University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY CULTURAL VALUES AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS PREDICTORS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES: A STUDY OF TEACHERS IN ACCRA BY FRANCISCA AMA BOATENG 10333143 THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL, INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY. JUNE 2019 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Francisca Ama Boateng, hereby declare that this thesis has been conducted by me and it is the result of my own research under the supervision of Dr. Maxwell Asumeng and Dr. Kingsley Nyarko of the department of psychology, University of Ghana. This thesis has never in any form been presented in whole or part by anyone to any examining body for the award of any degree. Where the views and ideas of others have been used, they have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval ……………………………………… Date: ......../......./2019 Francisca Ama Boateng (Student) This thesis has been submitted for examination with the approval of: ……………………. ………………… Date: ......../......./2019 Dr. Maxwell Asumeng (Principal Supervisor) .............................................................. Date: ......../......./2019 Dr. Kingsley Nyarko (Co-supervisor) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To Mr. Daniel Arku Amoah Genevieve Nayo Othniel Amoah and Miriam Oye Addo iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I am grateful to the Lord God Almighty for being my strength and guide in the writing of this thesis. This project would not have been possible without the support of certain personalities who deserve my gratitude. I wish to offer my profound gratitude to my supervisors, Dr. Maxwell Asumeng and Dr. Kingsley Nyarko for their valuable time, suggestions and constructive criticisms of the content, structure and presentations of this work. God bless you. I owe much gratitude to my husband, without whose encouragement I would not have pursued this course. I am also grateful to all individuals and organisations who offered me assistance in the course of data gathering. To my friends whose encouraging words and prayers kept me going; Kofi, Charlotte, Vero, Mercy and Belinda, I say thank you. To Helen Asia, thank you for being there for me. Finally to my colleagues, Eric, Phillip and Joshua, thanks for your assistance and reminders. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENTS PAGE DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................ v ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ....................................................................................................... xii CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem .................................................................................................... 11 1.3 Aims and objectives ............................................................................................................ 13 1.4 Relevance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 13 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 16 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................. 16 2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 16 2.2 Theoretical Framework ..................................................................................................... 16 2.2.1 Model of Conflict Management Styles (Rahim & Bonoma, 1979) .............................. 16 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.2 Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory ..................................................................... 21 2.3 Review of Related Studies ................................................................................................ 27 2.3.1 Cultural values and conflict management styles ........................................................ 27 2.3.2 Emotional intelligence and conflict management styles ............................................ 33 2.4 Rationale of the study ........................................................................................................ 38 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 39 2.5 Conceptual Model ............................................................................................................. 41 2.6 Operational Definitions of variables ................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 43 METHODOLOGY ....................................................................................................................... 43 3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 43 3.2 Research Paradigm .............................................................................................................. 43 3.3 Research Design .................................................................................................................. 43 3.4 Research setting and population of Study ........................................................................... 44 3.5 Sample Size ......................................................................................................................... 45 3.6 Sampling Technique ............................................................................................................ 45 3.7 Participants’ Demographics ................................................................................................ 48 3.8 Data collecting Instruments ................................................................................................. 49 3.8.1 Demographic Factors .................................................................................................... 49 3.8.2 Cultural Values Dimensions Scale (Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, 2011) ................... 50 3.8.3 Emotional Intelligence Scale (Wong & Law, 2002). ................................................. 50 3.8.4 Conflict Management Styles Scale (Rahim, 1983). ................................................... 51 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.9 Procedure ............................................................................................................................. 52 3.9.1 Pilot Study (Pre-test) .................................................................................................... 52 3.9.1.1 Item analysis of the Cultural Value Dimensions Scale ........................................... 53 3.9.1.2 Item analysis of the Emotional Intelligence Scale ................................................... 53 3.9.1.3 Item analysis of the Styles of Conflict Management Scale ..................................... 54 3.10 Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................. 54 3.11 Ethical Consideration ........................................................................................................ 55 3.12 Statistical analysis ............................................................................................................. 57 3.12.1 Data preparation ............................................................................................................. 57 3.12.2 Data validation ............................................................................................................ 57 3.12.3 Data editing................................................................................................................. 58 3.12.4 Data coding ................................................................................................................. 58 3.12.5 Missing data ................................................................................................................ 59 3.12.6 Descriptive statistics ................................................................................................... 59 3.12.7 Inferential statistics and hypotheses testing ................................................................ 60 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 62 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 62 4.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Descriptive statistics .......................................................................................................... 62 4.2.1 Analysis of the normal distribution of variables .......................................................... 64 4.2.2 Reliability analysis of the scales ................................................................................... 65 4.3 Hypothesis testing ............................................................................................................... 67 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Summary of Findings .......................................