ASSESSMENT OF THE QUALITY OF WATER 
FOR INDUSTRIAL AND DOMESTIC USE
BY
ISABELLA MANS A AGRA
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE NUTRITION AND FOOD 
SCIENCE DEPARTMENT, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, IN 
PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR 
THE AWARD OF M.PHIL. DEGREE IN FOOD SCIENCE.
AUGUST, 1995.
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-315273TD3l9*-6^5/^ g
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ABSTRACT
Unwholesome water for both domestic and industrial purposes 
constitute a serious health risk.
An assessment of the quality of water utilized in the 
domestic, industrial and commercial ventures, was carried out, 
using two approaches: (a) a survey on water utilization in
food industries in Accra and Tema. Twenty food processing 
industries were evaluated on storage of water, the mode of 
cleaning of storage receptacles, quality control of water, 
treatment of water within the factory .and problems encountered 
in production which might be related to water quality. 
Responses were analyzed using DBase 3 plus computer software.
The survey revealed that, there was poor water quality 
management practices in most of the food processing industries 
visited.
(b) Laboratory analysis of the microbiological status, 
physical parameters and chemical constituents of the water 
samples from two main sources of supply; Weija and Kpong, was 
performed.
Water supplied by Weija and Kpong Water Works, were both 
generally potable. The sodium, calcium and alkalinity of 
water were higher in Weija water samples than in Kpong water 
samples.
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In the rural areas, water from boreholes and deep wells may­
be able to meet bacteriological standards if protected, but 
water from such sources found in Ga Rural District, was not 
aesthetically pleasing to consumers because of high salt 
content.
Iced water and water served in informal food service centres 
were found to be microbiologically contaminated, some with 
microbes of faecal origin and therefore, may be injurious to 
human health.
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DECLARATION
This Research was conducted by me as presented under the 
supervision of Dr. E. K. Collison of the Department of 
Nutrition and Food Science, University of Ghana, Legon.
.WAT:
ISABELLA MANSA AGRA
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DEDICATION
To my dear husband, Worlanyo Kudjo Agra, who faithfully gave 
me every support I ever needed, and to my children, Edem, 
Sena, Delali and Elorm, who endured the periods of separation 
throughout the preparation of this manual.
Mansa
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to acknowledge the immerse contribution made by Dr. E. 
K. Collison, my supervisor, for his guidance in planning and 
executing the research, and editing the thesis.
I also wish to express my gratitude to Prof. S. Sefa - Dedeh, 
who was a source of inspiration and technical direction.
I am deeply indebted to Mr. N. L. Hesse, and Mr. J. Odame - 
Darkwa, of Ghana Standards Board, for being part of my 
editorial team and for all the support and encouragement they 
gave me.
My sincerest thanks go to my colleagues, Kwesi Saalia, Michael 
Adgei, Yvonne Kluvitse and Aba Sey for their invaluable 
support. I cannot thank them enough.
I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to Mary Keleve, 
my friend, who prayed for me, encouraged me and stood by me 
through the difficult times, and also for the tedious job of 
reading over my script.
May God bless all my family, all staff of Ghana Standards 
Board and all my numerous friends and sympathizers for every 
kind of help afforded me throughout my course of study.
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ABSTRACT .............................................  1
DECLARATION........................................... iii
DEDICATION.........................................  iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .......................................  "v
TABLE OF CONTENTS...................................  vi
LIST OF T A B L E S .....................................  xi
LIST OF FIGURES...................................  xiii
INTRODUCTION .......................................  1
1.1 Water Quality .............................  1
1.2 Objectives............................  2
1.2.1 Main Objectives................  2
1.2.2 Specific Objectives ...............  3
LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................  4
2.1 Water and Human Existence:Dependency of life
on Water............................... 4
2.2 Availability of water .....................  5
2.3 Water Demand .............................  6
2.4 Water Sector Development and Management . . .  8
2.5 Effect of Water Quality on Health....... 15
2.5.1 Pollution of Natural Water Sources . . 17
2.5.2 Disease: Consequence of unsafe water . 18
2.5.3 Chemical Water Quality .............  20
*
2.5.4 Disinfection by-products ...........  23
2.5.5 Bottled Mineral water(Mistrust of tap
water) .........................  24
2.5.6 Effect of improvement of services . . 24
2.5.7 Health Education ...................  25
TABLE OF CONTENTS
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2.6 Water Treatment............................ 2 6
2.6.1 Settlement.......................... 27
2.6.2 Flocculation........................ 27
2.6.3 Sand filtration...................... 28
2.6.4 Disinfection and sterilization . . . .  29
2.6.4.1 Chlorine.................... 29
2.6.4.2 Chlorine D i o x i d e ............ 30
2 . 6 .4.3 Chloramine.................. 3 0
2.6.4.4 Ozone.......................  31
2.6.4.5 Ultraviolet.................. 32
2.6.4.6 Adsorption.................. 32
2.6.5 Ion - Exchangers....................  33
2.7 Water Treatment in G h a n a .................. 35
2.8 Analytical methods ........................ 37
2.8.1 Bacteriological analysis ............  37
2.8.2 Current Techniques in Bacteriological
Analysis.......................  39
2.8.3 Chemical Analysis ..................  40
2.8.4 Sampling............................ 40
2.9 Source Water in Industry.................. 41
2.9.1 Non alcoholic Beverages............  42
2.9.2 Br e w i n g ............................ 43
2.9.3 Canning............................ 45
2.9.4 Dairy Products...................... 46
2.9.5 Industrial Equipment ................  46
2.9.6 Washing and Cleaning................  47
2.10 Storage and Handling.....................  48
METHODOLOGY......................................... 5 0
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3.1 S u r v e y ................................... 50
3.2 Analysis of Samples....................... 50
3.2.1 Sample Collection .................  50
3.2.2 Bacteriological Examination .......  51
3.2.3 p H ..............................  51
3.2.4 Turbidity......................  51
3.2.5 Alkalinity ....................... 51
3.2.6 Colour..........................  52
3.2.7 Metallic contaminants .............  52
3.4 Data Analysis............................. 52
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION .............................  53
4.1 S u r v e y ................................... 53
4.1.1 Water storage and cleaning of storage
receptacle.....................  53
4.1.2 Water quality control in industry . . 55
4.1.3 Water Treatment..................  56
4.1.4 Problems encountered in industry
attributable to poor water quality 58
4.2 Laboratory Analysis .......................  60
4.2.1 Bacteriology of Urban Water (piped) . 60
4.2.2 Bacteriology of Rural Water samples 62
4.2.3 Aesthetic and Chemical quality of Water
in A c c r a .......................  64
4.2.3.1 p H ......................... 67
4.2.3.2 Alkalinity.................  69
4.2.3.3 Turbidity...................  71
4.2.3.4 C o l o u r .....................  71
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4.2.3.5 Ionic constituents of Piped
W a t e r ................ 73
4.2.3.6 S o d i u m .................. 73
4.2.3.7 Calcium.................. 76
4.2.4 Aesthetic and chemical quality of Water
in Ga Rural.................... 82
4.2.4.1 p H ...................... 82
4.2.4.2 Alkalinity.............. 82
4.2.4.3 Turbidity .................. 82
4.2.4.4 C o l o u r .................. 86
4.2.4.5 Cationic constituents of water
from Ga R u r a l ........ 86
4.3. Water utilization and handling beyond the
t a p .......................................  90
4.3.1 Informal Food Service Centers . . . .  90
4.3.2 Iced water S a mples................  91
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................  92
5.1 S u r v e y ............................... 92
5.1.1 Storage and Cleaning of Water vessels
.......................................... 92
5.1.2 Water Quality Control in Industry . . 92
5.1.3 Water Treatment in Industry........  92
5.1.4 Production problems encountered in
Industry relating to Water Quality . . .  93
5.2 Urban Water...........................  93
5.3 Rural Water...........................  93
5.4 Water in Informal Food Service Centers . . .  93
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5.5 Iced w a t e r ...............................  94
REFERENCES.........................................  95
APPENDICES........................................... 112
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 Average Water Consumption from Communal Water Points
(Wells, Boreholes, Stand posts)......................  7
Table 2 Average Water Consumption from Piped supplies 8
Table 3 Effects of Improved Water and Sanitation on
sickness   25
Table 4 Effects of Water Supply and Sanitation Improvements
in morbidity from Diarrhea................ 26
Table 5 Storage and Cleaning Schedules of Water Storage
Receptacles Food Industries .............. 53
Table 6 Analysis of Water in the Food Industry . . .  55
Table 7 Water Treatment in The Food Industry . . . .  57
Table 8 Problems encountered in the Food Industry alleged 
to be due to poor water quality and control
measures adopted by the factories .......... 59
Table 9 Total Plate,Total Coliform and Faecal Coliform
Counts* at 37°C/24h of Water in Accra . . . .  61
Table 10 Most Probable Number (MPN) of Bacteria per 100 ml 
of water samples from Residential Quarters in
Accra.....................................  62
Table 11 Total Count, total Coliform and Faecal Coliform
Counts at 37°C/24h of Water in Ga Rural . . 63
Table 12 ANOVA Summary Table showing Comparison of Water
Quality between Kpong and Weija Sources . . .  64
Table 13 ANOVA Summary Table showing Comparison of Water
Quality between towns in Accra ............ 65
Table 14 Physical Quality of piped Water in Accra . . 66
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Table 15 Chemical Quality of Piped Water in Accra . . 67
Table 16 Bacteriological Analysis of Water from Informal
Food Service Ce n t e r s ...................  90
Table 17 Bacteriological Analysis of "Iced water" samples 
.......................................................... 91
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Fig. 1 pH OF PIPED WATER IN ACCRA.................. 68
Fig. 2 ALKALINITY OF PIPED WATER IN ACCRA.......... 70
Fig. 3 TURBIDITY OF PIPED WATER IN A C C R A .......... 72
Fig. 4 CONCENTRATION OF CATIONS IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  74
Fig. 5 CONCENTRATION OF SODIUM IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  75
Fig. 6 CONCENTRATION OF CALCIUM IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  77
Fig. 7 CONCENTRATION OF IRON IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA 78
Fig. 8 CONCENTRATION OF COPPER IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  79
Fig. 9 CONCENTRATION OF CHROMIUM IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  80
Fig. 10 CONCENTRATION OF NICKEL IN PIPED WATER IN
A C C R A .....................................  81
Fig. 11 pH OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA R U R A L .........  83
Fig. 12 ALKALINITY OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA RURAL . . 84
Fig. 13 TURBIDITY OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA RURAL . . .  85
Fig. 14 COLOUR OF WATER SAMPLE FROM GA RURAL........ 87
Fig. 15 CONCENTRATION OF CATIONS IN WATER SAMPLES FROM
GA RURAL .................................  89
LIST OF FIGURES
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1.1 Water Quality
Industrial and domestic water supplies are derived from ground 
or surface water sources. The quality of both sources has 
been deteriorating rapidly, particularly during the past two 
decades as a direct consequence of several factors, some of 
which may be interrelated. Improper water management and 
agricultural practices have resulted in the contamination of 
surface and ground water sources by nitrates, pesticides and 
animal wastes (FAO, 1993). Furthermore, contamination by 
heavy metals, industrial chemicals, agrochemicals and the 
salinization of fresh water compound the water problem. Rapid 
urbanization observed in recent years has resulted in over­
crowding, accompanied by poor conditions of hygiene, 
sanitation and water supply (Mott et al, 1991). Poor 
sanitation and disposal of faecal matter aggravates the 
situation, particularly in rural areas and periurban slums 
where seepage and run-off can contaminate ponds, streams, 
rivers and wells. The resulting deterioration in water 
quality has affected agriculture, industry and drinking water 
supplies (FAO, 1993) .
The supply of unwholesome water and pollution of otherwise 
potable water sources for both domestic and industrial 
purposes, constitute a serious health risk. The gravest of 
all dangers to which water supplies are exposed is infection 
by pathogenic bacteria of which typhoid bacteria are now the 
most important (Society for Water Treatment and Examination,
1.0 INTRODUCTION
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1970). The problem is exacerbated by cross contamination of 
potable water. Cross contamination may occur as a result of 
poor handling practices and/or poorly managed receptacles. 
This is particularly common in the informal food service 
sector. Moreover, water used in industry requires specific 
standards of quality depending on the purpose for which it is 
required.
Non-alcoholic carbonated beverage manufacturers in parts of 
Accra, recently, indicated dissatisfaction with the quality 
of treated water from the distribution system. Complaints 
reaching the Ghana Standards Board indicated that, poor water 
quality affected production capacity and occasional poor 
product quality. Acceptable standards of water quality can 
be assured if the sources of water supply can effectively be 
controlled and monitored. This requires the identification 
of critical points of contamination or compromising of 
quality. This study is an attempt to evaluate the water 
quality at various points of distribution and storage in 
urban and rural Accra.
1.2 Objectives.
1.2.1 Main Objectives
(i) To determine the quality of water in areas with pipe 
borne water supply from Kpong and Weija water works.
(ii) To determine the quality of water in areas 
without pipe borne water supply.
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(iii) Relate the effect of source, handling and
treatment to the quality of water for domestic and 
industrial use.
1.2.2 Specific Objectives
(i) Survey on source, storage, handling or treatment and 
utilization of water in formal industries in Accra.
(ii) Determine physical, chemical and bacteriological 
quality of water samples from;
(a) rural areas
(b) urban areas on both the Kpong and Weija 
Supply distribution lines.
(iii) Determine bacteriological quality of samples from;
(a) informal food service centres
(b) "iced water" vendors.
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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Water and Human Existence:Dependency of life on Water.
Mayer (1987), noted that all forms of life on our planet are 
dependent on water. From the very beginning of civilization 
man has settled close to water sources; along rivers, beside 
lakes or near springs. Indeed, where people live, some water 
is normally available for drinking, domestic use and possibly 
for watering animals (Hofke, 1983) . But since it is 
ubiquitous the presence of water, like air is taken for 
granted.
