UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES URBAN SPRAWL AND ITS CONSEQUENCES ON THE SUSTAINABILITY OF SEKONDI – TAKORADI METROPOLITAN AREA BY: GEORGETTE BAABA ATAKORAH (10040527) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN GEOGRAPHY DEGREE DECEMBER, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I declare that I am the sole author of this work, which was undertaken under the supervision of Professors Jacob Songsore, Joseph Teye and Alex Berimah Owusu. All secondary sources in this work have been duly acknowledged. ………………………………… Date: …18/12/2022…………… Prof. Joseph Teye (Co-supervisor) ……… …… Date: …18/12/2022…………….. Prof. Alex Barimah Owusu (Co-supervisor) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION This research is dedicated first to Almighty God and my children, Nicole Carolyn and Jayden Ian Atakorah. It has been quite a journey, but your constant encouragement and inspiration enabled me to finish this research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The completion of this thesis has been an extraordinary and enriching experience. First and foremost, I would like to thank God Almighty for His grace and blessings that have brought me this far. It has not been an easy journey, but in all, His strength has sustained me. I am indebted to my supervisors, Professors Jacob Songsore, Joseph Teye and Alex Owusu. These three individuals have contributed significantly to my academic journey, and I pray for God’s blessing in their lives. I am grateful to Professor George Owusu, the Bosh Foundation and the Pan African College on Sustainable Cities Fellowship for funding my PhD program. I would also like to extend my gratitude to friends and colleagues: Ebenezer Odame Darkwah, Ben Aikins, Inusah Wuni, Abigail Arhinful, Slyvester Egyir, Richmond Henneh, Frederick Aboagye, Elisha Njomba, Theodora Aryee, Ben Awotwe (GWCL), James William Abban (ECG) and Amy Eshun for your diverse support throughout this process. Your help and the encouragement you gave me proved valuable to my studies. My sincere gratitude goes to respondents and informants from Fijai, Anaji, Ntankoful, Kojokrom, Mampong and Eshiem in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis. I especially want to acknowledge Mr. and Mrs. Arhinful for their hospitality during my stay in Sekondi-Takoradi and Mr. Kofi Yeboah (STMA) for his willingness to meet with me at short notice, his guidance and information shared, which enriched my work tremendously. I would also like to thank Prof. Emmanuel Morgan Attua for all his help during my PhD journey. Lastly, I want to thank my family for their encouragement, prayers and support. I would not have made it this far without them. Thank you, Carolyn Yarboi Gralla, for being the mother I never had; and to Rev. Edwin and Mrs Mary Odonkor, thank you for being a solid pillar in my life. God bless you tremendously for your diverse sacrifices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT Cities worldwide are undergoing significant spatial transformation due to continued urban growth and sprawl, with forecasts indicating strong growth in the urban fringe well into the future. Urban sprawl is an ensuing spatial form that has emerged globally due to this spatial transformation of urbanisation and has consequences on the natural and built environment, thereby affecting the sustainability of cities. Sekondi-Takoradi has undergone a series of economic boom and bust years, which has influenced the rate of spatial expansion in the city. The study, therefore, examines urban sprawl in the city and attempts to fill gaps in knowledge by examining the drivers of sprawl and the social and environmental issues affecting its sustainability. A mixed-method approach was used, which sampled 400 households and 120 commercial entities, and conducted 25 interviews and 12 focus group discussions. Among the interesting revelations of the study was the state's role in creating an enabling environment both positive and negative, which the private sector and individuals have taken advantage of and has led to the ongoing unplanned and haphazard development of the city. This has resulted in unequal access to essential services, loss of livelihood and inequality in livelihood options, thereby affecting the social well-being of the inhabitants. Environmentally, the consumption pattern within the city and its ensuing urban heat island effect among others threaten its sustainability, both in the short and long term, with broader implications for the city region. As a result of these threats to the city's sustainability, the study recommends that buffer zones or green belts be implemented beyond which spatial expansion is not permitted to occur, thus shifting towards densification and a more sustainable urban development. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ....................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION .......................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .................................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................. iv LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................................................. ix LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. xii CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................................... 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Introductory Background.................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Questions: ......................................................................................................................... 10 1.4 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................................... 10 1.5 Hypothesis and Propositions ........................................................................................................... 11 1.6 Significance of Study ........................................................................................................................ 11 1.7 Scope of Study .................................................................................................................................. 13 1.8 Definition of Key Concepts .............................................................................................................. 13 1.9 Organisation of Thesis ..................................................................................................................... 15 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................... 17 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK................................................... 17 2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 17 2.2 General Overview of Urban Sprawl ............................................................................................... 17 2.3 Policy and Institutional Framework Shaping Urban Sprawl In Ghana ..................................... 20 2.4 Drivers of Urban Sprawl ................................................................................................................. 23 2.5 Consequences of Sprawl .................................................................................................................. 27 2.6 Implications for Sustainability ........................................................................................................ 29 2.7 Theories of Urban Spatial Structure .............................................................................................. 31 2.8 Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................................... 33 2.8.1 Framework 1: Actors Driving Urban Sprawl ......................................................................... 33 2.8.2 Framework 2: Components of Sustainable Development ..................................................... 37 2.8.3 Adapted Conceptual Frame Work: Drivers and Outcome Of Urban Sprawl ..................... 39 2.9 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................ 40 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................... 41 STUDY AREA AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ..................................................................... 41 3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Study Area: Sekondi – Takoradi .................................................................................................... 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 3.3 Research Philosophy ........................................................................................................................ 46 3.4 Research Design ............................................................................................................................... 47 3.4.1 Data Requirements and Sources .............................................................................................. 49 3.4.2 Target Population ...................................................................................................................... 50 3.4.3 Survey ......................................................................................................................................... 51 3.4.3.1 Sample Size and Technique for Household Survey ......................................................... 51 3.4.4 Qualitative Data ........................................................................................................................ 54 3.5 Techniques for Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 56 3.5.1 Quantitative Land Surface and Land Cover Data Analysis .................................................. 56 3.5.1.1 Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) ........................................................... 58 3.5.1.2 The Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) ........................................................ 59 3.5.1.3 Surface Temperature Analysis .......................................................................................... 60 3.5.2 Data Analysis, Interpretation and Presentation ..................................................................... 62 3.6 Sociodemographic Characteristics of Respondents ...................................................................... 63 3.6 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................ 65 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................................. 67 ORIGINS, GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF SEKONDI-TAKORADI ................................. 67 4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 67 4.2 Origin of Sekondi – Takoradi ......................................................................................................... 67 4.3 Railway, Harbour and Spatial Development ................................................................................. 69 4.3.1 Redefining the Urban Boundary .............................................................................................. 74 4.4 Independence Phase 1: Growth Under Nkrumah (1947 - 1966) .................................................. 77 4.4.1 Political Agitation and Independence ...................................................................................... 77 4.4.2 Infrastructural Development Under Nkrumah ...................................................................... 78 4.4.3 Increasing Population and Housing ......................................................................................... 80 4.4.4 Growth of the Metropolitan Region ........................................................................................ 82 4.5 Independence Phase 2: Period of Crisis, Stagnation, and Recovery ........................................... 