University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE COPING STRATEGIES OF SINGLE PARENTS: A STUDY_OF FEMALE HOUSEHOLD HEADSIDP , IN ACCRA BY ALBERT KPOOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE A WARD OF M. PHIL SOCIOLOGY DEGREE. JUNE,2003 UniversityD oEfC GLhAaRnAaT hItOtpN:/ /ugspace.ug.edu.gh I declare that this dissertation is the result of my own research work carried out in the Sociology Department under the supervision of Professor Clara Fayorsey and Dr Dan -Bright Dzorgbo. References made in this research work have however been fully acknowledged . .•.~ ~H. PROF. CLARA FAYORSEY DR. DAN-BRIGHT DZORGBO (FIRST SUPERVISOR) (SECOND SUPERVISOR) Date ...~...... .-..(...-... ..;.L..o...o...u. .. LP , Date ....C...}./ J .%. : ..7...-...-....<.0..~ 1 ... . .. .. ~ . ................ . ALBERT KPOOR (STUDENT) Dat~ . . ..! k. ..~ ./~~. ....... .. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my mother Florence Dansoah, my auntie, Eva Ahenkorah and to my sister and brothers "vith \-vhose love and care I have been able to come this far II " University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS TITLE PAGE DECLARA TION DEDICATION ......... ... ... ...... .. .... . 11 LIST OF TABLES ... ........... . . . ........ Vll LIST OF FIGURES .. ... . ..... . ... ... ... . . . VllI ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS IX ABSTRACT .. CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 1.1 Introduction ... ...... ... .... . 1.2 Statement of Problem. 5 1.3 Rational of the Study .. 6 1.4 Objectives ....... . .. . 7 1.5 Definition of Concepts .. 7 1.6 Research Method .. 9 1.6.1 Research Instruments ... 9 1.62 Data Collection Procedures .. 10 1.6.2.1 The Suryey ..... 10 1.6.2.2 The In-depth Inter\'iew .. 10 l .(i) Study Area and Sampling .. I I l.oA Target Population 14 1.6.5 Data Processing and Analysis .............. .. ..................... . 14 III 1.6.6 ProbleUmns ivEenrcsoiutyn toerfe Gd hina tnhae Fhitetpld:./ /ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 1. 6 7 Limitations of the Study. 16 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW .. ... '" ..... 17 2. 1 Introduction ..... .... . ... ... . 17 2.2 Trends in Other Parts or the World ... 17 2.3 Factors That Account For Single Female Parenthood and Female Headship ... 19 2.4 Problems .......... . 28 2.5 Coping Mechanisms and Strategies 33 2.6 Conceptual Framework .. . ..... ... .... . 46 CHAPTER THREE: STUDY AREA.. 50 3.1 Introduction ... 50 3.2 Accra 50 3.2. 1 Geographical Location . 50 3.2.2 Population ........ .... . 51 3.2.3 Historical Background ... 51 3.2.4 Development of the Area 51 3.2.5 Political Organisation! Administration 53 3.2.6 Religious Activities ............. . 54 3.2.7 Economic Acti,ities . 54 3.2.8 Social Infrastructure 55 3.3 Selected Suney Areas ... 58 3.3 .1 Maamobi .. 58 IV 3.3. j. j GeoUgrnaipvheircsailt yL ocf aGtihona na http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 3.3 1.2 Population 58 33.1.3 Brief History 58 3.3.14 Religious Activities 59 3.3.1.5 Economic Activities ... 59 3.3.1.6 Social Infrastructure ....... .. .. 60 3.3.2 Ne\.\ Dansoman 62 3.3.2.1 Geographical Location .. 62 3.3.2.2 PopUlation 62 3323 Brief'I--liston 62 3.3.2.4 Religious Activities 62 3.3.2.5 Economic Activities . . ... .. . . . . . 63 33.26 Social Infrastructure 63 3.3.3 Roman Ridge 64 3.3.3.1 Geographical Location 64 3.3.3.2 PopUlation 65 3.3.3.3 BnefHistor\' 65 3.3.3.4 Religious Acti\ities .. ...... . . 65 3.3.3.5 Economic Acti\itIes 66 3336 Social Infrastructure 66 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS .. 68 4.1 Introduction 68 4.2 Socio-Demographic Characteristics .. 68 4.3 Socio-economic Factors that account for Single Female Parenthood 81 4.4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghSocial Support ... ..... . ... ...... . .. .. ... .. . .. . ... . , . . . ...... ... .... ..... ... ... .. . 88 4.5 Decision Making... .. . ... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... .. . ... ... ... ... ... .. . ......... .... 121 4.6 Challenges ... ... '" .. . .. . ... ... ... .. .. ... . ... , .. ....... . ........ . ... .... , . ...... '" 126 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS.. ...... 131 5.1 Introduction ...... .. ..... ... .. .. ............. .... ............... .... .... ..... .. ...... .......... .. ...... . 131 5.2 Summary and Discussion of Findings 131 CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOIVIIVIENDA TlONS .. 141 6.1 Introduction ... 141 Conclusion 141 6.3 Recommendations . 142 BIBLIOGRAPHY . 145 APPENDIX A .... .. ........... .. .. ............... .. 162 APPENDIX B .................... .. . 171 University of GhLaInSaT h OttFp :T//uAgBsLpEaSc e.ug.edu.gh PAGE Table I Age Group of Respondents . 69 Table 2 Occupation of Respondents 70 Table 3 Number of Children or Respondents .. 79 Table 4 Responses on Factors res ponsible for Single Parenthood and Reasons gl\en by IZes pond ents RI Table 5 Responses on Who Pro\ id es Children' s Needs. 93 Table (i Responses on Who Pms Iioli selloid Rent all ci li tilities Table 7 Occupational Income or Respolldents and Respo nses on Who Provides Child ren's Educational Needs .. 99 Table 8 Occupational Income or Respondents and Responses on Who Provides Children's Health Needs ..... ..... ....... . 100 Table 9 Occupational Income of Respondents and Respons es on Who Pays Rent. . 101 Table 10 Occupational Income or Respondents and Respo nses on Who PaYs Electr icil\ ' Bill s .. 102 Table II Occupational Income or IZespondents and Responses on Who Pays Water Bill s 103 Table 12 Educational Le\el or Respondents and Responses on Who Pro\ides Children 's Educational Needs 105 Table \3 Educational Le\ el of Respondents and Responses on Who Pro\ides Children's Healt h Needs . \1I Table 14 UEndiuvceartsioitnya lo Lf eGvhela onfa R hetstppo:/n/duegnstsp aancde .Ruegs.peodnuse.gs hon Who Pays Rent ... . 108 Table 15 Educational Level OJ Respondents and Responses on Who Pays Electricity Bills .. 109 Tnble 1(, Educnti onal Le\el oj Respondents and Responses on Who Pays Water 8ill s .. lOt) Table 17 Household Activities or respondents .......... ... .. ... . 118 LIST OF FIGURES Figure I Monthly Income OJ Respondents 72 Figure 2 Educational Le\el of Respondents 7<-1 Figure 3 Religious Affili ation or Respondents 76 Figure <-I Ethnicity OJ Respondenls f7igure 5 Respondents' Major Source or Income .............. . Figure (, Responses on Whom some Chi Idren or Respondents are Li\ing "ith. . 113 Figure 7 Residence of Respond cnb .. 116 Figure 8 Responses on Who Assists Respo ndents in Household Acti\ities ...... ............. .. 120 Figure 9 Responses on Whether Respondents Make I\/ajor Decisions .. 122 \111 University oAf CGKhaNnOaW hLttEp:D//GugEsMpaEcNeT.uSg .edu.gh I am very to thankful and gTateful to the Almighty God for the strength and ability He gave me to work on this thesis . My sincere gratitude also goes to Prof Clara Fayo rsey. my main supenisor whose priceless knowledge, tireless corrections, guidance and long suffering has led to the completion of this work. My heart felt gratitude goes to Dr. Dan-Bright Dzorgbo who is my second supervisor for his invaluable knowledge and priceless suggestions through out this work. I cannot also forget my auntie. Miss Eva Ahenkorah and my mother. Florence Dansoah through whose financial sacrifice this MPHIL programme has been made possible. I e"press my gratefulness to them I \\ish to e"press my gratitude to my Uncle. K\\abena Olori. Pas tor Effah Kojo and E\elyn Anim for their encouragement and prayer support through out this work. Finally. I am grateful to the respondents tor their cooperation during the data collection. I say God bless them To God be the Glory. I" University of GhaAnaB ShTttpR:A//CugTs pace.ug.edu.gh This study investigates the coping strategies of single female parents in Accra. Single female parents within Maamobi, New Dansoman