Water constitutes about sixty per cent of the human body. It 
provides a medium in which nutrients, enzymes and other 
chemical substances can be dispersed and in which the chemical 
reactions necessary for maintaining life can take place. It 
is also a means of transporting nutrients and waste products 
respectively to and from the cells through the blood plasma 
which is ninety per cent water. The normal functioning of the 
body involves a continual loss of water. Since excess water 
cannot be stored in the body, a regular intake is essential 
to keep the necessary balance (Gaman and Sherrington, 1981). 
This may be by means of drinking water, fruit, juices, 
formulated drinks and by oxidation of foods. Water is 
therefore the most precious resource on earth.
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2.2 Availability of water
The surface of the planet is more than two thirds covered by 
water. Though the oceans seem unbounded, the amount of fresh 
water actually available to people is finite (Engleman and Le 
Roy, 1993). Less than one per cent of the earth's water is 
available for human consumption. Only 2.5 per cent of the 
planet's 1.4 billion cubic kilometres of water is fresh and 
fit for drinking, growing crops and most industrial uses. 
(Engelman and Le Roy, 1993) . In theory, even this limited 
amount could support twenty billion people, nearly four times 
the world's current population (La Riviere, 1989). In 
reality, however, usable water supplies are distributed 
unevenly around the world. More than two thirds of the 
world's people live in areas already suffering from chronic 
water shortages including most of Africa, the near East, north 
Asia and Australia (Falkenmark, 1990). More than a billion 
people, mostly the poor, still have no access to potable 
water (WHO, 1993a).
Individual governments have made committed efforts to provide 
clean and potable water to both rural and urban dwellers. 
Indeed, by 1990, safe water supplies had been extended to 
eighty-one (81) per cent of urban dwellers and fifty eight 
(58) per cent of rural inhabitants (WHO, 1993a). However, 
most governments' efforts in providing good water, are not 
able to keep pace with the population growth. Consequently, 
as the population grows, the average amount of renewable fresh 
water available to each person declines.
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Fresh water availability is dictated largely by climate, by 
the timing and location of precipitation and by "evaporative 
demand", a measure of how much moisture the atmosphere can 
absorb (Engelman and Le Roy, 1993) . Water availability varies 
from season to season, causing distinct wet and dry seasons. 
It may also vary from year to year resulting in flooding or 
drought in many countries, leading to scarce water supplies.
Efforts need to be directed towards protecting the sources, 
as well as conservation methods to ensure the continuous 
availability of water, irrespective of the season. Some 
developing nations including Ghana, Indonesia and Mexico have 
boosted their efforts to conserve water supplies and prevent 
pollution through waste control facilities, water treatment 
plants, recycling and conservation (La Riviere, 1989).
2.3 Water Demand
The amount of fresh water available is competed for by 
drinking water supply, sanitation, industry and agriculture 
(FAO, 1993) . Due to population growth alone, water demand is 
expected to double in more than half of the world's countries 
by the year 2000 (FAO, 1986). Most of this increased demand 
is for irrigation and industrial uses. About sixty nine (69) 
per cent of the world's fresh water is used for irrigation, 
twenty three (23) per cent for industry and only eight (8) per 
cent for household use (World Resources Inst, 1992) .
About 1.3 billion people in the developing world lack access
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to clean and plentiful water (World Bank, 1994) (FAO, 1993) . 
In slum areas where water is frequently purchased or the water 
supply is irregular or both, daily per capita consumption is 
about sixty (60) litres or less than half of middle-income 
neighbourhoods (World Bank, 1994) .
Consumption of water soars if the source is within a hundred 
metres, and falls dramatically if the distance exceeds one 
kilometre or twenty minutes travel return time (Water Aid, 
1993). Average consumption patterns, as related to sources 
of supply, distance to source, and purpose to which it is 
committed, are summarised in TABLES 1 and 2.
Table 1 Average Water Consumption from Communal Water Points 
(Wells. Boreholes. Stand posts).
Source distance Approx. Water Usage
(m) (L/head/day)
> 2,500 5
250 - 2,500 15
< 250 15 - 35
Source : Water Aid, 1993
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Table 2 Average Water Consumption from Piped supplies.
Type of supply Approx. Water Usage
L/Hd/Day
Yard/single household tap 75
Schools : Day 2 5
Boarding 45
Hospitals 300
Govt. Offices 30
Livestock : Horses 35
Cattle 40
Pigs 15
Sheep 12.5
100 chickens 15
Irrigation :
750 L of water/kg of grain grown
1500 L of water/kg of rice grown
Small scale industries :
100 L of water required/kg paper made
4 L of water required/kg bread baked
__________ 100 L of water recruired/kcr steel made
Source : Water Aid, 1993.
2.4. Water Sector Development and Management
Access to safe water remains an urgent human need in many 
countries. Water sector development is immediately relevant 
for billions of people in developing countries and for the 
quality of the environment in which they live. First, there 
is the "old agenda" of providing all people of the world with 
adequate water supply and sanitation services. Then, there 
is the challenge of a "new agenda" which requires that much 
greater attention be paid to ensuring that our use of water 
resources is sustainable in terms of both quality and quantity 
(Serageldin, 1994). Developing countries face the formidable 
challenge of completing the old agenda and making progress on 
the new agenda concurrently.
An alarming and disturbing statistic emerged during the UN
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water Decade. In rural areas, where water supply is usually 
provided through point sources fitted with hand pumps or 
motorised pumps, a high percentage of facilities were reported 
to be out of order. Statistics for inoperative facilities 
ranging from forty per cent, fifty per cent and even higher 
have been reported. In some countries, it was discovered that 
all of the systems constructed under particular aid programmes 
were out of order and had been abandoned (McPherson, 1993). 
There are case histories of project failures in rural areas 
due to many factors including choice of inappropriate 
technology, lack of effective backup support, non-involvement 
of the user community in the planning and implementation 
process and implementation of projects for political gains 
(Muyibi, 1992) . In large cities, it was found that an average 
of thirty per cent and even up to fifty per cent of the water 
produced was unaccounted for. Leakage, illegal connections, 
broken meters and other reasons were identified. Besides, only 
a part of the water bills are actually collected (Mashauri and 
Katko, 1993) . High rates of unaccounted for water, whether 
they are caused by illegal connections, leakage, free water 
supply or the result of inadequate commercial operations, 
result in significant financial losses and consequent poor 
service performance of the agencies.
In the cities, wastage in the areas served is usually high. 
In addition, it is common that water rates are subsidised 
while the inhabitants in the marginal areas largely go 
unserved and obtain water on an irregular basis and at very
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high costs from private vendors. The failure of water supply 
systems and the high percentage which are functioning at less 
than design capacity is directly attributable to poor 
operation and maintenance and the absence of adequate 
operation and maintenance (McPherson, 1993).
The experiences of the International Water Supply and 
Sanitation Decade, 1980 to 1990, (IDWSSD), have led to a much 
better understanding of the range of technologies available 
for environmental upgrading of low-income communities in the 
developing countries of the south. However, the technologies 
by themselves will not lead to the necessary environmental 
upgrading or promote health and quality of life. Unless the 
consumers are involved, systems will not be maintained 
correctly and will fail (Barker et al, 1991). A remarkable 
consensus has been emerging in recent years for managing water 
resources and for delivering water supply and sanitation on 
an efficient equitable and sustainable basis. There is the 
traditional view that assumes that government has the primary 
responsibility for financing, managing and operating services. 
Furthermore, it is thought that, government has to define the 
services to be provided, to subsidise these services 
(especially for the poor) and to develop public organisations 
for service delivery. All this is changing. The 1992 World 
Conference on water and the Environment gave rise to two 
principles which are now being widely adopted :
1. Water has an economic value in all its competing 
uses and should be recognised as an economic good.
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2. Water development and management should be based
on a participatory approach involving users, planners 
and policy makers at all levels, with decisions taken 
at the lowest appropriate level (Serageldin, 1994).
Past experience in water and sanitation issues illustrate the 
limitations of direct government provisions of house hold 
services. Despite technical progress in developing affordable 
engineering solutions to the problems of water and sanitation, 
the delivery and maintenance of these services especially by 
governments have been disappointing (World Bank, 1993) . At 
the end of the IDWSSD, most people in the poorer regions of 
the world still lacked good sanitation and the number of urban 
residents without water had not been reduced.
The most obvious and poignant costs of these service 
shortfalls are those measured in human sufferings. Most 
people want safe water and good sanitation and are willing to 
pay for these services especially for plentiful water in or 
very near the house. Improvements in water supply raise 
productivity through savings in the fuel used to boil polluted 
water. A more important benefit is through the time and 
energy savings for women who have to collect water from 
distant sources (World Bank, 1993). Poor people often depend 
on private vendors who typically charge more for contaminated 
water collected by bucket, while the middle class pays less 
for treated water provided on tap in their houses by the 
publicly subsidised company. In Onitsha, Nigeria, for
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instance, revenues collected, by water vendors are about ten 
times the revenues collected by the formal water utility 
(Serageldin, 1994) . Especially where formal institutions 
perform inadequately, a large informal private industry has 
arisen to meet those needs that are not adequately met. In 
cities throughout the developing world, households cope with 
the unreliability of formal water supply service by building 
in-house storage tanks installing booster pumps (which can 
draw contaminated ground water into the water systems) and 
sinking wells. The specific implications for the formal 
sector is profound and clear. There is an enormous reservoir 
of resources that can be drawn on at reduced costs for all. 
This can happen when the formal sector is able to meet 
consumer demand and provide its service in a responsive, 
accountable way. The differences in access between lower and 
within countries inequities continue to be striking. For 
example, a family on the top fifth income group in Peru, the 
Dominican Republic or Ghana is respectively, three, six and 
twelve times more likely to have a house connection than a 
family in the bottom fifth income group in those countries 
(World Bank, 1992). Inadequate investments in waste 
collection and disposal mean that large quantities of waste 
enter both ground water and surface water. Ground water 
contamination is less visible but often more serious because 
it can take decades for polluted aquifers to cleanse 
themselves and because large numbers of people drink untreated 
ground water. More environmental damage occurs when people 
try to compensate for inadequate provision. Sinking wells,
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for example, often leads to overpumping and depletion. 
Inadequate water supply also prompts people to boil water, 
thus using energy. Investments in water supply can therefore 
reduce fuelwood consumption and air pollution.
Currently, the emphasis is on community management, ensuring 
that the end users are involved at all stages of the planning 
implementation, operation and maintenance of their own 
schemes. The highest potential for sustainability is achieved 
when the community is involved in all phases of the project 
starting from the planning stage. If the scheme is to 
continue to operate satisfactorily, people have to recognise 
the need for the improved service, be able and willing to pay 
for the maintenance cost and eventually the construction cost 
and also be willing to manage its maintenance. Community 
management occurs when the people of a community 
through a representative community organization, have the 
legal right to assume ownership and responsibility for their 
water supply. Secondly, it has to occur in an enabling 
environment. Government sector agencies and donors play a 
major role in providing this enabling environment. The 
provision of water is a service which requires a service 
oriented attitude by the agencies involved. To ensure long 
sustainability, water should be managed as a commodity in 
exactly the same way as any other resource. Sector 
professionals are advocating community management which has 
been successfully practised in different parts of Africa as 
the most effective way to plan, construct, operate and
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maintain rural and periurban facilities (McCommon et al, 
1990) .
National sector policy in Ghana embodies the principle of 
community management of water supply rehabilitation, operation 
and maintenance. However, the main sector agency, Ghana Water 
and Sewerage Corporation, (GWSC) , has not been able to 
progress very far in establishing community management of 
rural and urban water supplies. The Government of Ghana 
appears to regard the GWSC Assistance Project as a means to 
strengthen and streamline GWSC and to establish community 
management of urban and rural water supplies (Livingstone, 
1993). Towns and cities in northern Ghana dealt within the 
GWSC Assistance Project all had existing mechanised water 
supplies, but no effective community water supply committees 
or groups existed. In some towns where boreholes equipped 
with hand pumps had been installed by a previous Canadian 
International Development Agency (CIDA) supported project, 
hand pump committees had been formed. These committees 
concentrated on raising funds for the hand pump tariff and 
keeping the pump site clean.
Most mechanised water supplies are inoperative or operating 
far below original capacity and all require major 
rehabilitation. While more than eighty per cent of boreholes 
with hand pumps are claimed to be operational, most shallow 
hand dug wells run out of water in the dry season each year 
(GWSC, 1992) .
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The impact of the activities of non-government organizations 
such as the CIDA and World Vision International (WVI) in 
mitigating drought in pastoral northern Ghana is seen in terms 
of water supply, rural health and sanitation, community 
participation and awareness, tariff rates and wider socio­
economic outcomes (Cudjoe-Ofori, 1991).
2.5 Effect of Water Quality on Health
Good and adequate water supply services are a pre-requisite 
for public health and well-being. Water quality affects 
health and with on ever-increasing population and greater 
environmental contamination, the risk of contamination of 
public water supplies increases. Water quality may be good 
at the source but its risk of contamination during transport 
and low likelihood of being boiled for sterilization raise the 
incidence of water-borne diseases (World Bank, 1994). The 
availability of water affects health since water is needed 
both for drinking and for good personal hygiene. Water 
availability is as important as water quality. Large 
quantities of water is needed to ensure good sanitation and 
personal hygiene. Washing hands after defecation and before 
preparing food is of particular importance in reducing disease 
transmission but without abundant water in or near the house, 
hygiene becomes difficult or impossible.
The general health status of a country has been connected to 
the water supply and water-borne diseases. This is reflected 
in the life expectancy and an infant mortality rates (WHO,
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1986). The health burden of unsafe and insufficient 
quantities of water and inadequate sanitation facilities 
continues to be borne in terms of high rates of water related 
diseases, especially diarrhoeal diseases, dysentery, 
gastroenteritis, lepidospiral jaundice (Weil's disease), 
schistosomiasis, dracunculiasis enteric fever, cholera, 
trachoma and skin and eye infections (WHO, 1993a; Hofke, 
1983) . The most important of these, diarrhoea and intestinal 
worn infections account for an annual burden of 117 million 
DALY'S or ten per cent of the total burden of disease in 
developing countries (World Bank, 1993a). A review (Esrey et 
al, 1991) of findings from 144 studies revealed that, improved 
water supplies and sanitation often reduces child diarrhoeal 
mortality by fifty per cent and sometimes as much as eighty 
per cent.