84 4.6 Economic Boom and Urban Sprawl as a Result of Oil and Gas .................................................. 91 4.6.1 Community Perception and Expectation ................................................................................ 91 4.6.2 Growth of the Metropolitan Area ............................................................................................ 95 4.7 Development in STMA from the Perspective of Spatial Theories ............................................... 98 4.8 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 101 CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................................................. 103 DRIVERS OF URBAN SPRAWL ...................................................................................................... 103 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 103 5.2 Model of Drivers of Urban Sprawl ............................................................................................... 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 5.3 Residency Status of People in Sample Communities .................................................................. 105 5.4 Patterns of Relocation and Reasons ............................................................................................. 109 5.4.1 Patterns of Relocation ............................................................................................................. 109 5.4.2 Reasons for Relocation by Respondents ................................................................................ 113 5.4.3 Urban Demographic and Economic Growth ........................................................................ 118 5.4.4 Transport Infrastructure ........................................................................................................ 121 5.4.4.1 Development of Transport Infrastructure ..................................................................... 121 5.4.4.2 Intra-urban mobility and Accessibility .......................................................................... 122 5.4.5 Residential Expansion ............................................................................................................. 125 5.4.5.1 Housing Affordability ...................................................................................................... 128 5.4.5.2 Land Affordability ........................................................................................................... 131 5.4.6 Preference for Serene Environment ...................................................................................... 134 5.4.7 Family Movement/Relocation ................................................................................................ 136 5.5 Expansion of Urban Fabric ........................................................................................................... 138 5.6 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 140 CHAPTER SIX ..................................................................................................................................... 141 EFFECTS OF URBAN SPRAWL ON LIVELIHOODS AND SOCIAL WELLBEING .............. 141 6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 141 6.2 Effect of Urban Sprawl on Livelihoods ........................................................................................ 142 6.2.1 Positive Impact of Sprawl on Livelihoods ............................................................................. 142 6.2.2 Inequality in Livelihood Options ........................................................................................... 143 6.2.3 Negative Effects of Urban Sprawl on Peri-Urban Communities ........................................ 147 6.2.3.1 Loss of Farmland .............................................................................................................. 148 6.2.3.2 Land conflict/dispute ........................................................................................................ 149 6.2.3.3 Traffic congestion ............................................................................................................. 150 6.2.3.4 Flooding ............................................................................................................................. 151 6.3 Effect of Urban Sprawl on the Social Wellbeing of Inhabitants ................................................ 154 6.3.1 Inadequate Access to Social Amenities .................................................................................. 154 6.3.2 Housing Quality and Disease Burden .................................................................................... 156 6.3.3 Crime and Insecurity .............................................................................................................. 160 6.3.4 Social Cohesion ........................................................................................................................ 164 6.4 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 167 CHAPTER SEVEN .............................................................................................................................. 168 ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINTS OF URBAN SPRAWL .................................................................. 168 7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 168 7.2 Analysis of Land Use and Land Cover Change From 1988 - 2018 ............................................ 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 7.2.1 The Broad Pattern ................................................................................................................... 168 7.2.2. The Normalised Difference Built-up Index (NDBI) ............................................................ 174 7.2.3. The Normalised Difference Vegetative Index (NDVI) ........................................................ 177 7.3 Increase in Surface Temperature (Urban Heat Island Effect) ................................................... 180 7.4 Other Consequences of Urban Sprawl on The Environment ..................................................... 186 7.4.1 Perspectives of Respondents on Ecological Effects of Sprawl ............................................. 186 7.4.2 Deforestation ............................................................................................................................ 189 7.4.3 Loss of Wetlands ..................................................................................................................... 191 7.4.4 Loss of Wildlife ........................................................................................................................ 193 7.4.5 Climate Change ....................................................................................................................... 194 7.5 Institutional Responsibility............................................................................................................ 195 7.6 Chapter Summary .......................................................................................................................... 198 CHAPTER EIGHT .............................................................................................................................. 199 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................................... 199 8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................................... 199 8.2 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................................. 199 8.2.1 Overview of Methodology ....................................................................................................... 199 8.2.2 Successive Phases of Urban Development ............................................................................. 201 8.2.3 Drivers of Urban Sprawl ........................................................................................................ 202 8.2.4 Spatio-Temporal Patterns of Land Use and Landcover Change and Ecological Effects of Sprawl................................................................................................................................................ 203 8.2.5 Vulnerabilities of Sprawl on Human Population ................................................................. 204 8.3 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................... 205 8.4 Policy Recommendations ............................................................................................................... 206 8.5 Contribution to Knowledge ........................................................................................................... 209 8.6 Further Research............................................................................................................................ 210 REFERENCES ..................................................................................................................................... 212 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................................... 232 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Study communities and their actual and projected population……………….….45 Table 3.2: Satellite data………………………………………………………………………50 Table 3.3: Sampling Techniques for Household Questionnaire Survey……………………..53 Table 3.4: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents…………………………….…64 Table 4.1: 1 Population of Sekondi Takoradi 1931 – 1970………………………………......81 Table 4.2 Sekondi Takoradi Population and Housing Stock 1960 – 2010…………...…........85 Table 4.3: Sekondi - Takoradi Urban Population 1970 – 2010……...…………………….....88 Table 4.4: Population and Percentage Change in Population by Community 1984 -2010…..89 Table 4.5 Land Values Depending on Location and Use in STMA 2018..…….………….....95 Table 5.1 Residency status by socio-demographic characteristics……………..……….…..107 Table 5.2: Reasons for relocation by socio-demographic characteristics…...……………...114 Table 6.1: Relationship between the effect of sprawl on livelihood and sociodemographic variables……..……..…………………………………………………………….143 Table 6.2: Reported incidence of community flooding due to sprawl…………………..….152 Table 6.3: Housing type and disease burden…………………………….....……………….157 Table 6.4: Top 5 Disease Cases in Sekondi Takoradi Metropolitan Area……………….....158 Table 6.5: Perception of crime and insecurity……..……..………………………...……….161 Table 6.6: Relocation of Family Members……………………………...…………………..164 Table 7.1: Area of Land Cover from 1988 - 2018…………………………………………..172 Table 7.2: Rate of Land Cover Change in Percentage……………………………..……….173 Table 7.3a: Sekondi Takoradi Minimum Temperature…..…………..……………………..182 Table 7.3b: Sekondi Takoradi Maximum Temperature……...…..…………………………182 Table 7.4a: Community Perception on the Ecological Effects of Sprawl………………......187 Table 7.4b: Perception on the Ecological Effects of Sprawl by Age………..……………...188 Table 7.4c: Perception on the Ecological Effects of Sprawl by Sex….………………...…. 189 Table 7.5: Have forest areas been cut down for farming or construction of buildings…..…190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: The ecology of actors involved in land conversion in China……………………34 Figure 2.2: Political ecology of actors involved in land conversion in Ghana………………37 Figure 2.3: Components of Sustainable Development……………………………………….38 Figure: 2.4: Conceptual Model of drivers and outcome of urban sprawl………...………..…40 Figure 3.1: Political Map of Sekondi – Takoradi Metropolitan Area showing study sites.….44 Figure 3.2: Workflow for land surface and land cover analysis………….………………….58 Figure 4.1: Map showing the location of Sekondi, Takoradi, Fort Orange and hammock road…………………………………………………………………...69 Figure 4.2a: First town extension west of the railway line in 1912……….