and Roman Ridge areas in Accra were interviewed through in-depth interviews and a survey. Specifically, the study sought to find out the socio-economic factors that account for single female parenthood. how single lelllaie parents econoillically support their households. examine social support mechanisms for single female parents and whether they make mqjor decisions in their households. The major findings are that divorce is principally responsible for single female parenthood due to mainly the infidelity of husbands In the absence of men (husbands), single female parents through earning incomes which are although low, bear the bulk of responsibility In the maintenance of children and the household in addition to making major decisions. The fathers of the children of single female parents mostly do not assist the women in the maintenance of children. In situations \\here children's fathers assist the \\omen. the\ mostly do so occasionally. Kin of single female parents on the other hand mostly assis t the women \\ith housing and household chores. The study thus concludes that single female parents are to a large extent heads of households Finally, the study offers recommendations such as improving the educational and income generating potential of women through sound macro economic policies and programmes by the government and NGOs respecti\ely and the enactment of relevant Im\s by parlianlent to ensure that single female parents recei \e child support from their children's fathers among others . x University of GChaHnAaP hTtEtpR:/ /OugNsEp ace.ug.edu.gh INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY 1.1 INTRODUCTION The family \\"orld\\ide is recognized as the basic social unit. It fonns the baseline of all economic, social. religious and polItical organization \\ ithin any community With increasing social change brought about b\ moderni/ation and commerciali/ation .. structural and functional modifications hme taken place \\ ithin the Ghanaian famil~ . Notable among these changes IS th e cmergence or a Ile\\ form of single parent > families: single male parent families and single female parent families These families Illa\ bc i'orJllcd through desertioll. sepal·~ltIOll. dl\orcc. trallskrimlgratlon. and death or a spouse or b~ ' haying children \\ hile sJJ1g le . 01' conccrn to tillS study IS the emergence of sing le female parent households . In Ghana. t\\ice as many female parents are smgle as compared to their male counterparts According to the Ghana Demographic and Health Sune\ of 1998 (GS'S and MI. 1(99). 12 percent or \\omen are \\Ido\\ed. di\orccd or not li\ing together \\ ith their partners as compared to 6 percent or men This gender imbalance mal ' be attributed to the responsibility Cor till' carc of children. \\h lch I ~ increaSingly becommg that or the \\oman (Bled.:. 1<)7.':;) It IS lJl1por(,mt to distingUish the Call1J l\ from a domestic group. \\hlch reCers to persons occupying a particular d\\elling A domestic group may be a Camih but not all domestic groups are families Similarly a househoUldn ivmearys itybe o fa G fhaamnila\ htbtupt ://nuogt spalal ceho.uugse.ehodlud.sg hare families. Anthropologists usually refer to the term household as the basic unit of society il1\ 01\ ed in production. reproduction. consu mption and socialization (Fayo rsey. 1995) According to th e United Nation s. a household should he considered 011 the bas Is of arrangements made b\ persons. indi\ ldualh or in groups fo r providing themselves "ith food (md other essentials for hung In Ime \\ith the United Nation's criteria. the Ghana Population Cens us of 1984 considered a household as consisting or a person or a group or persons. \\ho li\·e together in the same house or compound. share the same house keeping arrangements and are catered for as one unit (GO\ ernment of Ghana. 1981. 19) Thus in local parlance. Ghanaians refer to the household as people \\ 110 ""eat from the same pot" (Nukuma. IlJ92a 47) Members of the household are therefore not necessarily related through blood or marriage and inclutiL' persolls like friends. dOllleSliC assistants and lodgers There may ho\\ eyer be relations or other kin like brothers. nephe\\s. uncles. and aunties among others. The Ghanaian kinship sys tem. \\hich plays a critical role 111 the orgal1lzation of the famil). in marriage. the household and 111 thE' society at large. has been found to be of great significance in household headship [ormation (Arda\ Ilo-Schandorf. 1994) In traditional Ghanaian Society the head or the household is used generall) to refer to the old est male in the household In certain cases the household head ma\ not be co- University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh resident, but residing elsewhere. He is however consulted in all major decisions by either the nuclear or extended family. The one who is generally responsible for the up keep and maintenance of the household on a day to day basis and who has the power to make major decisions within the household is considered as the head. With the absence of a partner, single female parents usually have the sole responsibility for ensuring the economic wellbeing of their household in addition to making major decisions thus assuming headship status. It is important for a distinction to be made between single female parenthood and female household headship. Single female parents who have no means of looking after themselves and their children are not necessarily heads of their households. This is especially the case of young unemployed adolescent mothers. They and their children usually live in, and are cared for in the household of their parents or the extended kin (GSS, 2000). Women as heads of their households is of serious concern. This is because with the I' responsibility for e{suring the well being of the household, women relative to men are " disadvantaged in accessing society's economic resources and opportunities. Also women as household heads affect both the utilization and disbursement of resources within the household and network of the exchange of resources within households (Lloyd and Gage-Brandon, 1993; Haddad, 1990; Bruce, 1989). It has been revealed that in every country at least 70 -percent of households that are made up of only one adult with children are female headed (Kishor and Neitzel~ 3 19%) In Ghana femaUlen hiveeadrsedit yh ouf sGehoaldnsa ahctctopu:n//tu gfosr paa hcieg.huegr .perdoup.ogrhtion of urban than rural households. The Ghana Demographic and Health Survey of 1998 (GSS and WI!. 19S1Sl) has indicated the 37 percent or households are female headed , \\ith a slIghtly larger proportion of females heacill1g households (3 Sl percent) in Urban than in rural households (35 percent) Ki shor and Neitzel (1996) hme re\ealed that among t\\ ent\ Sub-Saharan African Cou ntri es. Ghana ranged highest In fe male headed ho useholds (3 7 percent). Circumstances that lead to female headsh ip have become more common: as a result fe male headship is now relativel y pre\ alent in many countries. Studies have sho\Yn that desertion, separation, divorce. mdowhood, Pol)'gyn)l. migration of men and sll1gle female parent hood are some of the ci rcumstances that lead to female headship (Fm orse\. 19l)5 . Abu . 19R3) When the earli er dell nItion of household hcadship . as the person \\ho is generally respo nsi bl e for the upkeep and mall1t enance or the ho usehold on a dm'-to -da\ bas is ~ lI1d Il ho has thc pOll cr to 111<1 "C Ill