There is now a global acceptance that the eradication of 
dracunculiasis is possible through improved water supplies. 
Major national efforts in Ghana, Indonesia and Nigeria give 
great promise that this disease can be eradicated during the 
1990s (WHO, 1993a). Populations with improved water supply 
experience forty per cent lower incidence. Public water taps 
alone reduce the incidence by about twenty per cent. 
Improvements in the rural water supply in Africa have resulted 
in a remarkable reduction in the number of cases of Guinea 
worn infestation. In Nigeria, for example, 640,000 in 1991 
as a result of a combination of improved water supply, 
treatment and education (WHO, 1993a)
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The health risk due to chemical toxicants in drinking water 
differs from that caused by microbiological contaminants. The 
problems associated with chemical constituents arise primarily 
from their ability to cause adverse effects after prolonged 
periods of exposure. Mercury is known to produce neurological 
and renal disturbances whilst several other chemical 
constituents have been proven to be carcinogenic. Secondly, 
acute effects are noticeable more frequently in infants due 
to immature organs. For example, the most common cause of 
infantile methaemoglobinaemia is excessive levels of nitrate 
in water used for the reconstruction of baby food.
Efforts should therefore be geared towards providing and 
maintaining water of a quality that can be safely consumed by 
everyone throughout their lifetime.
2.5.1 Pollution of Natural Water Sources
Today, twenty-two (22) countries have renewable water 
resources less than 1,000 cubic meters per capita, a level 
commonly taken to indicate severe water scarcity. An 
additional eighteen (18) countries have less than 2,000 cubic 
meters per capita. Elsewhere, water scarcity is less of a 
problem at the national level but is nevertheless severe in 
certain regions at certain times of the year and during 
periods of drought. The situation is worsened by widespread 
mismanagement of water resources, with scarcity induced by the 
provision of large quantities of water at minimal or no cost 
for low-value agricultural uses. Pollution with human sewage
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and agroindustrial effluent is a major cause whilst surface 
run-off in agricultural areas with intensive fertilizer use 
is another contributor. Pollutants from industrial, mining 
and agricultural activities are hard to remove from drinking 
water with standard purification facilities (World Bank, 
1992) .
Most rivers in and around cities and towns in developing 
countries are little more than open, stinking sewers that not 
only degrade the aesthetic life of the city but also 
constitute a reservoir for cholera and other water-related 
diseases(Serageldin, 1994).
2.5.2 Disease: Consequence of unsafe water
The direct impact of waterborne disease is huge especially for 
children and the poor(who are most at risk). Unsafe water is 
implicated in many cases of diarrhoeal diseases which as a 
group kill more than three (3) million people, mostly children 
and cause about nine hundred (900) million episodes of illness 
each year. At any one time more than nine hundred (900) 
million people are afflicted with roundworm infection and two 
hundred (200) million with schistosomiasis. Besides, 
diarrhoea for instance can leave a child vulnerable to illness 
and death from other causes (World Bank,1992) .
The most widespread contamination of water is from disease- 
bearing human wastes, usually detected by measuring faecal 
coliform levels. Human waste pose great health risks for the
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many people who are compelled to drink and wash in untreated 
water from rivers and ponds.
Enteric parasitic diseases in man in Malaysia are caused 
mainly by Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia (G. 
duodunalis), Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiuria and 
hookworms. The endemicity of these faecal, soil and 
waterborne diseases is an indication of the environmental 
sanitation and socioeconomic status of the community, being 
more common in both urban and rural disadvantaged communities 
where living conditions, environmental cleanliness as well as 
personal and domestic hygiene are poor, As these highly 
endemic and easily transmitted enteric parasitic diseases are 
perpetuated by a vicious cycle of poverty, ignorance and 
insanitary living conditions, their control should be 
approached by an integrated multi-sectoral strategy (Kan, 
1988) .
Outbreaks of fabrille illness or dengue were reported from six 
villages of Parbhani district of Maharashtra, India, in 1989. 
Water supply and storage systems were found to be included in 
factors that have a significant role in the extension of 
dengue to rural areas (Risbud et al, 1991).
The high prevalence of gastroenteric difficulties among 
waterborne diseases is outlined by Roodselaar and Van- 
Roodselar, (1988) .
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Helmer et al, (1991) also investigated transmission pathways 
of human pathogens from their faecal origin back to man via 
drinking water, bathing waters, shellfish and sewage-irrigated 
crops. They came to the conclusion that total and faecal 
coliform guideline value for drinking water are generally 
complied with in urban water supplies but difficult to meet 
in rural areas for developing countries. Waste water reuse 
for crop irrigation is also rapidly expanding due to water 
shortages but poses health risk to farm workers and consumers.
Ashton and Laura (1989) reviewed the evidence for aluminium 
intake as a health risk. They described the widespread use 
of aluminium in a multiplicity of applications including water 
treatment. After looking at evidence of aluminium being a 
cause of Alzheimer's disease, that aluminium is neurotoxic and 
may be an etiological factor in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, 
Parkinson's disease, Down's syndrome, muscular dystrophies and 
other diseases, they concluded that despite its many virtues, 
the potential health risks associated with aluminium can no 
longer be dismissed as negligible.
2.5.3 Chemical Water Quality
Factors contributing to the chemical composition of drinking 
water include, chemical weathering of mineral matter, 
atmospheric supply of salt particles from the sea, anthropo­
genic pollution(including acid precipitation) corrosion of 
water pipes and plumbing, water treatment, decomposition of 
organic matter and hydrological differences (Flaten,1992).
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Colour, taste, odour and turbidity of inorganic origin are 
caused by the presence of iron, manganese, magnesium, calcium, 
chloride, silicone and others. They normally exist at 
acceptable levels in most drinking water. In the presence of 
oxygen, iron and manganese are able to undergo changes, 
causing discoloration of water and sometimes sedimentation.
In Norway, water samples from 384 waterworks were analyzed for 
30 constituents by Flaten in 1992. Norwegian quality criteria 
were generally fulfilled indicating that the chemical quality 
of drinking water is good in Norway. However, for iron, 
calcium, manganese, copper, pH, total organic carbon and 
colour, the norms for good drinking water were exceeded in 
more than nine per cent of the samples, reflecting two major 
problems associated with Norwegian drinking water supplies, 
namely:
(i) many water sources contain high concentrations of 
humic substances,
(ii) in large parts of the country, the waters are soft and 
acidic and therefore corrosive towards pipes, plumbing
and other installations (Flaten, 1992) .
Studies of drinking water quality in areas of the eastern 
United States have shown that the water can often be highly 
corrosive (Taylor and Symons, 1984). Even mildly acid waters 
cause elevated levels of copper, lead and zinc in municipally 
distributed domestic water (Meranger et al, 1986) .
In a direct attempt to control nitrates in public water
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supplies, the UK government, in 1990, introduced a pilot 
nitrate scheme to reduce leaching from inorganic and organic 
nitrogen fertilizers. Despite designation of Water Pollution 
Safeguard Areas since 1963, nitrate levels in public supplies 
have not shown substantial reductions. This is due to a range 
of factors determining farmers attitudes towards the 
environment and a range of economic pressures controlling to 
increase productivity. An imposition of fertilizer tax based 
on the nitrogen content of the fertilizer may serve as a 
deterrent of excessive applications (Foster et al, 1992) . A 
decision aid has been developed for use by farmers and other 
pesticide users that permits the selection of pesticides on 
the basis of water quality impact in addition to other 
traditional selection criteria. The decision aid uses 
information of environmental fate and toxicity of pesticides, 
soil leaching potential or run-off to make site-specific 
selections that minimise the potential impacts of pesticide 
use on water quality. This will help agricultural and urban 
pesticide users select pesticides with less water quality 
impact and also aid regulatory agencies in developing meaning­
ful ground water protection plans, and hopefully result in 
more equitable public policy decisions (Hornsby et al, 1993) .
Knowledge of the benefits and costs to water users is required 
for a complete assessment of policies to create incentives for 
water quality improving changes in agricultural production 
(Ribaudo and Hellerstein, 1992).
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2.5.4 Disinfaction bv-products
The diseases, typhoid, dysentery, amoebiasis, salmonellosis, 
Shigellosis and hepatitis from which thirty thousand people 
die every day in the developing countries are virtually 
unknown in countries where water supplies are chlorinated. 
But recent research suggests that chlorine itself presents a 
health risk. Chlorine added to water forms by-products which 
may cause cancer, although after many years of continuous 
ingestion. The risks are small. People who drink water 
containing chloroform, one of the by-products of chlorine 
disinfection have a one-in-10 million chance of developing 
cancer in a life time (Baker, 1988). This is very different 
from the certainty that people who ingest just a few typhoid 
bacteria will develop the life-threatening waterborne illness 
within days. In the industrialized countries, however, 
chlorine is losing its favour. The fear is that, while 
chloroform exposes consumers to a negligible risk, other 
unidentifiable by-products of chlorine disinfection present 
a higher risk, the level of which is not quantifiable by the 
studies done so far.
Chlorination of aldicarb species during water treatment can 
reduce the initial concentrations but may produce compounds 
of concern to public health, the production rate of which is 
several magnitudes faster than the detoxification mechanism 
(Miles, 1991).
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2.5.5. Bottled Mineral water (Mistrust of tap water)
In recent years, consumption and use of bottled waters have 
increased considerably. In the UK, sales of bottled mineral 
water increased from three (3) million to 128 million litres 
between 1976 and 1986. There is a public perception that 
bottled water is in some manner safer than tap water (Dabeka 
et al, 1992) . A survey of over 250 people in London and the 
midlands in 1988 showed that over a quarter never drank water 
directly from the tap. The water industry, feeling the 
consequences of privatization, stringent European community 
directives and growing pressure from environmental groups, is 
finding it hard to convince the public that tap water is still 
safe, let alone palatable. Scares like the accidental 
contamination of water at Camelford with aluminium only make 
it worse (Walker, 1992).
2.5.6. Effect of improvement of services
Environmental sanitation, water supply and the safety of foods 
are important determinants of nutritional and health status. 
Contamination of water sources is determined by such sanitary 
habits as excreta and garbage disposal, although water 
availability itself is often the most important variable. 
Improved water and sanitation are associated with decreased 
diarrhoeal disease, improved nutritional status and lower 
childhood mortality. As shown in TABLE 3, health consequences 
are staggering, an estimated two million deaths from diarrhoea 
alone could be avoided each year if all people had access to 
satisfactory water supply and sanitation services.
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Table 3- Effects of Improved Water and Sanitation on sickness 
Disease Millions of people Median reduction attributable 
affected by illness to improvement (%)
Diarrhoea 900a 22
Roundworm 900 28
Guineaworm 4 76
Schistosomiasis 200_____________________ 73______________
a refers to the number of cases in a year
Source : Esrey et al, 1991,
The impact of the afore-mentioned parasitoses on employment 
and public health and the control measures adapted to urban 
environments can be considerable (Mott et al, 1991). 
Implications of lack of adequate, safe and clean water 
include:
(i) Economic development would be more and more 
compromised as many people become unproductive as a 
result of ill health.
(ii) The sources of income and the standard of living will 
dwindle
(iii) The cumulative effect of all these will be a loss to 
the government and the overall National Development
2.5.7 Health Education
If water sector programmes are to be successful, water supply, 
sanitation and personal hygiene education must all be 
sustainable. Studies show that the effect of making several
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kinds of improvements on water and sanitation, at the same 
time are additive (TABLE 4).
Table 4 Effects of Water Supply and Sanitation Improvements 
on morbidity from Diarrhoea
Type of Median Reduction
improvement in morbidity(%)
Quality of water 16
Availability of water 25
Quality and Availability of water 37
Disposal of excreta 22
Source: Esrey et al, 1985.
Cited in World Bank, 1992 .
Kendie (1992) surveyed water use patterns in Sissala district 
in the Upper Region of Ghana in 1991 to determine the sources 
of water for drinking both at home and when on the farm. His 
main finding was the link between education and the time 
people are most likely to use water from contaminated sources, 
which was thought to be the rainy season. To achieve lasting 
health benefits therefore, sustained education during the 
rainy season becomes indispensable.
2.6. Water Treatment
Conventional water treatment comprises four major steps:
(a) Storage and Settlement
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(b) Flocculation and settlement
(c) Filtration
(d) Disinfection or sterilization
2.6.1 Settlement
Storage in covered tanks can reduce bacteria population 
considerably. For instance, cercaria in bilharzia infection 
are unable to infect host and will die within a period of 
forty eight hours. Therefore, simple storage in covered pots 
for at least two days is able to remove the danger of 
bilharzia infection.
2.6.2 Flocculation
Coagulants are used to precipitate colloidal particles. 
Various coagulants that may be used are:
(a) Aluminium sulphate (alum)
(b) Sodium alumina in conjunction with aluminium sulphate
(c) Ferrous sulphate and lime
(d) Ferric chloride
It has been found that the rate of precipitate formation 
attained a maximum at about pH 5.5 from sulphate solutions 
whilst from a chloride solution, this occurred at pH 8, 
demonstrating strong coagulating power of the sulphate ion. 
On the other hand, the alum floe dissolves again at about pH 
10 - 11. To counteract this the use of a colloidal solution 
of aluminium hydroxide peptised with ferric chloride has been 
suggested as a coagulant over the whole range of alkalinity 
(James, 1971).
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The successful clarification of water by alum appears to 
depend on three factors:
(a) the minimum amount of alum necessary
(b) the presence of an anion which will readily promote 
coagulation
(c) the correct pH value of the water.