…………………70 Figure 4.2b: 1922 Map of Gold Coast Railway …………………………………..…………72 Figure 4.2c: Development in Sekondi in 1920 showing westward expansion………………73 Figure 4.3: Sekondi Takoradi planning area, 1945………………………………….………76 Figure 4.4: Road development in Sekondi Takoradi during Nkrumah’s regime………...…..80 Figure 4.5: Map of housing developments in Sekondi-Takoradi…………………………….83 Figure 4.6: Map of STMA showing directional growth of the city…………………….…....99 Figure 5.1: A model showing the interlinkages between activity systems and space requirements in STMA……………………………………………………….…104 Figure 5.2: Ethnic mixture by socio-economic class…………………………………….…112 Figure 5.3: Feeder road in PuMI of Mampong, which links it to Kansawurodo and E.Akuffo – Addo Road……………………………………………………...124 Figure 5.4: Section of Anaji Estate showing tarred road and well laid out houses, access to telecommunication facilities and electricity………………………... 126 Figure 5.5: House under construction in PuMI Mampong situated in the midst of vegetation……………………………………………………………………….131 Figure 6.1: Perceived effects of urban sprawl ………………………..…………………….147 Figure: 6.2: Morning traffic congestion along the J.B. Danquah road……………………...151 Figure 6.3: Functioning public toilet in Urban low-income community of Ntankoful……..155 Figure 7.1a: Composite map of land use and land cover change in STMA 1988 – 2018…..170 Figure7.1b: Composite Map of Urban and Non-Urban Areas in STMA 1988 -2018………171 Figure 7.2: Land Cover Change Detection between 1988 and 2018 ………………………173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi Figure 7.3: Composite Normalised Difference Built-up Index map 1988 – 2018……….…176 Figure 7.4: Composite Normalised Difference Vegetative Index map 1988 – 2018 ……....178 Figure 7.5: Land Surface temperature in STMA from 1988 – 2018…...…………….....….181 Figure 7.6: Surface Temperature below or above 25⁰ Celsius………………………...……183 Figure 7.7: Respondents Opinion about STMA temperature ………………………………185 Figure 7.8: Houses built on filled wetlands in Mampong…………………………….…….192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii LIST OF ABBRIVIATIONS CBD Central Business District DA ` District Assembly DPA District Planning Authority ECG Electricity Company of Ghana EEA European Economic Area ERP Economic Recovery Program FGD Focus Group Discussion GOG Government of Ghana GSGDA Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda GSS Ghana Statistical Services GWCL Ghana Water Company Limited IDI In-depth Interview IMF International Monetary Fund KII Key Informant Interview MMDA Metropolitan Municipal and District Assembly MTDP Medium Term Development Plan NDBI Normalised Difference Built-up Index NDPC National Development Planning Commission NDVI Normalised Difference Vegetation Index University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development PNDC Provisional National Defence Council PPD Physical Planning Department PuMI Peri-urban Mixed-Income SAP Structural Adjustment Program SDG Sustainable Development Goal STMA Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area /Assembly TCPD Town and Country Planning Department ULI Urban Low Income UMI Urban Middle-Income USA United States of America WECD World Commission on Environment and Development University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introductory Background Cities around the world are undergoing significant spatial transformation as a result of continued urban growth and urbanisation, with current forecasts indicating strong growth in the urban fringe well into the future (Cohen, 2006; UN-Habitat, 2013; Nijkamp and Perrels, 2014; Pojani and Stead, 2015; d’Amour et al., 2017; Maheshwari et al., 2016; and Danielaini et al., 2019). The total world population was 7.6 billion in 2018, with about fifty per cent residing in urban areas. The UN DESA (2018) estimates that by 2050, 6.5 billion people will be living in urban areas moving outwards, far beyond corporate boundaries. This transformation is shown through spatial differentiation, changes in the built environment, and differences in consumption patterns, living conditions and economic activities (Pacione, 2009). Even though urbanisation has had successes such as advancing business sectors, infrastructural development, facilitated access to better educational facilities and living standards etc., there have been many challenges accompanying this process (UN-Habitat, 2014; Frimpong, 2019). One such is urban sprawl, an ensuing spatial form that has emerged globally due to this spatial transformation with implications on the natural and built environment affecting the sustainability of cities (Banai and DePriest, 2010; OECD, 2018). Though complex to define, urban sprawl means the excessive spatial growth of cities. It also refers to the outward physical expansion of cities characterised by low densities, and scattered and discontinuous leapfrog expansion of land uses (Ewing,1994). Urban sprawl involves the conversion of open spaces, vegetation and agricultural lands, and wetlands into built-up (Atu et al.,2013). Wolman et al. (2005) further clarified that urban centres grow and develop either as planned, semi-planned or unplanned. Accordingly, urban sprawl occurs as land resources are consumed to accommodate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 new urbanisation, i.e. housing and other infrastructure, which are partially planned or happen in an unplanned and haphazard manner. This phenomenon has been increasingly associated with various social and environmental problems, including inefficient land and energy use, traffic congestion, food insecurity, environmental degradation, social segregation and isolation, and even obesity (EEA,2016). Urban areas in developed countries, such as Austria, Canada, Slovenia and the United States, rank relatively high in multiple dimensions of sprawl and are driven by demographic, economic, geographic, social and technological factors, including rising incomes, preferences for living in low-density areas, technological progress in car manufacturing (OECD, 2018) just to mention a few. Additionally, sprawl is also policy-driven with the imposition of maximum density restrictions, zoning regulations and tax systems that are often misaligned with the social cost of low-density development. Furthermore, massive investment in road infrastructure has immensely contributed to this phenomenon (Bart, 2010; Hoornweg et al., 2011) which in the long run increases the carbon footprint, thus undermining the greenhouse gas benefits of the urban population density. In the developing world, “Africa has experienced the highest urban growth during the last two decades at 3.5% per year, and this rate of growth is expected to hold into 2050” (African Development Bank, 2013; Walker, 2016). The growth of cities in the developing world is dynamic, diverse and disordered, and increasingly land and space-intensive (UNFPA, 2007; Owusu, 2013; Owusu and Oteng-Ababio, 2015; Gillespie, 2016; Cobbinah and Aboagye, 2017; Gillespie, 2017; Grant et al. 2019). This rapid urbanisation process requires a large amount of land, primarily prime agricultural land, to be converted to urban land use (e.g. residential construction), especially in the urban periphery, to contain the increasing number of people in the urban areas. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Most African cities are faced with challenges of deteriorating physical and living environments, which shows itself in the form of urban sprawl (Nnaemeka-Okeke, 2016). In Nigeria, “the governance and management of towns and cities are most discouraging as cities appear to be growing beyond the control of planners, beyond management capacities and beyond available resources” (Nnaemeka-Okeke, 2016, p. 3). Uncontrolled urbanisation has resulted in urban sprawl, which is characterised by uncoordinated housing development in the urban peripheries where many structures do not have building permits and proper layouts. Most of these structures are erected by squatters who settle in the suburbs due to their inability to rent accommodation in the inner cities. However, in the case of Ghana, sprawling is rather through the incorporation of rural settlements/villages in the peri-urban zone, which serves as dormitory settlements for inhabitants working within the city. Urban sprawl in Ghana occurs when land resources are changed to accommodate new urbanisation in a haphazard, uncontrolled, uncoordinated housing expansion in the urban-rural fringe (Peprah, 2014). This is driven by an increase in population (natural and migratory) and increased need for built infrastructure, ensuing in the filling of undeveloped land in urban areas and expansion into rural areas. Additional dynamics facilitating sprawl include increasing income, preference for a serene environment or countryside living, relatively lower cost of housing and land in the periphery and land speculation (Yiran et al., 2020). Over the last 50 years, Ghana’s urban population grew substantially from 27.9% to 55.3%, with a projected annual rate of urbanisation of 3.07% from 2015 to 2020 (GSS, 2013). Sekondi- Takoradi, the third largest city of Ghana (after Accra and Kumasi), has been one of the most rapidly urbanising areas in the country over the past decades (Kumi-Boateng et al., 2015; Yankson et al., 2017). A string of pivotal moments in the country’s recent history seems to have influenced the drastic increase in the urban population in the metropolis. One such moment was in the 1980s, during the neoliberal Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) era, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 which enhanced conditions for producing and exporting goods through infrastructural rehabilitation (Benhin and Barbier, 2004, Awanyo and Attua, 2018). The Takoradi harbour was one of the essential facilities earmarked for expansion to support exports. This expansion stimulated a wave of urban growth and physical expansion into the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis. Another monumental event that has further increased the expansion of urban activities in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis is the discovery of oil resources in Ghana. This discovery thrust the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolis into the global spotlight, spurring a renewed wave of urban growth, population growth and physical expansion resulting in changes in local land use (Obeng-Odoom, 2012; Yalley and Ofori-Darko, 2012; Eduful and Hooper, 2015; Fiave, 2017; Mensah et al., 2018). The twin cities are spreading out at a staggering rate with a total land area of 191.7 km sq. in 2010, and it increased to 219 km sq. in 2015 (GSS,2014a; STMA, 2015). The effect of this uncontrolled urban sprawl means excessive land consumption, inefficient energy use, loss of livelihood, traffic congestion, as well as environmental and social degradation (Hardoy et al., 2013). With over 69% of the STMA population living in urban areas, this threatens the city with social conflict, environmental degradation and collapse of basic essential services (Vallance et al. 2011; GSS, 2012). The rate of urban growth and ensuing sprawl in Sekondi-Takoradi has repercussions for the achievement of Ghana’s Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11, which is concerned with fostering the development of sustainable cities and communities that provide safe and affordable housing for all. Sustainable cities are urban centres which are designed to address environmental, social and economic impacts through urban planning by utilizing eco-friendly development alternatives in developing the city's infrastructure. Thus, for cities to be sustainable in the future, there is a need to maintain the natural resource base, food production and ecosystem services in the peri-urban areas surrounding cities (Simon, 2008). Furthermore, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 it will be necessary for coherent and targeted policy actions and interventions steered towards addressing the economic, environmental, social and political challenges emanating from sprawl to encompass the core dimensions of the new urban agenda which emphasises the linkages between sustainable urbanisation and job creation, livelihood opportunities and improved quality of life (UN-Habitat, 2020). Thus efforts towards achieving SDG 11, “ making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable” should be viewed holistically in every urban development or renewal policy and strategy. 