  • ~ertcd th'lt the 1110st marked changes in famlh and household patterns are seen in the number of children born to unmarried mothers without any officially recognized Cathers The result according to Comarrof and Roberts (1977) is the significant lIumber or households headed b\ \\omen. Thus single mother heads especially teenage child beanng became a senous prob lem In Latin America In the I 08()"s as \\ ell as most de\e loping nations including Ghana (8u\llllic. 1(90) In Latin '\menca and the Caribbean. female hL'adshlp :lS ,lirea(h 111entloned IS hi gh e reports or the 'lllCl:ll WclC:nc Department suggest th:lt \\Olllen especlall\ III the Illiddle and upper 'lClot'conOIllIC classes hardh attend their 1~'1mlh' tribunals as the\ reel thel can cope \\ Itl, c.\tra responsibIllt}. Ardm fio-Schandorf (1994) has noted that though some \\omen in Ghana seek Institutional support, most do not because of customan practice. According to ...(3 Ardayfio-SchandoUrfn i(v1e9r9s4it)y, onfo Grmhaallnya whhttepn: //tuhegrsep aisc ea .ufagm.eildyu .cgohnnic!. customary prescriptions are applied in relation to marital rol e performance and responsibilities rather than to pro\'isions und er the 13\\, though the \\o men co ncerned m3\ knoll \\ hat to do, Ardmfio-Schandorf (1 994) thus concludes that \\ here ins titut ional su pport to ICll1aic hcadcd houschold s c"i sts, th L'\ lend 10 he spo l ~Kll c In a rare study of health~ single parent famili es, Hanson (I ()X(i) reported that parental and child health out comes \\ ere related to good communicat ion and social suppo rt , Hanson (ll)8o) noted that single parent famil ies \\ith larger networks of social support had better physical and mental health, Good communication withll1 the single parent family lIas al so related to pos iti le mental and physical out-comes, Ri chmond Ab bo t (I () X-l) has I nli l11~ ll Cd lh al III Sp itC or thc ll1an~ problems lhat seemed to co nfront many singlc rc l11~dc pill'cnts sO lll e or thcm l'c po l'teci that. the\' dcm cd "consldcrablc satl srac tl on frOIll thcir slI cccss rul ncgo tl atlon or the progress ion or pro bl ems th at conli'onted them as th ey \\ ent about the busrness of earni ng a living, carrng lo r their children, and atlemp tlllg to mect thclr nceds 1'01 I nlI mac~ and ad ult Interaction Ri chmond - Ab bot (I ()X4) further ohscnc cl that mam men ti oned increased autonomy and independence, There lIas also a ree ling of lI1d ividuai achie \ ement and self-ful Ci llment on the part Orl11a11\ dl\ orced \\o men Fo lbre ( 1990) has al so obsen ed th at. though I'emale heads or household s 111m face cert ain I'in anclal dI ITicul tlL' S, thc\ CIl IO\ Illll rc dL'C ISIOIl Illak lllg p()\\cr thall thosc \\ 11 0 II \ e \\ It h ad ult 111 ales, CONCLUSION University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The review of the literature has revealed that factors that account for single female parenthood and female headship in Ghana are principally divorce, polygyny, duo- - locality and migration of men. It also revealed that many single female parents faced a lot of financial constraints due to their lack of access to vital resources such as education, credit and land. It was also found out that governmental transfers to single female parents and female heads of households do not exist. On the other hand where institutional support to single female parents did exist it tended to be sporadic. Thus single female parents are forced to rely on various mechanisms such as reliance on earning an income and the extended kin among others to cope. The extent to which these and other mechanisms are adopted by single female parents to enable them effectively cope in an urban setting is thus the focus of this study. ",. .,.L 45 2.6 CONCEPTUUAnLiv FerRsAityM oEfW GOhaRnKa http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh THE STATUS OF WOMEN According to F ayorsey (1994) the concept the "Status of Women" presents a series of problems. This is because of the variations in definitions assigned to it by various writers on the concept. There is no agreement on what the concept connotes and the appropriate term for describing it. The explanation for this is that, the status of women denotes different meanings, which are often culturally determined and sometimes even biologically determined. Thus depending on which ideological stand one holds one could conceive of the status of women in various ways. Fayorsey (1994) further explains that different authors use the concept to refer to different concepts. Dyson and Moore, (1983) used "FEMALE AUTONOMY", Cain et al (1979) referred to the concept as "PATRIARCHY", and Safilios Rothschild (1980) described it as "RIGIDITY OF THE SEX STRATIFICATION SYSTEM", while Caldwell (1981) sees it as "MEN'S SITUATIONAL ADVANTAGE OVER WOMEN" (Fayorsey, 1994). , Fayorsey (1994) emphasizes that though there are variations in the use ofthe concept, '((I each definition depicts an aspect of gender inequality, which favours men. This kind of social arrangement places women under men. Epstein (1982) further explains the status of women by their lack of prestige, while Dyson and Moore (1983) and Cain et al (1979) see it in terms of lack of access to power. Cain et al (1979) conclude that women's status is due to lack of their control of material and non-material resources. From the foregoing, it is obvious that a wide range of factors account for women' s status. Safilios-Rothschild (1980) mentions these factors as the degree of women ' s access to wealth and income, power, credit, skills, food, ~ealth and income, 46 ~~ eneratin~~ activitiesU. niHvee rsliintkye od f tGh ehsae nlc:a c htotrtsp :t/o/u tg.h s ep saexc es.turagt.iefidcaut.igonh s.y stem , \.vhich fa\ours men since they occupy major positions \"hich deal with the control of resources. Fayorsey (1994) further emphasizes that the variations in the explanation of gender inequality have led Mason (1985) to analyse such inequality into three dimensions I. Inequality in access to or control over resources 2. Inequality in Prestige 3 Inequality in Power '"Mason (1985) explained further that \.vith gender inequality the sexes are equal in one or more than one dimension and occurs in more than one social situation. Mason (1985) further stated that there are three different kinds of resources which either men or women control and this arrangement results in gender inequality. The access to and control of certain productive resources by men make them wield more power and enable them to inevitably have control over other resources. Land IS one· of such resources controlled by men. Mason (1985) supports this assertion with Marx's theory, which states that owners of the means of production wield power. control the economy and have prestige. ll1\'ariably it is men who o\\n the means of production especially land hence their control o\er \\omen'" (Fayorsey. 1994) The degree of inequality or the status of \\·omen, should not, ho\yeyer be viewed as uniform in all situations (Mason, 1985) It varies in different social units such as the household, neighbourhood, the community or yoluntary associations. In the domestic realm for example women have considerable control oyer the household economy 47 (Fayorsey, 1995). ThUuns ivtheer ssittayt uosf oGfh waonmae hn ttsph:o//uuldg saplwacayes. ubge. eddeusc.rgihbed vvithin the actual conte:-;t within which it e:-;ists (Mason, 1985) Another source of variation on the meaning of the status of "vomen is that of class and gender which are two main systems of social stratification. In gender stratification systems, men and women are assigned different roles in the social division of labour hence the differences in the access and control of resources. The stratification affects the socio-economic status of each person. Therefore the socio-economic status of one is due to one's position in either one or a combination of the class and gend er stratification s~·stems. Ho\\ever distinctions are not made bel\\ 'een the two in the definition of the status of women even though it alTects it. Though women by their class may have access to resources, they may not due to gender have the right to control them. Lack of control thus becomes very crucial in determining the status of women while only having access is misleading. This situation can further be e:-;plained by the fact that women do