rights since they do 
not control resources. 
Though \'ari ations e:-;isL a common denominator runs through the concept of the 
status of \\omen. This is the 10\\ position of \\omen. The dl scLission so far indicates 
that in any social sys tem. the position of an indi\'idual is determined by a combination 
of factors based on gender and class. Thus the position of \>, omen in dilTerent societies 
has contributed to their low education, lack of skills and low income. In Ghana for 
instance. the traditi onal patriarchal system (Bukh, J 979: Dumor 1983), the heavy time 
burdens and the position of women in the family and household tied up with the day-
to-day responsibilities for children and domestic services (Haddad. J 991: Manu. 
48 
1990) pre\ent \\'omeUn nfrivomer shitayv ionfg  Gahccaenssa  ehqtutpal: //tuo gtshpata coef .muegn. epdaurt.igchularly to land, 
labour; credit and education. This restricted access to productive resources has clearly 
undermined the type, level and extent of women's participation in economic 
production (Ardayfio -Schandorf, 1991) 
From the foregoing, it is e\'ident that the coping mechanisms or strategies of single 
female parents can be looked at in terms of their status as women. Also the means by 
\\hich they cope with maintaining their households to a large extent can be examined 
in terms of their indi\'idual as \\ell as collective access to vital resources such as 
education, income, social support and any other socially significant factor 
Based on extensive researches and conferences, the United Nations ( 11)1)2) has also 
proposed that the poverty of women. especially female headed households is largely 
due to their lack of access to assets and income earning potentials. According to the 
United Nations (1992), determinants of income earning potential include educatIon. 
employment and accessibil ity to resources . It is thus these determinants and other 
social factors such as family or extended kin support '.hat "ill determine the coping 
strategies or mechanisms or a single female parent 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
CHAPTER THREE 
STUDY AREA 
3.1 INTRODUCTION 
Kno\\ledge of the stud.,  area offers a practical unclersta( nd Ing f th0 e socl'o -economl.c  
and cultural milieu in \\hlch people deal \\Ith the challenges ofe\en'day 11\'ing This 
is imperatl\e to this study: 111 that It prO\ides the opportunity l'or one to make a \\ell-
Inf'ormed assessment of the mechani sms or strategies that single female parents adopt 
for their suni lal and that of their households . 
This chapter thus presents a general background of the study area and the three 
selected suney areas. TopiCS under discussion \\ III include geographical location. 
historical or igin and socio-economic characterisl1cs 
3.2 ACCRA 
3.2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 
Accra metropolitan area (Accra district) is located at the centre of Greater Accra 
Region It occupies a land area of appro:\lmatel\ one hundred and forty-four 
kilometres square (144 km sq) The area (Accra district ) shares boundaries \\lth t\\O 
districts. To the North IS Ga district. To the South is the Atlantic Ocean (Gull' of 
Guinea) stretching rrom Nungua through Teshie. La. Osu to the Chemu Lagoon near 
Chorkor. To the East is Tema MUI1lclpal Area and to the West again IS Ga district. 
3.2.2 POPULATION 
The population or Accra has been II1cre:1sing 0\ er the \ ears . According to the I <J70 
population census the population or Accra lIas ::;I\: hundred and 1\\ enl\-rOl!r thollsand 
so 
and ninety-one (624,0U91n)i.v eTrshiitsy  nouf mGbhear ninac rhetatspe:d// utog snpinaec eh.uungd.reedd ua.ngdh ninety-five 
(969,195) in the 1984, population census. The recent 2000 Population and Housing 
Census indicated that the population of the Accra Metropolis is one million, six 
hundred and fifty-eight thousand, nine hundred and thirty-seven (1,658,937) (GSS, 
2002). This population size comprise eight hundred and seventeen thousand, four 
hundred and four (817,404) males and eight hundred and forty-four thousand, five 
hundred and thirty-three (844,533) females. 
Although the district covers a small land area, it has 57.7 percent of Greater Accra 
Region's population. The proportion of the population urban is 100 percent. Accra is 
the most densely populated district in the country with over 895.5 persons per sq. km. 
The usual resident p6pulation of Accra is one million, six hundred and thirty six 
thousand and fifty (1,636,050) (GSS, 2002). 
3.2.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 
Accra was founded by the Gas as a small fishing village in the sixteenth century. The 
name of Accra was derived from the Akan word 'Nkrane ' meaning an army of ants. 
This was attributed to the thousands of Gas that dotted the Accra plains like ants on an 
«l 
~x 
anthill. On the arrival of the Gas they integrated with other groups (Kpeshie, rhe La 
and the Gua). Accra began as a series of Coastal villages encompassing the areas of 
James Town , Usher Town and Osu. La was a separate entity. To the east of La, the 
fishing villages ofTeshie and Nungua developed. 
51 
3.2.... DEVELOPMUEnNivTe OrsFit yT oHfE G AhRanEaA  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The gro\\ th and del elopll1cnt or Accra could lo)e 'lttlolbllted to tl 
L , le 0I,0I  \ a I I' E aJ 0 uropeans 
on the CO;lst or Ghana and prO\ idcd thc rirst ill1portant impetus of urban 0ro\\ th by 
b , 
buildil1g tradJJ1g, Forts and Castles on the Coast. Three Forts \\ere bUIlt in Accra: Fort 
Cre\ecouer which lIas later named Usher Fort lIas built by the Dutch in 1600, 
follo\\ed in l oS I b\' Christianborg Castle built b\' the Danes at Osu, three kilometres 
(3km) all a\' from the centre of Accrao and in I (l73 o Jamcs Fort \\ as built b\ the 
English 
When Accra lIas chosen as the seat or the British Colonial administration or the Gold 
Coast in I X770 Accra's ruturc dC\t~I()llll1cnt lIas cnsurcd Accra bccame the secl\\ard 
tcrll1JJlals 01' thc Lastcrn rail\\ a\, the rocus or thc road systcm and later the only 
international airport \\Oas locatcd thereo ImprO\emCnl In acccssibilih e.\pandccI 
Accra's sphere of influence and hence stimulated its gro\\th 
Accra's rapid gro\\th ho\\e\ er occurred \\l!hout the benerit o/"plannll1g The centre of 
Accra comprised a compact mass of" thatchcd buildings arranged in a haphcv.ard 
manner separated b\ crooked I::meso From the \ ell beginning, tIl 0 spatial subsystems 
de\eloped side b\' side a \\ell planncd Luropean 10eSId entiai area, around \\hich \\ere 
clustered the houses of" a fell \\ealth, Accra l11erchants and unplanned indigenous 
arcas Thc Accra muni Cipal council \\ as (ormed III 1808 but It \\ as unab le to prO\ ide 
adequatc municipal scn iccs due to Jack or rundmgo It lIas not until the bubol1lc 
plaguc or 1007 that the need for miL'quate nlunlclpal coullcil sc r\ Ices lIas full\' 
appreciated 
52 
Accra' s ad \ ant agesU ansi vtehres ictyap oitfa lG hthaen ace hntttrpe ://uf gt rsap da I . 0 e caen.eu gtr.eandsup.ogrht and offering a 
higher standard of educati on and medical facilities attracted migrants from all o\er 
Ghana. 
The bigges t impetus of Accra's gro\\ th and de\elopment ho\\e\er came after the 
attainlllcnt 0[' independence. \\ hen tile go\ crnment 0 [' pos t-indcp endence Ghana 
\ Igorously pursued an_ import-subs titution industriall/<1tl on de\ elopment st rategy. 
This led to se\eral initiati\es that posi tively inOuenced the deyelop ment of an 
ind ustrial area in Accra. This led to a further concentration of not only the 
go\ernment bureaucracy but also bus iness, commercIal and financial instit utions 
(Ministr\ 0 f Local Go\ernment 1(90) 
3.2.5 POLITICAL ORG ANISATION / ADMINISTRATION 
Politlcall\. Accra as the capital of Ghana has the seat of the central gO\ ernment at the 
Christianborg Castle at Osu Thus the district boasts or all the head offices of the 
\arioLlS gO\ernl11ent mini stri es and dcpartments 
Accra is administered through the local go\ernment system \\ith authonty from the 
1992 constitution of Ghana and the local go\ernment la\\ ..(02 of J 993 . Under this 
system. district assemblies are responsible for the admlllistration. planning and 
de\eloplllent of districts . Thus the Accra Metropolitan Asselllbh (AMA) sees to the 
ad minl strati\ e and de\elopment needs of the district. To effecti\ eh e\:ecute its 
functions th e AMA has di\lded Accra into si\: (6) maIn sub-distrIcts or Areas namely 
Ablekuma. Ashiedu Ketek e. Osu Clotte\. Kpeshie. A\a\\ aso and O"al"ol The AiVIA 
thus has responsibilities for se\eral Issues including 0\ erall de\e!opment of the 
apJlI'o\ al ur de\ eloplllellt plans a IIII  L)uligets ror the sub-districts. InitiatIon and 
53 
i'orllllliation or programUnmievse rl'sorit yth oe fd GClhcalonlJam h 'ntttp o:/f/' uI)dg' Ss,I. Cp, a. c1e'-C 111 Ia .ustgru.ectduurc.:g hprOll.S l-on (md 
maintenance of municipal works and services·'  and th e d eve Io pment, improvement 
and management of human set11ements and the em ironment. 
~. 
3.2.6 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 
Of all areas in the country, Accra has the most dilerse relIgious groupings or faiths 
This mm be attributed to immigrants from all the other regions of the countr\' as Ilell 
as foreign nationals from near and far Basically the mdlgenous people of Accra are 
traditionalists ho\\eler the religious landscape renect the national character \\ith 
Christianity as the dommant religi on follo\\ed by Islam and other faiths It IS thus not 
surp rising to rind ma11\ church buildings: large and small as \\ell as mosques 
scattered oler many areas lJ1 Accra. 
Bet\\een Juh and September the lariOUS traditional Areas of the Gas celebrate the 
famous festilal 'Homowo' literall \' meaning hooting at hunger 11 is celebrated to 
usher in the new harvest of maize, thus putting an end to hunger or famine It is a 
celebration, \\ hich brings the people together and attracts a lot of tourists to the area. 
It IS \\orlh mention1l1g that in addition to finding e.\planallons for the purpose of 
human kind on earth and problems enco untered in el eryday IiI ing, these larious 
religious faith s also occasionally engage in philanthropi st actl\ Itics 
3.2.7 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 
Accra's econOllllC life runs along gcographical linc \\lJere ll1arlne fishing lal-.es along 
Its coast. Crop farming (usuall) back) ard gardenll1g) takes place dunng the ramy 
seaso n ll1terspersed \\ith usuallY small-scale lil cstock procluctl\)n b\ Indl\ Iduals 
Sci 
Agricultural producUtinoniv edroseist yn ootf  Gplahya nmau chht tpsi:g//nuifgicsapnat creol.eu gin. etdheu .egchonomy of the 
metropolis due to the poor nature of soils and the absence of maJ or \\ater bodies as 
\\ell as lOll rainfall Accra 's small-scale canoe fi shermen Ilho operate mainly at 
Chorkor. Nungua and Teshi e prod uce the bulk of fi sh consumed in Accra, 
The marketing and sale of agricultural produce hOllel er is I e r~ ' important to the 
economy of Accra. in that it is a source of emp loyment and sun ila! lor the gTeater 
1l1l111ber or 1\ omen and their households, 
The location or the head omces of major banking. Insurance. commercial and 
llldustnal companies in Accra has created a Central Business District (C8D). bustlll1g 
Ilith formal and informal economiC ac ti l dies Big formal (Public/Prilate) 
corporations e\:ist side bv sid e I\ith count les s small enterpnses 111 the CBD. I\h ich is 
bus\' I\ith trading acti\itles all Ileeklong, This is because mam people come from the 
urban fnnges. pro.\lJllate rural areas and different parts of the country to trade, Accra 
is therefore the most so ught aft er destination by immigrants from alt the other regions 
In search of employment opportunities UnemplOlJ11ent hOI\ el er IS C]lIIte high III the 
area leading to a high dependencY mlo ratiO of about It) 
3.2.8 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 
There IS an e:\ tensil'e and e:\pansile health delil 'ery system in Accra spanning 
prel en til e and curatil e. as Ilell as Jl1aternal and child care sen Ices Accra 
metropolitan area has a fair share of health resources as comp:mxl to (lliler dlslnels III 
the country, It has in its em Irons the Korle-bu Teaching hospital. the 37 MIlitary 
Hospital. Rid ge Hosp ital and numerous poil cliniCS and health centres supen Ised bl 
55 
the metropolitan DirecUtonri voefr sheitayl toh f sGenh aIcnesa.  hBtteps:i/d/eusg sthpea ncuem.uegro.uesd upu.gbhli c hos pita ls 
there are a lo t or pri vateh ollned clin ics and he rbal centres These health centres in 
to talit\ see to the hea lth needs or rcsidents in Accra and Its surrounding areas far and 
II id e. 
The prolis ion of educational infras tructure seems to be pyramid shaped in the Accra 
met ropo lit an Area: with tertia ry at the top: secondary at the middle. and primary and 
bas ic educati on at the base. Accra has a po lytechnic and in recent times the springing 
up of pri \ateh run uni\ersi ti es The Country's premier uni\ersity the University of 
Ghana is situated on the outskirts or Accra in the Ga District IIhich also immensely. 
helps prol ide tertiary education to the area Quite a number of secondary. schools also 
abo ulld III !\ccr-a though thc\ al·c lell III Illllllhcr as cOllljlw-cd to jJl-illlan schools. 
IIhich are IllimerOliS . There are publ ic alld pm atc pri l1lan schoo ls II ith good 
educat ional i'acili ties and teachers as compared to other parts of the country Also on 
the increase 111 Accra are Pre-School institutions. IIhich are found in many places of 
the distri ct. Not only are these pre-school institutions providing childcare services for 
lIorklllg and single mothers but they are also giling the children ajump-starl towards 
the preparation of entr\' into the primary lel el of basiC education . There is hOlleler 
the need fo r the e:xpanslon of tertia0 institutions to accommodate its high demand. 
The Accra Metropolitan area-s econOllllC and produclilc lIli'rastructurc IS cmbodled III 
roads ,Ul d hlgllll als. posts alld teiecOllll1lUl1lCatlolls. Accra as the nallonal capItal has a 
direct and e[Tectile road link II Ith Wcstcm_ Eastern and Nortlwl"l1 Ghana Accra also 
elTecti \e li nk Ili th the out-side lIorid through the Kotoka International airport. There 
is also a ratl link lIith II estern Ghana and the middle belt It IS hOlleler ilorth notIng 
56 
that many people Uwnhiov erressiitdye  oinf  GAhcacrnaa,  hitst tpfr:i/n/ugegss paandc ep.ruogx.i emdaute. grhural areas and 
commute to the central business district for CommerCial act ivities hm'e high 
transportation needs that are not matched by adequate proli sion of faciliti es and 
sen ices, This is evidenced by long I\aiting and tralel times caused by bad access 
roads and traffic congestions There is therefore the need for effecti Ie and effi cient 
transportation infrastructure to faci litate the eas\ 1ll0l ell1ent of' peop le f'ro m one place 
to an other. especialll s ingle female parents usualh burdened II Ith a host of 
res ponsihiliti es In and (Hltsid e the hOllle 
There is telecommunication link in many parts of Accra I\ ith other reg ional capital s 
and the out-side lIorld through ll1ic ro\\il\ e and I ery high Ji"equency (VHF) 
radi otel eph one terminals , Thi s helps the peopl e to commulllcate \\'Jth fam i l~ memb ers 
and 100ed ones, Accra is al so a cent ral lin k for telel 'lsion and radio stations in the 
co untn , The presence of such in frastructure helps to improle the leisure actll ities and 
quality of life of the people in the Area, 
Accra houses the Nati onal Theatre. a Centre for Culture and a National Yo uth 
Cultural Centre among others II here per!Oflllwlces of' art and Cliitural regulaI'll take 
place There are also a number or Cinema houses and Nightclubs I\ 'here people troop 
to entertain themseil 'es in the elenings and especially 01 er the II eekends The 
presence or such entert ai nment lI1 J'rast ructure helps people to lighten or cope 1\ Ith the 
dad\ ' press ures oJ' life 
57 
3.3 SELECTEUDn SivUeRrsVitEy Yo fA GRhEaAnSa  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
3.3.1 MAAMOBI 
3.3.1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 
Maamobiis roughl\' rectangular shaped and co\ers about W hectares of land area. 
The N ima high\\ay which stretches from the Nima round about to Accra Girls 
Secondar\' School roughly diyides the yicinity into t\\O Maamobi lies to the North 
and East b\' the 37 Militar\, Hospi tal. Accra Girls Secondary School and Kanda. It is 
bounded on the South by the Odm\ stream and Nima \\ hilst to the West it is 
separated by Kotobabi and Pig Farm. It is approximately 5 miles from Central Accra. 
3.3.1.2 POPULATION 
Maamobiis one of the most densely populated areas in Accra . Acco rding to the 2()O() 
population and housing census. the area has a popu lation sil.e of '-f~Un 2 comprising 
2'-f.5X() males and 25.232 females (GSS. 2(02) 
Maamohl harbours about GO percent of difl'erent et hni c groups in th e countr\' and 
so me Corelgn nationals Saturdays and Sunda\'s are busy da\ 's for most of these ethl1lc 
groups \\ ho meet to discuss maters 01' common interest and also to contribute and help 
members in crises, 
3.3.1.3 BRIEF HISTORY 
Until I IJ40 the area \\ as used b\ the Futa family catt le dealers \\ ho brought cattle to 
sell In Accra. and a transi li onal lo ne Cor the British Frontier Force Command. 
Conscqllcnth thi s and other 1~1ct()rS such as the stead\ e"panSlOn or ,\ccra. differcncc 
In urban and rliralll1frastructurc among others III that lime acted as pull factors. \\hlch 
58 
brought in many imUmniigvrearnstsit yf roofm G hdiafTneare nhtt t p:a/r/tus gosfp aGchea.nuag .teo dlui.\ge hin the area. 
Planning henceforth \\as totally lost in this area as the al location of plots to set11ers 
\\as so ld indl scriminateh b\ caretakers of' the ro\a l l'a1l1il: at Osu. The consequence 
of thi s neglect for planning has been the nature of the present hapha/.ard or 
substandard spatial arrangement of buildings and environmental degradation of the 
area. 
3.3.1.4 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 
About ()S percent of the inhabitants of Maamobi are Muslims Fridays are busy days 
for the Muslims. The mosques become full and some sit out-side to \\orship 111 fron t 
of shops, rooms. \'erandas and in open spaces 
Apart I'rom the MuslIms most of the Christendom denominntions are also found here 
\\ ith chu rch acti\it ies \en brisk Sundn\ mornings Traditionalists nre least found In 
this area. Due to social change the iniluence of the traditional religion has red uced 
drastically in the area. The remnants of this religion ha\ e become di\ 'iners or 
medicine men. 
Taking part and being part of these religIous acti\ities are likel~ means b\' \\hich 
si ngle female parents may share their problems. recei\e help from members and e\en 
ha\e faith that th e\' can pro\ ide Cor themsehes and theIr households . 
3.3. 1.5 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 
I\n 0\ cr\\ hcl1l1 lng majority of the IC1l1ale poplll~ltlOIl III the area \\ork ill the II11or111al 
sector. Thi s IS e\ idenced by a market. shops. stalls. baker\. soap making. 
59 
dressmaking. hairdressUinngi,v echrsoipty b oarfs G ahmaonnag  hottthpe:r/s/ u\g\hsipcha caere. uvge.reyd cuo.gmhmon in the 
area and operated mainly by \\omen. There are others. though fe\\ who \\ork in the 
Public and Ci,il sen ice and industries outside and \\ithin Maamobi. 
The majority of male population in the area also works as masons. carpenters. barbers. 
auto mechanics and shoe makers . 
Child labour is a common practice in the area. School children are used b\ their 
parents ,md guardians in-and-out 0 1" school hours to sell and suppleillent the household 
income. Other children \\ork on their o\\n accord. A common phenomenon easily 
noticeable In the area IS the large number or unemplo\ed youth 
3.3.1.6 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 
The drainage in Maamobiis \en deplorable There are \ef\ fe\\ gutters and \\ater 
from bathrooms and ki tchens stagnate in bet\\een alleys of buildings . Along the 
banks of the Oda\\ Stream. \\hich runs through south\\est of the area. one finds 
dumps Poor sanitat ion is a fact of'life in the area 
Regarding \\ ater supplY. standpipes arc found In most houses . These are sold to those 
\\ho do not h(\\ e access to such facilities in their homes 
Electricit\ suppl\ is not a problem In the area. Allllost all the houses h::1\e electricity 
There are also streetli ghts on the Maall10bl Nim:1 high\\a\. 