1.2 Problem Statement Rapid urbanisation in Ghana over the past three decades has happened in tandem with rapid economic growth. It has helped create jobs, increase human capital, decrease poverty, expand opportunities and improve living conditions for millions of Ghanaians (World Bank, 2015). Ghana has started to see the adverse effects of rapid urbanisation in recent times, including congestion and unregulated urban expansion. The country is at a defining moment where the approach it takes to managing urbanisation and sprawl will either ensure its growth is accompanied by better productivity and inclusion that will improve the lives of its citizens, or it could create “a grave danger” if it is not adequately planned for (World Bank, 2015). Sekondi-Takoradi, the capital city of the Western Region, is one of such fastest-growing cities and has experienced a considerable increase in its urban population over the past decade since the oil discovery (GSS, 2013, Obeng-Odoom, 2014a, Oteng – Ababio, 2018). It also happens to be the major economic centre in the Western Region with many commercial and industrial activities taking place due to the Port, which attracts migrants (both internal and external) seeking to take advantage of the economic opportunities the city has to offer. The discovery of oil has also resulted in the influx of migrants, both local and expatriates, into the city. According to the Ghana Statistical Services (2013), there are 63.1% non–migrants and 36.9% of migrants in Sekondi-Takoradi. There has been an increase in the population from 369,166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 in 2000 to 559548 in 2010 (GSS, 2014a). Thus, in most urban areas population growth is primarily driven by rural-urban migration.(Hove et al., 2013; Yiran et al., 2020). As the population increases, there is a need to meet the housing needs of the people and the intensified need for built infrastructure results in the filling in of undeveloped spaces and spreading out into rural areas. It also leads to the transformation of many residential houses in the inner city to accommodate business activities. Unfortunately, successive governments post- independence failed in their efforts to meet the housing needs of the growing population. As such, the housing sector was liberalised to permit the involvement of the private sector in housing provision. The private sector became involved in the provision of planned housing targeted at high- and middle-income earners leaving the low-income earners at their peril. Thus, private or traditional housing construction involves purchasing land from traditional authorities or family heads and constructing their own homes, often in areas where land is relatively cheaper and farther away from the city. This has led to the lateral spread of the city beyond its boundary and is characterised by unplanned and uncoordinated construction and places further stress on water, electricity and road infrastructure (Fuseini et al., 2017; Yiran et al., 2020) and generates a serious challenge for urban planning and management. The city is quickly expanding, and if land control measures are not put in place, settlements will continue to expand haphazardly into rural farmlands and communities (Gebregziabher et al., 2014). The effect of population increase on urban growth and expansion can be seen in the sharp rise in urban/built-up areas, which attests that the metropolis is developing rapidly (Stemn and Agyapong, 2014; Kumi-Boateng et al. 2015; Acheampong et al. 2018). Also, due to increasing demand for residential and commercial properties and gentrification, land prices and rents have escalated, forcing low-income earners to relocate to the outskirts of the city (Yalley and Ofori-Darko, 2012), and this is attributed to the discovery and exploitation of oil. Yalley and Ofori-Darko (2012) further asserted that the increase in demand for housing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 by expatriates and local skilled labour contributed to the increased rent and consequential ejection of tenants who could not afford to pay the higher rent being charged by landlords. This resulted in low-income earners moving out of the city to settle on the outskirts where rent and the price of land are relatively cheaper. The lack of affordable housing within the city also forces people to set up their residences in the countryside. The critical problem of urban sprawl is the sale of lands in the urban periphery to meet the residential space needs of the population. This has resulted in the conversion of prime agricultural lands for urban land uses (residential and, in some instances commercial construction), which in the long run affects the livelihoods of farmers as well as poses a food security threat to the city-region (Lerise et al., 2004) and contributes to climate change (Mensah et al., 2018). According to Obeng-Odoom (2014a), agricultural produce is now being purchased from other districts and regions, increasing food prices due to transportation costs. Arable lands have been purchased by oil companies and real estate developers who have converted them for non-agricultural purposes. As farmers lose their livelihoods, they, in turn, encroach on the forest areas for agricultural purposes, which results in the release of sequestered carbon into the atmosphere and deforestation (Acheampong et al., 2018). In addition to the effects of sprawl on livelihoods is that of the well-being of the people as access to adequate socio-economic infrastructure tends to be concentrated in the urban core of the metropolis with sparsely distributed facilities in the sprawling peri-urban areas (Owusu and Oteng-Ababio, 2015). The new settlements have poor roads, and an inadequate supply of utility services: water, electricity, and health facilities (Owusu and Afutu-Kotey, 2010). They are exposed to increased flood hazards, including inundation and erosion (Tasantab, 2019). The challenges are ill-addressed because development proceeds ahead of planning. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 Overall, the conditions driving sprawl are exacerbated by weak urban governance structures and institutional coordination (Cities Alliance, 2017). Even though the existing legal framework establishes the Metropolitan and Municipal Assemblies (local government) as the primary agents of urban development in Ghana, these institutions are very weak (GoG/MLG&RD, 2010). This is because the current decentralised planning system still operates in a top-down fashion, and local governments lack both the capacity and the political will to plan, design, implement and monitor programmes and policies at the local level. As Doan and Oduro (2011) note, planning functions in urban Ghana are severely hampered by the inability of local governments to direct physical development in an orderly manner, hence the unregulated and out-of-control sprawl of the region. Coupled with this is the plurality of the land tenure system, which is characterised by legal pluralism, i.e. the co-existence of both customary and statutory land administration in a complex mix and range of institutions claiming rights and authority over land, there is little or no synergy between traditional authorities and the Metropolitan Assembly during the sale of lands. Similarly, government lands are demarcated for uses that may not fall within the metropolis's planning layout, attracting settlers to the vicinity. Thus, indiscriminate sale and land use persistence has facilitated the uncontrollable and haphazard nature of the city's expansion (Cobbinah and Aboagye, 2017). Therefore, it is imperative to address the inconsistencies that exist between socio-economic elements such as traditional land tenure systems, political factors, and building the capacity of planning agencies to execute their mandate. Without effective coordination between traditional authorities and urban planning governance agencies, managing urban sprawl will continue to be challenging and the city unsustainable in diverse ways. Studies by (Asomani-Boateng, 2002; Cobbinah and Amoako, 2012; Oppong and Yeboah, 2013; Owusu, 2013; Mensah, 2014; Cobbinah and Aboagye, 2017; Karg et al., 2019), have University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 established that Ghanaian cities, particularly Accra, Kumasi and Tamale, are rapidly sprawling and engulfing peri-urban areas and adjoining districts. However, the extent of urban sprawl and its impact on urban dwellers and these peri-urban areas of Ghanaian cities in terms of changing morphology and livelihood dynamics are yet dimly appreciated as these issues transcend the city boundaries. This study, therefore, seeks to examine and understand the drivers and consequences of urban sprawl in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area. Although there is a proliferation of research on urban sprawl, most of it has been contextualised largely in developed countries where the context of sprawl differs from that of Africa (Cobbinah and Aboagye, 2017)). Research on Africa where the consequences seem ominous focuses on sub-urbanisation and peri- urbanisation (e.g., Simon et al., 2004; Mattingly, 2009; Cobbinah et al., 2015). Without an understanding and research into the dynamics and ramifications of urban sprawl, it may be difficult for African cities to achieve compact and sustainable cities. Cobbinah and Aboagye (2017) assert that few authors have attempted to evaluate urban sprawl's characteristics, causes, and effects. Consequently, questions on urban sprawl remain unanswered in developing countries in Africa. To this end, this research intends to fill this gap and contribute to the body of knowledge of the urban dynamics ongoing in Ghanaian cities by analysing and comparing the drivers and the social and environmental consequences of sprawl across six communities with varying socio-economic status from the perspectives of the urbanites in STMA and to ascertain whether oil discovery and exploitation have facilitated sprawl as asserted. Also, other studies on Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolis have focused on changes in land cover (Stemn and Agyapong, 2014; Kumi-Boateng et al., 2015; Acheampong et al., 2018) and urban expansion (Owusu and Afutu-Kotey, 2010; Aduah and Baffoe, 2013; Obeng-Odoom 2014b) as well as oil (Obeng-Odoom, 2013; Obeng-Odoom, 2014a, Fiave, 2017), transportation (Mahama, 2012; Obeng-Odoom, 2015; Yankson et al. 2017) the effect of oil discovery and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 exploration on livelihoods, housing and land prices (Yalley and Ofori-Darko, 2012; Obeng- Odoom, 2014a; Obeng-Odoom, 2014c; Adusah-Karikari, 2015; Eduful and Hooper, 2015; Yankson et al., 2017). All these focus areas have contributed to an understanding of the various issues facing the city; however, there is the need to further understand the social vulnerability beyond changes in livelihood that residents face due to sprawl. This research will fill this gap by examining the social vulnerabilities, including social cohesion, health and crime and insecurity, and the positive livelihood changes occurring within the metropolis due to sprawl. 