not generally have property rights since they do not control resources. Though \'ari ations e:-;isL a common denominator runs through the concept of the status of \\omen. This is the 10\\ position of \\omen. The dl scLission so far indicates that in any social sys tem. the position of an indi\'idual is determined by a combination of factors based on gender and class. Thus the position of \>, omen in dilTerent societies has contributed to their low education, lack of skills and low income. In Ghana for instance. the traditi onal patriarchal system (Bukh, J 979: Dumor 1983), the heavy time burdens and the position of women in the family and household tied up with the day- to-day responsibilities for children and domestic services (Haddad. J 991: Manu. 48 1990) pre\ent \\'omeUn nfrivomer shitayv ionfg Gahccaenssa ehqtutpal: //tuo gtshpata coef .muegn. epdaurt.igchularly to land, labour; credit and education. This restricted access to productive resources has clearly undermined the type, level and extent of women's participation in economic production (Ardayfio -Schandorf, 1991) From the foregoing, it is e\'ident that the coping mechanisms or strategies of single female parents can be looked at in terms of their status as women. Also the means by \\hich they cope with maintaining their households to a large extent can be examined in terms of their indi\'idual as \\ell as collective access to vital resources such as education, income, social support and any other socially significant factor Based on extensive researches and conferences, the United Nations ( 11)1)2) has also proposed that the poverty of women. especially female headed households is largely due to their lack of access to assets and income earning potentials. According to the United Nations (1992), determinants of income earning potential include educatIon. employment and accessibil ity to resources . It is thus these determinants and other social factors such as family or extended kin support '.hat "ill determine the coping strategies or mechanisms or a single female parent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE STUDY AREA 3.1 INTRODUCTION Kno\\ledge of the stud., area offers a practical unclersta( nd Ing f th0 e socl'o -economl.c and cultural milieu in \\hlch people deal \\Ith the challenges ofe\en'day 11\'ing This is imperatl\e to this study: 111 that It prO\ides the opportunity l'or one to make a \\ell- Inf'ormed assessment of the mechani sms or strategies that single female parents adopt for their suni lal and that of their households . This chapter thus presents a general background of the study area and the three selected suney areas. TopiCS under discussion \\ III include geographical location. historical or igin and socio-economic characterisl1cs 3.2 ACCRA 3.2.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION Accra metropolitan area (Accra district) is located at the centre of Greater Accra Region It occupies a land area of appro:\lmatel\ one hundred and forty-four kilometres square (144 km sq) The area (Accra district ) shares boundaries \\lth t\\O districts. To the North IS Ga district. To the South is the Atlantic Ocean (Gull' of Guinea) stretching rrom Nungua through Teshie. La. Osu to the Chemu Lagoon near Chorkor. To the East is Tema MUI1lclpal Area and to the West again IS Ga district. 3.2.2 POPULATION The population or Accra has been II1cre:1sing 0\ er the \ ears . According to the I - (f) Z (f) >- ::J---l U >-o 0:: <{<{ f-<{ -J - 0:: -z U(;~ (f) Z ~ <{(f) W ~Q wZ U 0:: 0:: o(f) (f) ----l z(f) Wf- f- (f)W W 0.. 0 0 ~<{ (f)o::f- > 0 U ~u O:J~ Z w 00 D-zO :J ~ (f) u> D- LEVEL OF EDUCATION Source: Field Data, Feb - May, 2002. The flgure abo\'e illustrates that respondents (256 percent) mostly hme the Middle / Junior Secondary le\el education as the highest percentage and the 10\\ est being for university education. This in all probability is comparable to the national situation "here most females are not able to attain higher lerel education as the numbers o[ females in educational institutions dimimsh at each higher le\eL This trend 1I1 Ghana can be attributed to the [act that "omen are tied up "ith day to day responsiblltties [or childrell stat us is comparable to a study of si ngle parenthood In the Greater Accra Region b\ G\ekye, Arthur and Oankwa (1l)l)6) that found the l11aiorit~ or \\omen (about 51 percent) to be single parents as a result of di\orce. In the study as obsened fro m Table 4 above, 752 percent of respondents \\ho indicated dl\ orce as a lactor responsib le for their status gme the reason of infidelitl on the part of their husbands as leadIng to their dl\ orce. This is captured in the \\ords o I' one di I orced respondent in an in-depth inter\i e\\ \\ ho remarked . iv~l' hU.I/)und ond Ilised 10 hove (f good und IInderslUndmg Inurr/oge 111111/ I ji!llnd 0111 he wos che(fllng on Ille .-I/ier repeuled dellwnds Ihol he sholl/d SlOP. he did nOI. The emolionol pom W{fS so 1n1lL'i1/iJr me s/.lch rhor I cU/.Ild nor hring In.vse/FIU conl/nue wilh rhe Inornoge. Infidelit\ on the part or their husbands as the reason gl\ en b\ most respondents (752 percent) for thei r di lorce is supported by Ghanaian CustomaD and Ordinance marriage laI\s \\hich stipulate that on the grounds of lI1fidelit\ and adulter\ a marrIage could be dissohed 0-' -') University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Infidelity mostly on the part of men in marital relationships can also be e:\plained by the ract that most societi es in Ghana do not 1'1'0\\"11 on e,\tra marital afrairs or males. \\hlch encourage them to engage in such actiyities, It is signi ficant that [rom the table above (Table -+) , 10,3 percent or di \orced respondents indicated \\ 'i!ful neglect on the part of their e:\-husbands tu maintain them as a reason for their divorce, This may be e:\plained by the [act that in Ghanaian society. the husband has al\\ays been looked up to as the head o[ the household and the bread\\inner for the family He IS therefore charged \\ith the final responsibility of ensuring the \\ elrare of all household members, This IS because under Customary and emotional nced s or hi s \\ire according to his situation in lire, It is also \\orth noting rrom table -+ abo\'e. that 20 percent of respondents \\ho indicated desertion as a factor responsibl e for their status. ga\'e the reason of \\ 'ilrul neglect on the part of their husbands to maintaIn them and their chi Idren that necessitat ed their husbands to desert them Some respondents further allr ibllted their e\-hllsbands' \\ ilru l ncglect to maintain them and theIr children to their e:\ -husbands' il1\ohement In e,\tra-mantal affairs TillS \ ic\\ is C~IJltul'ed III thc \\ (nds ul' one rcspon(knt III all In-dcpth intcn IC\\ \\ ho intimated that v-' 0.) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh My ex-hushand never bOlhered to provide!;)/' my c/llldren (lnd I. He always used his money to caler fhr his numerous girl Fiends. I Iherej()re did nOI see Ihe need 10 he marned 01 all it he does nOI carej(Jr my children and I. The implicati on fo r thesc \\ omen in the stud \" is lhal thc\" may not recel\'e an\" forlll of assistance from lheir e\:-husbands in the maintenance of their children as accordino to b the \\omen their e\:-husbands hitherto neglected to pro\ide their needs and that of the ir children Besides \\ilful neglect b\ men to maintain their \\i\ 'es and children as intimated b\ so me respondents. it is also possible that the present economic malaise and high unemplo\ment rate in the country may genuinel\" handicap some husbands to fulfil their fin anc ial responsibilities to\\ards their \\ I\es and children \\hich may be misconstru ed as \vilI'ul neglect on their part. Il IS rurther si gn If-Icant to note Crom Table --I abO\ e that 0.