With respect to healtUh,n tihvee Mrsaitaym oofb Gi Phoalyncali nhitctp is:/ /tuheg sopnlayc geo.vuegr.nemdeun.tg health facility. 
There is also a non-governmental health facility called Urban Aid. It offers antenatal 
and postnatal health services for children less than five (5) years and pregnant women. 
Iran Clinic located in the western part of the area offers health services to all 
categories of people. Traditional healers who operate in wooden structures also offer a 
variety of health services to the people. Most of the houses in the area are compound 
houses. It is common to find many persons to a house or a room. This is evidenced by 
the 2000 population and housing census which indicated that Maamobi has 2,097 
houses with 10,398 households (GSS, 2002). There is the inadequacy of amenities 
such as latrines, bathroom and kitchens. Cooking is done mainly in the open, on 
verandas and when it rains it is done in the rooms. Houses and rooms are so crowded 
that there is little ventilation. However at the northeastern part of the area, the houses 
are o{ good quality and quite well spaced. 
In terms of educational facilities, the area cannot boast of any government Junior 
Secondary School. Pupils commute to Kotobabi, Nima or the 37 Military Hospital to 
attend school. However there is one unique Secondary School to note in this area. 
This is the Accra Girls Secondary School. SigniRcant to note also is the upsurge in 
It' 
nursery schools. It is however important to mention that most of these schools have 
no proper facilities. They operate mostly within compound houses and are usually 
crowded. Islamic Schools are also found in the area, run and financed by mallams. 
With regards to transport a lot of 'trotro ' and taxi ply the main road. They commute 
between Maamobi and Accra Central, Kaneshie, Kwame Nkrumah Circle, Madina,_ 
k himota 37 Military hospital and other areas of the metropolis. Consequently the 
61 
resident s hm e no serUionuisv etrarsnistpyo ortfa tGiohna pnraob hletmtps: /,/mudg sthpearecfeo.rue g\I. eomduen.g ehspecial" can 
cope \I ith the ir numerOliS responsibilities in and out-sid e the household 
3.3.2 NEW DANSOMAN 
3.3.2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION 
Nell D,Ul so man covers mainl y the Danso man estates. It is located In the Sou thllestern 
part of the metropolis It IS bounded on the North by Matalleko. on the Eas t by Russia 
. and Nell Mamprobi. on the West by Pambros industry and on the South by Mpuase 
and Gbegbeyise li llages 
3.3.2.2 POPULATIO N 
According to the 2()O() population and housing census. the area has a total population 
of 40.230 comprising 23.430 males and 25.827 females (GSS. 2(02) 
3.3.2.3 BRIEF HISTORY 
Dansoman lIas initially a forest with mango trees and fel\ farmers Nli Danso from 
James To\\n lIas the first settler 111 1l)5X and lIas installed chler on 12th Januar\ 
1050 In I WiO. the gOlernment acqUIred a last e,panse or land II hich II as used In 
butldll1g the Dansoman estates the biggest In Ghana and West Arrica 
3.3.2.4 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 
1':ll delit III Ne\l 1),1I1SO 111 ,11 I is qUite a IIUll1 ber 01' churches. orthodo'\ anu chansmatlc. 
Thus it is common to find a lot or church actillties on Sundays Islam and other 
I'eligiolls \'aith s are in the mlnorit\ In the area. Thus ChrlS!lanl!\ domInates 111 the area. 
3.3.2.5 ECONOMIUCn AivCeTrsIiVtyI ToIf EGSh ana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
Shops and small businesses abound 111 Ne\\ Dansoman These are usually Imed up by 
the roadside. It IS also common to rmd people engaged in petty trading such as the 
selling of iced \\ater and the roasting or plantain by the road sid e. It IS also quite 
common to find the front area 0 r hou ses comerted mto shops 
The abo\ e scenario ho\\ever contradicts the ract that a great number or the residents 
also \\ork in the rormal (Public and Private) sector outside ofNe\\ Dansoman. 
3.3.2.6 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 
The Ne\\ Dansoman area IS a \\ell-planned area. It has good dramage racIlitIes such 
as gutters and the area is mainly drained b\ the Mampon stream. \\ 'hich empties into 
the Gulr o rGuinea. 
The area is sened by piped borne \\ater in the maJority or houses . The area also has 
electriclt\ su pplY 
The area has a health centre but It is also COll111lon to find qUite a number of pm ateh 
run clinics 111 the area. Also lined by the roadside are many pharmacy sho ps \\here 
people buy med ically prescri bed drugs . 
The 2000 Population and Housing Census Report (GSS. 2(02) has II1clIcated that there 
are S.X 13 houses in the area The houses are mostly self-contained and \\ ell spaced. 
The gO\ ernl11enL pri\(lte companies and indl\ iduals 0\\ n some or these houses Some 
residents also rent these houses 
63 
The area boasts or a Ununmivbeerrs oitry N oufr sGerhieasn aan dh tOtpa:y//cuagres pCaenctere.su gA.elsdou c.gomhmon to find 
III the area arc a host or primm\ schools l1lostl\ pri\ ately run . On the increase in the 
area arc pm ateh run Senior Secondary Schools especiallY for people \\ ho do not get 
admission into gO\emment schools and those taking remedial classes . 
The road type and net-\\ork is Cirst class but the\" are 111 bad shape because of" long 
neglect. Ta'\is and . trotro· are common to find to comey residents to their \arious 
\\ork places and \arious parts o[ the city It is also \ery common to find individuals 
\\ho use their olin private cars as a means or transportation 
Ne\\ Dansoman has a II hole telephone e'\change to itsel L thus most or the houses 
hal e telephone racilities In addit ion to public phon e boo ths and pr i\ <lteh run sl1lall 
scale coml1lunicat ion centres. 
Nightclubs. restauran ts and drInking spons are f"ow1d in the area and these pro\ Ide the 
residents \\ith entertainment 
3.3.3 ROMAN RIDGE 
3.3.3.1 GEOGRAPHICA L LOCATION 
The Roman Ridge resid ent ia l area IS located in the North Eas tern part or the 
metropolis . It is bounded on the North b) O/Or\\ ulu res identi al area. on the East b\' 
the /\11· IH)rt reSidential area. Oil the Wes t h\ Pi g i"arn l/k oto hahl alld Oil tile Sou th b\ 
iVlaamobl 
64 
3.3.3.2 POPULATUInOivNe rsity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
The population of the area is estimated to be about thirteen thousand (13.000) In 
terms of ethnicity. it is a mixture of various ethnic gro ups There are Gas. Adangbes. 
Akans. E\\es and people form the \arious ethnic groups and non-Ghanaian 
population 
3.3.3.3 BRIEF HISTORY 
TIll' :lI'l':1 II :IS pl:lIllleti :IS p:lrt (II' :1 le-IH1llslllg l"\ell'ISe atkl tile 1')3') eartllquake. 
\I hich sho ok Accra and destro\ed a lot of houses. But it \\<1S 111 I ()-;}\. that the onglnal 
planning scheme for the area was prepared It "vas part of a Plan and Report known as 
the "Accra Master Plan" The original layout covered the Airport reSidential Area also 
and \\ as referred to as the Roman Ridge and Airport residential areas. The origi nal 
plan \\as re\ ised in 1970 to separate the two residential areas. The area \\ as. laid out 
as a high-class lOll-density residential area to sene the gro\\ing demand for 
residential accommodat ion by mainly \\orkers in the go\'ernment bureaucracy 
3.3.3.4 RELIGIOUS ACTIVITIES 
l l llilke ot her :m.'<1S (lr the Illetropoll s. religiOUS aclilltles :11"\: fl o t IIhrallt 111 Illls area 
Tim IS because of the presence of \en fe\l church buildings. ThiS is not to S3\ that 
residents are atheists. The residents belong to the \arious religions faiths but the 
dom inant religion here IS Chrislianity . In the main residents in the area mos tl y engage 
in religious actiyities outside of the area. 
65 
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Again unlike other areas 111 the metropo lis it IS uncommon to lind shops or sto res in 
this area This is because majority of residents are o lTiclals in the gOlernment 
bureaucracy and do not depend on tradi ng actilities for their upkeep Ho\\'e\'er there 
are fe\\ formal II1stitutions such as the Indian High Commission, 
3.3.3.6 SOCIAL INFRASTRUCTURE 
As a "First Class Area", the area has a "erY good drainage system The homes hale 
garden boys \\ 'ho are usually seen cleaning the gUllers in fro nt of the houses , The area 
IS su ppl ied \\ it h pi ped born \\ ater and electn cit \' In  all the hou ses , The area boasts of 
pmateh run children' s clinic, Ho\\e\er residents mostly reh on surrounding areas 
such as the Ail'port residenllal area, O/or\\ ulu, i\chilllota among olhers mosll) l'or 
their heal th needs, This IS because unlike Roman Ridge these areas hale pub lic and 
pri\ ale hospi tal s 111 add iti on to clin ics 
L' ecole Francaise and the Borstal institute are popular educational and correctional 
Institutions respectll 'eh in the area, Generall\' residents 111 the area send their children 
to Om cares, preparatory and Secondar\' schoob ou tside of the area, Yen close to the 
area are the Accra Girls and Achi l11 0ta Secondar\' Schools 
The 111~l o rity of houses In the area are owned or rented b\ gOlernl11enL quasi-
gOlernment and pm ate firms The houses are self cont::lIned, beautiful and Ilell 
spaced, 
(li 
The roads in the area Uarnei vfiersrst citlya sos fa Gndh aarne ali nhktetpd :/to/u ogtshpera acreea.su go.fe thdeu .mgehtropolis . For 
Instance the continental road connects to the Achimota road and the Ridge road 
connects to the Ai rport residential area 'Trotos" do not ply the area ,md e\en "hen 
one finds a ta:\i in the area it is chartered. As a high class area \\ith people of 'C--\~,o , » -l\'I: 
relati\ely hi gher status, majority of residents have their cars. It is basically by this .... ~,.- " , 
means that residents cope \vith the responsibility of taking their children to school and 
the hospital. go to their \\ork places. church. and the market among others. Residents 
"ho do not hme an~ means of their o\\n pri\ate transport hme to \\ alk to the main 
AchlillOta road or Pig farm to lind a ta:\1 or ·trotro· to commute to other parts of the 
metropolis 
I-louses in the area ha\e telephone facilities In addition to public phone booths 
CONCLUSION 
The chapter has attempted to gi\e a picture of the study area and sur\'ey .areas 
especially regard ing soclo-economic activities and infrastructure .. The presence of 
racill ti es such as employment. education. health. electricit\. "(ltef. transport and 
communication. churches among others in the study area enab le \\ omen to cope" ith 
thei r responsibilities as single parents. It has al so helped to pracllcalh broaden the 
understand IIlg () f this stud\ 
67 
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DATA ANALYSIS 
4.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter is dedicated to the analysis and discussion of the data that was collected. 
This is to enable the investigator to make deductions, recommendations and 
conclusions. It covers the background characteristics of respondents, the means by 
which they provide the needs of their dependants, the various forms of support they 
receive to enable them cope as single parents, whether they make major decisions and 
the challenges they face as single parents. 
4.2 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 
Age plays an important role in any analysis of single female parenthood and female 
headship. This is because becoming a single female parent or a head of household is 
closely related to age. 
Looking at Table 1 below it is observed that the percentage of respondents for the first 
two age groups 16-20 and 21-25 are very low; 5.2 percent and 7.8 percent 
respectively. There is a gradual increase from the 26-30, 31-35 and 36-40 age groups. 
'fft 
There is a leap from the age group 41-45 and increases onwards gradually and reaches '\" 
a peak in the age group 51 years and above. 
68 
TABLE 1: UnAivGerEs itGyR oOf UGPh aOnFa R hEttSpP:/O/uNgDsEpaNcTeS. ug.edu.gh
AGE GROUP FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 
16 20 14 5.2 
21 25 22 7.8 
26 30 26 9.6 
31 - 35 30 11.1 
36 - 40 31 11.9 
41-45 44 16.3 
46 - 50 46 17.4 
51 years and above 57 20.7 
TOTAL 270 100 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
The very low percentage for the age group 16-20 is due to the fact that most people at 
this age would still be in school, unmarried and staying with their parents and 
therefore not capable of having children or establishing households of their own. This 
same reason applies to ages 21-25 though to a lesser degree. 
The gradual increase in percentage for the age groups 26-30, 31-35 and 36-40 is quite 
expected because it is at these ages that many female adults are out of school, 
employed and capable of marital relationships. 
The jump in the percentage for the age group 41 years and beyond is due to the fact 
, "" -
that the number of women who are single parents oPf.llay headship roles increase with 
69 
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old age through widowhood and divorce as suggested in the review of literature. This 
fact also explains why single female parenthood as observed abo\e increase directly 
\\ ith age 
Occupation is another important socio -demographic \ariable to be considered and 
discussed, especially when single female parents are usually burdened \\ith the 
responsibility for supporting themselves and their households . Occupation is basically 
the means through which people earn income to ensure the proyislon of the basic 
necessities for one' s dependants and for one's self It has thus been argued that the 
basic factor that has increased women' s participation in the labour force is the need 
for female-headed households to find employment to support their families (Papanek 
and Scl1\\ede. I <)<)8 ~ United Nations. 1< )<)5) In Ghana the right of' I\omen to vlork IS 
supported under Ghanaian Customary Law. I\ 'hich recogni/.es their exclusi\'e right to 
their separate property (Manu. I <)9<)) The table belo\\ illustrates the occupation of 
respondents . 
TABLE 2: OCCUPATION OF RESPONDENTS· 
TYPE OF OCCUPATION FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE I 
I 
FORMAL 
CIVIL SERVICE 52 19.3 , 
INFORMAL 
TRADING 180 66.7 I 
I 
HAIRDRESSING/ SEAMSTRESS () 2.2 I 
UNEMPLOYED 32 lUl 
TOTAL no 100 
SOlJl'ce: Field Data. Feb - Ma\. 20()2. 
70 
The table abo\'e is typUicnali voefr sthitey  noaft iGonhaal ncaha hrattcpte:r// u\\g'hserpea tchee .umga.jeordituy. gohf Ghanaian 
\\omen are self employed or unpaid famil\' \\orkers The\' engage in a \ariety of 
producti\ c acti\ities inside and out-side the home. farming. processing and marketing 
agricultura l produce and also trade in local and imported commodities. The maJorit\' 
of respondents (689 percent) in the study are employed in the mformal sector. The 
probable e:-.:p lanation for this is due to the relati\ely 10\\ le\el s ofeciucation of\\omen 
in Ghana. \\hich affords them employment 111 the lI11'orl11al sector Also man\' \\ omen 
find it relati\'ely easy within the informal sector to cme for their children. perform 
domestic chores and also engage in their numerous econOllllC acti\'lties Indeed the 
informal sector is considered as the key sector for the sunival of a large proportion of 
thc Ghanaian population. especial l\' \\ omcll (Manu. 1\)')0) 
The relati \ely fe\\ ' respondents (19 .2 percent) emplo\'ed in the formal sector as 
already. asserted is due to the generally 10\\ le \'els of education of\\o men 111 Ghana. 
The ne:-.:t Important socio-demographic \'ariable and related to occupation is income 
lts importance lies m the fact that besides occupation, it pro\ides a more accurate 
picture of the e:-.:tent to \\hich single female parents can pro\ ide the basic necess ities 
of life for their children or dependents and themsehes It is in the li ght of thiS that the 
month" income of respondents \\ ho are emplo\'ed is anah/.ed 
71 
FIGUURnEiv e1:r sMityO oNf TGHhLaYn aI NhCttpO:M//uEg sOpFa RceE.SuPgO.eNdDuE.gNhTS 
\ 
HIGH 
(¢800,000 and 
above) 
10% 
MIDDLE LOW (¢1-
(401,000- 400,000) 
800,000) 53% 
37% 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
I 
The figure above depidlts that respondents (53 percent) mostly earn low incomes of 
~ 
between ¢ 1 and ¢400,000. This is comparable to evidence in Ghana, which shows that 
the incomes of women heading households are low and inadequate to meet the 
requirements of their households (Ardayfio - Schandorf, 1994). It is also observed 
that there is a close correlation for sector of employment and low income 68.9 percent 
and 53 percent respectively. This indicates that women in Ghanaian society are 
subject to low incomes and few fringe benefits due to the sexual division of labour, 
-
occupational segregation and discrimination (Manu, 1991). The low incomes of 'L 
72 
respondents mean thatU tnhievree rsmituys to of fG nheacensasi thy ttbpe: /o/uthgesr pmaecaen.su go.fe edcuon.gohmic suppOl1 
\\ hich is crucial for their sun i \aJ 
Education of \\omen is yital because it strengthens their abillt\ to perform their 
important roles as parents and home keepers more errectively It also Increases their 
access to income and enables them to pro\'ide lor their household members, For 
ins tance illiterates are not able to perlorm their routine tasks efrecti\ely (Fordham, 
Il)X5) Some or these tasks are chIidcare, income generating acti\ities, home 
management and family health, Literacy helps in the creation or m\arcness and 
extends one's horimns, If one's leyel of education IS raised one is better able to appl y 
ne\\ kno\\ ledge to promote one's quality or lire and that or one's household , 
Educational leyel IS thus crucial in any study on \\omen as It is a means or 
empo\\erment It is in this vein that the educational le\el of respondents in this study 
is anal Y/,ed, 
73 
FIGUURnEiv 2e: rEsiDtyU oCf AGThIOanNaA hLt tLpE://VuEgLsp OaFc eR.uEgS.PeOdNu.DgEhNTS 
--------------------~ 
30 
25 
20 
f-
Z 
UJ 
u 15 I 
n:: 
w 
a... 
10 I 
5 
o I -, 
W >- (f) 
Z (f) >- ::J---l U >-o 0:: <{<{ f-<{ -J - 0:: -z U(;~ (f) Z ~ <{(f) W ~Q wZ U 0:: 
0:: o(f) (f) ----l z(f) Wf- f- (f)W 
W 
0.. 0 0 ~<{ (f)o::f- > 0 U ~u O:J~ Z 
w 00 D-zO :J ~ (f) u> D-
LEVEL OF EDUCATION 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
The flgure abo\'e illustrates that respondents (256 percent) mostly hme the Middle / 
Junior Secondary le\el education as the highest percentage and the 10\\ est being for 
university education. This in all probability is comparable to the national situation 
"here most females are not able to attain higher lerel education as the numbers o[ 
females in educational institutions dimimsh at each higher le\eL This trend 1I1 Ghana 
can be attributed to the [act that "omen are tied up "ith day to day responsiblltties [or 
childrell <lmi dOl1lestic ser\ ices \\ hich restllct their access to essciltial alld strategic 
resourccs such as educat ioll (lho\\l1. I <JW,) 
74 
An interesting observaUtinoinv eisrs tihtye  osft rGonhga cnoar rheltatptio:/n/u gbestpwaeecne .1u0g\.\e edduu.cgahti onal level 
(None. Primar.y  and Midd le / JSS le\'el) and 10\\' income'.  53 perccn t eac I1 , Th I' S goes 
to support carlier assert ions made on the impo rlance of educati on on Income, The 
strong corrc lat ion leads to the conclusion that education truly plays a \ ital role 111 
income le\c! This probably led one respondent \\ 'ho had an . A' leyel certifi cate to 
remark in an intenie\\ that. 
/\If\' I17COl71e 1.1 1701 enough .lor 111)' Ihrec: chlldrL'n Ulld /IlL' UII 111L' 
uLivlce 0(0 li'lend 10/71 gOll7g 10 luke Ihe I /I1IVL'rSil1' Ici111W1CC! 1'.\((171 
Ii)}' udulls {() im{Jrove 111)' coreeI' oP{Jorllll1llies ond InCOl1le level, I 
believe thiS will help me 10 provide a beller quality of!i(eliJr myself 
unci III}' children. 
The situation \\ here the number of females In educatIOnal Institutions diminishes at 
each higher lele l exp lains the instituti on of arfirmati\ e action programme at the 
Uni\ersity of Ghana to gi\e more \\omen access to unilersily educati on, 
Thc no,\t soclo-dclllographi c \ ,mabIe that IS looke:d at IS relig ion The: practice or 
religIOn is usually a group alTair in Ghana, Religiou s alfillation thu s in a \\a~ I11a1 
pro\idc group support for peoplc \\ho belong to them, Religion IS also conSidered as 
beliefs and ac ts \\ 'hlch aim al the propitiation or conciliation of po\\ers supenor to 
man II hich are belle\ed to direct and control the course of nature and of human life 
(Fra/,er I W)O :22) Thus \\here people race dilliculties the, arc Ilkeh to turn to relIgion 
as a mcans or ulte:rIng tlwi r Situation \\ hlch In elTe:ct help people to cope II Ith lire tn 
general. It IS ror the abo\ e reasons that the religiOUS allillatlon of respondents IS 
ana l\sed , 
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FIG URE 3: RELIGIOUS AFFILIATION OF RESPONDENTS 
NO 
RESPONSE 
4% 
OTHERS 
2% 
CATHOLICS 
31% 
CHARIS MATI 
/ 
PE NTECOSTA 
LS PROTESTANT 
37% S 
21% 
SOUl'ce: Field Data. Feb - May, 2002. 