A saving of coagulant may be effected by adding the minimum 
amount of coagulant and adjusting the pH value of the water 
by acid or alkali. However, the treated water may be 
corrosive if the pH falls below 5.5. Consequently, the pH 
must be readjusted afterward. Control by pH alone may be of 
little use, but if carried out with a full knowledge of the 
contents of the water, it constitutes a most valuable method 
of control.
Attention has been drawn to the retention of carbon dioxide 
in solution when alumino-ferric coagulants are used and which 
has caused serious interference with flocculation. The 
removal of an alum floe may be represented by the equation:
A12(S04)3 + 3Ca (HC03) 2 = 2A1 (OH) 3 + 3CaS04 + 6C02
(James, 1971)
2.6.3 Sand filtration.
Various types of sand filters are used to meet particular 
demands. A forty four (44) gallon drum upward-flow sand
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filter may be able to treat for example, 230L (50gal) of water 
per hour. Complete removal of Giardia through slow sand 
filtration was reported by Bryck et al, (1988).
ie., A12(S04)3 + 3Ca (HC03) 2 = 2A1(HC03)2 + 3CaS04
and 2A1 (HC03) 2 = 2A1(0H)3 + 6C02
If the A1(0H)3 is not completely precipitated, the A1(HC03)2 
is retained in solution.
2.6.4 Disinfection and sterilization 
2 .6.4.1 Chlorine
Chlorine is a remarkably efficient way to rid public water 
supplies of the most pathogenic bacteria, like the one that 
causes typhoid, viruses, helminths and protozoa. It is cheap 
and easy to use. It is able to maintain a residual protection 
in the distribution system. For these reason, it is likely 
to remain the most widely used chemical for water treatment 
especially in developing countries where up to 1,500 million 
people may be without safe water supplies. Often the total 
dosage which depends roughly on the total organic carbon (TOC) 
content of the raw water, is applied at two or three points 
in the plant. Typically a strong dose is given as the water 
enters the plant, followed by a booster after filtration and 
as adjustment of the residual as the finished water enters the 
distribution system. A simple modification consists of moving 
the point of initial chlorination to a point after the
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coagulation and flocculation stages, which have been shown to 
remove about half the organic content and with it half the 
potential for haloform formation (Baker, 1988).
WHO, encourages practical alternatives to chlorine to minimise 
the formation of trihalomethanes but cautions that inadequate 
disinfection may result if care is not taken. Alternatives 
to chlorine disinfection include chlorine dioxide, chloramine, 
ozone ultraviolet and adsorption using synthetic resins.
2. 6.4.2 Chlorine Dioxide
Chlorine dioxide is widely used in water treatment plants for 
taste, odour and algal control, iron and manganese removal and 
in Europe, for disinfection. It is a highly effective biocide 
against bacteria and viruses, and leaves a residual.
2. 6.4 .3 Chloramine
Free aqueous chlorine is applied as a primary disinfectant for 
an hour or so, and then ammonia is added to form chloramine 
as residual disinfectant. This inhibits further formation of 
haloforms and presumably other chlorinated organic compounds 
in the distribution system. In naturally ammonia-rich waters, 
simply adding chlorine will produce chloramines. Chloramine 
appears to be less effective than chlorine in preventing 
nuisance growths in pipes, causing unsightly filamentous 
sediments at consumers tap. For the same reason, the odorous 
secretions of algae, which are not killed by chloramine, may 
persist and chloramine is also not a strong enough oxidant to
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remove the odorous products of decaying vegetation.
2.6.4.4 Ozone
Widely used in Europe and Canada as a primary treatment 
technique, the technology of large scale ozone plants is well 
established. Ozone generation from air or oxygen requires a 
large power source and cooling, calling for relatively complex 
equipment.
The assimilable organic carbon bioassay is described together 
with its use in studying the effect of ozonation on the 
removal of organics by water treatment. Results confirmed 
that use of ozonation improves total organic carbon removal 
(Stanfield and Jago, 1989) .
Nebel et al (1988) reported that ozone dissolved in the water 
inactivated Giardia cysts through oxidation. Concurrently, 
ozone oxidises colour, taste and odour found in water. The 
rate of oxidation of G. lamblia by ozone is faster than 
chlorine and chlorine oxide.
Surface water supplies were seeded with viable G. muris cysts 
and disinfected by ozone and Peroxone (an advance oxidation 
process for water treatment which is generated by combining 
ozone and hydrogen peroxide) in the pretreatment columns. 
Inactivation was examined in two source waters. Ozone 
residual appeared to be the most important determining factor 
in Giardia inactivation. A minimum inactivation level of 2-
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logs of Giardia cysts was always achieved with an ozone 
residual of 0.65mg/l or greater, regardless of the source 
water, temperature turbidity or contact time (Scott et al, 
1992) .
2.6.4.5 Ultraviolet
Ultraviolet radiation can be applied to water to kill micro­
organisms in two distinct ways using either tubular reactors 
or open systems in which the lamps are placed above the water 
surface. Both require the raw water to have low turbidity 
because particulates absorb radiation. The technology was 
developed first for small private water systems, but has 
recently been applied successfully to a municipal system in 
the UK (World water, 1987).
Treatment does not leave a residual and regrowth is always a 
threat. In tests, regrowth, subsequent to UV radiation of 
Escherichia coli suspensions in water occurred under both 
light and dark storage conditions and reached nearly thirty 
percent of pretreatment levels (Mechsner et al,1991).
2.6.4.6 Adsorption
This method is widely used to treat water supplies containing 
volatile organic contaminants. Adsorption using granular or 
activated carbon or different types of synthetic resins has 
been used to remove the humic and fulvic acid precursors found 
in natural surface waters which react with chlorine to produce 
haloforms. Granular activated carbon (GAC) performs multiple
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functions in the treatment of drinking water including removal 
of taste and odour of volatile organic compounds such as 
trihalomethanes (THM) and dechlorination. THM precursors are 
ill-defined, macromolecular structures. Their large size 
causes slow adsorption, and the high concentrations found in 
some surface waters cause the sorptive capacity of the 
granular media to be exhausted very quickly.
The THM desorption or displacement is controlled by GAC 
preferential adsorption of background organics other than THM. 
Background organic matter in natural waters compete with THM 
for GAC adsorption sites. This may be avoided by appropriate 
pretreatment (chlorination, coagulation or ozonation).
2.6.5 Ion - Exchangers
The raw water to be treated passes through a special 
decarbonizing exchange material which absorbs only the 
hardness causing salts or sodium salts that are fixed to the 
bicarbonates of the raw water. Free hydrogen ions (H+) are 
let into the water to act as counter-ions for the hardness 
causing substances of the carbonate hardness. So that free, 
aggressive C02 leaves the delivery side of the exchange 
filter. Exchangeability of resins is limited by capacity, 
that is, when resins are exhausted, they are no longer able 
to absorb any carbonate hardness. The carbonate hardness is 
no longer low, instead it corresponds with that of the raw 
water. The exchange material can be regenerated by adding 
mineral acids, for example, hydrochloric acid. Dilute acid
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is capable of removing the deposited hardness causing 
substances and takes then to the waste water while free H+ of 
the acid are affixed to the exchange resin. After the excess 
acid has been washed out, the resin regains its full 
functional capacity. Carbon initially mixed with the treated 
water, is removed by a trickier in which countercurrent of air 
blows the C02 into the exhaust air.
A strongly acidic cation exchanger operates as the previously 
described exchanger but absorbs all cations contained in raw 
water.
Full desalinization - demineralization is indicated if there 
is high content of salt in the raw water. Desalinization unit 
consists of a strongly acidic cation exchanger followed by an 
anion exchanger. Non - carbonate hardness turns into HC1, 
H2S04, HN03 and carbonate hardness is converted into free C02. 
Again, cation exchanger is regenerated with dilute HC1 and 
sometimes H2S04, whilst anion exchanger is regenerated with 
dilute soda lye.
Exchange reactions :
Cation exchangers
Exch - H + NaCl --- > Exch - Na + HC1
2 Exch - H + CaS04  > (Exch)2 - Ca + H2S04
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Anion exchangers
Exch - OH + HC1 --- > Exch - Cl + H20
2 Exch - OH + H2S04 --> (Exch)2 - S04 + H20 
Regeneration :
(Exch)2 - Ca + 2HC1 --> 2 Exch - H + CaCl
Exch - Cl + NaOH -- > Exch - OH + NaCl
2.7 Water Treatment in Ghana
Prior to the formation of the Ghana Water and Sewage 
Corporation in 1965, water supplies were provided by two 
organizations. These were Water Supplies Division of the 
Public Works Department, which had responsibility for supplies 
to municipal and urban centres and the Rural Water Supplies 
Unit which was responsible for the rural communities, 
providing mainly dug wells, with or without hand pumps. 
Construction of piped water supply systems in Ghana started 
as far back as the early 1900 and were mostly limited to urban 
centres where the colonial administration had its offices and 
officials.
The GWSC was established by a Parliamentary Act in 1965 and 
charged as the sole water supply authority in Ghana and 
therefore took over the running of all pipe-borne water
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systems in the country. The GWSC now operates two hundred and 
nine piped water systems throughout the country serving ninety 
three per cent of the country's urban population. 
Furthermore, four major district water supply schemes are 
expected to come into operation shortly (Dovlo et al, 1993).
Until 1986, the GWSC was a government subvented organisation, 
but the economic decline since the mid 1970s seriously 
affected government commitments. The central maintenance 
system has worked satisfactorily except for doubts about its 
sustainability. The main problem against the system is the 
collection of tariff itself, a function of insufficient 
education, lack of funds, transparency and mistrust of GWSC 
by the consumer committees. Shortfalls in the operating 
budget as well as increases in personnel, energy and commodity 
costs have seriously affected the efficient performance of the 
Corporation and therefore the level of service to the 
consuming public. Loans and grants have been obtained from 
the World Bank, CIDA and other external support agencies for 
the rehabilitation of seventy six (76) water supply systems 
(Dovlo et al, 1993).
The water treatment plants are designed for conventional 
methods of treatment, that is, coagulation and flocculation 
with aluminium sulphate, followed by sedimentation and 
filtration before disinfection with chlorine, acidity 
adjustment and corrosion prevention with lime hydrated of soda 
ash. An excess of free residual chlorine level is maintained
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in the distribution system to reduce the risk of bacteria 
regrowth.
The water distribution system is designed and operated to 
ensure that the quality of water that enters it from treatment 
works is maintained. The system is fitted with various types 
of valves and washouts at vantage points to facilitate 
flushing of the pipeline to rid the system of sediments and 
pollutants.
The GWSC also undertakes routine and periodic surveillance of 
drinking water quality in accordance with procedures 
recommended by the WHO. Under the programme, chemical, 
physical and bacteriological analysis of samples are carried 
out at regular intervals on a routine basis as a means of 
monitoring water quality in the distribution system.
2.8 Analytical methods
2.8.1 Bacteriological analysis
New epidemiological data on waterborne diseases illustrate 
that even advanced water supply systems which meet generally 
accepted specifications for efficiency, may not always be 
failsafe. Constraints of recovery, sensitivity,
survivability, time cost and laboratory capabilities have 
limited virological and parasitological analyses of water.
The most desirable index of pathogenic microorganism pollution
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must be its own presence or absence. Current microbial 
indicators of water quality and treatment such as total 
coliforms and faecal coliforms, indicate only the presence of 
faecal pollution and an indirect health risk. Several studies 
have demonstrated that coliforms are inadequate to indicate 
the presence of pathogens, especially viruses and parasites 
(Payment and Eduardo, 1993) . Some pathogens have only 
recently been recognised as causing problems in water either 
by their resistance to disinfection or their ability to grow 
in aquatic systems. Efforts are being made at improving 
existing methods and on developing new methods which will 
improve;
(a) the detection of pathogens,
(b) understanding of their distribution in the environment
(c) the efficacy of water treatment in removing them
(Watkins and Cameron, 1991).
At a water filtration plant that uses full conventional 
treatment including ozonation and post chlorination, a study 
was carried out to determine the elimination of human enteric 
viruses, coliphages and Clostridium perfringens. The results 
obtained suggest that coliphages and C. perfringens are 
slightly more resistant than cultivable human enteric viruses 
in treated water (Payment, 1991). In another study conducted 
by Bezzickheri et al, (1992) , a high presence of Aeromonas spp 
was found even in waters without coliforms and or with small 
quantities of residual chlorine. They concluded that 
Aeromonas was a more resistant organism than coliforms and
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could be isolated as an additional index of water quality.
2.8.2 Current Techniques in Bacteriological Analysis 
Filtration by membrane is advocated for speed and 
repeatability to detect coliform bacteria, faecal coliforms 
and streptococci and also yeasts and moulds and to determine 
bacterial load in the waters of soft drink processing plants 
(Arena, 1980) . A method is specified for evaluation and 
comparison of water testing membrane filters intended for the 
enumeration of specific organisms and mixed microbial 
populations. It provides general guidelines for comparative 
testing of the recoveries of bacteria, yeasts and other fungi 
or membrane filters as compared to recoveries by the spread 
plate and pour plate techniques (ISO, 1985).
New techniques based on the polymerase chain reaction opens 
doors for the detection of a wide variety of important 
waterborne viruses (Water Science and Tech., 1993). Turpin 
et al, 1993, also developed a most probable number (MPN) 
method that utilised a bioluminescent bacteriophage that 
allowed the specific determination of as few as one Salmonella 
typhimurium cell/lOOml of material within 24 hours. The 
method has an efficiency of 100% when tested against a 
traditional MPN method. It is rapid, sensitive, inexpensive, 
has a lower operator time than traditional MPN method and is 
amenable to automation (Turpin, 1993).
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2.8.3 Chemical Analysis
Total organic halide can be used as an indicator of water 
quality, providing a direct measure of disinfection by-product 
formation (Stevens et al, 1985).