--1 percent 0 r respondents allrlbuted the reason of \\ife bal1ef\ as responsible for their di\orce. In an Ill-depth intenie\\ \\ith one respondent she declared that !vI)' hl./.lhand drinks very heavII.1' 01 Illnes and does nol give me "chop mone)'" When I prolest he suh/ecls me 10 severe bealings In one /I1sl(//1Ce he locked lI1e /11 Ihe SI()lIwch unci I Iell W1C{)I7.IC/()I.t.1 A!ier Ihal incidenl tn)'famtly dissolved Ihe marrwge It is probable that theU fnigivuerer soitry 9 o.4f Gpehrcaenta ohrt t\p\i:r/e/u bgasttpearyc eas. uag .readsuon.g ahdvanced by respondents is onh a tip or the ice-berg as cases or \\ ire battery or physical \iolence perpetuated by husbands against their \\ i\es are usually undisclosed by \\omen Physical \iolence in marriages that leads to divorce in Ghana can be e:\plained by the ract that men e\el:-\\here have traditionally been associated \\ ith physical strength This goes back into time \\hen in the di vision of labour men hunted and \\ omen gathered to feed the family Their physical ad\antage o\er \\ omen also placed them early in the e\olution of the family in positions of authority o\'er \\omen \vho came under their dIrect protection and control Another e:\planati on is that III the Ghanaian soc iety. social contracts bet\\een men and \\0111(,11 :lS rl'g:lrds lll ;lITI:1["e h: RESPONSES ON WIIETIIER RESPONDENTS MAKE MAJOR DECISIONS, 90 80 70 60 ~ 50 w u a: ~ 40 30 20 10 o YES NO RESPONSES Som'ce: Field DatG. Feb - May. 2002 122 .The figure above dUenpiivctesr tshiatyt tohfe Gmhajaonriaty h ottfp re:/s/puognsdpenatcs e(7.u7g.4. epderuc.egnht) cope or manage with making major decisions in the household by themselves, whereas 22.6 percent of respondents indicated that they did not. The majority of respondents making major decisions in the household is not surprising as the majority; 92.8 percent, 91.8 percent and 79.9 percent respectively indicated (see table 5) that they provided their children's daily meals, clothing and health needs all by themselves. It is further noted (see table 6) that most; 73 .3 percent, 56.2 percent and 63 .3 percent respectively paid rent, electricity and water bills by themselves. It thus stands to reason that if they mostly manage with children and household needs by themselves then they are mostly likely to manage with making major decisions in the household. This explanation is further supported by the in- depth interview, when respondents generally intimated that they made major decisions in the household because they were also responsible for providing their children's and household needs. This is shown in the words of one such respondent in the in-depth interview when she said: I am responsible for making decisions in this house since I pay for almost everything. This implies that where women take major economic responsibilities in the household it enhances or increases the ir likelihood of making major decisions in the household. Another factor that explains the majority of respondents making major decisions in the household may also be attributed to the absence of male partners (husbands), since in traditional Ghanaian society it is usually the husband who makes major decisions in the household. This was revealed in the in-depth in!n'iew when most respondents 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh indicated that the\ did not make major decisions \\hen they 1\ ere marri ed and II ling \\ ith their e,,-hllsbands, as their e,,-hllsbands made major deCisions In the \Iords or one res pondent: lJIhcn 1 wus l7IU1ned und IlvlI1g wllh 111)' ex-hushund he n()r!llUlly mude Inojor decisions in (he household Now os 0 slf1gle pm'en! I moke In%r decisions in the household. The abo\e statement thus suggests that the absence of male partners also creates the 0ppoliunity for II omen especially sIngle female parents to make major decisions in the household 01' the respo ndents ('2'2() percenl) \I ho Indicated thai the\ ' did not make 111<1.1or decisions In the household a I'urlher probe relcaled thai raI11Ih members or kIn made maj or decisions . When respondents (22 .6percent) \\ho indicated that they did not make major decisions in the household \\ere asked to state \\ho did , the majority (75 () percent) Indicated that famil\ members made malor deCisions. 18.2 percent Indicated in-laI\ s, 4.2 percent Indicated their children's fathers 1\ hilst the rest (2 percent) Indicated friend s, benefactors among others The mal0i'll\ or respondents II1dlcalll1g l'amIiI members as makll1g malor deCisions 111 111 l' 11OlI sl'lHlId IS Illli Slil J>rlslll~~ ;IS lill' I L'SL';l1 L'ilL'1 ul'sl'1 \ L'd III lill' s llld\ l'('llllllllllllll'S. especlall , Maamobi that most respondents \Iere III Ing II ith relati\ es or \\ere Imng in 124 family houses therebUyn iinvcerresaistyin go f thGeh alikneali hhottopd: //tuhagt spfaamcIely. umg.eemdbue.rgs hcould make ma,jor decisions , In formal discussions and the in-depth interview \vith respondents, \\ ho did not make malor decisi ons. paramountly revealed that it \\as because they did not contribute economi cally or substant iall\ ' to the up keep of the household 1'1115 JJOlllt IS captured belo\\ in the \\o rds ora cross-section of respo ndents belo\\ I live Wlfh lin' ((1117 lie unci COIISII?.\', NI)' ({lInlle own.\' the /WII,I't! and main ly p rovides everYlhing in Ihe household I do nOI contribUle much and there/eYre my auntie makes the m%r deusio/1s even concerning how I wke core of'my children Another respondent al so stated that I am unemployed and do not have money, !v~\'.fclfher IS Ihe one who wkes care alme and my two children He there/iJ/'e mokes mOjor deciSIOns //7 the hou,lehold which IS very/ine 11'1117 me. The abo\'e statements e\:pressed bY a cross-section of respondents goes to emphasise the point th at indeed taking malor economic responsibilitlcs In thc household does inOuence \\ ho makes malor deciSIOns in the household , It is al so \\o rth mentiOnIng that a fell respond ems \\ho did not make major decisions 111 the househo ld during the lI1-depth II1ten le\\ II1tlmated that the oldest person made maj or decisions 111 the household on the baSIS or their old age and respect accorded th em bY ot her members of the household and not because of their economic contribution, This is re\'ealed in the \\ords of one respondent \\hen she said 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh kly mOlher makes ma/or declslon,l' 111 Ihe household hec({use she IS older Ihem eve,},ol7e and 1701 hecause she makes subslal1/wl economic Contributions, /1 is solely out oj'lhe respecl we have .fhr her 11701 she makes major declsiol7s, The abo\e statement thus reveals that some respondents do not make major decisions In the household due to the presence of other elderlY members in the household In slim. the field eyidence suggests that most respondents make and manage II ith mqlOr decisions in the household by themseiles chieOy because the\ also bore the bulk or economic responsibilities Also respondents who did not make mqjor decisions in the household revealed that such decisions \\ere made b\ famil) ' members, 45 CHALLENGES The challenges respondents face is anal\'l:ed b) using their responses on some of the problems they encounter. Ilhether they II ould like to marry and their gil en reasons The rationale behind th is is to ascertain II' the means and suppo rt respolldents relied on. actualh enabled them to manage as Single parents , In the sunel respondents \\ere asked to state the problems they encounter as smgle parents and their responses indicate lhat It is a \'en challengll1g e\penence The majority of respondents (603 percent) indicated that the~ \\ere oler burdened \\Ith too mam responsl bil itles. 14,3 percent of respondents II1dlcated thel encountered rlnanclal problems. 