1.3 Research Questions: The overarching research questions of the study are as follows: i. What are the primary drivers of urban sprawl in the Sekondi-Takoradi metropolitan area? ii. To what extent has the metropolitan area sprawled over the last 30 years? iii. What are the human and environmental vulnerabilities associated with urban sprawl in the area? 1.4 Research Objectives The study’s primary objective is to obtain insight into the factors spurring sprawl and its socio- environmental consequences on sustainability in the Sekondi-Takoradi Metropolitan Area. The specific objectives of the research are as follows: i. To provide a historical background of the successive phases of urban development from the colonial period to the present. ii. To examine the drivers of sprawl in the metropolis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 iii. To analyse the spatio-temporal patterns of land use and land cover changes that have occurred from 1988 to 2018. iv. To examine the social vulnerabilities of sprawl on the human population. v. Examine the implications of sprawl on ecosystem change. 1.5 Hypothesis and Propositions Hypothesis: Urban sprawl in Sekondi-Takoradi affects the livelihood of the inhabitants as disaggregated by socio-demographic characteristics (age, gender, level of education, community of residence, occupation). Hₒ: There is no relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics of individuals and the effect of urban sprawl on their livelihoods. Hₐ: There is a significant relationship between the socio-demographic characteristics of individuals and the effect of urban sprawl on their livelihood. Proposition 1: Urban sprawl in Sekondi-Takoradi affects the social well-being of its inhabitants. Social well-being will be assessed in terms of health (spread of disease), security (theft) and social cohesion (whether family members have moved because of sprawl). Proposition 2: Urban sprawl in Sekondi-Takoradi has affected the ecology communities. This will be determined in terms of land use and land change, increase in surface temperature using GIS/RS, and the perception of respondents on the loss of wildlife habitat, climate change, deforestation and loss of wetlands. 1.6 Significance of Study Firstly, the fact that urban sprawl facilitates the sale and conversion of prime agricultural lands for residential purposes affects the livelihood of farmers is undisputed (Simon et al., 2004; Zhang et al. 2007; Peprah, 2014; Kuusaana and Eledi, 2015; Codjoe et al., 2016). Urban growth University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 that is uncontrolled and uncoordinated has both positive and negative impacts on the city region and the people's livelihoods. A broader range of livelihood possibilities, both farm and non- farm, are available to households as spatial expansion occurs, allowing them to engage in different activities to augment their incomes while sharing their land resources (Satterthwaite et al., 2010). As most studies concentrate on the undesirable effects of urban sprawl on livelihoods, this study will be useful in that it will provide the positive economic opportunities households are engaging in as a result of sprawl and that dynamics of social cohesion ongoing in the low-income peri-urban communities as the urban fabric continues to expand. This will be useful for planners to take into consideration as they design spatial plans for the city. They need to incorporate the social determinants and economic activities shaping the city in the planning process. Secondly, it is a fact that urban spatial expansion changes land use and land cover by decreasing vegetative cover as urban (built-up) areas increase (Weng et al., 2004; Bounoua et al., 2009). Studies have shown that surface temperatures are higher in urban areas than in areas with higher vegetative cover. This study using remote sensing and GIS techniques will establish the spatial relationship between urban areas, vegetative cover and surface temperature over the 30-year period under review (1998 – 2018) to determine the increase in temperature in the urban and non-urban areas over the period. This information will be useful for relevant government organisations such as the Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology and Innovation to know the temperature changes in the microclimate of the metropolis to aid in their efforts to address climate change and environmental degradation issues. Lastly, some theoretical ideas of the urban spatial structure have been used to discuss the order and growth of the city. These include the concentric zone model, the sector model and the multi-nuclei model. As this study provides a historical background of the successive phases of urban development from the colonial period to the present (oil boom phase), it will use these University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 theories to determine how the spatial structure of the metropolis has been shaped over time. Such information would be useful to PPD, MLGRD, Ministry of Roads and Highways as their planning and development interventions impact the spatial expansion that occurs in the metropolis. 1.7 Scope of Study This study will focus on Sekondi- Takoradi Metropolitan Area, which is undergoing urban development at an accelerated rate and seeks to understand the implications of the accelerated development on the city's sustainability. Results emanating from the study represent the drivers and consequences of sprawl in the selected study communities at the point in time when the study was being undertaken. Furthermore, both structured and unstructured interviews conducted with respondents and informants during the fieldwork focused largely on the research questions. In the course of the analysis, however, efforts were made to relate the findings to ongoing issues within the study communities and the metropolis as a whole while keeping in line with the parameters of the research questions. 1.8 Definition of Key Concepts Relevant to this study is the need to explain or define basic concepts and terms used. This is necessary because most concepts in the social sciences tend to have a variety of meanings in different contexts (Bechhofer and Paterson, 2012). Urban sprawl: The outward physical expansion of the city which occurs in an unplanned and haphazard manner. It encompasses converting land resources to accommodate new urbanisation in a haphazard, uncontrolled, and uncoordinated housing expansion in the urban- rural fringe (Peprah, 2014). Wellbeing: According to Dodge et al. (2012:230), “well-being is when individuals have the psychological, social and physical resources they need to meet a particular psychological, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 social and physical challenge”. In this study, well-being is operationalised to be the state of being healthy, and safe, having access to basic social services and having social cohesion within the family and community. These indicators are operationally defined as follows: Health: According to the World Health Organization, health is the state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. However, for this research, health is operationalised to mean the state of being free from illness or injury. For this reason, the study looks at the disease burden suffered as a result of sprawl. The mental and social well-being of the WHO definition of health is captured under the social cohesion indicator. Social cohesion: Durkheim (1897) defines social cohesion as the characteristics of interdependence between individuals of a society and coins social cohesion as (i) the absence of latent social conflict and (ii) the presence of strong social bonds. Lewin (1946) perceives social cohesion as individual behaviour that is a product of both the person and social environment, relating the individual's agency to what the surrounding social context affords them. Bearing these definitions and perspectives in mind, this research operationalises social cohesion to be the changes in the relationship at the family level (both nuclear and extended) whether urban sprawl has facilitated integration or disintegration of the family and at the community level examines how the indigenes perceive migrants ( as cited in Fonseca et al., 2019). Crime and insecurity: According to Ghana’s Criminal Code (Act 29, 1960), crime ‘means any act punishable by death or imprisonment or fine’ (Government of Ghana [GoG], 2001). In essence, crime can be described as breaking the rules or regulations or deviant behaviour that violates prescribed norms or values and is frowned upon by society (Wrigley-Asante, 2016). In this study, crime means an action or omission that constitutes an offence and is punishable University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 by law, fine or imprisonment within Ghana. Individual perception of insecurity concerning crime is examined from the victimisation theory, which posits that victims of crime feel less safe than those who have not been victims (Garofalo, 1979; Skogan, 1990; Hale, 1996; Bissler, 2003; ). Thus, crime and insecurity are operationalised to mean the action of crime or stealing that affects how safe or unsafe an individual or group of people feel. 1.9 Organisation of Thesis There are eight chapters in this thesis. Chapter one introduces the theme, research questions, objectives and hypothesis. The pertinent literature on urban sprawl and its consequences on the sustainability of cities are reviewed in chapter two. This review considers defining key concepts, theories driving the study, policy and institutional framework shaping urban sprawl, and conceptual framework. A description of the study area, research approach and techniques of analysis are found in chapter three. The findings and analysis of the study are discussed in chapters four, five, six and seven. The fourth chapter provides a historical background of the origins and growth of urban developments in Sekondi-Takoradi from the pre-colonial era to the oil boom and uses urban theories of spatial development to determine how the metropolis has developed over time. This is to set a stage for the various economic developments that have occurred and how that has facilitated sprawl. Chapter five examines the function of the state, civil society and market forces in facilitating sprawl using a systems approach; and answers research question one. The underlying drivers of sprawl within the metropolis are its economic base and population/demographic growth. As these increase, there is increased demand for commercial, industrial and residential spaces which are either planned or unplanned. The choice of location is urged by proximate reasons University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 such as accessibility, land and housing affordability, preference for a serene environment and family relocation/migration, coupled with weak urban governance, which has occasioned sprawl within the metropolis. Chapter six explores the extent to which sprawl has affected livelihoods, household quality and health; and presents respondents’ perspectives on crime and insecurity, disease burden, the impact of sprawl on social cohesion, and emerging employment opportunities and livelihood changes resulting from sprawl. This chapter provides insight into the effects of urban sprawl on livelihood and quality of life and answers the human vulnerabilities aspect of research question three. Chapter seven explores the extent of sprawl in Sekondi-Takoradi over thirty years (1988 – 2018). It highlights the extent of spatial expansion in the city through the various phases of economic development. It also looks at land use and land cover changes, increases in surface temperature, and other consequences of sprawl on the environment. Chapter seven answers research question two and the environmental vulnerabilities aspect of question three. Conclusively, chapter eight links the main results of the study and the conclusions made. It deduces additional knowledge generated, its policy implications, as well as suggested future areas of research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1 Introduction This section provides a careful review of current literature from scholarly articles, books, surveys and other sources relevant to urban sprawl. It begins by discussing the concept of urban sprawl and the policies and institutional frameworks shaping sprawl. It further discusses the drivers and consequences of urban sprawl and urban sustainability. Following this, the chapter discusses theories that explain the urban spatial structure and how it influences sprawl. The last section of the chapter presents the conceptual framework of the study. 