A system and method for determining the concentration of 
nitrate ions in a nitrate ion-containing water sample which 
also contains chloride ions and bicarbonate ions is elucidated 
by Gunter (1991). The sample after having been treated with 
the two resins is passed into a conductivity cell with the 
conductivity being directly related to the nitrate ion 
concentration of the sample. The device and method find 
advantageous application in automated systems for monitoring 
and controlling water treatment facilities (Guter, 1991).
A cooperative study involving the US EPA, the University of 
Michigan and the South Connecticut Regional Water Authority 
(RWA) demonstrated and validated the use of modelling 
techniques in the RWA distribution system. Models are used 
to predict the propagation of chlorine residuals in one 
portion of the RWA system. It was found that residuals varied 
widely, both spatially and temperally. Long residence time 
in storage tanks caused residual disinfection concentrations 
to be low or nonexistent during discharge cycles (Clark et 
al,1993) .
2.8.4 Sampling
Sampling technique and storage time are critical when the
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level of contamination to be detected is low (Ferguson, 1994). 
There is an inherent difference between sample of water 
collected manually and those collected automatically (using 
refrigerated automatic sampler) but the difference is minimal 
in practical terms when water samples are polluted.
2.9 Source Water in Industry
Water has wide and varied application in the Ghanaian 
industry. It is used as a raw material in the food, beverage 
and pharmaceutical industries, as a solvent in the textile 
industry, as s cooling agent in the metal industry and as a 
heating agent in the chemical industry. Given the likely 
problems of water utilization and availability arising out of 
rapid urbanization and industrialization in Ghana, Boateng 
(1995) underscores the need for industries to evolve water 
management policies based on water recycling and conservation 
techniques.
Good quality and safe water of specific pH, taste, colour and 
stability is particularly important in the food industry for 
canning of foods, production of carbonated and non-carbonated 
beverages. This ensures products that are free from 
contamination, shelf stable and of acceptable organoleptic 
quality. Again, water of high chemical purity prevents 
corrosion in process or packaging vehicles.
It is recommended that only water classified as drinkable by 
WHO specifications should ever be used on premises where foods
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are prepared, usual criterion: microbiological count of less 
than 100 organisms/ml at 20 - 22 °C. A limit of 10'4/ml 
should be fixed for oligotrophic bacteria which can develop 
in tap water and there should be regular checks for these and 
other organisms (Mossel et al, 1978).
2.9.1 Non alcoholic Beverages
Chemical dosing is the conventional treatment of process water 
in the food and soft drinks industries, but it requires 
adjustments to dosage rates with changes in the raw water 
constituents, particularly with the seasons and weather. A 
case study is presented of a soft drinks plant which 
experienced serious problems with its dosing treatment and 
switched to the application of reverse osmosis to produce 
their desired and constant quality of process water. In the 
long dry summer of 1973, Coca Cola, Southern Bottlers Ltd., 
Bristol, experienced a variation in the quality of raw water 
supplied to their bottling plant from the local water works. 
For two months, production was frequently interrupted. 
Batches of Coca Cola were produced in the normal way and 
initially appeared to be satisfactory, but after approximately 
twenty four hours, a thick brown floe would appear on the 
surface of the liquid and many thousands of gallons of Coca 
Cola had to be destroyed. It was established that the problem 
was due to the presence of polypeptides and polysaccharides 
in the raw water and the conventional water treatment was 
unable to cope with it. A reverse osmosis unit was installed 
with a small base exchange softener as pretreatment for the
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influent raw water.
The treatment of water by reverse osmosis is complex, 
necessitating detailed analysis of each individual client's 
requirements and raw water supply and careful choice of the 
appropriate method of pretreatment. Correctly designed, sized 
and operated, reverse osmosis can be valuable, being capable 
of treating water with a total dissolved solids content of up 
to 3,000ppm removing at least 90% of inorganic salts from 
water and eliminating dissolved organic contaminants, bacteria 
and viruses (Digby, 1974).
Fertmann and Rakhmanin reported in 1974 that, the different 
methods of water softening, using chemicals, or by sodium or 
potassium ion exchangers, do not guarantee suitability of 
water for use in the manufacture of non-alcoholic beverages. 
According to them, the water alkalinity is not changed and the 
salt content increases. The treatment of water using ion 
exchangers in a hydrogen cycle, gives acidic water. 
Therefore, the amount of citric acid can be reduced from 
440g/l to 100g/l to neutralize the water alkalinity.
2.9.2 Brewing
Water utilization in the breweries fall into four main 
categories : (a) General process water
(b) Treated process water
(c) Brewing water
(d) Boiler feed water
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General process water is used for cleaning and similar jobs. 
It must be of potable water quality, that is, 
bacteriologically unobjectionable. If raw water is to be 
used, water treatment procedure may involve flocculation, 
filtration, chlorination and ozonation. In the case of using 
municipally treated water, it is imperative that the 
manufacturer ensures by checking that the water is potable at 
all times.
Process water is treated for use in washing bottles and in 
cooling. It is desirable that the total hardness, especially, 
carbonate hardness is very low to lower the consumption of 
washing agents and reduce the incidence of scaling. Process 
and brewing water is further treated by softening, 
decarbonization and demineralization.
Separation of lime in boiling water results in strong 
encrustation and thus partial function impairment of devices 
such as immersion heaters, boilers and coffee percolators. 
Scale formation on heated surfaces decreases transmission of 
heat and thus an additional consumption of fuel. The 
exceeding stress of heating surfaces due to accumulation of 
scale can easily result in mechanical damages of flame or 
water tubes. Corrosion can also impair the boiler operation. 
Acids and gases can cause damage. Soda fission, especially 
in the steaming room causes surface corrosions. This is of 
importance when the softening of the water is affected by 
means of a base exchanger. During the process, sodium
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bicarbonate (NaHC03) is formed. In the boiler, it completely 
divides into soda (Na2C03) and free carbon dioxide (C02) .
2 NaHC03 ---- > Na2C03 + C02 + H20
This soda splitting increases considerably with an increase 
in operating pressure, Hence, the criteria for selecting 
treatment process essentially combines (a) water conditions, 
that is, quality of water, (b) operating conditions and (c) 
economy. (European Brewing Convention Monograph on Water XIV, 
1988) .
2.9.3 Canning
Waegerle (1970) , states that by adding phosphoric and hydroxy- 
acids to water for sterilization of cans, jars etc, . corrosion 
and scale deposits on autoclaves and containers are prevented.
Hardness of water is important in the canning of leguminous 
vegetables. Excessively hard water will cause hardening of 
the skins, while water containing no hardness may cause a too 
soft texture of the product and cloudiness of the brine 
(Hoather and English, 1968).
Soft waters with excess alkalinity are undesirable for cooling 
cans, as the tin will tend to be removed in the form of 
surface "spangling" or stripping and even partial removal of 
the coating will render the tins liable to rusting during 
storage.
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2.9.4 Dairy Products
Both chemical and bacteriological aspects of water quality are 
important in water used in dairy farms and in larger plants 
for milk bottling and butter and cheese making. In water used 
for butter making, standards for potable water must be met. 
In addition, the copper content should be very low as the 
presence of copper would tend to give an oxidised flavour to 
butter. It is also desirable that the water should be of good 
organic quality. Bacteriologically, the absence of certain 
psychrophilic organisms in the water is important. 
Pseudomonas fragi, for example, is a common cause of tainted 
flavour in butter due to its proteolytic action. Presence of 
P. fragi is indicated by a typical fruity smell.
2.9.5 Industrial Equipment
Big economies were made by a company in the USA, following the 
treatment of its hard alkaline well water with weakly acidic 
cation exchanger. The company produced pasteurized orange 
juice, concentrate and several fruit beverages. Water was 
used primarily,
(a) to convert the steam used in processing
(b) for cooling in the refrigeration process
(c) for use in the beverage.
The benefits of the use of the exchanger included, elimination 
of cooling tower scale, reduced corrosion of condensate lines 
and boiler feed pumps and reduced boiler and cooling tower 
blowdown frequency (Miller and Mitchell, 1977) . Prior to the
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installation of the exchanger, boiler feedwater was softened 
but not dealkalised, cooling water was neutralized by the 
addition of metered amount of sulphuric acid.
Another case history is presented relating to corrosion of 
boiler plant which provides clear examples of the problems 
that can arise with inadequate attention to water treatment. 
Failures were observed in various components of the steam 
circuit of a urea plant superheater tubes, stainless steel 
pipelines, expansion bellows, plugs and seats of steam 
admission values, bolts and studs and the heads of Allen 
screws in reversing segments of the turbine and the turbine 
rotor disc. All the components that failed were using steam 
from the steam generation plant. Investigation revealed that 
carryover of boiler chemicals in the steam had resulted in 
build-ups of alkalinity and chlorides, leading to stress 
corrosion cracking (Verma et al, 1992).
2.9.6 Washing and Cleaning
Water used for washing and cleaning such items as fish boxes, 
filleting troughs, tables, factory floors etc., should be of 
potable quality. Psychrophilic bacteria are always present 
on the slime on the skin, gills and often in the intestine of 
newly caught fish. Water should not be a source of these 
organisms. It is important that shellfish such as oysters, 
clams and mussels should not be grown in grossly polluted 
water. After removal from a growing area, shellfish may be 
cleansed by conditioning in bacteriologically pure water
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whereby and possibly pathogenic bacteria are voided from the 
shellfish. It has been suggested that sea water should be 
avoided for washing fish before canning to prevent or slow 
down formation of struvite (magnesium ammonium phosphate) 
crystals in canned fish. For instance, in lobster meat, there 
are usually plenty of phosphorus and ammonia compounds, but 
not normally sufficient magnesium for struvite formation, but 
magnesium will be supplied from sea water unless removed by 
fresh water, However, struvite formation can be prevented by 
the use of sequestering agents (MeFee and Swaine, 1953) .
The risk of disease through eating fresh fruit and vegetables 
contaminated with pathogenic organisms is very real. It is 
desirable that water of a potable standard should be used for 
washing purposes.
2.10 Storage and Handling
Stored water has a variety of uses, that is, direct 
consumption by livestock or humans or indirect consumption for 
irrigation and aquaculture. Reservoirs solve the problem of 
water shortage, especially in rural supply difficulties, since 
their storage potential far exceeds requirements. Numerous 
water supply facilities store potable water in steel tanks 
which are coated to prevent corrosion. Coating materials 
commonly in use present a potential risk to human health. 
Alban (1979) analyzed water samples from a tank coated with 
a commercial coal tar and found that levels of polycyclic 
aromatic hydrocarbons increased five to thirty times in 
storage tank effluent.
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Rainjars are popular in northeast Thailand because of the time 
and effort saved in water collection resulting from their use. 
Bacteriological analysis showed rainjar water to be much more 
purer than drinking water from alternative sources. In 
rainwater samples from one village, Escherichia coli was 
absent in 60% of rainjars compared with 46% of other vessels 
used for storing drinking water in the home. The use of a tap 
and the physical height of the jar served to protect the water 
by limiting water handling. Moreover, mosquito netting fitted 
to the top of the rainjar significantly improved its water 
quality, probably by preventing access of small lizards 
(Pinfold et al, 1993).
The vending machine has contributed to a revolution in how we 
buy food and drink. Although occasionally blamed for non­
specific illnesses, there have been few studies about the 
microbiology of food and drink from such machines. The few 
studies that have been reported have found high total viable 
counts and coliform organisms in dispensed drinks. This 
appears to be due to inadequate cleaning procedures or machine 
design (Hunter, 1992).
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3.0 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Survey
To prove the hypothesis that water supplied for industrial 
purposes was of poor quality, a survey was carried out to 
establish the basis for relating the problems encountered in 
the food processing industry to the quality of source water. 
It was also necessary to assess internal quality control 
measures applied in the various industries.
Questionnaires were administered to the industries, titled, 
"Survey on Factors Affecting the Quality of Water for 
Industrial Purposes" (APPENDIX I) . They covered water 
storage, cleaning of storage vehicles, treatment, quality 
control and effect of poor water quality on product quality. 
A total of twenty (20) major food industries in Accra and Tema 
were included in the survey.
3.2 Analysis of Samples
3.2.1 Sample Collection
Water samples were obtained from;
(a) A total of sixteen (16) water sources from four (4) 
rural communities in the Ga District, namely; Midie, 
Amasaman, Ofankor and Agbogba.
(b) 50 taps in ten (10) suburbs in the Accra District 
representative of both Kpong and Weija Water Supplies, 
that is, five locations within each suburb,
(c) 20 informal food service centres ("chopbars"),
(d) 20 "iced water" vendors.
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Three (3) 500 ml samples were collected at each water source 
visited. Duplicate samples were stored in sterile 
borosilicate flasks for bacteriological analysis within 1-2 
hours of collection, whilst the third sample collected was 
stored at 4°C prior to physicochemical analysis between 24 
hours and one week of collection.
3.2.2 Bacteriological Examination
The plate count technique and multiple tube method were 
employed in the analysis of water samples, according to the 
American Public Health Association (APHA) Standard Methods for 
the Examination of Water and Waste-water, 1971. In the case 
of rural water samples, only the plate count technique was 
used. Analysis was done in duplicates.
3.2.3 pH
pH was determined with pH meter : Model HM - 305 TOA
Electronics Ltd, Tokyo, Japan.
3.2.4 Turbidity
Turbidity measurements were done in duplicates with a 
Nephelometer : EEL Nephelometer Head/ DS2 9 Unigalvo.
Diffusion System Ltd London.
3.2.5 Alkalinity
Alkalinity of water samples were determined in duplicates, 
within 24 hours of sample collection by AOAC (1984) 
titrimetric method no. 33.014.
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This was done by means of a Lovibond colour comparator.
3.2.6 Colour
3.2.7 Metallic contaminants
Sodium and Calcium were determined using the Flame Photometer 
whilst Copper, Iron, Chromium, Nickel were determined with 
Atomic Adsorption Spectrophotometer : Perkin Elmer.
3.4 Data Analysis
ANOVA procedures were performed using the Statgraphics 
Software (Graphic Software System, STCC, Inc., U.S.A.).