13 .2 percent of respondents mdlcated loneliness as their problem and 12 I percent of respondents indicated child-upbringing as a problem The m<'l,IOri l\, ' 01' Urenspivoenrdseiltlyts of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.ghIn dI"c a tlng be mg 0 1 er burdened II ith m,lIW res ponsibil ities I.S not SlIl ' pl,l s lng as mos t 0 f' tIl CI11 SI1 0 11 Id er tIl e bl lII, of' rcsponslblIl t\ lor chil d maintenance, Co nside ring the ract that mos t res pondent s (74 7 percent ) had earli er indica ted the (lss istance of' Ki n \1 It h their household actil itlcs and respondents' Indi cati on o r I'o le ove rl oad as a prob lem impli es that the ass istance or Kin and others is probably not enough to li ghten the responsibi lities or respondents In l ie ll or mos t respondents (53 percent) earning lOll incomes, it is surprising that re lati l ell rell ( 143 percent) ind icated their prob lems as financi al TIllS impli es that strategies such as shared payment or household bill s child rostenng in addition to sup port o r ki n he lps them to manage II It h their fin ances The re l (ltllel~ rell res pondent s ( 13 2 percent) indicatll1g lonel iness as a prob lem also Im pl lcs til :1\ mos t rcsponci cnt s il <1l c peop le to ITiI Oil ro r CO lll p: lI lio nsilip and emoti onal suppo rt . Mo st respond en ts furth er relea led in the lI1-dep th inten lel\ that the) managed 1\ It h thei r problems by prayi ng to God [or assis tance I\hich baslcalh enabled them to d ischarge theil' res ponsibil iti es as si ngle parents Thi S IS captu red In the \1 ords or onc respo ndent II ho said that Wh en / amji:lced wtlh proh/em.l, / pray /() (Jod/or aSS/IIOIle(' and He a/ways /nlens ami answer,l In)' pra)'er,1 '!lle strength oj the /,()rd II h(/.I .I/l,\/(fll1ed IIII' ({lit/liS w/llle os ({ I'IIl,l!,le /Jilr(,l1t 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Thus 1l10s t res pond ents IIldicating 0\ erload of responsib iliti es as some of their problcms portray that the phenomenon of sin gle fema le parenthood IS Yen' challenging in terms of ensuring the Il 'el fa re of their dependants As regards the question of whether respondents would like to marry. the maJority of responden ts (Ui 7 percent) IIldicated that they II ould like to marry. IIhereas (31 3 percent) indicated that they would not. A further probe was to ask respondents to gi\e their reasons for wanting to marry or not. As regards reasons for lIanting to marry. almost half (407 percent) of respondents Indi cated they lIould like to marry for companionship. 24 percent of respondents Indicated thel lIould IIh.e to marry because they \\ere yo ung. 11 ,3 percent Indicated they II ould "ke to marry for social respect II hereas the rest (3 percent) indicated other reasons Most respondents (49,7 percent) \\ 'anting to mam for companionship seems to contradict the earlier admission of a relatively fe\\ ' re~pondents (132 percent) \\ho II1dlcated loneliness as their problem. The probable e:-.:planation for tim mal be that thel did not relate it to marriage, Another probable e:-.:planatlon mal be that the kllld of compalllonship males or men pro\ide IS dilTerent from companionship from relations and friends Thc need ror a helper as a reason ad\anced b\ respondents (24 percelll) ror \\.2 CONCLllSION ~c~·, The results or the study hU\e sholln that dl\orce IS the main factor that accounts Co'r *-~ si ngle female parenthood due to the infidelity of men (husbands) Although most si ngle female parents earn 101\ Incomes thiS lea\es them to shou lder the bulk of responslbIiit\ in the maintenance or children and the household 111 addition to the I\omen making major decisions. Sing le female parents \\ho earn relatl\ 'eh higher ll1come and are relatl\el:- hlghh educated cope \\ Ilh chIldren and household maintenance b\ Ich Ing mosth on thCl11sc llL'S IIhcrc~\s thosc II ho carll I'clalilch IOller IllCOlllCS ~\lld ML' Iclalilel) lOll educated co pe b\ reiling add itI onall , on re lati ons, fnends among others as II ell as adoptlllg ,\ str,ltcgl or sharcd pal lllcnt The Cathers or children or single female pments mosth do not assist the \1 omen In the mall1tenance of children and IIhere thel do It IS InsuJTlclent [or the needs of the II omen and their chIldren On the other hand kin support the II omen \\ Ith hOUSing, 1-.+1 household chores. foUodn iavnedr sclitoyth oinf gG ahmaonnag hotthtper:s/ /uIlghsi cpha lcI eas. ucgon.esdidue.rgedh as suffi cient bY the Il omen. The major challenge that the Il omen face as si ngle female parents is the olerload of respOI1SI llilit ies Finall y. In l ie ll of most of the I\o men bearing the bulk of respons ib ili ty in the maintenance of chIldren and the ho usehold in ad dit ion to making major decisions in the household. it is the position of this study that si ngle female parents are to a large e:\tent heads of households 6.3 RECOMMEN DATIONS Based on the findi ngs and conclusions mad e during the course of the stueh it is recolllmcnded that a) The Ins ti tution or marriage shou ld be proillo ted and protccted because it is basIc to any sat isfacto ry care and maintenance of children. Thlls there is the need for parli ament to enact Im\ s. I\ hich are necessan to ensure that the protectI on and ad\ ancement or the rami" as the UnIt or soclet\ are safe guarded in the promotion of the interest of \\omen and children b) Since stab le marriage seems 10 be built around the faI thfulness or co mmitment o r men. moral instruction shoul d be \ igoro llsh pursued at home. and at all Ie\ els 01' our rel ig ioll s ancl educatio nal s\ stem to discourage the pmllllsclllt~ or men . 1...j.2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh c) In order to empower women to ful fill their responsi bi lities to\~ards themsehes and their households_ the go\ernment should adopt macro-economic policies to impro\e the employment and income opportunities for \\omen. d) Non-go\ernmental organizations (both local and e:\ternal) should be encouraged to adopt integrated income generating programmes as an instrument to enable \ulnerable \\omen to shoulder their responsibilities to\\ ards themsel \es and their children. e) Education for girls up to at least the secondary le\el should be made compu Isory 111 the country as an ul timate means of empo\\ ering \\ omen. f) Most fathers of children of single female parents do not shoulder their responsibility in the maintenance children \\hich increases the burden of women especially with regards to the maintenance of children. Thus Parliament sho uld enact laws to ensure that the biological fathers of children of single female parents pay periodic (\\eek"· or monthh) child support to sll1gle fem:lle pareJlts to reduce theil' burden When passed, steps should be taken to equal" ensure IlS lranslallon Inlo practice, g) An orten-made assumplIon IS the reduced role or- the e:\tended Kin in supporting their members m the urban setting Ho\\ e\er the out-come or this stlld~ mdicates that majorIty of \\OIllen \\ho are single parents are supported \\ Ith housing and household actiYlties but not maml\' in the pro\lSlon of chi Idren' s needs . This rem[orces the need for an additIOnal research on the 1..j3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh phenomenon under study. as data obtained does not lead to the dra\\lng of enough conclusive observations. Such a research should have enouoh b representation from the familles of such \\omen. This \\ ill help to make \alid \dlate\ ·er claims the \\omen make. h) NGOs and research institutions should be encouraged to investigate issues . relating to single female parenthood and problems of child maintenance. This is particularly important since NGOs have become a potent force in extending programmes to women through out the country. In vie\\ of this. they are in a \ery good position to lead efforts geared towards undertaking research dealing \\ith the various means single female parents use to care for themseh·es and their children. Specific areas of enquiry should include research dealing "ith determining appropriate intervention strategies. operations research to determine what \\orks and ho\\ to bring about empo\\ ering \\hat \lorks and how to bring about empowering single female parents. The findings from such operations research could then be used to strengthen programmes and point to potential models for replication by identifying successful programmes elements. 