The rel igious group that has the largest proportion or rollo\\ing b\ respondents IS the 
Pentecostal / Charismatic taking up 37 percent rollol\ed by Catholics (31 percent). 
Protes\(mts (2 1 percent). Muslims (5 percent) and others (2 percent) which Illclude 
traditional religion. Hinduism among others. The rel!glOus arfi ltation of respondents is 
very simi lar to the na\ional situatIOn The large follo\\lng of chansmatic churches is 
probabl\ due to their mode or operations. The) usualh have prmcr groups. prayer 
sess ions. healing crusades and engage III revivalist aclIntles. "hlch create a feeling of 
so li darit\ and imolvement One respondent m an mten le\\ remarked that 
In joining aU nchivaerirsmitayt ioc f cGhuhrachn aI  hattvpe: /h/uecgosmpea cmeo.rueg i.nevdoulv.egdh with 
ch/.lrch octivifles. It has greatly reduced my horedom since now I 
hove (/ hlg pool o//i'lend.1 01 church. 
Another respondent also said 111 an inten ie\\ that 
/vi\' church memoers ore Ihe people! con/ide' In when! hove 
.... . / ,~ .. 
IH()/)lell1s hecul.Ise Ihey ure like jCllnily 10 me. Fhey ulwuys give me 
vely good advice and also support me wilh {heir prayers 
The relatl\ely 10\\ percentage of respondents being Muslims can be attributed to the 
patriarcha l nature of Islam which discourages single female parenthood and its 
likelihood of females headIng households. 
Another important socio-demographlc \ilriable is ethniclh r\ en Ghanaian IS a 
memb er of t\\O fami lies: a nuclear and an e:-.:tended or customary family This 
customarY family could be the customary family or either parents of a \\o man 
depend1l1g upon the ethnI C grou p to \\hich her parents belong. Basically the ethnic 
groups in Ghana ha\ e 1\\0 main types of family The patrilineal faJlltl~ - those \\ ho 
inherIt according to the mal e-line, and the matrilineal f:lmll~ - those \\ho mhent 
according to the female line. Thus in the breakdo\\n of a \\oman's marrIage due to 
death of spouse. di\orce. separation among other factors. It is possible for her tQ reh 
on her second family (e:-.:tended family) especially if she fInds It difTicult to cope \\ ith 
the maintenance of' her children. In a Patrilineal set -up a \\oman's chlldren belong to 
the family of he r child /children's father \\hereas In a matnlineal set-LIp a \\oman's 
children belong to her famll\. Thus the ethniC group to \\ hich a \\oman belongs could 
inlluence her ch lldren li\ ing \\ ith her or no t aner a mantal disruptIon or chlld bearing 
77 
out-side of marriage UInt ivise rfsoirt yt hoef  GabhOa\ne ar ehatstopn:/s/ utghastp athce ee.ut hg n.eicd ub.agchkgrounds of 
respondents is anaIY/,ed belo\\ , 
FIGURE 4: ETIINICITY OF RESPONDENTS 
GUAN AND 
OTHERS 
1% 
NORTHERNERS 
6% 
GA/ADANGBE 
12% 
AKANS 
E 
56% 
Source: Fi eld Data. Feb - May. 2002 
From the fi gure abo\ e. M ans form the majority o[ respondents. [0110\\ ed bv E\\ es. 
Ga / Adangbes. Northerners. Guan and others, Akans Forrrung the majorit\ is not 
surprising since they form the maj orit), nationall) . Another probable reason co ul d be 
that. as a matrilineal group they are more l1kely to keep their chi ldren arier a marital 
78 
disruption or childbUeanriinvge rsoiutyt - soidf eG hoa[ nma ahrrttipag:/e/ ugthsepreabcye .fuogrm.eindgu .gsihngle parent 
households, as compared to the other ethnic groups, which are patrilineal 
Closely related to si ngle female parenthood is the maintenance o[ children. The 
household or family regardless of its structure performs among others the 
maintenance and sociali zation o[ children These [unctions are basically the 
responslbilit\ of adult members or parents \\ Ithin the household . With the absence of 
a partner single female parents usually shoulder this burden. With the rising cost of 
li\ing in the country the maintenance of children IS expected to be an uphill task for 
single fema le parents. In this regard , the number of children of a single female parent 
becomes very crucial for her survi val and that of her household. Ii is in this respect 
that the number o[ children o[ respondents is analysed belo\\ . 
TABLE 3: NUMBER OF CHILDREN OF RESPONDENTS 
NO OF CHILDREN FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE 
1-2 127 47 
r- ---~--- ----- - ---- - -~- - --
3 - 4 <J() 33 .4 
-- ----~~---.- -~ - -
:1 - (, ..j() 1..j .X 
7 and aboye 13 4.8 
TOTAL 27() 100 
Source: Field Data. Feb - May. 2002. 
The abo\e table indicates that the majority of respondents (47 percent) had fe\\er 
chIldrcn or lip to t\\O :IS cOlllpareci to on" -l X pcrccnt l)r respondcllts \\ho hac! 7 
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chi ldren and beyond . The marital status of respondents as sll1gle parents is an 
e.\p lana ton factor here Thi s is because bearing chIl dren out -side of marriage does 
IlOt assurc thc sccurity o r a husband 's Sllppo rt I'or thc child rcn o r ,1 single tClllalc 
parent Ano th er probab le exp lanat ion for the relatile 10\\ number of children by 
respond ents cou ld be due to the reason that the Ghanaian society generally frowns on 
child- beari ng ou t- si de or marriage Further. the relatlle 10\\ num ber or chil dren by 
respondents may be explai ned by factors such as the probable fa ilure on the part of 
respondents to remarry. child spacing and the high costl i\lng or mamta inlng children. 
Thus the Il1 Eljori ty of respondents haying betl\een one and t\\O children impl y a 
relat ile reduction 111 the bu rden of child/children maintenance. 
The traditi onal practi ce of fos terage \\hereby children are reared b\ people other than 
thei r o\\n pments ho\\ el er creates addit ional burcicn and rcsponsib ilitl cs for \\omen 
\\ho are Single or \\ho ha\e to head households. ~ 1.3 percent of all responden ts said 
they had dependents apart [rom their children. Ol er 13.3 percent o[ respondents with 
dependants had more than t\\·o dependants mostly relations and domestic assistan ts 
\\h lch could create considerable pro bl ems for these \\omen. \\ho hare 10 shoulder the 
maintenance burd en all al one as suggested 111 the reI iel\ of literature 
In sum. the so ci o-demograph lc characten stics of respondents indicate that the \\ omen 
are mostly abo\e the age of ..to \·ears. hme Lip to middle leI el education. are most" 
employed In the II1rormal sector \\nh 10\\ Incomes and hare mostl) t\\O chIldren to 
ca tcr fo r ~/ ith thi S In mind \\C go on to ,Ulahsc SOIlIC or tllc SOCIO CCOIlOIllIC ractors 
I·esponsl b Ie Cor the pheno menon or slllg ie remale parenthood. 
~o 
4.3 SOCIO-ECONUOnMivIeCr sFitAyC oTfO GRhSa TnHa AhTtt pA:C//uCgOsUpNaTce F.uOgR. eSdINu.GgLhE 
FEMALE'PARENTHOOD 
This section deals with some of the socio-economic factors that account for the 
phenomenon of single female parenthood. Factors that are responsible or account for 
single female parenthood matters not least, because these factors could have a bearing 
on the subsequent fortunes or situation of single female parents. Some of these factors 
is anah'sed by using respondents' responses on 'the factor or cause I'espons ibl e 1'01' 
their status and the reasons responsIble as \\ ell 
The statu s or s in gle pmenthood among res pond ents Illos tly res ult ed fro l11 di\ 'orcc due 
to the infidelity of male partners (husbands) Thi s and other factors are analyzed in 
table <-I belo\\ t 
TABLE 4: RESPONSES ON FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR SINGLE 
PARENTHOOD AN D REASONS GIVEN BY RESPONDENTS 
FACTORS RESPONS IBLE FOR SINGLE PARENTHOOD 
REASONS NEVER TOTAL 
GIVEN WIDOWHOOD DIVORCE MARRIED DES ERTION 
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 
DEATH OF 
SPOUSE 81 100 - - - - - - 8 1 3 (H) 
INFIDELITY - - 88 75 .2 - - 3 60 91 34.3 
WIFE 
BATTERY - - I I 9<-1 - - - - II 4.2 
WILFUL NEGLECT OF 
MAINTENANC E - - 12 10.3 - - I 20 13 <-It) 
BY EX-HUS BAND --1---- - - -- - - ~--- ----j---('IIILDREN 'S FATHER 
NOT FINANCIALLY - - - (,() %.8 f - - ()O 22() 
READY FOR 
MARRIAGE 
OTHER - - () 5.1 2 32 I 20 t) 3.4 
TOTAL 81 30 6 _!JJ_L <-I<-Il ~()2 23 <-I --5 18 265 100 ~-'----- -~-~---~------~--- '------
SOlll'cr: Flelcl Data. Feb - May. 2002. 
81 
From table 4 abo\'e 44U.2n ipveerrcseintty  (o11f 7G) hoaf nreas photntdpe:/n/tus gisndpiacacteed.u tgh.ee fdauct.ogrh responsible 
for their status as di\orce, 30.0 percent (g I) Indicated II idol\hood, 23.4 percent (02) 
Indicated NeIer marrIed/childbearing out-side marriage and on" I g percent (5) 
lI1dicated desertion as a factor 
The ll1'lI orit \ or respondents II ho indicat ed dIIOITL' as ,I ['actor :lCcollntIlH' Cor thL'lr 
-> 
stat us is comparable to a study of si ngle parenthood In the Greater Accra Region b\ 
G\ekye, Arthur and Oankwa (1l)l)6) that found the l11aiorit~ or \\omen (about 51 
percent) to be single parents as a result of di\orce. 
In the study as obsened fro m Table 4 above, 752 percent of respondents \\ho 
indicated dl\ orce as a lactor responsib le for their status gme the reason of infidelitl 
on the part of their husbands as leadIng to their dl\ orce. This is captured in the \\ords 
o I' one di I orced respondent in an in-depth inter\i e\\ \\ ho remarked . 
iv~l' hU.I/)und ond Ilised 10 hove (f good und IInderslUndmg Inurr/oge 
111111/ I ji!llnd 0111 he wos che(fllng on Ille .-I/ier repeuled dellwnds 
Ihol he sholl/d SlOP. he did nOI. The emolionol pom W{fS so 1n1lL'i1/iJr 
me s/.lch rhor I cU/.Ild nor hring In.vse/FIU conl/nue wilh rhe Inornoge. 
Infidelit\ on the part or their husbands as the reason gl\ en b\ most respondents (752 
percent) for thei r di lorce is supported by Ghanaian CustomaD and Ordinance 
marriage laI\s \\hich stipulate that on the grounds of lI1fidelit\ and adulter\ a 
marrIage could be dissohed 
0-' -') 
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Infidelity mostly on the part of men in marital relationships can also be e:\plained by 
the ract that most societi es in Ghana do not 1'1'0\\"11 on e,\tra marital afrairs or males. 
\\hlch encourage them to engage in such actiyities, 
It is signi ficant that [rom the table above (Table -+) , 10,3 percent or di \orced 
respondents indicated \\ 'i!ful neglect on the part of their e:\-husbands tu maintain them 
as a reason for their divorce, This may be e:\plained by the [act that in Ghanaian 
society. the husband has al\\ays been looked up to as the head o[ the household and 
the bread\\inner for the family He IS therefore charged \\ith the final responsibility of 
ensuring the \\ elrare of all household members, This IS because under Customary and 
emotional nced s or hi s \\ire according to his situation in lire, 
It is also \\orth noting rrom table -+ abo\'e. that 20 percent of respondents \\ho 
indicated desertion as a factor responsibl e for their status. ga\'e the reason of \\ 'ilrul 
neglect on the part of their husbands to maintaIn them and their chi Idren that 
necessitat ed their husbands to desert them 
Some respondents further allr ibllted their e\-hllsbands' \\ ilru l ncglect to maintain 
them and theIr children to their e:\ -husbands' il1\ohement In e,\tra-mantal affairs 
TillS \ ic\\ is C~IJltul'ed III thc \\ (nds ul' one rcspon(knt III all In-dcpth intcn IC\\ \\ ho 
intimated that 
v-' 
0.) 
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My ex-hushand never bOlhered to provide!;)/' my c/llldren (lnd I. He 
always used his money to caler fhr his numerous girl Fiends. I 
Iherej()re did nOI see Ihe need 10 he marned 01 all it he does nOI 
carej(Jr my children and I. 
The implicati on fo r thesc \\ omen in the stud \" is lhal thc\" may not recel\'e an\" forlll of 
assistance from lheir e\:-husbands in the maintenance of their children as accordino to 
b 
the \\omen their e\:-husbands hitherto neglected to pro\ide their needs and that of 
the ir children 
Besides \\ilful neglect b\ men to maintain their \\i\ 'es and children as intimated b\ 
so me respondents. it is also possible that the present economic malaise and high 
unemplo\ment rate in the country may genuinel\" handicap some husbands to fulfil 
their fin anc ial responsibilities to\\ards their \\ I\es and children \\hich may be 
misconstru ed as \vilI'ul neglect on their part. 
Il IS rurther si gn If-Icant to note Crom Table --I abO\ e that 0.--1 percent 0 r respondents 
allrlbuted the reason of \\ife bal1ef\ as responsible for their di\orce. In an Ill-depth 
intenie\\ \\ith one respondent she declared that 
!vI)' hl./.lhand drinks very heavII.1' 01 Illnes and does nol give me 
"chop mone)'" When I prolest he suh/ecls me 10 severe bealings In 
one /I1sl(//1Ce he locked lI1e /11 Ihe SI()lIwch unci I Iell W1C{)I7.IC/()I.t.1 
A!ier Ihal incidenl tn)'famtly dissolved Ihe marrwge 
It is probable that theU fnigivuerer soitry 9 o.4f  Gpehrcaenta  ohrt t\p\i:r/e/u bgasttpearyc eas. uag .readsuon.g ahdvanced by 
respondents is onh a tip or the ice-berg as cases or \\ ire battery or physical \iolence 
perpetuated by husbands against their \\ i\es are usually undisclosed by \\omen 
Physical \iolence in marriages that leads to divorce in Ghana can be e:\plained by the 
ract that men e\el:-\\here have traditionally been associated \\ ith physical strength 
This goes back into time \\hen in the di vision of labour men hunted and \\ omen 
gathered to feed the family Their physical ad\antage o\er \\ omen also placed them 
early in the e\olution of the family in positions of authority o\'er \\omen \vho came 
under their dIrect protection and control 
Another e:\planati on is that III the Ghanaian soc iety. social contracts bet\\een men and 
\\0111(,11 :lS rl'g:lrds lll ;lITI:1["e h<l\ c ('\oIH'ci ill \\;l\S th:lt hoost the cOll trolilil L', po\\cr of 
men. and keep \\ omen in cultural subordination, In customary marriages all o\er the 
country for e:\ample. a man pays bride \\eaIth. for his bride. \\h ich ror some men IS a 
transaction that transfers o\\nership or the \\ oman to hlll1 as perhaps one might 
acquire a property, This leads to the infenor posItion or 10\\ status of the \\ ire III the 
marriage in that she is thought or as a property or the man. \\ ho uses all means 
including \'iolence to control that property, 
Some other reasons (S I percent) c1l\orced respondents gm e as responsible ror their 
status II1clude mterrerence by in-Im\ s. deCIsion on tile part of husbands to marry a 
,ccond \\ lil' :llld IIlCOI1lP:ltlhlilt\ \\ Itil c\-illlsh:lIlds 
85 
Wido\\ hood is another Ufancitvoer rtshiatyt  aocfc oGuhntasn faor  hstitnpg:l/e/ ufgemspalaec pea.ruegn.tehodoud. ghFrom table 
-I abo\e. 30(i percent (81) of respondents indicated the reason. death of spouse as 
responsible lor their st,atus This can be attributed to the fact that a significant number 
of respondents (381 percent) are in the age group 46 years and abo\'e. This is 
comparable to studies in Africa which indicate that as many as 25-30 percent of 
\\ omen aged 45-40 are \\ido\\ ed (United Nations. 10l}S) Also in the Ghanaian society 
it is the norm that women usually marry men older ancl therefore the probability or 
their partners (husbands) dying earlie r is \ er\ likely Death or Illaic spULIses call 
I'urther be attnbuted to the general shorter life e:-;pectrulC\ or men as compared to 
\\omen in the Ghanaian society and else\\ here as suggested III the re\ le\\ of lIterature 
Yet another factor responsIble [or single female parenthood IS childbeanng out-side of 
marriage These Ne\er-married yet single mothers constitute 23,4 percent (i2) of 
respondents 111 the study. Accord1l1g to these never-married \\·omen. the reason for 
theIr status as single parents IS that their children 's fathers told them they \\ere not 
financiall\ \\ ell placed to satisfy the demands or responsibilities associated \\ ith the 
In stltutioll ol'marrlage and thererore thc\ could not malT\ Ihelll This IS obser\ cd 1'1'0111 
Table 4 abo\e. \\ here l)(1.8 percent of Ne\er-married respondents IndIcated the abo\e 
reason. Marnage as al ready noted goes \\ith obligatIons to maintam a \\ife as \\ell as 
children Thus \\ here a person may not relati\ ely be economically so und enough. he 
may not enter the institution. This IS illustrated ll1 an interne\\ \\ Ith one Ne\er-
married respondent \\ho intimated that 
I IIsed to hove 0 hoy/i'lend and we IIsed /() have a finc re/ollOn.l'hlp . 
When I gOI pregnon/ he SOld Iho/ he did no/ earn enough I17come to 
morr)' me hili/hOI hc ael-'CplS rcspol1.llhtlIlY/(Jr Ihe pregn(/l1(.~l'. 
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In relation to men not financially.  sound to marr,.- . another Ne ver-marn-e d respon d ent 
e:\pressed in an intenie\\ that 
J om ({ single !no/her becouse my childs jit/her sUld he wos no/ 
rC'udr!l)r /11urn(/,l.!,e hecollse he did IW( huve /lIOnel' (0 hill' (/7C' /)/C'c('s 
o/clo(h ond other (hings reCJl.lired!hr (he ceremony % c/.is/omory 
morrioge_ 
The abo\e statement by the respondent compares \\ith the assertion by Gyekye. 
Arthur and Oankwa (1996) that while customary marriage is the most common form 
or marriage among Ghanaians. there is the \\ idespread practice of men not performmg 
the ceremony and rites which are traditionally required for a customary marriage 
It  is also sig lll fi cant that among oth er reasons (3 :2 percent) gi \ en by e\ er married 
respondents include. Lmplanned pregnancies and repudiation or responsibIlit\ ['or 
pregnancies on the part of men that resu lted in the stat us of single ICI1l,i1e parenthood 
This confirms the assertion of Comarrof and Roberts (1977) that children born to 
unmarried mothers \\-ithout any officially recogni/ed fathers result in single female 
parenthood _ 
In sum. the major factor that accounts for the status of single parenthood among 
respondents is di\orce \\hich the \\omen attributed to the Illfidellt\ of men III mantal 
unions ASide this \\ido\\ hood and childbearing out-side of marriage also contributed 
to sing le female parenthood The effect or Implication of these ractors as suggested III 
the re\ ie\\ or the literature usually lea\e \\omen to shoulder the burden of 
maintenance and care or children all alone 
'1)7 
-t.4 SOCIAL SUPPOURTni versity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
This section dcals \\ilh ho\\ \\omen economically support their households Wld 
\\hether they hme Wly form of support Specific attention is paid to the pro\ision of 
chi Idren' s needs and the payment of household utilities. the performWlce of household 
tasks. residential arrangements Wld the forms of support respondents recei\e in 
executing these responsibiltties as well as any additional support system In place for 
them 
It has been suggested in the re\iew of literature that \\omen who are single parents or 
female heads of households pay a very high price in loss of access to male market 
Income (Folbrc. I ()()()) and therelore mm hm c to rely on their 0\\11 incomc or other 
sources . To see ho\\ far this is true \\e go on to ,malYse the major source or Income or 
responden ts. 