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4.0. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Data collected from the food processing industries was grouped 
under four major topics:
(a) storage and cleaning of storage receptacle,
(b) water treatment,
(c) water quality control and
(d) problems encountered that were attributed to poor water 
quality.
4.1. Survey
4.1.1 Water storage and cleaning of storage receptacle.
TABLE 5 depicts the type of receptacle used by some food
manufacturers in Accra and their cleaning times.
Table 5 Storage and Cleaning Schedules of Water Storage
Receptacles Food Industries
WATER PRODUCT RECEPTACLE CLEANING
SOURCE FREOUENCY
Weija carbonated soft drink concrete month or less
Weija carbonated soft drink concrete quarterly
Weija carbonated soft drink iron month or less
Weija carbonated soft drink concrete month or less
Weija lager beer concrete month or less
Weija lager beer concrete month or less
Weija liquor n/a n/a
Weija liquor steel quarterly
Weija ice cream aluminium not stated
Weija toffee plastic month or less
Weija biscuits aluminium month or less
Kpong carbonated soft drink plastic biannually
Kpong orange squash aluminium annually
Kpong canned fish aluminium annually
Kpong evaporated milk concrete biannually
Kpong weaning food concrete biannually
Kpong ice lollies aluminium month or less
Kpong margarine iron month or less
Kpong chocolate aluminium not stated
Nsawam canned fruits & concrete annually
vegetables
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The storage of water in food processing industries is an 
important operation. This is illustrated in the observation 
that all the processing industries that were visited had a 
clear policy to store water, and therefore installed storage 
receptacles. Only one factory did not store water. No 
reasons were offered by the manufacturer for non - storage of 
water. The factory simply shut down when the water supply was 
interrupted and no production was done until water supply was 
restored. Hence, the factory suffered economic losses.
Water storage receptacles in the processing factories were 
observed to be made of three main types of material: metal, 
plastic and concrete (TABLE 5) . The choice of receptacle type 
did not seem to be related to the source of water or the type 
of product that are processed.
The frequency of cleaning of the receptacles was however 
related to the source of water used in the factory (TABLE 5). 
Most factories that obtained water from the Weija source had 
a routine weekly or monthly schedule for cleaning the storage 
receptacles. On the other hand, factories that obtained water 
from the Kpong source cleaned their receptacles only once in 
a year (TABLE 5). This observation underscores a fundamental 
difference between the two sources of water in the Accra 
metropolis. The Weija source seemed to have a much heavier 
load of sediment and debris, which settled on the inner 
surfaces of water receptacles, and therefore created the need 
for a more frequent cleaning.
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4.1.2 Water quality control in industry
Determination of water pH, as a quality control measure, seems 
to be most popular among the food processing industries (TABLE 
6), probably because it is a cheap, easy and rapid procedure. 
Water pH is thought to give an indication of the effectiveness 
of treatment. It also helps to determine the kind of pH 
adjustments necessary to ensure good quality water for 
processing operations in the factory. Other indices that are 
determined for quality control purposes include hardness, 
alkalinity, bacterial load and residual chlorine.
Table 6 Analysis of Water in the Food Industry
WATER PRODUCT
SOURCE_____________________
Weija carbonated soft drink 
Weija carbonated soft drink 
Weija carbonated soft drink 
Weija carbonated soft drink 
Weija lager beer
Weija lager beer 
Weija liquor 
Weija liquor 
Weija ice cream
Weija toffee
Weija biscuits
Kpong carbonated soft drink
Kpong orange squash 
Kpong canned fish 
Kpong evaporated milk
Kpong weaning food
Kpong ice lollies 
Kpong margarine 
Kpong chocolate
Nsawam canned fruits & 
______ vegetables___________
QUALITY PARAMETERS
DETERMINED______________
pH,hardness 
pH
alkalinity
residual Cl,alkalinity 
bacteriology,pH,conductivi­
ty, alkalinity,hardness,Fe, 
Si,Cl,p- and m-value 
pH,hardness 
hardne s s (Mg,Ca 1evels) 
pH,taste,colour 
bacteriology,pH,Cl,hardness, 
specific gravity 
bacteriology,pH,dissolved 
solids,suspended solids 
no quality control 
bacteriology,residual Cl (in 
filters)
no quality control 
bacteriology,pH,hardness 
bacteriology,pH,residual 
Cl,hardness
bacteriology,pH,residual 
Cl,hardness 
refraction 
bacteriology,pH 
pH,hardness,alkalinity, 
dissolved solids 
residual Cl,Cu content
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Fifty per cent (50%) of the factories determine bacteriolo­
gical quality of water. The assumption made by those who do 
not do this analysis was that, the processing steps that 
involve application of heat including sterilization by 
autoclaving destroys the microbes. In other cases, sanitiza­
tion with chemicals is expected to inhibit microbial growth.
4.1.3 Water Treatment.
TABLE 7, compiled from the survey, shows the water treatment 
schedules for processing industries in Accra. The table shows 
the source of water, type of treatment and reasons for 
treatment. The general impression gathered from the survey 
(TABLE 7), was that , water treatment method was not related 
to the quality of water. This was inferred from the fact 
that, most of the industries did not have elaborate quality 
control procedures (Section 4.1.2). It appeared that the 
treatment method was incorporated as part of the production 
procedure package, either imported or copied from elsewhere.
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Table 7 Watsr Treatment in The Food Industry
WATER
SOURCE
PRODUCT TYPE OF TREATMENT REASONS FOR TREATMENT 
OR NON-TREATMENT_____
Weija carbonated
soft drink
Weij a carbonated
soft drink
Weij a carbonated
soft drink
Weij a carbonated
soft drink
Weij a lager beer
Weija lager beer
Weija liquor
Weija liquor
Weija ice cream
Weija toffee
Weija biscuits 
Kpong carbonated 
soft drink 
Kpong orange squash 
Kpong canned fish
Kpong evaporated
milk
Kpong weaning food 
Kpong ice lollies 
Kpong margarine 
Kpong chocolate
chemical & filter
chemical & filter
chemical & 
coagulation
chemical
ion exchange
chemical & filter
ion exchange
chemical & filter 
chemical & filter
not applicable
not applicable 
chemical & filter
not applicable 
chemical
ion exchange
ion exchange 
not applicable 
distillation 
ion exchange
Nsawam canned fruits not applicable 
_______& vegetables________________
softening for steam 
generation
reduce bacterial load
reduce bacterial load 
alkalnity & particles 
to meet standards 
ensure complete 
treatment
reduce hardness, meet 
brewing standards 
reduce scaling in 
boiler
improve product 
appearance
get rid of impurities 
reduce bacterial load 
and sediments,protect 
equipment
GWSC controls water 
quality
tap water is clean 
reduce bacterial load
tap water is clean 
reduce bacterial load 
soften water 
meet internal 
specification for 
bacteria and Cl 
protect equipment 
no response 
reduce bacterial load 
reduce energy 
requirements 
tap water is clean
Of the twenty manufacturers, twenty five per cent (25%) do not 
treat their incoming water at all. Their assumption is that, 
piped water is treated and hence fit for every type of 
operation that requires clean water. Some other factories 
however, found the piped water to be hard, and therefore 
needed to be softened before use. Almost fifty per cent (50%) 
of the factories were observed to use chemicals for softening
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water. Majority of these factories (78%) use water from the 
Weija source. Most factories that soften their water however, 
do not determine the constituents of the water before 
softening. This suggests that the hardness level is not 
usually known, and therefore, softening procedures may be over 
done, or under estimated, leading to severe economic 
implications. Such indiscriminate softening procedures may 
have a direct effect on the product quality.
4.1.4 Problems encountered in industry attributable to poor 
water quality
Only three respondents indicated that they had ever had a 
defective product due to the use of water of low quality. 
Some others conceded that the quality of water from Weija may 
be a factor, but would not include it in the response to a 
formal questionnaire as it reflected internal inadequacies. 
In almost all three cases, they were taken unawares due to the 
assumption that the water was treated from source.
As shown in TABLE 8, two of the respondents who admitted to 
having defective products from poor water quality, use water 
from Weija. One factory produced carbonated soft drink whilst 
the other factory blended liquors. In both cases, the 
production defect seemed to be related to the high salt 
content of the water.
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Table 8 Problems encountered in the Food Industry alleged to
be due to poor water quality and control measures adopted by
the factories
WATER PRODUCT PROBLEM CONTROL
SOURCE DESCRIPTION MEASURES
Weija carbonated floe in finished change water
soft drink product source
Wei j a carbonated 
soft drink
not applicable not applicable
Weij a carbonated 
soft drink
Weija carbonated 
soft drink
Weij a larger beer .  . . .
Weij a larger beer . .
Weij a liquor Ca,Mg scum in 
neck of bottle
installation of 
ion exchanger
Weij a liquor not applicable not applicable
Weij a ice cream
Weij a toffee , .
Weij a biscuits
Kpong carbonated 
soft drink
Kpong orange squash . .
Kpong canned fish
Kpong evaporated milk
Kpong weaning food . .
Kpong ice lollies
Kpong margarine high bacterial test water daily,
Kpong
Nsawam
chocolate 
canned fruits 
& vegetables
count in water 
and product 
not applicable
clean system more 
regularly 
not applicable
Neither of the two factories affected, seemed to have a policy 
of determining chemical components of the water. However, the 
factory which produced liqours, believed that the problem was 
related to high concentration of calcium and magnesium salts. 
It then installed an ion-exchange filter and the problem was 
resolved. The carbonated soft drink manufacturer could not 
identify the source of the problem. The control measure was 
to change their water source by buying water from a water 
point supplied by Kpong. The third factory, manufacturing
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margarine, derived its water from Kpong. The microbial load 
of the source water was found to be high, accounting for 
similar levels of microbial load in the final product.
4.2. Laboratory Analysis
4.2.1. Bacteriology of Urban Water (pined)
The results of bacteriological analysis of piped water samples 
obtained are presented in Tables 9 and 10. The results reveal 
that, except for a few isolated cases of contamination, the 
water samples are bacteriologically sound or safe regardless 
of whether the source was Weija or Kpong. Three samples, two 
from Adabraka and one from Industrial Area gave positive 
reaction to faecal coliform test. Since contamination was not 
common to all five samples within a particular locality 
coupled with the fact that the presence of faecal coliform is 
indicative of recent pollution, it may be inferred that, 
pollution occurred after distribution. Ideally, drinking 
water should not contain any microorganisms known to be 
pathogenic. It should also be free from bacteria indicative 
of pollution with excreta. With efficient treatment ending 
in disinfection, no coliform bacteria should be detected in 
any 100 ml portion of water (WHO, 1993) . One of the five 
samples taken from Tesano recorded the highest most probable 
number, MPN, of 24 but there was no microbial growth in any 
of the tubes incubated at 44°C, indicating absence of faecal 
pollution. It is significant to note that water in Adabraka, 
Industrial Area and Tesano comes from Weija.
60
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Table 9. Total Plate,Total Coliform and Faecal Coliform
Counts* at 37°C/24h of piped water in Accra_____________
Source Town** Total
count
Total
coliforms
Faecal
coliforms
Weija
Kpong
Dansoman 1 32 nd nd
Dansoman 2 nd nd nd
Dansoman 3 2 nd nd
Dansoman 4 nd nd nd
Dansoman 5 1 nd nd
Tesano 1 1 nd nd
Tesano 2 1 2 nd
Tesano 3 nd 1 nd
Tesano 4 nd nd nd
Tesano 5 nd nd nd
Adabraka 1 nd nd nd
Adabraka 2 nd nd nd
Adabraka 3 4 nd nd
Adabraka 4 nd nd nd
Adabraka 5 nd nd nd
Industrial Area 1 7 nd nd
Industrial Area 2 nd nd nd
Industrial Area 3 nd nd nd
Industrial Area 4 nd nd nd
Industrial Area 5 nd nd nd
Achimota 1 nd nd nd
Achimota 2 nd nd nd
Achimota 3 nd nd nd
Achimota 4 nd nd nd
Achimota 5 nd nd nd
Teshie 1 nd nd nd
Teshie 2 nd nd nd
Teshie 3 nd nd nd
Teshie 4 nd nd nd
Teshie 5 nd nd nd
Cantoments 1 nd nd nd
Cantoments 2 nd nd nd
Cantoments 3 nd nd nd
Cantoments 4 nd nd nd
Cantoments 5 nd nd nd
Madina 1 nd nd nd
Madina 2 nd nd nd
Madina 3 nd nd nd
Madina 4 - nd nd nd
Madina.5 nd nd nd
Dzorwulu 1 nd nd nd
Dzorwulu 2 nd nd nd
Dzorwulu 3 nd nd nd
Dzorwulu 4 nd nd nd
Dzorwulu 5 nd nd nd
Legon 1 nd nd nd
Legon 2 nd nd nd
Legon 3 nd nd nd
Legon 4 nd nd nd
Lecron 5 nd nd nd
*
*  *
counts are reported in cfu/ml 
1,2,3,4,5 indicate different
, nd = none detected 
taps in one town.
61
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Table 10 Most Probable Number (MPN) of Bacteria per 100 ml 
of piped water in Accra
Town* * 
(Weii a)
MPN Town
(Kpong)
MPN
Dansoman 1 5 Teshie 1 3
Dansoman 2 0 Teshie 2 0
Dansoman 3 0 Teshie 3 1
Dansoman 4 0 Teshie 4 1
Dansoman 5 0 Teshie 5 0
Tesano 1 0 Cantoments 1 0
Tesano 2 0 Cantoments 2 0
Tesano 3 24 Cantoments 3 0
Tesano 4 0 Cantoments 4 0
Tesano 5 0 Cantoments 5 0
Adabraka 1 1 Madina 1 0
Adabraka 2 0 Madina 2 0
Adabraka 3 3 + Madina 3 0
Adabraka 4 2 + Madina 4 0
Adabraka 5 0 Madina 5 0
Industrial Area 1 1 + Dzorwulu 1 0
Industrial Area 2 1 Dzorwulu 2 0
Industrial Area 3 3 Dzorwulu 3 0
Industrial Area 4 3 Dzorwulu 4 0
Industrial Area 5 0 Dzorwulu 5 0
Achimota 1 0 Legon 1 0
Achimota 2 0 Legon 2 0
Achimota 3 0 Legon 3 0
Achimota 4 0 Legon 4 0
Achimota 5 0 Legon 5 0
** 1,2,3,4,5 indicate different taps in one town
+ = positive for faecal coliforms
It is possible that water from source has low chlorine 
residual and therefore disinfectant was not sustained at the 
instance of sampling.