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Accra: Ghana Universities Press. Office of Child Support Enforcement. (1988). Twelfth Annual Report to Congress for the Period Ending September, 30, 1987. Washington D.C: U.S. Government Printing Office. 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ono-Osaki. K (10l) I) "Female Headed Households in De\ eloping Countnes b\ Cho ice or Circumstances'I". IJ.HS. World Con!Crence Workll7g J'aper l'roceedings. Vol 3 Co lumbia Macro In ternational Inc. Oppong. C (1975) "A Pilot Study of Family Systems, Planning and Size m Accra: A Case of Married Nurses". A Report Submit1ed to the National Family Planning Programme Ghana. Oppong. C and Abu. K. (1987) Seven Roles ojWomel7 impoct oj/,ducation. IVIlgm/ion ({l1d Lmploymel7l 011 Ghol1({t({11 IVlothers. Genel 'a: I LO. Pap cUlek. H. and Sch\\ede. L. (I nS) "Women are good \\ llh mone\ Earning and and Managing in an Indonesian City" In D\\-yer. D. and Bruce. J (eds) A Horne f)ivlGled: Women and income in the Third World. Stamford. CalifornIa: Stanford University Press. Popkin. SJ (1990) "Welfare Views from the Bottom Social Problems. 37 : (i4 - 78. Rako\\ sk I. Cath\ A (I 0Ss) "The Planni ng Process and the Di lislOn 0 r Labour III a Ne\\ Industrial City The Case ofCiudad Gum·ana. Vene/.uela" In John Walton (ed) ( 'op//ul und j,u/;u/{/' 111 the Urhul7I:ed World . London Sage. Reill\oi/.e. J (1985) Going Solo. SlI1gle Mothers by ChOice . London . Routledge And Kegan Paul 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Richmond-A bbot. M. (I 9S4) "Se:\ Roles of Mothers and Child ren in Di\orced. Single-Parent Families". Journal a/Divorce, 8: 34 - 46 , ....... (1992). Masculine and Feminine Gender Roles Over the LI(e (vcle, Ne\\ York McGra\\ - Hill Inc. Safilios-Rothschild, C (1 980). "A Class and Se:\ Stratification Theoretical Model and its Rel e\ ance For Fertility Trends in the TllIrd World". In Holn, C and Machensen. R. (eds). /)eterminants o(FertillfY Ji-ends Theones Re- examll7ed Liege Ordina Editions. Stack. CaroL (llJ74 ) All Our Kin: Strategies/or Survival in a R/ack Community Ne\\ York Harper Standll1g. G (1978) Labour Force Participation and Development. Gene\ 'a ILO Twumasi. PA (InS) Medical ,)~v.\'tems in Ghana ' A StuC(I' In Medical SocIOlogy Tema Ghana Publishing Corporation Uni ted Nat ions (1992). Population and Women ProceedIngs of the United Nations E:\pert Meeting on Population and Women. Gaborone. Bots\\ana. 22 - 2(, Junc ( I lJlJS) The World's Women: 'hends ond Stafl.l'flCS Nc\\ York linlted Nat ions. 160 Uni ted States BureaUu noifv tehres Cityen os uf sG (h19a9n4a) hStltapl:i/s/luicgasl pAabcster.aucgts. eod/Iuh.eg Uhniled States Washington D,C U.S Government Printing Office Wall erstein. J S, (1985) "The Overburdened Chil d Some Long term Consequences OrD I\orce", SoclOl Work. 30 Ilo - In Wa ll ers tein. JS and Blakeslee, S, (I n9), ,S'econd Chances, Men. Women and Children. A Decade A/ier Divorce, New York Ticknor and Fields, Wallerstein. J S and Kelly. J (1980) , Surviving the Breakup How Children and Parents Cope wilh Divorce, New York Basic Books, Ware. H, (1983) "Female and Male life Cycles" In Oppong, C (ed). Female and Mole In West Aji-ico London: George Allan and Ulm in, Wei ss. R (197')). GOtng /I Alone , 'l77e Family /,Ij'e and SoclOl ,')'itIlOIiOI1 oflhe SlI7gle l'arel7l, Ne\\ York Basic Books , Wcit/'l11an. L. (1')85) 'I'he J)lvorce Revolt/lIOn , Ne\\ York The Free Press Westoll CT. Blanc. K. A and Nyblade, L. (1994) "Marriage and Entry Into Parenthood", Demographic and Health Surveys, Comparalive ,\'lUdle,I' No, 10, Calverton. Maryland Macro International Inc, 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A QUESTIONNAIRE Dca.' .·cspondcnt, This ."esea.·ch is for purely academic purpose and any information would only be used as such. Strict confidentiality of SOUl"ces would be adhered to. The objective of the study is to look at the issue of single female pal·enthood. Please answer the following questions privately and truthfully. Thank you DEMOGRAPIIIC CHARACTERISTICS (0 I ) Age. (02) Hi ghes t ed ucati onal lerel attained (0 I) Primary (02) Midcl lc/JSS (03) CommerciallY ocm lonal/Technical (04) Secondary school ISSS (05) Post Sec/Nurslllg/Poly Tech (OG) University (07) Koranic (08) None (09) Other specify (03) Reli gious denomination (0 I) catholic (02) Pentecostal (03) Protestant (04) Trad I tlonal (05) Other spec! fy (97) NA (04) EthniC Group (01) Asante (02) Akuapem (03) r-nntc (0",)) Other /\kaJ1 (OS) GaiAdangbe (OG) E\\e (07) Guan (OR) IVlolc Dagballl (09) GniSSl/Frafra (10) Gnlma ( 1 1) Hausa (12) Other speci 1\ IG2 (OS) Number of yearUs nbievienrgs ait ysi nogf leG phaarennat http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (OG) Number of children. (07) (a) Are YOU li\ ing \\ith all )'our children') (0 I) Yes (02) No (07) (b) ri'no. ho\\ many of your children do not he \\ith you') (07) (c) \\hom do they Il\e \\ith') (01) Their father (02) In -Ia\\s (03) Family members (04) Friends (OS) Alone (06) Others speci fy (08) (a) Do you have any other dependants apart from your children') (0 I) Yes (02) No (OX) (b) ii',es. \\ho are the) ,) ................ . .......... ... .. . ................. . ..... REASON FOR SINGLE PARENTHOOD (Ol) (a) Why arc 'Oll a slIlglc parcnt' ) (0 I) Death of spouse/ wido\\hood (02) D1 \orce (03) Separation (04) Ne\er marned (OS) Other specify (Ol) (b) Lplain your ans\\er') . . .... ... .. . ECONOMIC ACTIVITY (10) (a) Are \OU currently \\orking'l (01) Yes (02) No (10) (b) If Yes, whaUt nsievcetorrs iotfye mopfl Go~h'maennja' lh ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (0 I) Formal (Public/Pri\ate) (02) Informal (<)7) NA (I I) If you \\ork in the formal (Public/Pri\'ate) sector. \\ 'hat is your main occupation') (0 I) Labourer (02) Clerk/Secretary (03) Administrator/manager (04) Professional I. Teacher 2, Lecturer 3. Medical Officer 4 Engineer .. etc (OS) Other specjj~ (97) NA (12) (a) I f ~'ou \\ork in the informal sector \\'hat is your main occupation') (0 I) Petty tradlllg (02) Business/shop (03) Se\\ingll-Iairdressing (04) Other. specik (97) NA (12) (b) Do YOU do this \vork for your self or does it belong to someone else') (0 1) Yes, selfemployed (02) No, employed (n) NA ( 13) (a) Do you have a subsidiary occupation') (0 I) Yes (02) No (97) NA (13) (b) If Yes, specify ' ..... ' .. .. ,,' ... . " ...... ' . . ........ ' .... , .. " (13) (c) Do YOLI do this \\ork [or yourself or does it belong to someone else') (0 I ) Yes, sel f emplO\'ed (02) No, employed (<)7) N A SELF ECONOMIC RELIANCE (14) If' employed, \\hat IS the le\c1 oJ',our main (occupatIOn) 1l10nthh II1come') (I) I - 200,OO() (2) 20 I ,000 ·IOO,()OO (3) 40,000 - ClOO,OOO (4) 60 I - 800,000 (5) SOl - 1000,000 (0) LOOO,OOO and beyond (7) NA 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ( I ()) (a) Is lOur occupational income, your major source of income') (0 I) Yes (02) No ( I ()) (b) If \'es, does it support you') (0 I) Very sufficiently (02) Sullielentl, (03) Not sufficiently (0,,)) None, (OS) Other. specd\ (10) (c) If No is the answer to question (16) (a) , what is your major source of income') (01) Child / children's father (02) In -Im\s (03) Family (OLl) Friends (OS) Other. speci(\ ' SOCIAL SUPPORT NETWORK A. Economic suppOli (17) (a) Does lOur child / children 's father support you') (0 I) Yes (02) No (97) NA (17) (ll) Ii'\l's. \\il:ll kind ofSlIPP0rl') (0 I) Monetary/Financial (02) PrO\'ision of food (03) Pro\ision oJ'Clothing (0,,)) Other. speci/\ (97) NA (17) (e) 110\\ orten do 'ou gel !hlslthese support') (0 I ) Very of1en (02) Often (03) Occasionally (0,,)) No! at all (97) NA (17) Cd) Is this support for you and your child/children. (0 I) Very suffiCient (02) SuCficlenl (03) Not sufTicient (O ..n 0Ione. (0)) Others speclf, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (17) (e) Il'no is the ans\\er to question (17) (a) what is the reason') . .. . . , '" . . . . . . . . . .. . . .. '" ... . . ... 