In the study. the majority of respondents relied on their self-generated IIlcomes as 
their malor source of income This IS illustrated in Figure 5 belo\\ . 
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FIGURE 5: RESPONDENTS' MAJOR SOURCE OF INCOME · 
90 
80 
70 
I- 60 ' 
z 
w 50 
U 
0::: 
w 40 
Cl. 30 
20 
10 ' 
0 .. JIIIIIIIIIIIIII 
SOURCE OF INCO ME 
Source: Fi eld Data, Feb - May, 2002 
In an attempt to fInd out from res pondents \\ hat they considered to be their major 
source of income the [oll o\\ing data \\ as generated from the abo\e figure: The 
m<l:jority of \\ omen 81 7 percent. indicated that the: considered themsehes through 
theIr occupations as their major source of income: [ollo\\ed by those (9.7 percent) 
\\ho considered their chil dren's fathers as that source, those \\ho considered their 
famIly as that so urce fo rm .J .7percent \\hIl st 3.5 percent and 04 percent considered 
In-Im\ s and others as their maj or sources respecti\ ch The m(J.lorit\ of respondents 
relYIng on their o\\ n inco mes IS e\.plained by the 1~1c t that 88 .1 percent of respondents 
(see Table 2) lIldicated that they \\ere employed. 
Most respondents lI1Udincaivtiengrs itthye ior f sGelhf agneane hratttepd: //iungcosmpae caes .uthge.ier dmu.agjohr source of 
InCOIllC 111<1\ also be c:\plaincd b\ thc fact that th e absence of their hu sbands frOIll the 
household through marital disruption has necessitated the \\ omen to earn incomes 1I1 
order to pro\ide the needs of their children, This was reyealed by respondents in the 
in-depth Inteniew, \vhen they articulated that when they were married to their e:\-
husbands they \\ere house\\i\'es and therefore were not in any form of employment 
Ho\\e\ 'er \\hen their marriages collapsed they were compelled to engage in tfadmg 
acti\'ities in order to earn an income to pro vide their own needs and that of their 
chIldren This is captured in the \vords of one respondent \\ho intimated that. 
When I wos morried (() my /wsoCind I WClS Ihen 0 housewt/e When 
my husbond ond I divorced. I hod no choice ow /() SIOr! sellll7g./iJod 
VIlli/I III lilt' II/urkcl. 117 ()rder I() ei ,,.,, (117 1I!l()III(' I() IJr() \ 'Id(' llie l7eeds 
olmy 111'0 children. 
This re\ 'elation by respondents confirms the assertion b\ Papanek and Sch\\ede 
(1988) and the United Nations (1995) that one basic factor that has lI1creased 
\\omen's participation in the labour force is the need for female headed households to 
earn an income to support their famili es, 
It is \\orth noting that in \ie\\ of most respondents (881 percent) rel\ing on their 
in co Illes and most (53 percent ) earlll ng 10\\' i nco Illes Illlpl ies that most respondents 
mm rind their Incomes lIladequate to meet the reqUIrements or their households 
Respondents' maj or source of income from famil~ other than children's father IS also 
comparable to Guyer's (1988) assertIOn that transfer from people other than a 
\\oman's husband , mostly her hm accounted or supplemented her lI1come, 
90 
Some res pondents \\hUo ninvdeircsaitteyd  ofth Gat hathneair  hmttpaj:o//ru gsosupracec eo.uf gi.necdoum.eg h\\ 'as their 
children's father re\ealed in the In-d epth inten ie\\ that it was because the\" \\ere 
unemployed . In the \\ o rd s of one respond ent : 
I hove no .100 I hove oeen l.lI1employeci (iJr ooow one ond 0 holf" 
yeors now When my ex-hu.lound onn/<!, my c;hlidren Ihelr school 
ji:e.1 unci "chOI) 1I/()l7ey " Ii!!' Ihe /llI!l7lh Ih({1 IS wh(/I I .\()Ic.:/), dL'jil.!l7d 
on. 
Other resp ondents re\ 'ealed also that the ir incomes \\ere so 10\\ that. remittances from 
their e:\ -husbands to their children were mainly \\ hat the~ ' depended on One 
respo ndent Indicated 
M)' incol71e IS nOI sufliclem (() wier liJr 171_1' needl ond 11701 of" 171)' 
d711dren /v~1' children 'sji:ilher IS domiCIled In 1,'/I /'()jJe oncl he remils 
ever)' IWO momh .\'. This mane) ' IS my mOJor source of" Income SII7 ce 
liz, ' IIIL'()llIe I ('url1 1.1' I'cn ' I()w 
The Imp lication l'or the abo\e respondents is that should their husbands fail to provide 
financial support for their chi ld ren, it \\ ill be \ ell difficult far them to pro\ ide for 
their children. 
There is also the scenario \\ here \\omen are forced to reh on bo\friends as their 
malor source of II1come because they are unemployed . This IS captured in an 
intenle\\ \\ ith one respondent \\110 indicated 
I om IInc177I)I01'cd ond I hm'(' Ihree d7lldrl'11 Iii l'uler (or. I om l1ul 
proud (() so)' II bill I Iwve U bO,1,/i 'lend Hho gives me mone), Ihul 
clI"hles /1/(, I() lilll ji)()d (ill 11/,' luhl, ' jul' /ill' (ht/,/n'lI 
01 
The abole scenario isU cnoimveprasriatbyl eo ft oG Fhaaynoars ehlt'tsp :(/ll/JulJgSs)p eaacrleie.ur gIl.oerdku a.gmhong the Ga. 
II hich found so me women being financially assisted by their boyfriends when 
according to the II omen their husbands failed to l11aintain them ,md their children . 
Thus the need ror an 111 co me. especially by unemployed single mothers could drile 
them to all possible lengths to support themselves and their families. 
In her study or household headship and female earning in Ghana. Ardmfio -S chandorf 
(llJlJ'-I) found that marital disruptions among other ractors lesulted in Ilomen II ith 
children to assume greater responsibilIties in the household She further obsened that 
these II (lillell recei I ed asslstwlce ,'I'Ulll reiatlo ll s WId uther people To see h011 I~u' thiS 
assertion IS true among our respondents. lIe proceed to wHtiY/.e respondents' 
responses on Ilho pro\ides children' s nutritional (Cood). clothll1g. educational (school 
fees) and health needs as \yell as the payment of rent and utilIties 111 the household . 
In the suney. respondents \Iere asked to state \\ho prolided their children's needs 
and the 1'011011 Ing responses \Iere generated in Table 5 beloll . 
92 
TABLE 5: UREniSvPeOrsNitSyE oSf  GONha WnaH Oht tPpR:/O/uVgsIDpaEcS eC.uHgI.LeDdRu.EgNh' S ' 
NEEDS 
RESPONS ES OF RES PON DENTS 
CHILDREN'S CHILD REN'S IN - TOTAL 
NEE DS SELF r AT Il ER FAMILY LAWS FRIENDS 
No . % No. '% No . uj" No. % No % No . - % 
FOOD 258 92.8 6 2.2 14 5 - - - - 278 100 
,,  CLOT HING 258 9 1. 8 9 3.2 13 4.() I OA - - 28 1 100 
EDUCATION 
(SCHOOL 41 19.3 161 75.9 7 3.3 I OA 2 0.9 212 100 
I FEES) 
HEALTH 21 5 79.9 20 7.4 27 10 3 11 4 1.5 269 100 
SOUl'ce: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
The analysed data abo\e indicates that the maj ority of respondents bear the bulk of 
responsibil ity in the provision of children 's needs e:\cept for the payment of school 
fees \\ here their child/chi Idren 's fathers (75,9 percent) bore the bulk . This confirms 
the earli er assert ion of Ardayfio-Schandorf (1994) that \vo men bear the bulk of 
household responsibilities in the absence oC male partners Crom the household due to 
marita l disruptions among other factors 
Chil d/chIldren 's fathers supportIng respondents in the main \\ith the payment of 
school fees is not surprising as men tend to shoulder certain costs such as school fees 
mo re read ily than others, \\hile \\omen more frequently bear e:\penses l'or chIldren's 
clothes and food than other items 
It is sl"nlCicant to note Crol11 the abol e table tilat respondents receil eu assistance Crom 
b 
KIn, in-IUl\s and friends also in children's maintenance Thi s is comparable to the 
03 
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find ings of Gyekye, Arthur and Dankvva (199Ci) that single female parents recei ved 
assistance from relations and friends in the form the payment of educational and 
medical bills \\hen parents are unable to ensure the \\elfare of their children. One 
respondent \\ho recei\ed such assistance indIcated in an mtervie'v\' that 
When soles lJ? Ihe morkel is nol good ond J om hord pressed for 
money. my relallOns ondfi"iends someilines help me 10 provide my 
children's needs. especlUl/y when one oj/hemjitll.\' III (tnt! Ineed /() 
toke hlln 10 Ihe hospilCl/. 
[n addition to bearing the bulk of responsibilities for children ' s needs, Single female 
parents bear the bulk of responsibility for the payment of household rent and utilities 
This IS sho\\TI in respondents' responses on \\ho pays the household's rent and 
utilities in the table below'. 
TABLE 6: RESPONSES ON WHO PA YS HOUSEHOLD RENT AND 
UTILITIES 
RESPONSES OF RESPONDENTS 
HOUSEHOLD CHILDREN'S SHARED TOTAL 
NEEDS SELF FATHER FAlVllLY PAYMENT 
No. 
- °L No. % - No % No. % No. % I- --
RENT 96 73.3 2 1.5 13 09 20 15 3 131 100 _. 
ELECTRJCITY 146 56.2 8 3.1 SO 19.2 56 215 260 100 - - -
WATER 164 63 .3 8 3.1 51 19 .7 36 13.9 259 [00 -
Source: Field Data, Feb - Mm , 2002 
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Responses from the above table indicate that respondents mostly pay for rent and 
utilities by themselves. This is again e"plained by the fact that the absence of male 
partners (husbands) in the househo ld make \\omen take greater responsibilities in the 
household It is observed from the abO\e tabl e_ that almost half that is 485 percent 
(131) indicated that they pay ren!. This probably implies that most respondents may 
be Ii ling In relatiles' house or their 0\\ 11 hOLise and therefore may be absoh ed l-rol11 
the payment of ren!. 
An interesti ng obsenation from the table above is the adoptIon ora strategy of shared 
payment or cost sharing: 15.3 percent. 21.5 percent and 13.9 percent respectilely 111 
settling payments on rent, electricity and water by respondents. This strategy to cope 
\\ith these payments is captured in th e \\o rds or one respondent who declared thal 
You know. fain hurdened wllh providll7g my children 's needs ond to 
poyjiJr rent. eleclrtcllY ond water all hy mysellwill he too muchjiJr 
me (() heor. So J insist thot J shore the poyment wllh my)'ounger 
Sisler (l17c! hrolher wh() live 'vI'lth 11/[' 111 I/J e /Jollse. 
On the same Issue another resp ondent remarked 
I IJ«J\'lclc .foud (1m/ dOIIIlI1,1!, (/17<1 IIU1' l/7e (CI1I, Iww('\'('( I 111.1'1.1'1 11,"1 
some o(my elderly chtldren contribute 10 the poymcnt o(elcur/cII)' 
ul1d w({ler slI1ce Ihey huve pori /lInclohs. 'f'I7IS reolly helps {() reduce 
m)'linoncwl hun/ens 
It is further obsen ed from the abo\e table that Kill aSSisted respondents more" Ith the 
payment of rent and utilities "hen compared to the earlier analYSIS of the pro\ lsi on of 
ch ildren-s needs. According to most respondents 111 the 1I1-depth IIlter\le\\ It IS 
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because theil- ramih members conSidered the prolision or their chlldren-s needs as 
more or an Indilldual responslbilit\ on the part 01' respondents 
An interesting obsenation from tables 5 and (j abo\e is the fact that children's fathers 
do not seem to contribute much general ly in the up-keep of respondent's children. A 
rurther probe b\ the imestigato r reI ealed that most children 's fathers do not support 
respondents in the up-keep of their children_ When respondents were further asked in 
the stud\ to state \\hether they recei \ed support from their children's fathers, their 
responses indicated that most (5<)4 percent) did not recell'e am form of support from 
thei r chi Idren' s fathers Ilhereas 40 (, percent Indi cated that the\' did recei Ie support_ 
TIm sholls that most fathers of children of sing le fema le parents do not shoulder their 
respons lbil itl- in the maintenance of their Ol\n children . ThiS also e.\pla lns Ilh\ most 
respondents general l\ bear the hul k or respons lbilit\ in the maintenance or their 
children in table 5 
Of the respondents II -ho receiled assistance rrom children's fathers, a further probe 
by the imestlgator on hO\1 frequent respondents recei led thiS assistance indicated that 
most respondents had this assistance occasional 1\_ When respondents 1\ ho recel led 
assistance from children's father I\ere asked in the stud\', hOI\ often the\ recei\ed 
such assistance: the maJori t\ (55 I percent) Indicated that the assistance lIas 
occasional \\hereas 39.1 percent and 5_8 percent Indicated that the assistance II as 
gllen orten and lerl' orten respectlleh Most respondents Ilho recelled occasional 
assistance from children's fathers Illrther reI ('aled In the Ill-depth IlltCrllCl1 that It lIas 
because their children's rathel'S did not care much about then children In the \Iords of 
olle respondent 
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A{v children 'skI/her is a husiness man. He is qlllie weallhy hur 
does nOI regularly send his children !noney. I have /() deliver numerous 
messages 10 him 10 provide money/i)r Ihe up-keep a/his own children 
he/iNe he does. 
Other respondents also revealed in the m-depth interview that their children's fathers 
did not pro\ide money for the up-keep of their children because their children's 
fathers \\ere of the opinion that the women could single handed" pro\ide for their 
children's needs as the \\omen \\ere gainfully employed. 
A further probing on the sufficiency of children' s fathers' assistance re\ 'ealed that it 
\\ as not sulTlclcnt lor the needs or respondents' children. On the issue of ho\\ 
surficlent the assistance recei\ed \\ as, the malonh or respondents (77 .() percent) 
indicated that it \vas not sufficient, 3 percent said it \\ as manageable and 19A percent 
said it \\as sufficient Most respondents indicating the insufficienc) ' of assistance 
from their children's fathers sho\\ that though children 's fathers are assistIng 
respondents In th e pro\ Ision or children's needs, thi s assistance l11a~ be Inadequate for 
their needs and that of their children. 
When respond ents \\ ho recei\ed assistance I'rom Kin \\ ere asked to state the 
I,-equenc\ or thi s aSSistance, most (-IS X percent) Indicateci that the\ rcccilcd it on an 
occasional bas is, 33 .3 percent stated the\ recel \'ed the assistance often, and 20 9 
percent II1dlcated it I\as recei\'ed \'ery orten. A further probe on the suffiCiency of 
such assistance to respondents indicated 1110st (393 percent) admitting that It \1 as 
sufficient. follo\\ed by 337 percent. 17.8 percent and 92 percent of respondents \\ho 
respecti\ely admitted It \\ as not sufficient. \ eD sufficient and manageable. The 
lJ7 
majority of respondentsU enci;vperersssiitnyg  otfh eG shuaffnicai ehntct\p' :o//fu agssspisatacnec.eu ogf.e Kdiun .ginhdicate that 
e\en in the urban setting ec;tended Kin sill play an important role in supporting their 
mcmbers 
Of rcspondcllts \\ ho reccl\ ed assis tance from friends. the majoritl (X(,X percent) 
IndlClled il 11:1 S receiled 0 11 an occasiollal baSIS . ')4 percent Scu d it lIas onen and 3.8 
percent indicated they recei led such ass istance \er~ often A further probe on the 
sulTici enc\' of such assistance to respondents re\ealed that the majority (608 percent) 
indicated it was not sufficient, whereas 37.3 percent and 2 percent of respondents 
indicated it lIas sufficient and very sufficient respecti\'ely for their needs. This 
impl ies thaI. though some respondents mm recel \e assIstance from friends, this 
support may be neglIgIb le. 
A Il 1l1her anal\'sis of the pro\ Isiol1 of chIldren 's educatIonal and health needs as \\ell 
as the pmment o f rent and utilities re\e~lied titat tite uccupatlollal Illcome of 
respondents tend to innuence ho\\ the\' cope \\ ith these responsibIlit ies. Genera ll y or 
to a large ec;tent \\'here respondents earn a higher inco me they tend to rei\' more on 
themsehes for the pro\ls ion of chi ldren's needs and the payment of rent and utilities 
than relyll1g on others. ThIS is depicted in Tables 7, 8, 9. 10 and II belo\\ . 
TABLE 7: OCCUUPAniTvIeOrsNitAyL o f GIhNaCnOaM hEtt p://ugspace.ug.edu.ghOF RESPONDENTS AND 
RESPONSES ON WHO PROVIDES CHILDREN'S 
EDUCATIONAL NEEDS. 
I 
WHO PROVIDES CH ILDR EN'S EDUCATIONAL 
OCCUPAT IONAL ~~DS TOTAL 
INCOME CHILDREN'S 
SELF FATHER FAMILY IN -LAWS 
No % No. % No. % No. % No. % 
LOW 
(c 1-c1 00,OOO) 13 13 85 85 I I 1 I 100 100 
MIDDLE 
(c401JlOO-800,OOO) 18 22.3 02 70.5 1 1.2 - - 8 1 100 
H1GH 
(c80 I ,000 AND 9 56.2 7 43.8 - - - - 16 100 
ABOVE) 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
Table 7 above, reyeals that respondents who earn high lI1comes (5(, .2 percent) tend to 
be more sell' reliant in the pro\'ision of" children's educational needs than respondents 
in the middle (223 percent) and 10\\· ( 11 pcrccnt) II1COlllC brackets . It IS also \\o rth 
noting from the abO\e table that respondents in the 10\\ (85 percent) and middle (70S 
percent) income brackets respecti\ely mostl\ tend to cope \\;th the pro\ision of 
children's educational need s by rel\ing on their children 's fathers for support as 
compared to respondents (43.8 percent) \\ho earn high incomes 
It is thus obsened from the aboye table that the Income le\el of respondents tend to 
innuence ho\\ they cope \\Ith the prO\lSIOIl or children's educational needs. 
Respondents \\ ho earn high incomes general!\ tend to cope b\ relYIng on themseh·es 
\\ hereas respondents \\ ho earn lo\\er Incomes mostl\ tend to rel~ on others . 
Concerning the pUrOn\iisvieonrs iotyf  ochf iGldrheann'sa  hhetatlpth: //nuegedssp arecsep.oungd.eendtsu .\g\hho earn hi gh 
Incomes are mostl y self reliant than responcients \\ho earn 10 \\ incomes. This is sho\m 
in Table ~ belo\\ . 
TABLE 8: OCCUPATIONAL INCOM E OF RESPONDENTS AN D 
RESPONSES ON WHO PROVIDES CHILDREN' S HEALTH 
NEEDS 
WHO PROVIDES CHILDREN'S HEALTH NEEDS 
TOTAL 
OCCUPATIONAL CHI LDREN'S IN-
Il'\C OME SE LF FATHER FAM ILY LAWS FRIEN DS 
I 
I No % - - - --- -- -, -- No. % No . 'X} No % - No_ .- -%- No. % - ------- ----LOW 
I (c I _·!()OJ)OO) ')') ~eI !O X.," () I ().') I () ') " I 117 100 
1-- -, 
MiDDL E 
(celO I,OO(HOO,OOO) ~ 3 05A I l.l 2 2.3 - - I l.l 87 100 
HIGH 
(e801.000 AN D 21 95.5 - - - - I 4,5 - - 22 lOll 
ABOVE) 
Source: fi eld Data, Feb - May, 2002 , 
From the abO\e table it is obsened that 055 percent of respondents \\'ho earn high 
II1come are more self-reliant 111 the pro\ ISlon of children's health needs than 
res pond ents (04 () percent) \\ho earn 10\\ InCOllles It IS also slglllflcant that 
res pond ents \\ ho earn 10\\ Incomes mosth cope \11th the pro\ iSlOn or chIldren's 
healt h neecis by re lyll1g on the support or children's rathers and rall1il~ members than 
respond ents \\ho earn high incomes 
100 
Thus the abo\e tableU dneimveonrsstirtyat eosf  aGghaiann taha ht ttthpe: /i/nucgosmpea lceeve.ul gof.e redsup.ognhdents tend to 
inOuence ho\\ they manage with the pro\ision of children 's health needs. \\ith high 
and middle income earners being more self reli ant than 10\\ income earners 
As regard s the paYmen t of ren t and utili tiCS. the le\cl of income of respondents al so 
innuences ho\\ respondents manage \\ith such pmlllcilis. Thi s is sho\\ n 111 Tablcs lJ. 