2.2 General Overview of Urban Sprawl Two interrelated facets of contemporary urban growth – population size and physical patterns of expansion – have received unequal attention from urban researchers. Urban expansion urged by population growth undertakes diverse forms, with distinct outcomes for quality of life, the environment and urban governance (Angel, 2006). What has arisen as a new challenge to the growth of urban areas in the 21st Century is the pressure of numbers and the pressure that comes from the forms of consuming space in a globalised world. These patterns and how they challenge the sustainable future of cities are still insufficiently understood (Hogan and Ojima, 2008, Kew and Lee, 2013). Urban sprawl is often discussed without a permanent definition but describes undesirable patterns of development. It is generally described as haphazard, poorly planned/unplanned, uncontrolled, separated land uses and car-dependent communities, uncoordinated expansion of low-density buildings occurring at the peripheries of urban centres (Bourne, 2001; Frumkin, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 2002; Bhatta, 2010; Owusu,2013; Altieri et al., 2014; Sinha, 2018; Akubia and Bruns, 2019 and Yiran, 2020). Urban sprawl is a phenomenon that occurs globally in both developed and developing countries. Urban sprawl in the United States has its origins in the flight to the suburbs that began in the 1950s when people desired to live outside of city centres to avoid traffic, noise, crime, and other problems, and to have homes with more extensive square footage and yard space (Ewing et al., 2003). According to Jaret et al. (2006), racial segregation in the United States propelled urban sprawl as Hispanics and Blacks lived in the inner cities and Whites lived in the suburbs to avoid mingling with ethnic minorities. As the suburban areas urbanised, cities expanded in geographic size quicker than they grew in population. As demand for land in the United States continues to increase, it resulted in the areal extent growing ahead of population, leading to urban sprawl as there is an increased expansion of developed land in contrast with a decline in population density. This trend has produced large metropolitan areas with low population densities interconnected by roads. Residents of sprawling cities tend to live in single-family homes and commute to work, school, or other activities by automobile (Frumkin, 2002). Therefore, people who live in large metropolitan areas often find it difficult to travel even short distances without using a car because of the remoteness of residential areas and the inadequate availability of mass transit, walkways, or bike paths. Although initially a North American phenomenon (Adaku, 2014), significant research points to the importance of sprawl in other regions of the world as well. Sprawl is rising even in Europe, where cities have traditionally been associated with compact urban design (Bae, 2004). Sprawl is visible in countries with high population density and high economic growth, such as Belgium, the Netherlands and Northern Italy. Countries that have gained from European Union policies also show manifestations of sprawl, especially along the coastal regions of Europe where massive population growth is resulting in the continuous development of sprawl. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 However, the situation is different in China, where urban sprawl results from low-density urbanisation primarily from industrialisation and population growth, not excessive suburbanisation like in Europe and the United States. A study by Qi and Lu (2008) showed that wealthy people in China prefer to live in the central cities to enjoy a better environment and excellent public services; while those who cannot afford to live in the central cities move to the suburbs and sacrifice access to a better environment and public services. Urban sprawl on the fringes of Beijing is attributed to growing local autonomy and fiscal responsibilities, indicating the role of policy in facilitating sprawl. According to Fang and Pal (2016), China’s local government is leasing out more land which generates up to 70% of the city’s revenue, thereby facilitating sprawl. In the developing world, “Africa has experienced the highest urban growth during the last two decades at 3.5% per year, and this rate of growth is expected to hold into 2050 (African Development Bank, 2013). With a predominantly youthful population, this means the rate of growth will not slow down anytime soon. Sub-Saharan Africa is regarded as the world’s fastest- urbanising region, with an urban population of about 472 million, and this projection is expected to double within the next (Yiran et al., 2020). The rapid rate of expansion that Sub- Saharan African cities are experiencing has resulted in the outward expansion of cities into their surrounding rural areas (Liu, Yue and Fan, 2011; Wilson and Chakraborty, 2013; Gyasi et al., 2014; Fuseini, Yaro and Yiran, 2017; Ablo et al., 2020). Africa’s current rate of growth exceeds the capability of city authorities to provide adequate, affordable housing as urban planning and development across Africa have not kept pace with the rapid rate of urbanisation. “To bridge the housing gap, many governments have liberalised the housing sector to allow for private sector participation in housing provision, and this has contributed to the rapid expansion of most cities beyond their boundaries” (Yiran et al., 2020 page 2). The rapid development of cities often results in the uncontrolled and haphazard University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 expansion of a city (Johnson, 2001). This leads to the intrusion of urban land use on rural land. This occurs as cities expand beyond their formal administrative boundaries and encroach on neighbouring rural areas by absorbing all the towns and villages that lay on their growth path (UN-HABITAT, 2010; Yiran et al., 2020), thereby diminishing the spatial segregation between urban and rural areas. The transformation of the rural landscape due to urban sprawl has significant implications for agriculture and food security (Bristow and Kennedy, 2013). The growth of cities in the developing world continues to be dynamic, diverse and disordered and increasingly land and space-intensive, requiring large amounts of land, mostly prime agricultural land to be converted to urban land use such as residential construction in the urban periphery to contain the increasing urban population (UNFPA, 2007). It is also characterised by low-density developments, which could be attributed to the lower land prices on the city's outskirts (Ablo et al., 2020). 2.3 Policy and Institutional Framework Shaping Urban Sprawl In Ghana Urban sprawl has been on the rise in Ghana as economic development policies did not include spatial development planning in their implementation. The 1940s saw the promulgation of the CAP 84 – Town and Country Planning Ordinance (Sarfo, 2020). Since its inception in 1945, the Town and Country Planning Ordinance of 1945 (CAP 84), TCPD (currently PPD) was in charge of the “orderly and progressive development of land, towns and other areas, whether urban or rural, to preserve and improve the amenities thereof, and for other matters connected therewith” (CAP 84 of 1945:1). This marked the beginning of urban planning and preparations of plans nationwide (Cobbinah and Darkwah, 2017; Acheampong, 2018). However, the spatial planning mimicked the British Town and Country Planning Act Ordinance of 1932, which was characterised by large plot sizes with a minimum plot size of 70ft by 100ft did not encourage densification but rather intensified the development of low-rise buildings with large open spaces (Adarkwa, 2012; Owusu, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 Although this land use planning framework has become obsolete and ineffective as the country is undergoing rapid urbanisation and urban growth (Owusu, 2008), it has guided development control and land use planning in Ghana for about 70 years. Founded on Ghana's previous centralised governance structure, it is as a consequence not in alignment with the current irreversible policy on decentralised governance. Planning powers were bestowed on the Minister, as such planning was done piecemeal and at the directive of the Minister (Acheampong, 2018). CAP 84 objected to providing progressive and orderly development, be it urban or rural and for the improvement and preservation of facilities in such areas where development was taking place (Sarfo, 2020). Thereby accounting for the haphazard spatial development that has occurred in the country over the years. According to the constitutional provision of the decentralisation of governance in the country, the Local Government Act, 1993 (Act 462) was promulgated. It heightened the District Assembly’s (DA) mandates to ensure the inclusive development and growth of areas under local governance. Under Act 462, the District Planning Authority (DPA) is given the authority to grant permits for physical development. It is mandatory that no development should be carried out without the prior approval of the DA. It was observed that this autonomous provision had been subsequently affected by the provision in National Building Regulations 1996 (LI 1630). While Act 462 gives the DPA the authority to alter, remove, prohibit or demolish any development undertaken without a permit or regard for the conditions prescribed for the development, LI 1630 (section 8) permits a developer to develop if they are uninformed about the decision concerning their application within 3 months. This provision creates practical difficulties, for the reason that most applications for building permits, in practice, are not approved within three (3) months and encourage the occurrence of spatial development ahead of planning in an uncoordinated manner. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 In addition to Act 462 was the promulgation of Act 480 (National Development Planning System Act,1994), which presented the legal basis for planning at all levels in Ghana. It empowers the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC), in consultation with the Ministry responsible for Local Government, to recommend that the President designate any area required for special purposes in the national interest as a Special Development Area (Sarfo, 2020). This leads to vacant lands being held in urban areas for government use and pushes further residential and commercial developments within the city, thereby facilitating lateral expansion dotted with vacant lands. Additionally, Ghana has undertaken numerous economic development policies, which include Ghana Vision 2020, Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy (2003-2005); the Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy (2006-2009) and the Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (GSGDA I and GSGDA II implemented in 2010-2013 and 2014-2017 respectively) (Sarfo 2020). These national policies addressed social and economic issues, poverty alleviation and macro-economic stability to the neglect of spatial planning and management of human settlement. This is due lack of coordination in the development planning process. According to Acheampong & Ibrahim (2016), the various MMDAs almost always work in isolation: District Planning Unit is mandated to prepare Medium-Term Development Plans, whereas Town and Country Planning is concerned with development control and land allocation. As such, as the country's economic base is growing, there is a corresponding increase in population, which places a demand on space that is not adequately planned. Finally, to address the lapses in the various land-use planning laws (Cap84, Act 462 and Act 480), were revised and consolidated in the Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, 2016 (Act 925) to make land-use planning laws applicable in contemporary times. It also acknowledges and makes provision for spatial aspects of socio-economic development, promotes sustainable land and human settlement development through a decentralised system of planning, aims to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 improve quality of life by ensuring prudent use of land and provides regulations of national, regional, district and local spatial planning (Land Use and Spatial Planning Act, Act 925, 2016). This Act, however, also makes provision for special development areas for the government. The undue political interference in planning also contributes to the failure of District Assemblies to effectively plan the growth of human settlements in Ghana (Yeboah and Obeng-Odoom, 2010). 2.4 Drivers of Urban Sprawl Various factors have been identified as the key drivers of sprawl in Sub-Saharan Africa. Notable among them is population growth (Bhatta et al., 2010; Osman et al., 2016) stemming from natural increase and rural-urban migration (Ablo et al., 2020). Ghana has moved from a predominantly rural country to an urban country, with over half (50.9%) of its population reported to be living in urban localities in 2010 (GSS, 2014b). Urban sprawl in Ghana occurs due to the conversion of land resources to accommodate urban growth and the uncontrolled and uncoordinated expansion of housing (Peprah, 2014). Ghana’s population has witnessed not only rapid growth but also rapid urbanisation since independence. This has been fuelled by policies during the colonial period, which has been largely sustained through the post- independence era and the interplay between natural population increase and migration. According to Adarkwa (2012), during the colonial period, two main structures were evident in the spatial economy of the country. A centre-periphery structure emerged with the centre consisting of a forest belt where the production of raw materials was concentrated, and Kumasi was the centre of this system. The second type of growth region consisted of coastal towns, which played a crucial role in import-export activities, with Sekondi-Takoradi and Accra becoming the most important centres. These three towns – Accra, Kumasi and Sekondi- Takoradi thus monopolised much of the modern social infrastructure in the country (Songsore, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 1979; Songsore, 1989). The result was an increase in the population of these towns. Coupled with population growth and industrial development, land resources in these cities are changed to accommodate new urbanisations and cities sprawl when there is an uncontrolled and uncoordinated expansion of housing. Deregulation and liberalisation of economies through implementing the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Bank-led structural adjustment, and economic recovery programs have contributed significantly to rapidly sprawling cities. Deregulation of the housing market allowed private developers rather than government to meet the housing needs of the increasing urban population. This authorised real estate companies and private individuals to acquire land and develop residential facilities to bridge the growing housing gap. Unfortunately, however, is the fact that liberalisation was not backed by proper planning and zoning of cities, resulting in development outpacing planning schemes (Ablo et al., 2020). Planning institutions are saddled with corruption, government interference, and limited budget and logistical support, making them ineffective in enforcing building and planning regulations. The available planning schemes do not include areas where newly developed residential facilities have been constructed. This allows developers to build without adhering to planning regulations (Yiran et al., 2020). According to the UNFPA (2007), urban sprawl is partly fuelled by land speculators nurtured by the prospect of rapid urban growth holding on to land in and around the city, expecting land values to increase. This allows cities to expand their footprints and reduce their densities and sprawl while empty plots of land remain in inner-city areas. Speculation produces withholding of land for development which is one reason for discontinuous development. This is evident in Sekondi Takoradi, where private individuals and real estate developers buy land in anticipation of urban growth due to oil exploration and discovery in the Western Region. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 An unregulated land market is pervasive in Ghana and creates an enabling environment for sprawling to occur. Leasing or selling of land occurs without any regulatory framework despite the availability of many land laws (Fuseini and Kemp, 2015; Cobbinah and Aboagye, 2017). Lands in Ghana are under the ownership of traditional authorities by their custodian role of 80% of all lands in Ghana; they have taken up the responsibility of determining when, where and what use a piece of land should be put to through their private surveyors. This has facilitated a gap in land development and management as traditional authorities set their prices for land at different locations within the town without any institutionalised framework. With varying land prices within the major cities of Ghana, people are attracted to purchase land in areas with lower land prices. This situation contributes to rapid physical development and urban sprawl. Access to infrastructural facilities and social amenities has also spurred sprawl in Ghana. Development of dual road corridors and access to good road networks in the periphery areas and the ability to extend the needed basic social amenities such as water and electricity to the outskirts facilitates relocation to the peri-urban area (Amoateng et al., 2013; Owusu, 2013; Fuseini et al., 2017, Yiran et al., 2020). Middle-income earners who move to suburban areas have cars and require roads. However, because the peri-urban areas tend to fall outside the planning zones of the cities, there are no roads; as such, it becomes the responsibility of the residents to pool resources and clear a path to their properties. It is only after the area has densified that paved roads are sometimes constructed. A similar manner is embarked on to gain access to electricity, whereby individuals buy poles and erect them near their properties and electricity companies only connect the premises to the power supply. For water, many use groundwater by drilling boreholes on their compounds or rely on water tanker services until the water supply company extends supply lines to the area. These issues are not difficult for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 the affluent to resolve since their comfort is a priority, and therefore this contributes to fuelling sprawl (Yiran et al., 2020). The changing preferences of people also facilitate urban sprawl due to their income levels. The rising numbers of people in the middle income and their varied preferences in the location of housing are influenced by their need and preference for a serene environment, away from the noise, the hustle and bustle of the city (Amoateng et al., 2013; Oppong and Yeboah, 2013, Yiran et al., 2020). The desire to own one’s own home and avoid issues associated with renting also drives people to build where the land is relatively affordable and available (Oppong and Yeboah, 2013; Adaku, 2014). In addition, Owusu-Ansah and O’Conner (2010) report that the growing middle-class population in Ghana has led to increased housing demand with a common perception associating higher social standing with having a house in peri-urban areas. In their study, house owners explained that there is higher social standing associated with owning a house and supporting family members and friends by providing accommodation for them. Corroborating studies such as (Yalley and Ofori-Darko 2012), whose findings emphasise an increasing preference for detached and semi-detached housing and rising demand for relatively lower-cost land that can be easily purchased and developed to provide accommodation for those in need. The drivers of sprawl are not mutually exclusive but inherently interlinked and operate and interact at different spatial scales at the global, regional, national and local levels. Specifically, population increase, unregulated land market, individual preference, access to transportation and basic social amenities, government policies, and urban planning failures drive urban sprawl in Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.5 Consequences of Sprawl The consequences and significance of sprawl, good or ill, are evaluated based on its socio- economic and environmental impacts. Often these are overlapping, or one may have several indirect impacts. However, the major consequences of urban sprawl can be summarised as follows: Increased infrastructure and public service cost more to provide as urban sprawl reduces residential densities., the cost of providing infrastructure facilities such as electricity, water, and roads is higher per person or house in the urban fringe than in high-density central areas. Studies have established that people in sprawling areas generally lack access to such facilities because it is relatively costlier in providing such services than in high-density areas (Barnes et al., 2001). Energy inefficiency: Urban sprawl causes more travel from the fringes to the central city and thus more fuel consumption. Furthermore, it also causes traffic congestion, eventually resulting in more fuel consumption (Newman and Kenworthy, 1988; Bhatta, 2010). There is also a cost associated with extending electricity and maintaining the service delivery system, as the farther from the generator, the more power is lost in distribution. In areas where sprawl is not controlled, the concentration of human presence in residential and industrial settings may alter ecosystem patterns and processes (Grimm et al., 2000). Development associated with sprawl not only decreases the amount of forest area (MacDonald and Rudel, 2005), farmland (Hedblom and Söderström, 2008), and open space but also breaks up what is left into small chunks that disrupt ecosystems and fragment habitats (Bhatta, 2010). Roads, power lines, and pipelines often cut through natural areas, fragmenting wildlife habitats and altering wildlife movement patterns. The fragmentation of a large forest into smaller patches disrupts ecological processes and reduces habitat availability for some species. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 Sprawl particularly contributes to the loss of farmlands and open spaces (Zhang et al., 2007), thereby creating a vicious cycle of poverty for the farmers who hitherto depended on the land for their livelihood. It has been estimated that about 80 percent of urban expansion within the next 30 years will occur in croplands and forests with serious impacts on water bodies and wetlands. Such rapid cropland conversions also have obvious implications for food security and climate change consequences (d’Amour et al., 2017). Loss of farmlands leads to loss of productive agricultural land, decrease in food production, loss of agricultural labour, increased food prices and food insecurity which affects not only the livelihood of the farmers but has consequences for the broader community (Simon et al., 2004, Amoateng et al., 2013, Peprah, 2014, Kuusaana and Eledi, 2015; Codjoe et al., 2016). Urban growth and sprawl lead to increasing imperviousness of surface areas, increasing total runoff volume. So urban areas located in flood-prone areas are exposed to increased flood hazards, including inundation and erosion (Jacquin et al. 2008). Additionally, heavy rainstorms occurring in cities and towns with inadequate systems for managing rainwater can cause untreated human sewage to enter waterways (combined sewer overflow), thereby affecting water quality and leading to the outbreak of diseases such as cholera (Rain et al., 2011; Amoateng et al., 2013; Cobbinah et al., 2015). Urban growth, both in population and urban extent, transforms the landscape from natural cover types to increasingly impervious urban land. This change can significantly affect local weather and climate (Bounoua et al., 2009). Weng et al. (2004) established a positive correlation between land surface temperature and impervious surfaces as the alteration of land cover modifies the urban climate, causing it to be warmer than the surrounding rural environment (Bhatta, 2010). The increase in surface temperature in urban areas could potentially result in meteorological events like modifying precipitation pattern levels (Voogt et al., 2003, Kumi-Boateng et al., 2015). It also directly affects the increased demand for energy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 to power fans, air coolers, water coolers, and air conditioners, requiring power plants to increase their output, resulting in higher emissions of pollutants generated by the plants. Urban sprawl is also cited as a factor of air pollution (Stone, 2008) since the car-dependent lifestyle imposed by sprawl leads to increases in fossil fuel consumption and emissions of greenhouse gases which contribute to global warming and has serious health implications (Stoel, 1999; Bhatta, 2010, Ackom, 2016). Air pollution remains a major challenge globally and accounts for about 7 million premature deaths every year, largely as a result of burning fossil fuels to produce electricity and emissions from vehicles (“Pollution Action Note”, n.d) Lastly, it is important to point out that the consequences of urban growth may have both positive and negative impacts; however, negative impacts are generally more highlighted because this growth is often uncontrolled or uncoordinated. Therefore, the negative impacts override the positive sides. Positive implications of urban growth include increased economic production, employment opportunities, better life because of employment opportunities and better services, and better lifestyles. Urban growth can extend better basic services (such as transportation, sewer, and water) and other specialist services (such as better educational facilities, and health care facilities) to more people. However, these benefits are overshadowed by the uncontrolled and uncoordinated manner in which urban growth occurs, resulting in sprawl (Yiran et al., 2020). Urban sprawl, in the long run, affects the sustainability of the city. 2.6 Implications for Sustainability Sustainability involves the conservation of ecosystems and their services while simultaneously providing for the needs of humans (Goonetilleke et al., 2014; Yiran, 2020). It is fixed on nurturing adaptive potentials and creating opportunities to preserve or attain desirable economic, social and ecological systems for current and future generations (WCED, 1987; Holling, 2001; Folke et al., 2002). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 SDG 11: making cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable, acknowledge sustainable urban development as a fundamental precondition for sustainable development. This is consistent with the Brundtland definition of sustainable development, that is, a development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (WCED, 1987). With nearly 56% of the world’s population living in cities today, the number of urban dwellers has enormous potential to change the morphology of urban and rural areas (Buchholz, 2020). This threatens cities with social conflict, environmental degradation, and basic services collapse (Basiago, 1998). One of the main consequences of rapid urban development, which undermines sustainability is urban sprawl. Urban sprawl produces economic, social and environmental costs occasioned by the inefficient use or consumption of natural resources (Bovet et al., 2018) As such, urban sustainability should be viewed from an integrated economic, social and environmental perspective (Khan, 1995). “Economic sustainability of a city is its potential to reach qualitatively a new level of socio-economic, demographic and technological output which in the long run reinforces the foundations of the urban system” (Nijkamp and Perrels, 2014). From the environmental sustainability perspective, Agyeman and Evans (2006) posit that urban sustainability encompasses the pursuit of an urban form that integrates land development and nature preservation and places the development of land in cities and the protection of natural systems into a state of equilibrium. Lastly, social sustainability embraces concepts of empowerment, equity, participation, sharing etc., thereby preserving the environment through economic growth and poverty alleviation (Shirazi and Keivani, 2017). According to Nilsson et al. (2014) and Alawadi (2017), the development of green compact cities can lead to sustainable development. This is because the primary strategy of compact development plans is sustainable transportation, mixed land use, vertical development, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 densification, green space and diversity, thereby making it able to contribute to environmental, social and economic goals of sustainability (Bibri et al., 2020; Yiran, 2020). It is established from the literature that urban sprawl is a global phenomenon with varying underlying drivers and has economic, social and environmental consequences. Since the drivers and consequences of sprawl differ across continents, it is important to fill the gaps in knowledge and literature by examining the drivers, extent of sprawl and the social and environmental vulnerabilities associated with sprawl in an African secondary city. 2.7 Theories of Urban Spatial Structure Over the years, various models of urban ecology have emerged that sought to conceptualise how humans exploit urban space to meet their different economic and social needs. The boundaries within such environments are continually changing-largely as an outcome of demographic and economic forces of attraction. The classical theories of urban spatial structure, including the Concentric zone model, Sector model and Multiple nuclei model, are designed to show the spatial arrangements of land use areas in a city. Although the study is not essentially concerned with testing these models, it focuses on determining the extent to which these models can be used to explain the spatial configuration of the city as it sprawls. The Concentric zone model (Burgess, 1925) states that “cities have the propensity to develop from the centre to form a series of concentric sectors”. The growth occurs due to centripetal forces from an original core, and as expansion occurs, each inner zone tends to widen its area by overrunning the next outer zone. This cycle is known as invasion-succession. As growth occurs, each inner zone tends to invade the next. However, the rate of progression of this rippling tendency depends on economic expansion in the city and the population growth rate. In contrast, when urban areas are decreasing in population, the outer zone tends to remain stationary, but the inner fringe of the transitional zone tends to recede into the commercial University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 district (Albrechts, 2004). This model is useful in explaining urban sprawl as lands in the periphery are being absorbed into the urban area. However, the limitation of this model is that it was not able to explain the dynamics within each zone which leads to the invasion of the outer zone. The Sector model (Hoyt, 1939) emphasises the influences of the transportation network and can be seen as a modification of the Burgess Concentric Zone Model of city development. The application of the sector model allows for an outward progression of growth. It concurs with the existence of a CBD and suggests that zones enlarge from the city centre along railroads, highways and other transportation arteries. Hoyt further claimed that the location and extension of high-quality zones tend to proceed fastest along existing transportation lines and towards another existing nucleus of trading centres. This is useful in understanding the development and location of communities in STMA along the railway, harbour and major roads. The critique of this model is the fact that its basis is on early twentieth-century rail transport and does not make allowances for private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries. The Multiple nuclei model (Harris and Ullman, 1945) is built on the premise that frequently there are a series of nuclei in the pattern of the urban land uses rather than a single central core. This model introduces the element of sub-business districts. The emergence of polycentric urban landscapes often reflecting suburban business districts provide alternative centres to promote more activity and population diffusion from the core of the urban area. This applies to STMA in that, Sekondi and Takoradi are two separate cities that have been merged and economic and residential development have occurred after the economic and transport hubs in each of the twin cities. The critique of this model is the clarification of the characteristics of the nuclei. It requires a clearer differentiation between factors explaining the structure and dynamics of change. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 In addition to the classical models, social determinants of land use, which are about how social values shape land-use patterns in cities and how man adapts to his environment, will also be used to understand the drivers of sprawl in the study area. 2.8 Conceptual Framework This study's conceptual framework, drivers and outcome of urban sprawl, lays out the interconnects between the various actors that drive urban sprawl and the environmental and social components of sustainable development. It is modelled after two frameworks: Fang and Pal's (2016): “The Drivers of Urban Sprawl in Urbanising China – A Political Ecology Analysis” and Satterthwaite et al. (1992) “Component of Sustainable Development” which will