18) (a) Do es your family support yo u? (01) Yes (02) No (18) (b) If yes, what kind of support? (01) Monetary/Financial (02) Provision of food (03) Provision of clothing (04) other specif) " ...... . .. . . (97) NA (I K) (c) Ho\\ often do you get this/these support') (01) Very often (02) 0 flen (03) Occasionally (04) No t at all (18) (d) Is this support for you and your child/children') (0 I) Very sufficient (02) Suf'ficlent (03) Not sufficient (04) None. (OS) Others specify ...... ... .. '" .. . (19) (a) Do friends support you financially') (01) Yes (02) No (1<) (b) If,es. \\hat kind ofsuppon') (01) Monetary/F mancial (02) PrO\iSlOn of food (03) Clothing (04) Others specif) (<)7) NA ( It) (c) Ho\\ oJ1en do )·ou get this/these support" (01) Ver) orten (02) Orten (03) Occasionalh (04) No! at all (97) NA 166 (19) Cd) Is this suUppnoivrte frosr ityyo uo fa nGd hyaonuar chtiltdp/:c//huilgdsrepna ce.ug.edu.gh (0 I) Very sufficient (02) Surficient (03) Not sufficient (04) None, (OS) Others specify. B, Emotional SUppOI't (20) (a) Who do you normally consult for ad\ice \\hen \·O ll are faced \\ ith problems) . " ... .... . .. .. ... . ........... . ... , .... , - ...... -.- . ", . . , ..... . (2 0) (b) Explain your answe( ) . . " ..... . .. . . . . .,. . . .,...... . ... . ..... . . " . .. .. . . . . " . .. . . ... . . (21) On \\ hat problemsliss lles do yo u normally seek ad\ ice') . . , . .. ... ... ... . . . . .. .... .... .. . ' .......... . .. . ", ........... . .... ", ", ." .. CARE OF CHILD/CHILDREN (22) \Nho be:lrs the cost ofpro\iding daily meals for chi ldren) (01) Self (02) Chi ld I childrefl's father (03) In - la\\s (04) Family (OS) Other specif\, . (23) Who bears the cost ofp ro\idmg clothes for children') (0 I) Self (02) Child /children s father (03) In-I m\s (04) Family (OS) Other specify.. . .. .. , , (24) Who be:1rs child I children's school fees') (0 I) Child / children's father (02) Self (03) In - la\\s (04) Famil) (05) Other speCify University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (25) Who pro \id es child / children 's educational materi als if different from the ans\\er gi len above'} . . . . . .. ....... .......... • .. . . . ... ........ . . " ... . . . . . . . . . . .. .. . '" . . . . . . .. . . .. ... . . . .. . . . . (2 () ) Who no rmall \' pm s children's hos pital bills') (27) Who takes care of your chil d / chil dren \vhen \'ou are no t at home or out for \\ ork') (0 I) House help (02) Relati\es (03) Older children (04) Nobod\ (OS ) Others sp ecify .. "'" ... ,. (28) (a) Do yo u personally punish / di scipline yo ur chi ldren when they do \\Tong? (O I)Yes (02)No (29) (b) Ifno, \\ho punishes! discip lines them') PA YMENT OF HOUSEHOLD BILLS (30) Where do YOU reside'l (0 I) 0\\11 house (02) Rented house (03) Parents ! relati \ es house (04) In - laI\s house (OS) Child ! children's father's house (O()) Other specify (3 I) Wh ich type of apartment do you li\'e in? (0 I) Single room (02) Chamber and hall (03) Self contall1 (04) Other speci fy . (32) (a) Do IOU pay rent" (01) Yes (02) No (97) NA (32) (b) Iryes, \\ho pal's the rent" . .......... , University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (33) Who normally pays the household' s electricity bill s') ..................... .. " . (34) Who normally pays the household's water bills') IIOUSEHOLD CHORES/WORK (35) Please indicate how often yo u do the following household tasks'! Often Occasionaliy . P,'eviously Not : but lIot at . .. . . . . . .. ............ •.. : now All 01 TidYIng up 02 Laundn 03 Marketing 04 BathIl1g chi Id ren OS Dressing children O() Cooking (J(,) (a) Do YOU get support \o\lth Household tasks') (01) Yes (02) No (3Ci) (b) IrYes. Who supports you') (01) House help (02) Relati \es (03) Older children (04) In-Ia\\ s (05) Other. specif) DECISION MAKING (37) (a) Do IOU make major decisions in the household') (01) Yes (02) No (37) (b) I{'No, Who makes major decisions') (01) Family (02) Child's Falher (03) In-la\\'s (04) Friends (OS) Olher. specIl\. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHALLENGES OF SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD (3X) What \\ould you say is your major problem as a single femaleparenP . '" . . . ' " " .. . . . . . . . .. .. " .... . ... .. ... , ... .. . . . (3lJ) (a) Would you like to marry again') (01) Yes (02) No (3 9) (b) Explain your answer? , . .. ... '" .... , .... . . . " , , . , . . ' , ....... . . , .. THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION 170 APPENDIX B University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh IN- DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR TI-JF: COPING STRATEGIES OF SINGLE PARENTS: A STUDY OF FEMALE HOUSEHOLD HEADSHIP IN ACCRA. DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS ( I ) Age 0 f Respondent? (2) Educational Level? (3) Religious Group') (4) Ethnic Group') (5) Number of Children') REASONS FOR SINGLE PARENTHOOD ((,) Number of years of single parenthood') (7) What are the circumstances which have led to your status as a single paren!') on In' \\hat \\ a\s has being a single parent been differen!. compared to \\hen yo u were not a single paren!') SUPPORT NETWORK A. Economic support (9) Ho\\ do you support yourself economically') ( lOa) Does your child/children's father economically support you',) (lOb) \\hal kind of'economic support do you recei\e ('rom ~ 'o ur child/children's ('alher' ) (II) I(' ,ou r child/children's does not support you, \\hy') 171 ( 12a) \\ho else supUponritvs eyrosui teyc onf oGmhicaanllay' )h ttp://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (12b) \\hat kind of economic support do you receive from those who support you') (12c) Is this suppo11 sufficient for your needs') B. Emotional Support (13) Whom do you seek advice from? ( 14) On \\ hat issues do you seek advice? (I Sa) what are some of the good advice you have received') (I Sb) In \\hat ways hme such an ad\ice been of benefit to you') (I (,) Whom do you seek friendship from' ) ( 17) In \\ hat \\ays have such a friendship benefited you') C. Child fostering as SUPPOl"t (18) Ho\\' many of your children do not live with you? (19) Whom do your child/children li ve with') (20) Wh\ do your child /children live \\ith other people') (21) In \\hat \\a\'s hale your child/children Ii ling with others been or benet'lt to you') 0, Household Chores/Tasks (22) What household tasks do you perform') (23) 1-10\\ do YOU combine \\ork and performing household tasks') (24) Are the household tasks you perform nOlI different from \\"hen you \\ ere not a single parent') (25) Who else assists you \\ith household tasks ') (2(,) Ho\\ did YOU secure this assistance with household tasks') 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (27) [n \\ hal \\ays has this assistance been o[benefit to IOU') DECISION MAKING (2g) Do you make major decisions in the household') (2l)) Until you became a single parent did you make major decisions in the hOllsehold') (30) Why do you make major decisions') (3 I) What are some of the issues on \\hl ch you make major decisions') (32) [I' YOll do not make major decisions. \\ho makes them in the household') (33) Why do others make major deCISi ons In the household') (34) On what issues do others make mal or decisions') (35) In \\ hat \\alS do others making m~lJo r dccisio llS affect lour \\clfare ') CHALLENGES OF SINGLE FEMALE PARENTHOOD (3()) What are lOur malor challenges as a sll1gle female paren(' ) (37) In \\hat \\ays do you o\'ercome some of these challenge~ ') (38a) Would IOU like to marry') (3~b) Will \\ould you like to marry' ) (39) If you \\ ould not like to marry. why' ) : 73