10. and I I belo\\ . 
TABLE 9: OCCUPATIONAL INCOME OF RESPONDENTS AND 
RESPONSES ON WHO PA YS RENT 
- - - - ._------ --- - - ,- -
WHO PAYS RENT 
OCCUPATIONAL TOTAL 
INCOME SELF CHILDREN 'S FAMILY SHARE 
FATHER PAYMENT 
I 
No. % No . % No . % No % No, % 
LOW 
(c 1-400.0(0) 34 51.5 1 1.5 II I G.7  20 30.3 GG 100 
! 
,I  MIDDLE 
I (c40 1.000-800.0(0) 43 977 - - I '_)  . .-J,  - - 44 100 
I 
I l l til l 
(c80 1.000 AND 8 88.9 - - I 11.1 - - 9 100 
ABOVE) 
TOTAL 8S 71A I 09 13 I 10.9 20 16,8 lit) 100 
SOUl"ce: Field Data. Feb - May, 2002 
It is obsen ed fro111 the abo\ e table that respondents (88 lJ percent) \\ho earn high 
income are more self reliant than respondents (51.5 percent) \\ ho earn 10\\ Incomes 
It is further obsened from the abo\e table that respondents (303 percent) \\ho ealll 
10\\ incomes mosth manage \\ith the payment or rent through a straleg~ or shared 
pa\·mcnt \\ Ilercas nOlle or mlddlc ~U1d hlgh-lilComc carncrs I'ch 011 this means 
I () I 
Thus the income le\eUl noivr erersspitoyn doefn Gtsh aas nraeg hartdtps :/th/ue gpsapymaceent. uogr .reedntu s.ghho\\s that high 
and middle-income earners cope with thi s paYment by relying mostly on themselves 
\\hereas 10\\ income earners are less sell' reliant and rather use a means or shared 
payment and mostly rely on others. 
With regards to the payment or utilities (electricity and \\ ater) respondents who earn 
high incomes tend to be generally sell' reliant \\hereas 10\\ income earners rely mostly 
on others and use a strategy or shared payment to manage \\ ith the payment or 
utilities This is depicted in Tables 10 and 11 belo\\· 
TA BLE 10: OCCUPATIONAL INCOME OF RESPO NDENTS AND 
RESPONSES ON WHO PA YS ELECTRICITY BILLS 
WHO PAYS ELECTRI CITY BILLS 
OCC UPATIONAL TOTAL 
INCOME CHILDREN 'S SHARE 
SELF FATHER FAMILY PAYM ENT 
No. % No . % No. % No. % No. % 
LOW 
(c 1-400,0(0) 34 29 .8 8 7 19 16.7 53 46.5 11 4 100 
MIDDLE 
(c401.000-800.000) 80 95.2 - - 4 4. 8 - - 84 100 
HIGH 
(c801 ,OOO AND 21 100 - - - - - - 21 100 I 
ABOVE) I I 
So urce: field Data. Feb - Ma\. 20()2 
102 
TABLE 11: OCCUUPnAivTeIrOsNityA oLf  IGNhCaOnMa Eh tOtpF:/ /RuEgSsPpOacNeD.uEgN.TedSu A.gNhD 
RESPONSES ON WHO PAYS WATER BILLS. 
WHO PAYS WATER BILLS 
OCCUPATIONAL TOTAL 
INCOME SELF CHILDREN'S FAMILY SHARE 
FATHER PAYMENT 
No % No. 'Yu No. % No. % No. % 
LOW 
(c 1-400.000) 53 4GG X 7 19 IG.7 34 29.8 114 100 
MIDDLE 
(c-lO I. OOO-SOO.OOO) n 9-1 - - 5 ei - - 83 100 
HIGH 
(cXOI ,OOO AND 21 100 - - - - - - 2 1 lOll 
A80VE) 
-
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002 . 
It is obsened from Table 10 abo\e that all respondents who eam high incomes (100 
percent) are more self reli ant than respondents. 95.2 percent and 2t)8 percent 
respectl\ 'e h in the middle and 10\\ Income brackets It is further obsen'ed that most 
respondents (-leiS percent ) \\ ho earn ho\\ incomes manage \\ ith the pm'ment of 
electricit y bill s thmugh ,\ str<Iteg\ 0 1' shared P:l\lllCllt \\ I1crc<\\ IlUIlC or Illllldic ,Uld 
hi gh-Income respondents use this means. Respondents (I () 7 percent) \\ 110 earn 10\\ 
incomes also tend to rely more on family members to effect thIS payment than mIddle 
(4 8 percent) and none of hi gh income earners. 
The aboye situation as regards the payment of electricity bIlls In table lOis simIlarly 
obsened in table 1 1 Here also it is obsen ed generally that all respondents \\ho eam 
high incomes (100 percent) tend to be more self reliant than respondents. t)-I percent 
103 
and 46 percent respeUctni viveelyr swithyo o ef aGrnh manidad lhet tapn:d/ /u10g\s\ pinaccoem.uesg .eIt dius .agghain obsened 
that 10\\ income respondents (298 percent) adopt a means of shared pa\,ment to settle 
their bill s \\hereas middle and high income earners do not. Another obsenation fr0111 
table I I abo\ e is that respond ents (I () 7 perccnt) \\ho earn 10\\ i ncolllCS tend to reh 
more on ramIly members lor support in the pmment or theIr \\ater bills than 
respondents (() percent) \yho earn middle incomes, \\Ith none of hIgh income 
respondents relying on famil y. 
Thus with respect to the payment of utilities as demonstrated in Tabl es I () and II, it is 
reali/ed again that the income of respondents do inOuence the means by which the\' 
deal \\Ith such payments, \\ith high income res pondents being mostly se ll' reliant 
\\hereas 10\\ income respondents mostly adopt a means of shared payment and 
mostly reh on others . 
A I'urther anahsis or the pro\islon of ch Il dren's needs and the payment of rent and 
utilities by respondents in tables (12 to 16) below showed simIlarl\' that the 
educational le\ el of respondents do inlluence ho\\ they manage \\ ith these 
responsibilities . 
104 
TABLE: 12 EDUCUAnTivIOerNsAityL  oLfE GVhEaLn Oa Fh tRtpE:/S/PuOgsNpDaEcNe.TuSg .AeNdDu. gRhESPONSES 
ON WHO PROVIDES CHILDREN'S EDUCATIO NAL NEE DS. 
It is 0 bser\"ed generally from table 12 above that respondents (75 percent) who have 
at1ained uru versity level of education tend to be more self reliant in pro\iding the 
educational needs of their children than respondents: 10 percent and () <) percent \\ho 
ha\e respecti\"ely attained None and Pnman/JunIOr Secondar) School le\ el or 
education. 
This situation may be e~p l ained by the fact that hi gher educatIon II1creases \\ omen· s 
access to hi gher income and therefore enable them to be more sci r reliant III pro\ Idll1g 
the health needs of their children 
It is further 0 bsened from table 12 abo\ e, that respondents ((,0 percent) \\ Ilh no 
education also rely more on the on the support of their chlldren's fathers than 
respondents (25 percent) \\Ith unl\ersity educatIon 
105 
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It is also observed from table 12 above that respondents (30 percent) with no 
education tend to cope with providing their children's educational needs with the 
support of Kin than respondents (none) who have attained university education. 
Most respondents with relatively low educational level relying on the support of their 
children 's fathers and kin than respondents with relatively higher education from table 
12 above may be attributed to the fact that usually people with relatively low 
educational backgrounds do not command relatively higher income and therefore may 
have to rely on the support of others in the payment of their children's school fees. 
Concerning the provision of children's health needs, it was also found out that the 
educational level of respondents to a large extent did influence how they managed 
with such provision, as indicated in table 13 below. 
-
TABLE 13: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS.AND RESPONSES 
ON WHO PROV1DES CillLDREN'S HEALTH NEEDS. 
WHO PROVIDES CHILDREN'S HEALTH 
NEEDS 
EDUCATIONAL CHILDREN' IN- TOTAL 
LEVEL SE& FATHER FAMILY LAWS FRIENDS 
No % No. % No % No % No % No. % 
NONE 20 87 1 4.3 2 8.7 - - - - 23 100 
PRIMARY 30 96.8 - - 1 3.2 - - - - 31 100 
MIDDLE/JSS 59 65 .6 19 21.1 9 10 I 1.1 2 2.2 90 100 
SEC/SEC 44 88.8 5 10 - - I 2 - - 50 100 
COMMIVOCrrECH 28 73.7 1 2.6 9 23.7 - - - - 38 100 
POST SEC/ 
NURSING/ 22 91.7 I 4.2 - - - - I 4.2 24 100 
POLY 
UNIVERSITY 13 100 - - - - - - - - 13 100 
. 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. - ~ 
7L 
106 
It is observed fromU ntaivbleer s1it3y  aobfo Gveh athnaat  haltlt pr:e/s/upognsdpeanctse .(u1g00.e dpeur.cgehnt) who have 
attained university education tend to be more self-reliant in providing their children's 
health needs than respondents (87 percent) with no education. The explanatory factor 
for this may be attributed as noted earlier in table 12, to the fact that education affords 
women the opportunity to eam higher income thereby increasing their likelihood to be 
self-dependent in providing the health needs of their children. 
An interesting observation however from table 13 above also is the fact that 
regardless of their level of education, respondents (87 percent) with no education are 
more self reliant than respondents; 65.6 percent and 73.7 percent who have 
respectively attained Middle/Junior secondary school and 
CommerciaVVocationallTechnical level of education. The level of education 
seemingly not influencing the provision of children' s health needs by respondents in 
this particular case may be attributed to the fact that though a single female parent 
may have no or low level of education she may have no support of any sort and may 
be left with the sole option or choice of being self reliant in the provision of children 's 
health needs. The implication for these women may be that, they may not be able to 
provide their children with high quality health care. 
In connection with the payment of rent and utilities, the level of education of 
respondents to a large extent also influences how respondents cope with such 
payments. This is shown in Tables 14, 15 and 16 below. 
107 
TABLE 14' EDUCUAnTivIOerNsiAtyL o Lf EGVhEaLn aO hFt tRpE:/S/uPgOsNpDacEeN.TuSg .eAdNuD.g RhESPONSES 
ON WHO PA YS RENT. 
WHO PAYS RENT 
EDUCATIONAL CHILDREN'S SHARE 
LEVEL SELF FATHER FAMILY PAYMENT TOTAL 
No. % No. % No. % No. % No % 
NONE 14 53.8 - - - - 12 46.2 26 100 
-- ~--
PRIMARY- - 3 75 I 25 - - - - 4 100 - --1--- - -- .- _.- -- - -- --
MIDDLEIJSS 11 35.5 I 3.2 II 35.5 8 25.8 31 100 
SEC/SSS 26 96.3 - - I 3.7 - - 27 100 
COMMNOC/TECH 20 100 - - - - - - 20 100 
POST SECINURSINGI 
POLY 10 90.9 - - I 9.1 - - II 100 
UNIVERSITY 12 100 - - - - - - 12 100 
Sourcr: Fi eld Data. Feb - Mm. 2002 . 
It is observed [rom the table above that all respondents (l00 percent) \\ho hale 
attained unilersity education are more self reliant than for Instance respondents (53.8 
percent) \\ho hale attained primary le\ el educatlOn. It IS further noticed from the 
abO\e table that respondents (46 2 percent) \\ith no education manage \\ith the 
payment o[ rent through a strategy o[ shared payment. whereas none of respondents 
[or instance \\ith uni\ersih le\·el of education rell on this means. 
The educational le\el of respondents as regards the pal ment of rent thus indicates to a 
large e:\tent that respondents \\ho hale attained a relati\ely higher educati onal le\el 
m,mage \\Ith this pa\·ment by being lllostl~ sell' relmnt \\hereas relatllel, 10\\ 
educated respondents are less self reliant. Relatllel\ 10\\ educated respondents on the 
other hand mostly employ a strategy of shared payment. 111 eiTecllng the payment of 
thel r rent 
108 
r 
Concerning the pUaynmiveenrt soitfy  uotfi liGtiehsa n(eale hcttrtipc:i/t/yu gasndp awcaet.eur)g .reedspuo.ngdhents who have 
attained relatively higher education tend to be mostly self reliant whereas respondents 
with relatively low educational backgrounds mostly adopt a strategy of shared 
payment and rely on others to manage with the payment of utilities. This is depicted 
in tables 15 and 16 below: 
TABLE 15: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS MID RESPONSES 
ON WHO PAYS ELECTRICITY BILLS. 
WHO PAYS ELECTRICITY BILLS 
EDUCATIONAL CHILDREN' S SHARE 
LEVEL SELF FATHER FAMILY PAYMENT TOTAL 
No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 
NONE 19 59.4 - - 1 3.1 12 37.5 32 100 
PRIMARY 5 16.7 - - 12 40 13 43.3 30 100 
MIDDLE/JSS 26 35.1 - - 19 25.7 29 39.2 74 100 
SEC/SSS 36 75 8 16.7 3 6. 3 1 2.1 48 100 
COMMIVOCITECH 25 65.8 - - 12 31.6 1 2.6 38 100 
POST SECINURSING/ 
POLY 21- 91.3 - - 2 8.7 - - 23 100 
UNIVERSITY 13 100 - - - - - - 13 100 
Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. 
TABLE 16: EDUCATIONAL LEVEL OF RESPONDENTS AND 
RESPONSES ON WHO PAYS WATER BILLS. 
WHO PAYS WATER BILLS J< t 
CHILDREN'S ~ SHARE 
EDUCATIONAL SELF FATHER FAMILY PAYMENT TOTAL 
LEVEL No. % No. % No. % No. % No. % 
NONE 19 59.4 - - 1 3.1 12 37.5 32 100 
PRIMARY 5 16.7 - - 12 40 13 43 .3 30 100 
MIDDLE/JSS 44 60.3 - - 20 27.4 9 12.3 73 100 
SEC/SSS 35 72.9 8 16.7 4 8.3 1 2.1 48 100 
COMMIVOCITECH 26 68.4 - - 11 28.9 1 2.6 38 100 
POST SECINURSING/ 
POLY 2 1 91.3 - - 2 8.7 - - 23 100 
UNIVERSITY 13 100 - - - - - - 13 100 
Source: Field~ata, Feb - May, 2002 
109 
It is 0 bsened froUmn itvaeblres it1y5  oaf bGoh\ea nthaa th tatlpl :/r/eusgposnpdaecnets. u(gl0.e0d upe.grchent) \\ho ha \e 
attained uni\ersity education are more self reliant 111 the payment of their electricit~ · 
bill s than rcspondents: Y) .-\ percent and I (,] percent \\ ith respecti \ c" no education 
and primarY le\el education. It is further noted that most respondents (-\3 3 percent) 
\\ith primary le\el education manage \\ ith this payment through the means 01' shared 
pa~'ment \\hereas none or respondents \\ho hme allamed unl\ ersit\ education use this 
st rate"".\ ' 
Most respondents (40 percent) \\ho ha\e attained primary le\ el of education also tend 
to depend mosth on family members to elTect the payment of their electricit\ bills 
\\hereas none or ul1l\ersit\ educated respondents do. 
The abo\c Situation concerning the pa~ mcnt or electrlcit\ bills in tablc 15 is Similar" 
obsen ed in table 16 abo\e. Here also It is noted that all respondents (100 percent) 
\\ho hm e attamed ul1l\ersit\ education tend to be mos tl \ sell' reliant than respondents 
(I (d percent) \\ Ith prlmar\ le\ el ed ucation. It is agJin obscr \cd that I'espondents 
(375 percent) \\ho ha\e no education and respondent' s (433 percent) \\ho hale 
allaincd primar\ Ie\ cl cducation adopt the mcans or shared pm nlcllt to settle the ir 
bills \\ hcrcas none or Post seconcian/Nurs lng/Polytechnlc and L 111\ erslt:- educated 
respondents do 
Another obsenation from table I () abo\e IS thJt respondents (-\0 percent) \\ith 
prlmar\ le\'e l education tend to rel\ llloSt" on ['JIllI" mcmbers' support to manage 
\\ Ith the pmlllent or their \\ ater bills \\ hereJs respondents (none) \\ Ith UI1l \ erslt \ 
cciucatlon do not 
I I () 
Thus regarding the Upnayivmeernsti tyo fo uf tGilihtieasn as  hsthtpow://nu gins pTabclee.su g15.e adnud .g1h0 abole_ it is 
real i/_ed again that the ed ucational level 0 f respondents to a large e:-.:ten t do i nOuen ce 
the means b\' \\hich they deal \\ ith such pa\- 'ments \\ith relati\-eh_  hiobh_h- educated 
respond ents being mostly se ll' reliant than relatl\e h 10\\ educated respondents On the 
other hand relatl\eh 10\\ educated respondents mostly engineer a means of shared 
payment to settle their bills 
E\idence from the above (tables 7 to l G) as regards the pro\ision ofchddren-s needs 
and the payment of rent and utilities in relation to respondents' le\el or occupational 
income and their level of education is e:-.:plained also by the assertion of the 
conceptual frame\\ork of this stud\' that the status or \\ omen 111 relation to their access 
to critical resources such as educat ion ,Uld income \\ ill influcnce thell- COpll1g 
st rategles_ As It \\ as e\idenced_ respondents \\ ho earn relatl\eh high ll1comes and 
hm e a re lati \ eh high educational le\ el reh l110sth on themseh es to a large e:-.:tent In 
the pro\ision of children-s and household needs than respondents \\ ith relat i\ eh 10\\ 
educational and relatileh 10\\ income lc\ els_ \\ho manage \\ ith thesc rcsponsibili ti es 
b\' relying add it iona ll \' on the suppOI1 or ramih and others and also b\ adopting a 
s trateg~ or shared payment 
In sum most respondents prolided their children-s needs_ the payment or rent and 
utilities al l by themsehes e:-.:cept ror the pro\islon of chtldren -s educational needs 
\\here their children's fathers shouldered the bulk of this responslbilit) Also_ most 
res pondents especially tho se \\ho earn 10\\ incomes and ha\ e 10\\- educational le\els 
are able to cope \\Ith the prollslon or children's needs_ pa\ ment or rent and utilities 
III 
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Ili th the assistance of km and their children's fathers as \\ell as reliance on a strategy 
or shared pmll1cnt. 
(II) CHILD FOSTERING 
The reI ie\\ or the literature re\ealed that one of the means by which \\omen may 
cope l\lth the burden of child maintenance IS through the mechanism or child 
fostering To analyse this, respondents Ilere asked to state if they had some or their 
chlldren li\ing elsewhere. whom they \\ere IiI ing \\jth and an in-depth intervie\\ \\'jth 
a cross section of respondents to highllght some of the reasons \\hy thel \\ ere not 
Il\ing \\ith some or their children , 
To slarl \\ 1111, rcspolll!cnis II crc askcd 10 slalc in lilc sun CI Ir  lhe~ \\ erc Ii ling \\ jlh all 
their children The responses from respondenls mdicated thai SH() percent Ilere lil 'ing 
Ilith all lhelr children Ilhereas 41 ,4 percenl of' respondents Indlcaled thel II ere not 
liling Ilith some of their children Of respondents Ilho were not Ii\'ing with some of 
their children. a further probe on how many of their children they Ilere not lil'ing Ilith 
relealed that almost a quarter (41.3percent) \\ere not li\'ing Ilith as many as three 
children, Further. 22 percent 33 percent and 2,7 percent of respondents Ilere not 
IiI ing II ith one. tllO and four children respectileh', The responses to a further probe 
regarding Ilhom some or their children are III IIlg Illth IS generated In the f'lgure 
beloll, 
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FIGURE 6: RESPONSES ON WHOM SOME CHILDREN OF 
RESPONDENTS ARE LIVING WITH 
LIVING ON FAMILY I 
THEIR OVVN RELATIVES 
33% 1:\:\11\11\1:1\111\:111. 33% 
IN-LAWS CHILD / 
12% 4% CHILDREN'S 
FATHER 
18% 
Source: Field Data. Feb - May. 2002. 
Responses rrom the fIgure abo\e indicate that 33.3 percent oC children ll\e \\Ith 
relati\es. 176 percent Ji\e with their Cathers. 12.3 percent li\e \\ith tn-laI\s. 3() 
percent li\e \\ith their rriends and the rest 33.3 percent liYe on their 0\\ n. The 
implication or some children not Ilying \\ ith respondents is that respondents \\ ill at 
least be absol\ed or the responsibtlit) or pro\1ding the da\ to dm needs or children 
III the \\ords oi'onc respondent in an-depth intcrI Ie\\ she Illdicated . 