4.2.2 Bacteriology of Rural Water samples
Unlike water in urban Accra, all the water samples obtained 
from the rural areas were heavily loaded with microorganisms 
except those taken from the borehole and the Domi well (TABLE 
11 ) -
62
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Water from all the ponds and the stream were observed to have 
very high microbial load. This is probably because they are 
surface waters, exposed to soil and atmospheric contamination 
as well as contamination from human activity.
Table 11 Total Count, total Coliform and Faecal Coliform 
Counts at 37°C/24h of Water in Ga Rural
Source Total
count
Total 
Coliforms 
cfu/ml
Faecal
coliforms
Reservoir 1 113 24 2
Reservoir 2 196 30 12
Reservoir 3 tntc 504 7
Reservoir 4 416 67 8
Reservoir 5 128 24 4
Reservoir 6 144 6 nd
Well 1 tntc 828 448
Well 2 8 6 nd
Pond 1 tntc 656 342
Pond 2 392 197 49
Pond 3 704 412 1
Pond 4 608 364 228
Pond 5 tntc 204 nd
Stream 504 176 32
Borehole 5 nd nd
tntc = too numerous to count nd = none detected
Well 1 was found to be highly contaminated with 
microorganisms. Well 1 is a community well. It is about 30m 
deep, and is a ground water source. It was usually uncovered. 
The mode of fetching water from it was by lowering a rope tied 
to a bucket into it and drawing water. This probably 
accounted for the level of contamination compared to Well 2 
which is a household well that was covered and hardly used.
The borehole water from Midie was the least contaminated. The 
borehole was fitted with a handpump that drew water from
63
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several depths below the surface.
The water from reservoirs were supplied by tankers with tap 
water from Accra or tap water available Midie, in the case of 
Reservoir 6. These are also quite contaminated with 
microorganisms probably due to the insanitary conditions under 
which the water is stored and handled in the reservoir.
4.2.3. Aesthetic and Chemical quality of Water in Accra 
Physical and chemical analysis of the water samples obtained 
in Accra, shows basic differences between Kpong and Weija 
sources, in almost all the parameters determined (TABLE 12). 
The observed differences probably account for the difference 
in quality as indicated in the survey on industries.
Table 12 ANOVA Summary Table showing Comparison of Water 
Quality between Kpong and Weiia Sources
Variable Knong Weiia F-ratio
pH 7 .39 7.62 5 .59*
Alkalinity (mg/L) 49 .15 86.15 64.89*
Turbidity (NTU) 0.19 1.79 5 .99*
Sodium (mg/L) 3 .14 11.08 53.89*
Calcium (mg/L) 8.18 15.33 45.75*
Iron (mg/L) 0 .05 0.10 5 .40*
Copper (mg/L) 0 .01 0 . 01 1. 21
Chromium (mg/L) 0 . 00 0.00 2 .40
Nickel (mg/L) 0 . 01 0 . 01 1.28
* Significant at 95% confidence limit.
64
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Among the localities from which water samples were obtained, 
there were considerable variations in almost all the quality 
parameters determined (TABLE 13).
Table 13 ANOVA Summary Table showing Comparison of Water 
Quality between towns in Accra
Variable F-ratio
pH 7 .73*
Alkalinity 188 .65*
Turbidity 3 . 03*
Sodium 42.37*
Calcium 39.60*
Iron 3 .84*
Copper 0.51
Chromium 1.05
Nickel 1.07
* Significant at 95% confidence level
However, it was observed that, there was a degree of 
consistency in the ■ analytical results among samples from 
Kpong. The results were strikingly different from those 
obtained from Weija. Whilst the average alkalinity, for 
example, of the Kpong samples was about 45 mg/1, with a range 
of 44.0 to 47.3 mg/L, the alkalinity of the Weija samples was 
mostly above 90mg/l, with a range of 63.4 to 98.8 mg/L (Table 
14) .
65
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Table 14 Physical Quality of piped Water in Accra
Source Town pH Alkalinity
mcr/1
Turbidity
NTU
Colour
Hazen
Weija Dansoman 7 . 82 91.74 0.08 <5
Tesano 7.66 98.78 3.30 <5
Adabraka 7.65 97 .90 4.62 <5
Industrial Area 7 .84 97 .24 0 .48 <5
Achimota 6.93 63 .36 0.20 <5
Kpong Teshie 7 .11 45 .10 0.46 <5
Cantoments 7.36 45 .32 0.04 <5
Madina 7.50 45.76 0 .02 <5
Dzorwulu 7 .53 47.30 0.38 <5
Lecron 7.63 44.00 0 .34 <5
WHO values (1984) 6.5-8..5 5.0
Similarly, the concentrations of sodium, calcium and iron, 
were found to be slightly higher in Weija water than in Kpong 
water (Table 15) .
66
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Table 15 Chemical Quality of Piped Water in Accra
Source Town Fe Cu Na Ca 
(Dt>m)
Cr Ni
Weij a
Dansoman 0.026 0 .006 13 .50 18 .22 0.000 0.024
Tesano 0.096 0.006 12 .28 15 .18 0.002 0.008
Adabraka 0 .242 0.008 11.98 17.96 0.006 0.012
Industrial Area 0.048 0.006 14 .44 17 . 82 0.010 0.016
Achimota 0.068 0 .006 7.95 12.68 0 . 000 0.000
Kpong
Teshie 0.110 0 . 008 3.20 7 . 63 0.012 0.010
Cantoments 0.058 0.010 2.98 8 .35 0.002 0.022
Madina 0.052 0 .006 1.52 6 .49 0.004 0.010
Dzorwulu 0.026 0.012 1.92 6 .43 0.004 0.010
Lecron 0 . 030 0.018 1.33 6.93 0.000 0.000
WHO values (1984) 0 .300 1.000 200.00 0.050 0 .020
Table 15 shows that the levels of the minerals measured were 
all below WHO guideline threshold, and therefore do not pose 
any health threat.
4 . 2 . 3 .1 pH
The pH of the water samples obtained in all of Accra (6.93- 
7.84), were within the WHO guideline range of 6.5 and 8.5 
(WHO, 1984). However, the pH of water samples from the Kpong 
system shows less deviation about the mean, than pH of water 
from Weija. FIGURE 1 shows the variability of the pH of all 
the water samples obtained.
67
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Fig. 1. pH OF PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
68
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pH
co
oc
nCD
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
Legon
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The lowest pH (6.78), was recorded in Achimota whilst the 
highest (8.07), was recorded in Industrial Area. Both of 
these suburbs derive water from the Weija Water Works. The 
pH of water from Kpong ranged from 6.94 to 8.06. It is 
difficult to explain the observed wide range in the variabi­
lity of pH from Weija. Apart from the wider range in the pH 
of water from Weija, average pH (7.58), is also higher than 
the Kpong average pH (7.43). A statistical analysis of the 
results, using ANOVA, reveals that the difference between the 
pH of Kpong water and that of Weija is significant (p s 0.05) .
4 .2 .3 .2 Alkalinity
There was a marked difference in alkalinity between water 
samples from Weija and those from Kpong (FIGURE 2).
The samples from Kpong were all low in alkalinity , varying 
from 42.9 to 49.5 mg/L with an average of 45.5 mg/L. 
Alkalinity of samples from the Weija distribution, ranged from
57.2 mg/L (for Achimota) to as high as 108.9 mg/L with an 
average of 67.7 mg/L. The analysis of the variations in 
alkalinity showed that there were significant (p = 0.05) 
differences between the sources of water. Further statistical 
tests using multiple range analysis, indicated that, the 
alkalinity of water supplied by Kpong is comparable among the 
five towns but not with water supplied by Weija.
69
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Fig. 2. ALKALINITY OF PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
70
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Source
Alkalinity (mg/L)
r\jo too -p>.o onO CDO -JO 00 too
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
Legon
100
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4.2 .3 .3 Turbidity
Results obtained showed that, piped water was generally not 
turbid. This was evident from water from both Kpong and 
Weija, as depicted in FIGURE 3. In all the 50 samples 
collected, only two samples had high turbidity of 11.4 ntu and
11.6 ntu. These were from Tesano and Adabraka respectively, 
and originate from the Weija source.
4.2.3.4 Colour
None of the samples examined, were found to be above 5 Hazen 
units, which is the limit of detection of the Lovibond 
Tintometer used. Colour of 5 Hazen units cannot be detected 
in a glass of water by most people, and is therefore 
acceptable to consumers. Hence, it may be said that the water 
samples from both sources were acceptable.
71
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Fig. 3 TURBIDITY OF PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
72
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Source
Dansoman
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Legon
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4 .2.3 .5 Ionic constituents of Piped Water
As indicated in FIGURE 5, calcium and sodium are the most 
abundant cations to be found in piped water in Accra, but the 
concentrations are low (TABLE 15) . Samples of water from 
Weija have higher salt content than those from Kpong. This 
may be attributable to the geology and/or geography of the 
water bodies. Near coastal areas, windborne sea spray can 
make the important contribution, either by fallout on to land 
surfaces where it drains to the water source or from washout 
by rain from air to surface water sources (WHO,1979).
4.2.3.6 Sodium
The source of water is of primary importance in determining 
sodium content, as shown in FIGURE 5. While, there was little 
variation amongst the Kpong samples in sodium content, three 
distinct groups of samples could be observed from Weija. The 
concentration of sodium in water samples ranged from 1.3 to
14.4 mg/L. In general, sodium salts are not acutely toxi-c 
substances because of the efficiency with which mature kidneys 
excrete sodium (WHO,1979). Modern infant feeding practice 
using cow's milk, which contains about three times sodium than 
in human breast milk (WHO, 197.9) , has been suggested as a cause 
of hypernatraemia. The situation could be exacerbated if tap 
water containing high levels of sodium was also incorporated 
into the feed.
73
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Fig. 4 CONCENTRATION OF CATIONS IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
74
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Ion Concentration (mg/L)
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Fig. 5 CONCENTRATION OF SODIUM IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
75
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Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
Legon
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4 . 2 . 3 . 7 Calcium
The result show that calcium content ranged from 3.49 to 
21.4mg/l in all the water samples analyzed. The water samples 
from the Kpong source fell within the lower half of the range 
(3.49 - 8.43)mg/1. Calcium content of Weija samples ranges 
between 9.85 to 21.4mg/l. The minimum calcium content of 
3.49mg/l was recorded in Madina which is on the Kpong 
distribution network.
The average Calcium content of Kpong water samples clearly 
differs from calcium content of Weija water samples (FIGURE 
6) . Besides, there are more variations in calcium content of 
water from the towns on the Weija distribution system than 
those on the Kpong system.
Other cations that were determined in the water samples were 
iron, copper, chromium and nickel. Their concentrations were 
generally low, that is, below 0.25 ppm and not much variation 
could be established. However, variations shown in iron 
content were found to be statistically significant (p = 0.05), 
between the two sources of water supply to Accra. This was 
due to a very high iron content of 0.46 ppm which was found 
in only one of the water, samples from Adabraka. High 
concentrations of iron makes water unpalatable and stains 
laundry. It is prudent to maintain levels below 0.3 mg/L in 
water (WHO, 1984). The average iron concentration in water 
samples from Kpong was fairly constant, and generally lower 
than the iron content of water samples from Weija.
76
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Fig. 6 CONCENTRATION OF CALCIUM IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
77
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Source
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
ro
_ i ___
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
Legon
I <y>I....
oo
i
no <D
_J__
00
I
j
j
Zj
I
POO
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Fig. 7 CONCENTRATION OF IRON IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
78
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Source
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
o  o
b  p  -  p
O  cn — * cn r\)
- s — -  1 - -  1 1  L
Dansoman T
_T'" v
Tesano 'j
Adabraka
_ \T ...................................................................  ..............
Industrial vj
Achimota 'j
Teshte_ ( S ^ * H l
Cantoments j
Madina j
Dzorwulu ' j
Legon '>
0.25 
V
T
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Fig. 8 CONCENTRATION OF COPPER IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
79
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Source
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
o
ooPO
_I_
o
oo
o
oo<T) I_
o
oooo
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
v___ ____
'v "__......II__L----- |----------
o
o
o
b
r\)
 I_
o
o
i
o
o
CD
_I_
Legon _ _ _ _ _  -     ....
ISS
a
0.018-fi
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Fig. 9 CONCENTRATION OF CHROMIUM IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
80
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Source
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
o o o o o
'o  'o  'o  c> P  oo o o o o -*o  ro cn co —* ro
Dansoman 
Tesano 
Adabraka 
Industrial 
Achimota 
Teshie 
Cantoments 
Madina 
Dzorwulu 
Legon
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Fig. 10 CONCENTRATION OF NICKEL IN PIPED WATER IN ACCRA
81
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Source
Ion Concentration (mg/L)
Tesano
Adabraka
Industrial
Achimota
Teshie
Cantoments
Madina
Dzorwulu
Dansoman
Legon
o
oo
cn
o
o
o
o
cn
O
br\a
o
o
i\j
cn
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4.2.4. Aesthetic and chemical quality of Water in Ga Rural 
4 .2 .4 .1 pH
pH of rural samples varied from 6.41 to 8.84. The pH of Well 
2 was the lowest (6.41) and the highest pH was that of 
Reservoir 5 (8.84). These two pH values, fall outside the 
range recommended by WHO (6.5 -8.5). Two other samples had 
pH above the range, Reservoir 2 (8.68) and Reservoir 6 (8.6) . 