113 
oUf'n iversity of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghI ,I 'en! fWO , my CI? I' I Ci I'  en 10 my mother 1"17  Kumo,I'/. In Accra the cost 
0/ IIvIl7g is so high. Though I remit some mone)' 10 them 
occ{(sIOnollyfor their up-keep, II has to a large extent relIeved me 0/ 
somc o/m)' hurdens, SInce Inow have two childrcn IIvIl7g wllh me, 
Another respondent similarl)' e:--:pressed thi s \ le\\ In an In-depth inter\ie\\ that 
I have sent one a/my children 10 live wllh my senIOr hrother who 
II\JC.I' 117 '/'akorudi and is Cjulle well to do , so that I will he re//('ved (/ 
hll o/the hurden o/children InOll7lenOnce, 
The abo\e statements as re\ealed III the in-depth interlie\\ is com parahle to the 
assertion by Goody (1982) that a woman was likely to foster out at least one of her 
children to her olIn parents or kin to reduce the financial burden of her family , 
Some respondents also intimated in the in-depth mten'le\\ that they had sent some of 
their children to Ji\e \lith others so that they \\ ould be \Iell disciplll1ed This is 
captured in the \\ords of one respondent \\ho remarked 
I hove ,ICI7f In)' son 10 lIve Wllh my sll'lct uncle so Ihol he Will he Hell 
dlsclfllmed I II7Ink hecoIIsC' I (1/11 (I /i'lIIul(' h(' d()(!.I' Iwl .1'(,(,111 If) tukC' 
/I n' 117SI rll( ' f/O/1S S(,rI nll,l'll' 
Another respondent Similarly indicated m the Inter\ le\\ that 
IV!y oldest .1'011. who IS sixteen years old slOrled I71lsbelwv1/7g, so my 
elder hrother caine 10 IOke hIln owo), 10 discipline hIln. 
The abole statements also re\ eal that some respondents' childrcn 11\ Ing 1\lth othCb 
\\ere purely for a reason of sociali l.ation TIllS situation is e:--:plalned b\ Good\ (1082) 
as nurturant fosterage \\here children are fostered out. especial I} older children to 
11--1 
receiYe training in adUulnt irvoeler ssiktyil los f aGndh avanlaue hs totpf: t/h/ue gssopciaectye .uRge.sepdound.genhts lostenng 
out their children to be well sociali /.ed also implies that single femal e parents may be 
facing some challenges \\ith regards to raising their male children, Whateyer reasons 
respond ents may attribute to so me of their children not ll\ing \\ Ith them. \\ hat is 
ob \ious is that respondents are to a large e:-.:tent absol\ed from so me or the burden 
and dirf'iculties ormalntail1lng their children 
Thus some chlldren of respondents. li ving \\ith others or li\ing el sewhere IS also a 
means by \\hich respondents may cope as single parents, 
(III) RESIDENTIAL ARRANGEMENTS 
Residential arrangements of respondents is anal:-'sed in thi s study to see hO\1 they deal 
\Iith housing \\hich is a serious problem in an urban set1ing like Accra Res idential 
arranob ements as discussed else\\here In this \\ork also reI cal that it has a bearing on 
ho\\ II omen cope 1\ Ith domestic or household cho res and child care To anal:- I.e thiS. 
respondents II ere asked to state 111 \\hose house they resided The rlgure beloll is a 
representation or responses on this is sue. 
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FIGURE 7: RESIDENCE OF RESPONDENTS 
45 
40 
35 
f- 30 
u~  25 
aLl:.J:  20 
a. 15 
10 
5 
o 
RESIDENCE 
SOlll'ce: Field Data, Feb - Mm', 2002 
Most respondents (408 percent) liying in Km's house as obsened from the figure 
abo\e, sho\\s that kin assist respondents generally "ith accommodation Some 
respondents further re\ 'ealed in the lI1-depth II1tenie\\ that because the\ \\ere 11\ mg 111 
their kin's house thel" \\ere absolyed of the pmment of rent and e\ en \\ here the\ \\ ere 
required to pm rent it \\as relatilely less c\jlcnsi\c. This is silo\\n III the \\ords oj' 
respondents 111 the in-depth inten ie\\ . One respondent intimated lil;]1. 
II fl ' hrol/ier hils IWo llOlI.\eS 111 .-.icC/"u He has glvel1 me one 
oj"lhem 10 111'('111 wllh jill' c/ll/drell Ulld II/ere/ore I do l1ul PU) 
rent 
1 1( ) 
Ano ther I·espondenUt ndeivcelarrseidt yt hoaft  Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
/ live il1 my OiII1/ie 's house which hus heen renled 0111 J! owever 
oecC//.lse il is my Gi.111/ie 's huuse, Ihe rent I pay IS relullvely less 
expensive when compared 10 [he rent [he other [enants pay 
The abo\e statements by respondents thus further cchoes the support respondcnts 
rccei\c rrol11 kin as regard s accommociatlon \lhich is noted to be;l pl"Oblel11 espec ial'" 
in Accra 
Respondents \\ere further sorted out b\ type of apartment (e,g, smgle room. self 
contain etc) and the data sho\,\ s that 4()7 percent oCCUP\ chamber and hall 
apartments: 40 ,S percent occupy self contain apartments. S:') percent OCCUP) single 
rooms cmd 30 percent in hab it other apartments, 
Most respondents (46 7 percent) and 8,9 percent respondents Ii \ In g In  chamber and 
hall. and single room apartments respecti\eh in all probabilit\ implies that the\ ha\ e 
to share baths. toi lets and ki tchen faci lit ies \I it h other occupants \\ ho may be K In or 
co -tenants, It is thus Inferred that pro:\11l11t\ \11th others In the same house or 
co mpound l1lil\' increase the probabillt\ oj" ch lld C,\I'l' and hOll~l'hold chores helllg 
shared \\ ith /( In or co-tenants, Another implication oj" prO:\lll1lt\ \\ Ith kin and others 
nla\ also increases the likelihood or respondents rel\ ing on these people Cor emotional 
support by sharing their problems or challenges \\ ith them. 
In sum the residential arrangements or respondents re\ eal th.lt most respondents 11\ e 
In relati\ es· house. \\Ith others Jr\ Il1g 111 1l1-la\\s. emplo\ers and their 0\\ n houses It 
also re\ ealed that some respondents are tenants, Thus most respondents 11\ Il1g In 
117 
also re\'ealed thatU snoimveer sreitsyp oonf dGenhtsa naare  httetnpa:n//tus gsTphaucse .muogs.te dreusp.gohndents liying in 
relatiyes. in-laws. employers and O\\'n houses reveal thai respondents do not face 
much difficullies \\ith housing or accommodation e\en in an urban selling. 
(IV) HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES 
Single female parents besides engaging in econo mic actl\ itles to pro\ ide the needs of 
their children must also bear other responsibilities in the household to ensure the 
\\elfare or their dependants Some of these responsibilitIes in the household include 
food preparation, cleaning and childcare among others. An attempt \\as thus made in 
the study to find out how respondents manage with such household actiyit ies To do 
t11l5. respondents \\ere asked In the suney to indicate the type of household acti\ities 
they engage i 11 and \\hether they hal e the support or others lIke Kin and chIldren in 
these acti\ Iti es 
When respondents \\ere asked to state the household aClIvities .they engage In, the 
follo\\ ing multiple chOIce responses were generated iii the table belo\\ . 
TABLE 17: HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES OF RESPOND ENTS 
RESPONDENTS I (N - 270) 
ACTIVITIES NO. PERCENTAGE 
TIDYING 238 88.1 
-----
WASI-[ING 221 XI () 
I 
-
"
SHOPPING _
) -1.~1  <) ) i 
- ------ ----
COOKING 24() l)22 
CIIILD CARE 104 3~.5 
SOlll'C(,: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002 . 
118 
It is obsen ed fromU tnheiv aebrosvitey  toabf lGe hthatn are shptotpnd:/e/nutgs saprea cmeo.sutlgy. endgua.gehd in household 
acti\itics The relatileh' rell respondents engaged in childcare imply that 
respondents' children may be mostly infants Another e~planation may be that this 
actilit\ may be delegated to others. 
Concerning ho\\ frequent respondents engaged in household acti\ iti es. it became 
e\ ident that on the al erage most respondents (4t) I percellt) ellgaged III the abol e 
househo ld actilities lery orten (dail\). 24 .X percent engaged III thelll occaslO nalh 
(three times a Ileek) and 2(). 1 percent engaged in them orten (once as Ileek) G\en 
that almost hall' or respondents engage in the abOle household activities very orten 
impli es that respondents are likely to contribute the majority share of domest ic \\ork. 
Res pondents: 24 .8 percent and 2().1 percent engaged 111 household actmtles orten and 
occasional I y also suggests that respondents are assisted in the performance of 
househo ld tasks. When respondents Ilere asked to state Ilho ass isted them in the 
performance of household tasks the majority Indicated the\ Ilere supported b\ Kin 
This is represented in the figure beloll 
I It) 
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FIGURE 8: RESPONSES ON WHO ASSISTS RESPONDENTS IN 
HOUSEHOLD ACTIVITIES 
OLDER 
CHILDREN 
11 % 
HOUSE 
HELP 
12% 
OTHERS 
2% 
75% 
SOUJ"ce: Field Data, Feb - Mm, 2002 . 
The data in the abO\e figure sho\\s that the majority of respondents (75 percent) are 
supported In the performance of household tasks by Kin. This confirms the earlier 
assertion by the Imestigator that most respondents li\ ·ing In relati\"es' houses and 
chamber and Hall apartments \\as likely to II1crease the probability of household 
acti\ ities being shared especiall y \\i th Km It IS significant that 12 percent of 
respond ents reli ed on the assistance of house helps 1'vlost respondents \\ho relied on 
the ass istance or house helps I'mther re\ ealed 111 the in-depth II1tel"\ le\\ that due to 
120 
their bus: \\od; scheUdnuliev,e rits ibtye coafm Ge hnaenceas shartytp :l/o/ur gthsepma cteo .usegc.uerde ut.hgeh sen ices or 
hou se helps In o rd er to cope \\ 'i th household Lasks In the \\ords orone respondent: 
I leo\'e home very eorly in the mO/"l1Ing to the morket ond I retllrl? 
tn the evemng, So I hove emplo)'ed the servlL:es u/o house help 
whom I poy mOn/hiy to cook/or my Ihree children os well os 10 
to lidy the house 
It also \\ 'orth noting that 1 I percent or respondents \\ere assisted \\ith household 
acti\ Ities bl their older children , Thi s mal be e'\plained b\' the fact that as children 
gro\\ older it 1I1creases their likelihood in sharing in household tasks, 
In sum most respondents engage in household aC!1\ ities to ens ure the \\ elfare or their 
dependants The: are also supported in e:\ecuting these household aCli\lties bl 
relati \ es. house helps. older children and others Including fflends and co-tenants, 
Thus e\en in an urban setting, e:\tended Kin still playa major role in supporting their 
members to manage \\ith household acti\ 'ities challenging the Ile\\ suggested in the 
re\ie\\ or literature that the bonds or e:\tended kin is \en much \\eakened 111 the race 
or modernl/.at ion and urbani/,ation 
-tA DECISION VIAKING 
Thi s ~ecLlo n deals \\ Ith \\ hCLher I'csponlients Illakl' Ill~lJ()1 dcclslon, 111 the hOllschold 
ASSOCi(lted \\ ith the status oj" household headship beSides one takll1g general 
responsibill!\ lor the up keep and maintenance orthe household on a da\ LO da\ hasls. 
IS the abillt\ ' of one to make maj or decision \\ ithin the household It has been argued 
bl Ard al rio-Shandorr (Il)l)4) that as more men migrate 111 response to \ arlous 
121 
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economic opportunities. \\omen are len behind \\ith children to assume economic 
responsibilities and more importantly make major decisions Similarly single female 
parents \\ ith the absence of their male partners (husbands) are left \\ith children in the 
household Thus to see ho\\ far Ardm rio-SchandolTs (I (94) assertion is true. and 
also ho\\ single female parents cope \\ith making major decisions in the household In 
the absence 0 f men, respondents were asked in the study to state whether they make 
m~jor decisions in the household or not. They \\ere also asked to state \\ho makes 
major decisions if they did not. The responses on \\hether respondents take major 
decisions in the househo ld or not are presented in the figure belo\\ . 
FIG liRE '>: RESPONSES ON WIIETIIER RESPONDENTS MAKE MAJOR 
DECISIONS, 
90 
80 
70 
60 
~ 50 
w 
u 
a: 
~ 40 
30 
20 
10 
o 
YES NO 
RESPONSES 
Som'ce: Field DatG. Feb - May. 2002 
122 
.The figure above dUenpiivctesr tshiatyt  tohfe  Gmhajaonriaty h ottfp re:/s/puognsdpenatcs e(7.u7g.4. epderuc.egnht) cope or 
manage with making major decisions in the household by themselves, whereas 22.6 
percent of respondents indicated that they did not. 
The majority of respondents making major decisions in the household is not 
surprising as the majority; 92.8 percent, 91.8 percent and 79.9 percent respectively 
indicated (see table 5) that they provided their children's daily meals, clothing and 
health needs all by themselves. It is further noted (see table 6) that most; 73 .3 percent, 
56.2 percent and 63 .3 percent respectively paid rent, electricity and water bills by 
themselves. It thus stands to reason that if they mostly manage with children and 
household needs by themselves then they are mostly likely to manage with making 
major decisions in the household. This explanation is further supported by the in-
depth interview, when respondents generally intimated that they made major 
decisions in the household because they were also responsible for providing their 
children's and household needs. This is shown in the words of one such respondent in 
the in-depth interview when she said: 
I am responsible for making decisions in this house since 
I pay for almost everything. 
This implies that where women take major economic responsibilities in the household 
it enhances or increases the ir likelihood of making major decisions in the household. 
Another factor that explains the majority of respondents making major decisions in 
the household may also be attributed to the absence of male partners (husbands), since 
in traditional Ghanaian society it is usually the husband who makes major decisions in 
the household. This was revealed in the in-depth in!n'iew when most respondents 
123 
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indicated that the\ did not make major decisions \\hen they 1\ ere marri ed and II ling 
\\ ith their e,,-hllsbands, as their e,,-hllsbands made major deCisions In the \Iords or 
one res pondent: 
lJIhcn 1 wus l7IU1ned und IlvlI1g wllh 111)' ex-hushund he n()r!llUlly mude 
Inojor decisions in (he household Now os 0 slf1gle pm'en! I moke In%r 
decisions in the household. 
The abo\e statement thus suggests that the absence of male partners also creates the 
0ppoliunity for II omen especially sIngle female parents to make major decisions in 
the household 
01' the respo ndents ('2'2() percenl) \I ho Indicated thai the\ ' did not make 111<1.1or 
decisions In the household a I'urlher probe relcaled thai raI11Ih members or kIn made 
maj or decisions . 
When respondents (22 .6percent) \\ho indicated that they did not make major 
decisions in the household \\ere asked to state \\ho did , the majority (75 () percent) 
Indicated that famil\ members made malor deCisions. 18.2 percent Indicated in-laI\ s, 
4.2 percent Indicated their children's fathers 1\ hilst the rest (2 percent) Indicated 
friend s, benefactors among others 
The mal0i'll\ or respondents II1dlcalll1g l'amIiI members as makll1g malor deCisions 111 
111 l' 11OlI sl'lHlId IS Illli Slil J>rlslll~~ ;IS lill' I L'SL';l1 L'ilL'1 ul'sl'1 \ L'd III lill' s llld\ l'('llllllllllllll'S. 
especlall , Maamobi that most respondents \Iere III Ing II ith relati\ es or \\ere Imng in 
124 
family houses therebUyn iinvcerresaistyin go f thGeh alikneali hhottopd: //tuhagt spfaamcIely. umg.eemdbue.rgs hcould make 
ma,jor decisions , 
In formal discussions and the in-depth interview \vith respondents, \\ ho did not make 
malor decisi ons. paramountly revealed that it \\as because they did not contribute 
economi cally or substant iall\ ' to the up keep of the household 1'1115 JJOlllt IS captured 
belo\\ in the \\o rds ora cross-section of respo ndents belo\\ 
I live Wlfh lin' ((1117 lie unci COIISII?.\', NI)' ({lInlle own.\' the /WII,I't! 
and main ly p rovides everYlhing in Ihe household I do nOI 
contribUle much and there/eYre my auntie makes the m%r 
deusio/1s even concerning how I wke core of'my children 
Another respondent al so stated that 
I am unemployed and do not have money, !v~\'.fclfher IS Ihe 
one who wkes care alme and my two children He there/iJ/'e 
mokes mOjor deciSIOns //7 the hou,lehold which IS very/ine 11'1117 
me. 
The abo\'e statements e\:pressed bY a cross-section of respondents goes to emphasise 
the point th at indeed taking malor economic responsibilitlcs In thc household does 
inOuence \\ ho makes malor deciSIOns in the household , 
It is al so \\o rth mentiOnIng that a fell respond ems \\ho did not make major decisions 
111 the househo ld during the lI1-depth II1ten le\\ II1tlmated that the oldest person made 
maj or decisions 111 the household on the baSIS or their old age and respect accorded 
th em bY ot her members of the household and not because of their economic 
contribution, This is re\'ealed in the \\ords of one respondent \\hen she said 
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kly mOlher makes ma/or declslon,l' 111 Ihe household hec({use she 
IS older Ihem eve,},ol7e and 1701 hecause she makes subslal1/wl 
economic Contributions, /1 is solely out oj'lhe respecl we have 
.fhr her 11701 she makes major declsiol7s, 
The abo\e statement thus reveals that some respondents do not make major decisions 
In the household due to the presence of other elderlY members in the household 
In slim. the field eyidence suggests that most respondents make and manage II ith 
mqlOr decisions in the household by themseiles chieOy because the\ also bore the 
bulk or economic responsibilities Also respondents who did not make mqjor 
decisions in the household revealed that such decisions \\ere made b\ famil) ' 
members, 
45 CHALLENGES 
The challenges respondents face is anal\'l:ed b) using their responses on some of the 
problems they encounter. Ilhether they II ould like to marry and their gil en reasons 
The rationale behind th is is to ascertain II' the means and suppo rt respolldents relied 
on. actualh enabled them to manage as Single parents , 
In the sunel respondents \\ere asked to state the problems they encounter as smgle 
parents and their responses indicate lhat It is a \'en challengll1g e\penence The 
majority of respondents (603 percent) indicated that the~ \\ere oler burdened \\Ith 
too mam responsl bil itles. 14,3 percent of respondents II1dlcated thel encountered 
rlnanclal problems. 13 .2 percent of respondents mdlcated loneliness as their problem 
and 12 I percent of respondents indicated child-upbringing as a problem 
The m<'l,IOri l\, ' 01' Urenspivoenrdseiltlyts  of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghIn dI"c a tlng be mg 0 1 er burdened II ith m,lIW 
res ponsibil ities I.S  not SlIl ' pl,l s lng as mos t 0 f' tIl CI11 SI1 0 11 Id er tIl e bl lII, of'  rcsponslblIl t\ 
lor chil d maintenance, Co nside ring the ract that mos t res pondent s (74 7 percent ) had 
earli er indica ted the (lss istance of' Ki n \1 It h their household actil itlcs and respondents' 
Indi cati on o r I'o le ove rl oad as a prob lem impli es that the ass istance or Kin and others 
is probably not enough to li ghten the responsibi lities or respondents 
In l ie ll or mos t respondents (53 percent) earning lOll incomes, it is surprising that 
re lati l ell rell ( 143 percent) ind icated their prob lems as financi al TIllS impli es that 
strategies such as shared payment or household bill s child rostenng in addition to 
sup port o r ki n he lps them to manage II It h their fin ances 
The re l (ltllel~ rell res pondent s ( 13 2 percent) indicatll1g lonel iness as a prob lem also 
Im pl lcs til :1\ mos t rcsponci cnt s il <1l c peop le to ITiI Oil ro r CO lll p: lI lio nsilip and 
emoti onal suppo rt . 
Mo st respond en ts furth er relea led in the lI1-dep th inten lel\ that the) managed 1\ It h 
thei r problems by prayi ng to God [or assis tance I\hich baslcalh enabled them to 
d ischarge theil' res ponsibil iti es as si ngle parents Thi S IS captu red In the \1 ords or onc 
respo ndent II ho said that 
Wh en / amji:lced wtlh proh/em.l, / pray /() (Jod/or aSS/IIOIle(' and He 
a/ways /nlens ami answer,l In)' pra)'er,1 '!lle strength oj the /,()rd II 
h(/.I .I/l,\/(fll1ed IIII' ({lit/liS w/llle os ({ I'IIl,l!,le /Jilr(,l1t 
127 
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Thus 1l10s t res pond ents IIldicating 0\ erload of responsib iliti es as some of their 
problcms portray that the phenomenon of sin gle fema le parenthood IS Yen' 
challenging in terms of ensuring the Il 'el fa re of their dependants 
As regards the question of whether respondents would like to marry. the maJority of 
responden ts (Ui 7 percent) IIldicated that they II ould like to marry. IIhereas (31 3 
percent) indicated that they would not. A further probe was to ask respondents to gi\e 
their reasons for wanting to marry or not. 
As regards reasons for lIanting to marry. almost half (407 percent) of respondents 
Indi cated they lIould like to marry for companionship. 24 percent of respondents 
Indicated thel lIould IIh.e to marry because they \\ere yo ung. 11 ,3 percent Indicated 
they II ould "ke to marry for social respect II hereas the rest (3 percent) indicated other 
reasons 
Most respondents (49,7 percent) \\ 'anting to mam for companionship seems to 
contradict the earlier admission of a relatively fe\\ ' re~pondents (132 percent) \\ho 
II1dlcated loneliness as their problem. The probable e:-.:planation for tim mal be that 
thel did not relate it to marriage, Another probable e:-.:planatlon mal be that the kllld 
of compalllonship males or men pro\ide IS dilTerent from companionship from 
relations and friends 
Thc need ror a helper as a reason ad\anced b\ respondents (24 percelll) ror \\<Ulllllg to 
marry is not surprising as most respondents had indicated o\erload or responsibilities 
as a problem, 
128 
Thus most respondUenntisv eirnsdiitcya otinf gG hoavenralo ahdtt po:/f/ urgessppoansciebi.uli gti e.es daus .gshome of their 
problems portray that the phenomenon of single female parenthood IS \ ery 
challenging in terms of ensunng the welfare of their dependants 
As regard s the question of \\hether respondents \\ou ld like to marry the majo rity or 
I'es pond ents ((,X 7 percent) ll1di cated that the\ \\ould Itke to marn, \\hereas (3J.3 
percent) indicated that they would not. A further probe \\as to ask respondents to gi\ e 
their reasons for wanting to marry or not. 
As regard s I'easons for \\anting to marry, almost half (497 percent) of respondents 
lI1dicated they wo uld like to marry for companionship, 24 percent of respondents 
lI1dicated they \\ ould like to marry because they \\ere young, I 1.3 percent indicated 
they \\ould like to marry for social respect \\hereas the rest (3 percent) lI1dlcated other 
reasons . 
Mos t respo nd en ts (497 percent) \\CUlting to marry lor COIl1PCUliO IlShlP seems to 
contradict th L: ear li er admiSSion or a relati\ eh le\\ respondents (13:2 percent) \\ ho 
indicated loneliness as their problem. The probable e:\planation for this may be that 
they did not relate it to marrrage. Another probable e'\planatlon mm be that the kll1d 
of companionship males or men pro\ ide IS different from companionship from 
relations and friends 
The need for a helper as a reason ad\anced b\ respondents (24 percent) for \\anting to 
marry IS not su rprisll1g as most respondents had indicated o\er/oad of responslbrlltles 
as a problem. 
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Of respondents Ilho II1dlcated they Il ouid not like to marn. 51 ,S percent stated they 
II ere too old to 1ll:IITY ')1 \ "" . I'" I . 
. ' - .. PClccllt IlllIC,llL:l thcI lIL!rc IL!d lIJl IIlth Illarrt agL! . 3.2 
percent indicated they had too many children, 7.+ percent indicated they lI 'ere used to 
sll1gle parenthood lIith the rest (4.+ percent) indicating other reasons. 
Most respondents who do not II ant to marry due to old age may be e~plained by the 
fact that most respondents are above the age of 40 years 
235 percent and 7.+ percent of res pond ents indicati ng respect lle h that they are fed 
up lIith marriage and used to sll1gle parenthood is re\ealing It sugges ts that they are 
managin g I en lIel l lIith single parent hood Another probab le e\p lanation may be 
that these res pond ents had a bitter e~ p er ien ce or mar ri age and thereforL! lIould not 
lik e to I enture int o it again . 
In sum, most respondents I\ant ing to mar ry is a further strategy by respo ndents to 
reduce so me or their challenges such as ol'erl oad or responsibilities and lone lll1ess 
which is common to single female parents in Ghana and the lIorld at large 
CONCLUSION 
In this chapter. so me or the soclo -eco nomic factors that contnbute to single female 
parenthood. the maintenance and care or children social support. deCision making and 
the chall enges of sll1 gle fem,tie parents hale been e:\alllilled It IS cOllcluded that 
s lngiL! i'cll1a iL! parL! nthood 1l10sth results i'rolll dll orce as a result or II1llliellt\ on the 
part or 111 a Ie spo uses Death 0 I' spouse. chi Idbeanng out -side of' marnage and desertion 
al so contri bu ted to single female parenthood, SlI1gle female parents Illosth shoulder 
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the bulk or responsibility in the provision or children's and household needs as most 
children's rathers do not support them in the maintenance or children. In situations 
\\here children 's rathers assist the \\omen they did so occasionally The \\omen \\ere 
also supported In the prO\ision orchildren's and household needs by kin, lI1 -Ja\\s and 
rnencts. Most single female parents also make maJOr decisions in the household Some 
orthe challenges they encounter such as the o\erload orrespoI1sibiltlle~ and the desire 
or mosl 10 he in a marital union can more or less be said to apply to most single 
ICmaie parents in Ghana. 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
5.1 INTRODUCTION 
This chapter presents a summary and discussion of the main findings of the study, 
The main aim of the study was to imestigate the coping mechanisms that single 
female parents adopt to make a decent li\ing Specifically the findings of the study 
indicate out how these 'A/omen provide the nutritional. clothing. educational and 
health needs of their children, Also taken into consideration \\as the kind of social 
support th ey recei\ed \\ith emphasis on Kin. children's fathers. in-lm\s and fflends 
Socio-economic factors that account for single fCl11ale parenthood is also indicated, 
In search or the abo\'e objectiyes, both primary and secondary sources of data 
collection were employed, The rationale was to examine a wide array of \'aried data 
from both primary and secondary sources on the phenomenon under study, Thus 
theoretical presentations and other commentanes on the subject matter \\'ere combined 
\\ith first hand information obtained frol11 a field SUf\'ey in an attempt to arri\e at a 
\·vell concise and coherent stud" material. 
5.2 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
Findings orthe stud\' indicate that \\Ol11cn \\Ith higher Ic\el oi"eclucatlon tend to be 
yen fe\\ among single parents (see figure 2) in the study area, This is reflective of 
the national situation \\'here the number of females In school decrease as the le\el of 
education nses CGSS and ML 1999) The status of \\ omen in Ghana explains this 
trend as \\omen are tied up with the day to day responsibilities for children and 
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domestic sen·ices \\Uhincihv ererstitI·Iy C  ot ftl 1Ge.lh r aanccae shst ttpo :/e/susgenstpI.a al caen.du gs.treadteug.Ig.c h resources such 
as education. Education increases one's access to income and enhances tasks such as 
child care, home management and generally expands one' s horizons. Thus few 
respondents in general , with higher educational level does not augur 'vvell for 
themsehes and their families especially when they are beset \\ith the herculean task 
of providing for their children' s needs. 
The study revealed that Religion forms part and parcel of the lives of single female 
parents. In the study most respondent' s (37 percent) belonged to the Pentecostal 
charismatic denomination. This finding is also similar to the national trend where 
most Ghanaians belong to the Pentecostal Charismatic denomination (GSS. 2000) 
The reason for this is that these churches usually engage in prayer sess ions, healing, 
crusades and re\ i\ alist actl\ ities \\ hich normall\ create a feeling of solIdarity It is 
perhaps no surprise that some respondents re\ealed in the in-depth intervie\'v that 
going to church reduced their boredom as it enhanced friendship with others . This is 
especially important as single female parents are likely to mIss the companionship of 
male partners . It can thus be deduced that religion acts as a support svstem for single 
female parents. 
In the literature re\ le\\ of thIS study. reference (ArdayJjo-Schandorf. 1(94) \\ as made 
to the fact that female heads of households mostly (more than SO percent) tend to hme 
a high numb er or children of up to Jour. The IlndlI1gs of this stud), ho\\e\ er tend to 
suggest on the contrary that single fe mal e parents tend to hm e le\\ er children In the 
study almost half that is 47 percent of respondents in the ma.lorit) had children of up 
to two (see table 3). Tills finding in the study is probably due to the fact that 
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most rcspondents (seUe ntaibvlee rsI)i tayr eo fa bGohvea n51a  yhetatrps: /o/uf gagsep aancde .thuegre.efodrue .pgahst their child 
bearing ages. Further, the relative few number of children by most respondents may 
be allributed to the fact that child bearing out-side of marriage does not assure the 
security of a husband 's support for the children of single female parent. Also the high 
cost of maintaining children is a probable factor that may e:\p lain the relati\e fe\\ 
number of children by most respondents It can thus be safel) deduced that most 
respondents ha\ e fe\\ months to feed thereby reducing the burden of chIldren 
mai ntenance . 
The study re\ealed that in accordance \\ith their 10 \\ le\el of education. mos t of the 
respondents (see table 2) could mostly be found to be employed in the informal sector 
\\Ith majorlt:- of them being trade rs. This is comparable to the national trend \\here 
m~jority of females are employed in the informal sector and engaged 111 trading 
acti\ities (GSS. 2(02) As has been reiterated, this is because \\omen usualh possess 
10\\ educational le\els, which afford them the opportunity to \\ork in the II1formal 
sector rather than the formal sector . Most respondents emplo\ed in th e tnformal sector 
does not auger \\e ll for their \\ell being as the sector has been noted to be engulred 
\\ith mall\ constraints shared b\ all \\ orkers or the sector. especla lh \\ omcn \\ hose 
situation IS e,acerbated mUII1I\ b\' the ir reproductl\e roles, their positIon tn the 
famil\. the household and the se:\ ual di\ision of labour as suggested tn the re\ le\\ of 
literature. It is ho\\ever important to mention on a brighter note that It is \\ Ithtn the 
tn!ormal sector that many \\omen find it relatl\ely eas) to \\ork and attempt to meet 
their obligations to the household 
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E\idence gathered by this study mainly suggests again that consistent to their 10\\ 
le\el of education and sector ofcmploymenL most of lhe \\omcn (sce figure \) earned 
lo\v incomes. This evidence is similar to the assertion by Arday fio- Schandorf (1994) 
that the incomes of women heading households are low. For instance in Maamobiit 
was common place to find most of the women in the community trading in food 
items such as smoked fish, meat, Agblima (cassa\a dough), plantain and other 
foodstuffs \\hich they buy from the hinterland. The \\omen also sold cooked food like 
Gari, fried plantain and beans, Waatche (rice mi:\ed with beans and stew), Porridge 
with bread among others. These trading activities are usually small scale and therefore 
likely to fetch the women 10\\ incomes The consequence of most \\'omen earning 10\\ 
Incomes and most relying on their self generated incomes (see llgure 5) is the 
probability that they may find their incomes Inadequate to meet their needs and that of 
their children and therefore may ha\e to rely on the support of others. 
The study re\eaJed that the status of single female parenthood of the \\ omen resulted 
mainly from di\orce (see table -I) A similar obsenation has been made by Gyekye, 
Arthur and Dankwa (1996) in a study of single parenthood in the Greater Accra 
Region 
The study rUl1her discO\ered that the infidelity or husbands accounted mostl, ror the 
di,orce of respondents' marriages. In the study the majority or respondents. that is 
75 2 percent (sec table -I) indicated that the reason for thclr d I \ orce \\ as due to the 
infidelity of their e:\-husbands. The infidelity of male partners (husbands) bemg 
mal.l l I \" responsl· bl e ror the \\omen's di\ orce mm be blamed on the fact that the I' . 
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Ghanaian society dUoensi venrost ityfr oowf nG hmauncah  hottnp :/t/hueg sinpfaidceeli.tuyg .oefd um.genh in marital 
relationships which encourage men to engage in extra maritaL affairs. Another 
explanation is that in Ghana, men have a higher status vis-A-vis women in terms of 
higher education and higher income which afford men the opportunity and capability 
to engage in extra marital affairs. It is important to mention that the likely 
consequences or the ripple effect of infidelity of husbands such as emotional pain and 
the increased likelihood of the husband spending money on other women, leads to the 
neglect of the physical, emotional and economic needs of their wives which also 
reinforces such marital disruptions. The effect of divorce is that it usually leaves 
women all alone to bring up their children which is not the norm and may even 
hamper the proper development and socialization of children into the society. 
The study has observed that women who are single parents shoulder the bulk of 
responsibility in the maintenance of their children (see table 5). Most of the women 
provided the nutritional, clothing and health needs of their children. In addition to this 
most of the women (see table 6) bore the bulk of responsibil ity in the provision of 
household needs such as the payment of rent and utilities . This finding is similar to 
the assertion by Benneh (1992) that single parent families, which are predominantly lit 
'i< 
female, shoulder the burden of maintaining the household alone . This could be 
attributed principally to the fact that most of the women (59.4 percent) in the study 
indicated that their children's fathers did not support them in the maintenance of their 
children. This could further be generally explained by the fact that the absence of men 
in the household through marital disruptions, desertion and child bearing out-side of 
marriage (see table 4) leave women to bear the bulk of these responsibilities. Given 
that most of the women earn low incomes, it would thus be safe to state that the 
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maintenance or childUrenniv eanrds ityth eo f hGouhsaehnoal dh t\t\po:u//lud gpsupt accoen.suigde.eradbule. gshtrain on the 
\\ omen and members of their household 
The stud\' further re\ealed that most single parents (see tables 7 to 16) \\ho eam a 
relati \ely high lI1come or have a relatively high educational level tend to be mostly 
se lf-reliant in managing with the proyision of children's and household's needs than 
respondents who eam relatively 10\\ incomes or possess relati\ely 10\\ educational 
le\el s, This finding is comparable to the assertion by the GLSS Report (GSS, 1981J) 
that female household heads \\ 'ho ha\'e better jobs, substantial education or are 
engaged In business are also in a beller position to take care of themsehes and their 
children, This Implies that respondents with relati\eh higher education ,md incomes 
mm not face mam difficulties \\ith the maint enance or the household as c0111pared to 
respondents \\ ith relatiyeh 10\\ education and incomes This rinding also 
demonstrates that the education and the income generating potential of \\omen is a 
conduit through \\hich \\omen can become self dependent In pro\'iding their OlIn 
needs and that 0 I' their dependants , 
The stud\' also re\ealed in connection \\ith the palment of rent. electrlclt\ and \\ater 
bills that mo st respondents (see tables l) to II and 14 to 16) \\ Ith relatl\ e!\ 10\\ 
incomes and 10\\ educational backgrounds cope \\ith these payments by shanng the 
cost or pooling resources together \\ith other members of the household, ThiS finding 
b\ the stud, suggests that the household could also be em isaged in ~lI1othcr dlillension 
, ' 
as a unit for the pooling of resources b\ Its 1llcmbers l'or a C0111111011 purpnsl' 
In relati on to the Uprnoivviesirosnit yo of fc hGilhdarenna's  hatntpd :/h/uogussephaolcdes.'u nge.eedds_u .tghhe stud, further 
re,eal ed that single female parents (see tables 7 to 16) ,\ 'ho eam relati\ely 10\\ 
II1comes and possess relati \e ly 10\\ educational le, 'els tend to manage \\Ith the 
pro, iSlon of children 's needs by relying also on the support of Kin, children's fathers, 
and friend s than respondents 'wi th relatively high II1comes and educational 
backgrounds It stands to reason that people \\ho are less pri\ileged in terms of their 
access to higher income and higher education \\ould relY also on others slI1ce the 
mai ntenance of children is an uphill task. It IS note \\ orth\ to mention ho\\e\er that 
Ill ost reS pOlllklllS, ~5 I percellt, -I~ X percell t WId X("X percellt respectl\ e" indicated 
recei,ing such assistance from children 's fathers, relations and friends mostly on an 
occasional basis, These respondents further reported that e:-.:cept the assistance 
recei\ ed i'roll1 relations, the assistance i'rom children's i'athers and i'nends \\ere 
insuiTiclent i'or their o\\n needs and that 01' their children Most children's fathers as 
alread, noted do not assist respondents in the mall1tenance of ch il dren, Their 
assistance being mostly occasional and insufficient in si tuations \\ here the\ assist as 
indicated by the \\omen suggests that Cathers of children in single female parent 
househo ld s do not take their responslbilit\ In the maintenance or their children 
se l'IOllS" TillS o!Jsl'r\ atloll IS SllllIiar to tile obser\ atloll III tile l lilted ')tates oJ' 
America that less than hall' or single Icmale parents recel\ e chile! suppol'l from thell" 
children's lathers (OrJlce or Child Support Enforcement. I <)XX) The IInpllcatlon of 
most children's lathers not fulfillll1g their responsibilities In the ll1allllenance or their 
0\\11 children IS that it spells dJfTicult challenges for \\omen 111 shouiderlllg chlid care 
and ll1amtenance all alone, The problem is compounded especJaIl~ \\ Ilh 10\\ income 
or no job at all for the mother, 
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The occasional assistance offered to most single female parents as regards the 
maintenance of children in the study by kin or extended relations seems to suggest 
that kll1 may not be playing an active role in supporting their \ulnerable members in 
an urban centre like Accra. This suggestion also echoes the assertions by Nukunya 
(1l)<)2a) and Ardayfio-Schandorf and Amissah (1l)l)6) that the extended famil\' that 
used to absorb and \en sufficiently guarantee the \\elfare of less fortunate members 
\\ ithin the famil\' such as single female parents has been \\ eakenll1g 111 Ghana as a 
result or rapid urbani/.ation along \\"Ith increased economic pressures These assertions 
ho\\ e\er may not be \\holl\' true as the study re\'ealed 111 the main that the majorIty of 
respondents (see figure 7) lived in relatives ' houses and thus absohed of the problems 
of accommodation and rent payment. The stud\' further re\ealed that the majori ty of 
respondents (see figure 8) were assisted \\ith child care and household chores by kin. 
In this connection, this study suggests that though single female parents may not ha\ e 
the regular support of kin regardmg the pro\ision of thei r children's needs. the\' are 
generally supported by km \\ith housing, child care and household chores e\en in an 
urban setting like Accra. 
The anah'sis sho\\ed that the l11aJorit\' o r res pondent s (see iigure ')) tend to 111<1"C 
major decisions In the household by themsehes in the absence or male partners This 
obsen ation IS similar to that of Arda~fio - Schandorrs (I (04) assertion that the 
absence or men In the household through migration. divorce. separation among others 
results 111 \\ omen taking major decisIOns in household situations. Most single female 
parents taking major deciSions could also be attributed to the fact that most (see tables 
5 and 0) in the main \\ere responSible for the up keep and mall1tenance or their 
children and the household, thus enablIng them to make major deCISions This \\ as 
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C\ Idenced in the Ill-dUenptihv ellr1steitny  loe\f\  G\\ hhaelnl1a11 h0sttt pre:/s/puognsdpenatcs ec.1uegar.le\ dinud.gichated that they 
made maJOr decisions b\' \ Irtue ortheir equalh major economic contributions to\\ards 
the up-keep or their children and the household This stud\ thus re\ eals that \\ hen 
\\omen make major economic contributions to the household, it enhances their 
opportunity to make and manage with major decisions, The implication ormost orthe 
\\ omen taking major decision IS good as \\omen are noted to be more commilled than 
men in ensuring the welfare or children \\ithin the family and therefore are most 
Ii kel \ to take decisions that \\ ill benefi t members or the household , 
The study disco\ered that the most challengll1g aspect of single remale parenthood 
related to the o\er load of responsibilities In the stud" 603 percent or respondents 
ll1dicated that the problcm thc\ raced as Single parents \\as tilat the\' \\ere burdened 
\\ ith many responsibilities Oyerload or responsibilities as a major challenge raCll1g 
the \\ omen III the stud \' is not surprising gl\en tilat most Inc!Jcated that they are 
emp 10\ ed 0 i' engaged ill an ecollomic acti \ it\ (see table 2), household chores such as 
tidying, \\ashing, shopping, cooking and child care (see table 12) in ad dition to taking 
maj or decisions (see figure 7), The si tualion 0 r the \\ omen IS further compounded b~ 
the fact that there \\ould hm'e been the likelihood of sharing these responsibilities 
\\ith their male partners \\ho are absent from the home through mantal disruptions, 
desertion and childbearing out-side marriage The negatl\ e consequence of thiS IS a 
probable strain on the phvsical and mental health of the \\ omen. \\ hlch can .ieopard l/,e 
their abJlil\' to proper" pro\ Ide care for their children and the household, 
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In SUIll , the main findlJ1gs of the stud\ are that si ngle icmalc parenthood mosth 
results l'rol11 tll\ orcc as ,I result or the In rld cllt\ or husbands, le;1\ Ill g \\O lllcn to 
shoulder the bulk or responsibility in the maintenance or their children and the 
household in addition to taking maJor decision in the household , The study further 
found out that single female parents \\ho earn relati lely higher incomes ,md possess 
relatl\ el~ hi gher educational le\els are mostly sell' reliant in shouldering their 
res ponslb ilitl cs in the household \\ hereas single female parents \\ ho earn relati\ ely 
10\\ incomes and possess relati lely 10\\ educatIOnal le\el s tend to adopt a strategy or 
shared pml1lent and also rely on k in, children's fathers ancl r l-i ends occas ional" It 
\\ as also found that the major chall enge racing the \\ o III en \\ as 0\ erloacl of 
I'CSpOllSI  b II i tiCS 
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMEDA TlONS 
6.1 INTRODUCTION 
follolling th e summary and discussion of results In the prelious chapter. the 
conclusion and recommendations are hereby presented It IS hoped that the 
sugges ti ons orle red Ilou id help III impro\ ll1g the COp lllg strategies or single It-lllale 
pmcnts and co nsequcnth IlllPI'O\C thc Cjualitl or Ii ['c 0 1' sin gle rClllaie parents and thcir 
households 111 the stud, area and the country at large (~- 
(>.2 CONCLllSION ~c~·,  
The results or the study hU\e sholln that dl\orce IS the main factor that accounts Co'r *-~ 
si ngle female parenthood due to the infidelity of men (husbands) Although most 
si ngle female parents earn 101\ Incomes thiS lea\es them to shou lder the bulk of 
responslbIiit\ in the maintenance or children and the household 111 addition to the 
I\omen making major decisions. 