Three of the six water samples from reservoirs, had pH beyond 
8.5. This suggests an underlying phenomenon that may be 
linked either to the source of water, or the material used to 
build the tanks.
4.2.4.2 Alkalinity
The alkalinity of the reservoir samples generally fell in the 
lower half of the group range of 24.2 mg/1 to 185.9 mg/1. 
Generally, the alkalinity of the reservoir samples have 
alkalinity less than 60 mg/1. That of the well samples was 
greater than 100 mg/1. They were comparable to the pond and 
borehole samples. The stream sample had relatively high 
alkalinity of 185.9 mg/1.
4.2.4.3 Turbidity
Only the pond water samples were found to be highly turbid, 
due to fine particles suspended in water.
82
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Fig. 11 pH OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA RURAL
83
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Source
pH
Reservoir 1 
Reservoir 2 
Reservoir 3 
Reservoir 4  
Reservoir 5 
Reservoir 6 
Well 1 
Well2 
Pond 1 
Pond 2 
Pond 
Pond 4 
Pond 5 
Stream 
Borehole
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Fig. 12 ALKALINITY OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA RURAL
84
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Source
Alkalinity(mg/L)
IN)
o
Reservoir 1 
Reservoir 2 
Reservoir 3 
Reservoir 4  
Reservoir 5 
Reservoir 6 
Well 1 
Well2 
Pond 1 
Pond 2 
Pond 3 
Pond 4  
Pond 5 
Stream 
Borehole
o
<TiO 00O OO roo -J5.o <T)O
-* r\joo o
o  o
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Fig. 13 TURBIDITY OF WATER SAMPLES FROM GA RURAL
85
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Source
Turbidity(ntu)
IV CD 00 Oo  o  o  o o  o
120
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4.2.4.4 Colour
All the reservoir water samples were as colourless as water 
from tap sources, assuming that all were obtained from treated 
piped water. Water from the wells, stream, borehole and one 
pond were also colourless. Four of the pond water samples 
were coloured (FIGURE 14). In the towns where these samples 
were obtained, the rural folk often added alum to almost all 
their supplies for clarification.
4.2.4.5 Cationic constituents of water from Ga Rural
As in the urban water samples, sodium and calcium are the 
dominant cations in the rural water samples (FIGURE 15) . The 
highest calcium content was found in the deep well from 
Ofankor (FIGURE 15). This well also had the highest sodium 
content of 361 mg/1. The more shallow well had lower salt 
content, but was relatively high for calcium (17.3 tng/L) and 
sodium (28.8 mg/1). The borehole sample had 61 mg/1 sodium 
and 4.3 mg/1 calcium. Particularly elevated levels of sodium 
are associated with ground water in areas where there is 
abundance of sodium mineral deposits or where there has been 
contamination from saline intrusion or other forms of 
pollution (WHO, 1979) . Hypertensive patients and patients with 
congestive heart failure need to restrict their overall 
dietary intake of sodium.
86
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Fig. 14 COLOUR OF WATER SAMPLE FROM GA RURAL
87
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Source
Colour(Hazen)
— ■ r ' o r ' o o j o j - t i . ^ . c n  
cn O  tsi O  Cn O  cn O  Cn O
-1 ------------1------------1------------1_________I_________I_________I_________ I_________I_________I
Reservoir 1 
Reservoir 2 
Reservoir 3 
Reservoir 4  
Reservoir 5 
Reservoir 6 
Well 1 
Well2 
Pond 1 
Pond 2 
Pond 3 
Pond 4  
Pond 5 
Stream 
Borehole
'25
■1=
w
■
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The rest of the elements were present in very low 
concentrations in most of the samples except for Ponds 1 and 
5 which had high iron and aluminium. Iron is an essential 
element in human nutrition, but ingestion of large quantities, 
results in a condition known as haemochromatosis (Hopps,1972) 
(Jacobs,1977). Aluminium does not appear to be an essential 
nutrient in man. It is not normally absorbed from food or 
water but complexes with phosphate and is excreted in the 
faeces (Thienes and Haley,1972). Consequently, high levels 
of aluminium lead to loss of phosphate. Incidentally, water 
samples from the two ponds had high turbidity and colour. 
This lends credence to the fact that the aesthetic quality of 
water samples is related to the metallic content.
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Fig. 15 CONCENTRATION OF CATIONS IN WATER SAMPLES FROM GA 
RURAL
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Ion Concentration (mg/L)
—> -*  r\> r\) co oj -fc.
c n O O n O O l O O i Oo o o o o o o o o
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4.3. WATER UTILIZATION AMD HANDLING BEYOND THE TAP
4.3.1 Informal Food Serving Centers
Drinking water in food service center were sampled, and 
analyzed for microbial contamination. Results indicate that 
most samples had high bacterial load (TABLE 16), but none was 
found to be positive for faecal coliforms, which is an 
indication of recent pollution. The kind of exposure that the 
water pitchers or containers are given and the mode of 
handling and utilization, exposes them to various agents of 
enteric diseases.
Table 16 Bacteriological Analysis of Water from Informal Food 
Service Centers
Location MPN Location MPN
Legon 1 >161 Ministries 1 >161
Legon 2 3 Ministries 2 >161
Legon 3 24 Ministries 3 >161
Legon 4 >161 Ministries 4 >161
Legon 5 >161 Ministries 5 >161
Legon 6 24 Ministries 6 161
Legon 7 >161 Ministries 7 >161
Legon 8 17 Ministries 8 >161
Legon 9 >161 Ministries 9 >161
Legon 10 18 Ministries 10 17
Industrial Area 1 24 Industrial Area 2 >161
90
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4.3.2 Iced water Samples
Iced water is retailed in two main packages, using transparent 
polyethylene bags, or dispensed directly with cups. All the 
samples of iced water bought from the vendors were heavily 
contaminated with bacteria. Two of the five samples obtained 
by means of the cup were contaminated with coliform bacteria 
of faecal origin as against one contaminated polythene bag 
sample. A similar pattern could be seen in samples from both 
stations examined (TABLE 17).
Table 17 Bacteriological Analysis of "Iced water" samples
Circle Lorry 
Receptacle
Station
MPN
Accra Lorry 
Receptacle
Station
MPN
cup 1 >161 cup 1 >161
cup 2 >161 + cup 2 >161 +
cup 3 >161 + cup 3 >161
cup 4 >161 cup 4 >161 +
cup 5 161 cup 5 24
bag 1 >161 + bag 1 >161
bag 2 92 bag 2 161
bag 3 >161 bag 3 54
bag 4 24 bag 4 161 +
bag 5 161 bag 5 >161
+ = positive for faecal coliforms
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5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Survey
5.1.1 Storage and Cleaning of Water vessels
Most food factories store water in anticipation of 
interruptions in water supply. The frequency of cleaning of 
the storage receptacles depends on the source of the water. 
Water from Weija Water Supply apparently leaves deposits in 
the tanks more frequently than does water from Kpong.
Filtration is one of the treatment steps that is in use in our 
water treatment plants. It is recommended that, more 
filtration steps be included in treatment at Weija, since 
leaving this responsibility with individual factories will 
make a higher demand on the national economy.
5.1.2 Water Quality Control in Industry
Only a few manufacturing concerns were involved in thorough 
quality check of water before embarking on production. All 
food industries must be closely monitored to ensure complete 
quality assurance to their consumers.
5.1.3 Water Treatment in Industry
Water treatment in industries was generally instituted as part 
of production package imported or copied from elsewhere, and 
not necessarily designed according to source water quality. 
As a consequence, the quality of products cannot be expected
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to be consistent.
5.1.4 Production problems encountered in Industry relating 
to Water Quality
The survey revealed that, there was poor water quality 
management in the food industries. Manufacturers must be 
advised to explore the use of the concept of Hazard Analysis 
Critical Control Points. Also, employing more competent 
personnel might be the solution in some cases.
5.2. Urban Water
Generally, water treated by GWSC at both Weija and Kpong Water 
Works, is potable. Weija water is more alkaline. A periodic 
monitoring must be instituted by an appropriate authority as 
a matter of urgency, to monitor municipal water treatment.
5.3. Rural Water
All the water sources found in Ga rural can be classified into 
two groups. The ponds and streams form one group. Water from 
these sources is difficult to use unless thoroughly treated 
by at least the basic treatment procedure for potable water. 
Water from the borehole and well is the second group. It is 
the only type that is low in microbial count. Such water is 
not quite welcomed by inhabitants of Ga rural because of high 
salt content.
5.4. Water in Informal Food Service Centers (Chopbar Water)
Water used in informal food centers constitute a
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microbiological hazard.
5.5. Icewater
Water sold in polythene bags is less likely to be contaminated 
by pathogenic microorganisms than the water dispensed by 
vendors in cups. However, other means of selling drinking 
water on the street must be explored since the polythene bag 
water is not completely devoid of contamination. Also, a more 
comprehensive study should be carried out to form the basis 
for formulating national or local council policy regarding the 
sale of icewater. It is suggested that the study;
(a) holds an interview and a discussion with people 
who use icewater
(b) conduct an interview of vendors and
(c) covers a larger sample size.
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Ill
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7.0 APPENDICES
APPENDIX I QUESTIONNAIRE
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
DEPARTMENT OF NUTRITION AND FOOD SCIENCE 
Survey on Factors Affecting the Quality of Water for 
Industrial Purposes 
SECTION A
Date........
1. District...........
2. Town/Village................
3. Type of Industry.....................................
4 . Product.................. .
5. Professional Status of respondent..............
6. Educational Background
Nonet ] Primary[ ] Middle [ ] Secondary [ ]
Tech[ ] Voc[ ] Col[ ] University [ ]
7. Did you complete this level? Y[ ] N[ ]
8. How long have you been producing the above-named
product?............
SECTION B
Source of Water
9. What is the source of water to your taps? Kpong[ ] 
Weija[ ]
Other Specify........
10. How regular is the flow of water? ............
11. From where do you obtain water when the taps are not 
flowing? ...........................
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12. Is there any difference between water from the main 
source and that of the alternate supply ? Y [ ] N [ ]
13. If Yes, please specify
14. Do you always have water for all your operations ? Y[ ] 
N[ ]
15. If No, what activities do you suspend ?
SECTION C
Storage of Water
16. Do you have a holding tank specifically for water ?
Y [ ] N [ ]
17. If Yes what material is it made of ?
Plastic[ ] Aluminium[ ] Iron[ ] Earthenware[ ]
Glass[ ] Other (Specify)............
18. How often do you clean the tank?
Daily[ ] Weekly[ ] Monthly[ ] Quarterly[ ]
Annually[ ] Other Specify...........
19. Why do you store water, if you do ? Give Reasons
SECTION D 
Utilization/Handling of Water
20. State all operations that involve the use of water, eg.
Steam generation, Cooking, As raw material ingredient
etc.
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21. Which do you consider most critical in terms of water 
quality ?
22. Do you treat the water before use ? Y[ ] N[ ] 
2 3. Why............................................
24. If answer to 22 is Yes, what type of treatment do you 
give it?
Boiling[ ] Filtering[ ] Chemical! ]
Other............
25. Do you observe any changes ? Y[ ] N[ ]
26. What difference does treatment make?
27. Do you have a quality control (QC) system which 
analyses the water before/after treatment ? Y[ ] N[ ]
28. If no, how do you know if your water quality is 
adequate for your purposes or not ?
29. If Yes, what parameters do they analyse for ?
30. Have you ever had a problem with the water that 
resulted in a poor quality product ? Y[ ] N[ ]
31. If Yes, how did you relate the problem to the water 
quality ? Please explain
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32. How did you resolve the problem?
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APPENDIX II MAP OF ACCRA AND GA RURAL SHOWING DISTRIBUTION 
OF SUBURBS FROM WHERE WATER SAMPLES WERE TAKEN
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jAgbogba
Madina
Achimota^
Dzorwulu
i Tesano
• Cantonments
I  Kpeshi 'Lagoar^ Teshie
•AdabrakaOduponkfjJ Dansoman!
Ka rlt v 
Lagoon rACCRA
LEG EN D  
f  Regional Capital 
• Project Site 
-  Major Road 
= i—  River / Stream
Scale
Mile 0 1 2 Miles
I' i 1 i \ i 1------- 1
Km 0 1 2 KmAmasaman <
Ofankor*
North 
Industrial^ 
> A  re. a
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MOST PROBABLE NUMBER (MPN) AND 95% CONFIDENCE LIMITS FOR THE 
5 0ML PORTION. FIVE 10ML AND FIVE 1ML PORTIONS PER 100ML SAMPLE
APPENDIX III
Number of tubes giving 95% confidence limits
positive reaction out of MPN Lower limit Upper limit
1x5 0ml 5x10ml 5xlml Der ml
0 0 1 1 0.5 4
0 0 2 2 0.5 6
0 1 0 1 0.5 4
0 1 1 2 0.5 6
0 1 2 3 0.5 8
0 2 0 2 0.5 6
0 2 1 3 0.5 8
0 2 2 4 0.5 11
0 3 0 3 0.5 8
0 3 1 5 0.5 13
0 4 0 5 0.5 13
1 0 0 1 0.5 4
1 0 1 3 0.5 8
1 0 2 4 0.5 11
1 0 3 6 0.5 15
1 1 0 3 0.5 8
1 1 1 5 0.5 13
1 1 2 7 1 17
1 1 3 9 2 21
1 2 0 5 0.5 13
1 2 1 7 1 17
1 2 2 10 3 23
1 2 3 12 3 28
1 3 0 8 2 19
1 3 1 11 3 26
1 3 2 14 4 34
1 3 3 18 5 53
1 3 4 21 6 66
1 4 0 13 4 31
1 4 1 17 5 47
1 4 2 22 7 69
1 4 3 28 9 85
1 4 4 35 12 101
1 4 5 43 15 117
1 5 0 24 8 75
1 5 1 35 12 101
1 5 2 54 18 138
1 5 3 92 27 217
1 5 4 161 39 450
117
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