Sing le female parents \\ho earn relatl\ 'eh higher ll1come and are relatl\el:- hlghh 
educated cope \\ Ilh chIldren and household maintenance b\ Ich Ing mosth on 
thCl11sc llL'S IIhcrc~\s thosc II ho carll I'clalilch IOller IllCOlllCS ~\lld ML' Iclalilel) lOll 
educated co pe b\ reiling add itI onall , on re lati ons, fnends among others as II ell as 
adoptlllg ,\ str,ltcgl or sharcd pal lllcnt 
The Cathers or children or single female pments mosth do not assist the \1 omen In the 
mall1tenance of children and IIhere thel do It IS InsuJTlclent [or the needs of the 
II omen and their chIldren On the other hand kin support the II omen \\ Ith hOUSing, 
1-.+1 
household chores. foUodn iavnedr sclitoyth oinf gG ahmaonnag  hotthtper:s/ /uIlghsi cpha lcI eas. ucgon.esdidue.rgedh as suffi cient 
bY the Il omen. 
The major challenge that the Il omen face as si ngle female parents is the olerload of 
respOI1SI llilit ies 
Finall y. In l ie ll of most of the I\o men bearing the bulk of respons ib ili ty in the 
maintenance of chIldren and the ho usehold in ad dit ion to making major decisions in 
the household. it is the position of this study that si ngle female parents are to a large 
e:\tent heads of households 
6.3 RECOMMEN DATIONS 
Based on the findi ngs and conclusions mad e during the course of the stueh it is 
recolllmcnded that 
a) The Ins ti tution or marriage shou ld be proillo ted and protccted because it is 
basIc to any sat isfacto ry care and maintenance of children. Thlls there is the 
need for parli ament to enact Im\ s. I\ hich are necessan to ensure that the 
protectI on and ad\ ancement or the rami" as the UnIt or soclet\ are safe 
guarded in the promotion of the interest of \\omen and children 
b) Since stab le marriage seems 10 be built around the faI thfulness or co mmitment 
o r men. moral instruction shoul d be \ igoro llsh pursued at home. and at all 
Ie\ els 01' our rel ig ioll s ancl educatio nal s\ stem to discourage the pmllllsclllt~ or 
men . 
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c) In  order to empower women to ful fill their responsi bi lities to\~ards themsehes 
and their households_ the go\ernment should adopt macro-economic policies 
to impro\e the employment and income opportunities for \\omen. 
d) Non-go\ernmental organizations (both local and e:\ternal) should be 
encouraged to adopt integrated income generating programmes as an 
instrument to enable \ulnerable \\omen to shoulder their responsibilities 
to\\ ards themsel \es and their children. 
e) Education for girls up to at least the secondary le\el should be made 
compu Isory 111 the country as an ul timate means of empo\\ ering \\ omen. 
f) Most fathers of children of single female parents do not shoulder their 
responsibility in the maintenance children \\hich increases the burden of 
women especially with regards to the maintenance of children. Thus 
Parliament sho uld enact laws to ensure that the biological fathers of children 
of single female parents pay periodic (\\eek"· or monthh) child support to 
sll1gle fem:lle pareJlts to reduce theil' burden When passed, steps should be 
taken to equal" ensure IlS lranslallon Inlo practice, 
g) An orten-made assumplIon IS the reduced role or- the e:\tended Kin in 
supporting their members m the urban setting Ho\\ e\er the out-come or this 
stlld~ mdicates that majorIty of \\OIllen \\ho are single parents are supported 
\\ Ith housing and household actiYlties but not maml\' in the pro\lSlon of 
chi Idren' s needs . This rem[orces the need for an additIOnal research on the 
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phenomenon under study. as data obtained does not lead to the dra\\lng of 
enough conclusive observations. Such a research should have enouoh 
b 
representation from the familles of such \\omen. This \\ ill help to make \alid 
\dlate\ ·er claims the \\omen make. 
h) NGOs and research institutions should be encouraged to investigate issues 
. relating to single female parenthood and problems of child maintenance. This 
is particularly important since NGOs have become a potent force in extending 
programmes to women through out the country. In vie\\ of this. they are in a 
\ery good position to lead efforts geared towards undertaking research dealing 
\\ith the various means single female parents use to care for themseh·es and 
their children. Specific areas of enquiry should include research dealing "ith 
determining appropriate intervention strategies. operations research to 
determine what \\orks and ho\\ to bring about empo\\ ering \\hat \lorks and 
how to bring about empowering single female parents. The findings from such 
operations research could then be used to strengthen programmes and point to 
potential models for replication by identifying successful programmes 
elements. There should be fora like seminars and \\orkshops to promote and 
draw up meaningful and practical programmes for lulnerable single female 
parents based on current research findings on single female parents . 
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APPENDIX A 
QUESTIONNAIRE 
Dca.' .·cspondcnt, 
This ."esea.·ch is for purely academic purpose and any information would only be 
used as such. Strict confidentiality of SOUl"ces would be adhered to. The objective 
of the study is to look at the issue of single female pal·enthood. Please answer the 
following questions privately and truthfully. Thank you 
DEMOGRAPIIIC CHARACTERISTICS 
(0 I ) Age. 
(02) Hi ghes t ed ucati onal lerel attained (0 I) Primary (02) Midcl lc/JSS 
(03) CommerciallY ocm lonal/Technical 
(04) Secondary school ISSS 
(05) Post Sec/Nurslllg/Poly Tech 
(OG) University (07) Koranic 
(08) None 
(09) Other specify 
(03) Reli gious denomination (0 I) catholic (02) Pentecostal 
(03) Protestant (04) Trad I tlonal 
(05) Other spec! fy 
(97) NA 
(04) EthniC Group (01) Asante (02) Akuapem 
(03) r-nntc (0",)) Other /\kaJ1 
(OS) GaiAdangbe (OG) E\\e 
(07) Guan (OR) IVlolc Dagballl 
(09) GniSSl/Frafra (10) Gnlma 
( 1 1) Hausa (12) Other speci 1\ 
IG2 
(OS) Number of yearUs nbievienrgs ait ysi nogf leG phaarennat  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(OG) Number of children. 
(07) (a) Are YOU li\ ing \\ith all )'our children') (0 I) Yes (02) No 
(07) (b) ri'no. ho\\ many of your children do not he \\ith you') 
(07) (c) \\hom do they Il\e \\ith') (01) Their father (02) In -Ia\\s 
(03) Family members (04) Friends 
(OS) Alone (06) Others speci fy 
(08) (a) Do you have any other dependants apart from your children') 
(0 I) Yes (02) No 
(OX) (b) ii',es. \\ho are the) ,) 
................ . .......... ... .. . ................. . ..... 
REASON FOR SINGLE PARENTHOOD 
(Ol) (a) Why arc 'Oll a slIlglc parcnt' ) 
(0 I) Death of spouse/ wido\\hood (02) D1 \orce 
(03) Separation (04) Ne\er marned 
(OS) Other specify 
(Ol) (b) Lplain your ans\\er') . . .... ... .. . 
ECONOMIC ACTIVITY 
(10) (a) Are \OU currently \\orking'l (01) Yes (02) No 
(10) (b) If Yes, whaUt nsievcetorrs iotfye mopfl Go~h'maennja' lh ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(0 I) Formal (Public/Pri\ate) (02) Informal (<)7) NA 
(I I) If you \\ork in the formal (Public/Pri\'ate) sector. \\ 'hat is your main occupation') 
(0 I) Labourer (02) Clerk/Secretary 
(03) Administrator/manager 
(04) Professional I. Teacher 2, Lecturer 3. Medical Officer 
4 Engineer .. etc 
(OS) Other specjj~ 
(97) NA 
(12) (a) I f ~'ou \\ork in the informal sector \\'hat is your main occupation') 
(0 I) Petty tradlllg (02) Business/shop 
(03) Se\\ingll-Iairdressing (04) Other. specik 
(97) NA 
(12) (b) Do YOU do this \vork for your self or does it belong to someone else') 
(0 1) Yes, selfemployed (02) No, employed (n) NA 
( 13) (a) Do you have a subsidiary occupation') (0 I) Yes (02) No (97) NA 
(13) (b) If Yes, specify 
' ..... ' .. .. ,,' ... . " ...... ' . . ........ ' .... , .. " 
(13) (c) Do YOLI do this \\ork [or yourself or does it belong to someone else') 
(0 I ) Yes, sel f emplO\'ed (02) No, employed (<)7) N A 
SELF ECONOMIC RELIANCE 
(14) If' employed, \\hat IS the le\c1 oJ',our main (occupatIOn) 1l10nthh II1come') 
(I) I - 200,OO() (2) 20 I ,000 ·IOO,()OO 
(3) 40,000 - ClOO,OOO (4) 60 I - 800,000 
(5) SOl - 1000,000 (0) LOOO,OOO and beyond 
(7) NA 
164 
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( I ()) (a) Is lOur occupational income, your major source of income') (0 I) Yes (02) No 
( I ()) (b) If \'es, does it support you') 
(0 I) Very sufficiently (02) Sullielentl, 
(03) Not sufficiently (0,,)) None, 
(OS) Other. specd\ 
(10) (c) If No is the answer to question (16) (a) , what is your major source of income') 
(01) Child / children's father (02) In -Im\s 
(03) Family (OLl) Friends 
(OS) Other. speci(\ ' 
SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORK 
A. Economic suppOli 
(17) (a) Does lOur child / children 's father support you') 
(0 I) Yes (02) No (97) NA 
(17) (ll) Ii'\l's. \\il:ll kind ofSlIPP0rl') 
(0 I) Monetary/Financial (02) PrO\'ision of food 
(03) Pro\ision oJ'Clothing (0,,)) Other. speci/\ 
(97) NA 
(17) (e) 110\\ orten do 'ou gel !hlslthese support') 
(0 I ) Very of1en (02) Often 
(03) Occasionally (0,,)) No! at all 
(97) NA 
(17) Cd) Is this support for you and your child/children. 
(0 I) Very suffiCient (02) SuCficlenl 
(03) Not sufTicient (O ..n  0Ione. 
(0)) Others speclf, 
University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(17) (e) Il'no is the ans\\er to question (17) (a) what is the reason') 
. .. . . , '" . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. '" ... . . ... 
18) (a) Do es your family support yo u? (01) Yes (02) No 
(18) (b) If yes, what kind of support? 
(01) Monetary/Financial (02) Provision of food 
(03) Provision of clothing (04) other specif) " ...... . .. . . 
(97) NA 
(I K) (c) Ho\\ often do you get this/these support') 
(01) Very often (02) 0 flen 
(03) Occasionally (04) No t at all 
(18) (d) Is this support for you and your child/children') 
(0 I) Very sufficient (02) Suf'ficlent 
(03) Not sufficient (04) None. 
(OS) Others specify ...... ... .. '" .. . 
(19) (a) Do friends support you financially') (01) Yes (02) No 
(1<) (b) If,es. \\hat kind ofsuppon') 
(01) Monetary/F mancial (02) PrO\iSlOn of food 
(03) Clothing (04) Others specif) 
(<)7) NA 
( It) (c) Ho\\ oJ1en do )·ou get this/these support" 
(01) Ver) orten (02) Orten 
(03) Occasionalh (04) No! at all 
(97) NA 
166 
(19) Cd) Is this suUppnoivrte frosr ityyo uo fa nGd hyaonuar  chtiltdp/:c//huilgdsrepna ce.ug.edu.gh
(0 I) Very sufficient (02) Surficient 
(03) Not sufficient (04) None, 
(OS) Others specify. 
B, Emotional SUppOI't 
(20) (a) Who do you normally consult for ad\ice \\hen \·O ll are faced \\ ith problems) 
. " ... .... . .. .. ... . ........... . 
... , .... , - ...... -.- . ", . . , ..... . 
(2 0) (b) Explain your answe( ) 
. . " ..... . .. . . . . .,. . . .,...... . ... . ..... . . " . .. .. . . . . " . .. . . ... . . 
(21) On \\ hat problemsliss lles do yo u normally seek ad\ ice') . 
. , . .. ... ... ... . . . . .. .... .... .. . 
' .......... . .. . ", ........... . .... ", ", ." .. 
CARE OF CHILD/CHILDREN 
(22) \Nho be:lrs the cost ofpro\iding daily meals for chi ldren) 
(01) Self (02) Chi ld I childrefl's father 
(03) In - la\\s (04) Family 
(OS) Other specif\, . 
(23) Who bears the cost ofp ro\idmg clothes for children') 
(0 I) Self (02) Child /children s father 
(03) In-I m\s (04) Family 
(OS) Other specify.. . .. .. , , 
(24) Who be:1rs child I children's school fees') 
(0 I) Child / children's father (02) Self 
(03) In - la\\s (04) Famil) 
(05) Other speCify 
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(25) Who pro \id es child / children 's educational materi als if different from the 
ans\\er gi len above'} 
. . . . . .. ....... .......... • .. . . . ... ........ . 
. " ... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . '" . . . . . . .. . . .. ... . . . .. . . . . 
(2 () ) Who no rmall \' pm s children's hos pital bills') 
(27) Who takes care of your chil d / chil dren \vhen \'ou are no t at home or out for 
\\ ork') 
(0 I) House help (02) Relati\es 
(03) Older children (04) Nobod\ 
(OS ) Others sp ecify .. "'" ... ,. 
(28) (a) Do yo u personally punish / di scipline yo ur chi ldren when they do \\Tong? 
(O I)Yes (02)No 
(29) (b) Ifno, \\ho punishes! discip lines them') 
PA YMENT OF HOUSEHOLD BILLS 
(30) Where do YOU reside'l (0 I) 0\\11 house (02) Rented house 
(03) Parents ! relati \ es house (04) In - laI\s house 
(OS) Child ! children's father's house 
(O()) Other specify 
(3 I) Wh ich type of apartment do you li\'e in? 
(0 I) Single room (02) Chamber and hall 
(03) Self contall1 (04) Other speci fy . 
(32) (a) Do IOU pay rent" (01) Yes (02) No (97) NA 
(32) (b) Iryes, \\ho pal's the rent" . .......... , 
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(33) Who normally pays the household' s electricity bill s') ..................... .. " . 
(34) Who normally pays the household's water bills') 
IIOUSEHOLD CHORES/WORK 
(35) Please indicate how often yo u do the following household tasks'! 
Often Occasionaliy . P,'eviously Not 
: but lIot at 
. ..  . . . . . .. ............ •.. : now All 
01 TidYIng up 
02 Laundn 
03 Marketing 
04 BathIl1g chi Id ren 
OS Dressing 
children 
O() Cooking 
(J(,) (a) Do YOU get support \o\lth Household tasks') (01) Yes (02) No 
(3Ci) (b) IrYes. Who supports you') (01) House help (02) Relati \es 
(03) Older children (04) In-Ia\\ s 
(05) Other. specif) 
DECISION MAKING 
(37) (a) Do IOU make major decisions in the household') (01) Yes (02) No 
(37) (b) I{'No, Who makes major decisions') (01) Family (02) Child's Falher 
(03) In-la\\'s (04) Friends 
(OS) Olher. specIl\. 
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CHALLENGES OF SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD 
(3X) What \\ould you say is your major problem as a single femaleparenP . 
'" . . . ' " " .. . . . . . . . .. .. " .... . ... .. ... , ... .. . . . 
(3lJ) (a) Would you like to marry again') (01) Yes (02) No 
(3 9) (b) Explain your answer? 
, . .. ... '" .... , .... . . . " , , . , . . ' , ....... . . , .. 
THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 
170 
APPENDIX B University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
IN- DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR 
TI-JF: COPING STRATEGIES OF SINGLE PARENTS: A STUDY OF 
FEMALE HOUSEHOLD HEADSHIP IN ACCRA. 
DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS 
( I ) Age 0 f Respondent? 
(2) Educational Level? 
(3) Religious Group') 
(4) Ethnic Group') 
(5) Number of Children') 
REASONS FOR SINGLE PARENTHOOD 
((,) Number of years of single parenthood') 
(7) What are the circumstances which have led to your status as a single paren!') 
on In' \\hat \\ a\s has being a single parent been differen!. compared to \\hen yo u were 
not a single paren!') 
SUPPORT NETWORK 
A. Economic support 
(9) Ho\\ do you support yourself economically') 
( lOa) Does your child/children's father economically support you',) 
(lOb) \\hal kind of'economic support do you recei\e ('rom ~ 'o ur child/children's 
('alher' ) 
(II) I(' ,ou r child/children's does not support you, \\hy') 
171 
( 12a) \\ho else supUponritvs eyrosui teyc onf oGmhicaanllay' )h ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
(12b) \\hat kind of economic support do you receive from those who support you') 
(12c) Is this suppo11 sufficient for your needs') 
B. Emotional Support 
(13) Whom do you seek advice from? 
( 14) On \\ hat issues do you seek advice? 
(I Sa) what are some of the good advice you have received') 
(I Sb) In \\hat ways hme such an ad\ice been of benefit to you') 
(I (,) Whom do you seek friendship from' ) 
( 17) In \\ hat \\ays have such a friendship benefited you') 
C. Child fostering as SUPPOl"t 
(18) Ho\\' many of your children do not live with you? 
(19) Whom do your child/children li ve with') 
(20) Wh\ do your child /children live \\ith other people') 
(21) In \\hat \\a\'s hale your child/children Ii ling with others been or benet'lt to you') 
0, Household Chores/Tasks 
(22) What household tasks do you perform') 
(23) 1-10\\ do YOU combine \\ork and performing household tasks') 
(24) Are the household tasks you perform nOlI different from \\"hen you \\ ere not a 
single parent') 
(25) Who else assists you \\ith household tasks ') 
(2(,) Ho\\ did YOU secure this assistance with household tasks') 
172 
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(27) [n \\ hal \\ays has this assistance been o[benefit to IOU') 
DECISION MAKING 
(2g) Do you make major decisions in the household') 
(2l)) Until you became a single parent did you make major decisions in the 
hOllsehold') 
(30) Why do you make major decisions') 
(3 I) What are some of the issues on \\hl ch you make major decisions') 
(32) [I' YOll do not make major decisions. \\ho makes them in the household') 
(33) Why do others make major deCISi ons In the household') 
(34) On what issues do others make mal or decisions') 
(35) In \\ hat \\alS do others making m~lJo r dccisio llS affect lour \\clfare ') 
CHALLENGES OF SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD 
(3()) What are lOur malor challenges as a sll1gle female paren(' ) 
(37) In \\hat \\ays do you o\'ercome some of these challenge~ ') 
(38a) Would IOU like to marry') 
(3~b) Will \\ould you like to marry' ) 
(39) If you \\ ould not like to marry. why' ) 
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