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER FIVE .......................................................................................................................... 77 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................... 77 5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 77 5.2 Cultural value dimensions and conflict management styles ............................................... 77 5.3 Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Styles ................................................... 82 5.3 Contribution of the study..................................................................................................... 84 5.4 Limitations of the study..................................................................................................... 85 5.5 Practical Implications ........................................................................................................ 86 5.6 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 87 5.6 Summary and Conclusion ................................................................................................. 88 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................. 91 APPENDICES ............................................................................................................................ 104 Appendix 1- Ethical Clearance Letter from ECH ................................................................... 104 Appendix 2- Introductory Letter from Department of Psychology......................................... 105 Appendix 3-Informed Consent Form ...................................................................................... 106 Appendix 4- Data Gathering Instrument ................................................................................. 111 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The study examined the influence of cultural values and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. Three hundred and ninety – two (392) respondents were randomly sampled from six (6) Senior High Schools and two Technical Schools in the Accra Metropolis. The study used a cross-sectional survey design with participants completing questionnaires on cultural value dimensions, emotional intelligence, and conflict management styles. Multiple Linear regression and the multivariate analysis of variance were used to analyse the data. The results revealed that long-term orientation positively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles. Power distance negatively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles, but positively predicted dominating conflict styles. Masculinity positively predicted both obliging and dominating conflict management styles. Long term orientation, collectivism, and power distance predicted a higher amount of integrating, obliging and dominating conflict management styles respectively compared to the other cultural value dimensions. Uncertainty avoidance accounted for higher prediction of avoiding and compromising conflict management styles compared to the other components of cultural values. Emotional intelligence positively predicted integrating, compromising and obliging conflict management styles but negatively predicted avoiding and dominating conflict management styles. Emotional intelligence accounted for higher variance in integrating conflict management style compared to the other styles of conflict management. Analysis of the data produced significant research findings, hence theoretical and practical implications are discussed as well as limitations and suggestions for future research. ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table No Tittle Page Table 3.1 Demographic characteristics of the participants 48 Table 4.1 Summary of Descriptive Statistics of Variables in the Study 64 Table 4.2 Inter-correlation of the study variables 66 Table 4.3 Regression analysis of the cultural values and integrating style of conflict 67 management Table 4.4 Regression analysis of the cultural values and obliging style of conflict 68 management Table 4.5 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of avoiding 70 conflict management Table 4.6 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of comporting 71 conflict management Table 4.7 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of dominating 72 conflict management Table 4.8 Regression of emotional intelligence as a predictor of styles of conflict 73 management x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure No Title Page Figure 1 Rahim and Bonoma Model for Conflict Management Styles 21 Figure 2 Conceptual model of the relationship between cultural values and 41 emotional intelligence on conflict management styles Figure 3 Diagram representing the modified version of the two-stage sampling 47 approach xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IN - Integrating OB - Obliging CO - Compromising AV - Avoiding DO - Dominating PDI - Power Distance UAI -Uncertainty Avoidance COL - Collectivism LTO - Long-term Orientation MAS - Masculinity EI - Emotional Intelligence xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Conflict may be considered as a normal facet of our everyday life and is a truth that exists in any human society throughout history (Ahmed, 2015). Wherever two or more people interact, there is a tendency for conflict to arise. In other words, conflict in the workplace is destined to occur as long as there are ongoing interactions among stakeholders. Conflict may occur within any organisation, be it a large business or a privately-owned small business, in schools or charity organizations, which can have a devastating effect on these organisations. This is why it is estimated that Fortune 500 senior human resource executives spend up to 20% of their time in litigation activities (Levine, 1998). Studies also show that up to 42% of a manager's time is spent on reaching agreement with others when conflicts occur (Watson & Hoffman, 1996). The outcome of a poorly managed conflict can lead to negative consequences such as time-wasting, decreased morale, and increased level of absenteeism, high turnover, complaints, and litigations (Runde & Flanagan, 2007). As a result, some organisational theorists such as the Classical Organizational theorists, viewed conflict as undesirable and should be eliminated (Chen, 2006). To them, conflict is a major obstacle for the proper functioning of any organisation and had to be avoided in every organisational context. However, later research initiated by Human Relation theorists, have regarded conflict as a prerequisite of a growing organisation, which links different views and is necessary for creativity and innovation (Al-Hamdan, Al-Ta'amneh, Rayan, & Bawadi, 2019). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Organisational conflict is a daily occurrence and therefore spending too much energy and time in avoiding and preventing conflict from occurring may not be an effective way in organisational management (Al-Hamdan et al., 2019). If the conflict is regarded as a daily event, then techniques to regulate conflict, rather than getting rid of it must be the focal concern for enhancement of our lives (Afful-Broni, 2012). In support of this, Boucher (2013) indicated that effective leaders in organisations deal with managing conflicts rather than eradicating them. Generally, conflict is regarded as a disparity of desires or thoughts (Fink & Brunner, 2011). Conflict occurs when a person sees that his/her needs, goal, interests, values, opinions or behaviour differ from that of the other person (Baker, 2011). Organisational conflict can be considered as the disharmony which occurs once there is a mismatch between the interests and values of dissimilar people or when individual interests and values conflicts with others’ in a group. This disharmony if not handled effectively can lead to lack of motivation, apathy and poor performance in employees leading to low productivity. According to Yasin and Khalid (2015), when these goals, values, cognitions, and emotions become irreconcilable, conflict is bound to ensue between parties which can lead to hostile relationships. Conflict can cause stress, mental damages and can decrease job satisfaction and can also increase voluntarily job quit, reduce productivity and cause ethical issues. (Shamoradi, Jahangiri, Chahardoli, Tirafkan, & Mohajeran, 2014). Therefore, seeking out some ways of managing conflicts rather than denying their existence should be the focus of organisations (Al-Hamdan et al. 2019; Handy, 2001). Research indicates that if conflicts are handled based on appropriate discussions and debates where all parties and groups are given the opportunity to express their opinions and feelings, it would to a large extent reduce social tension and stabilize relationships (Hallenbeck & Wagner, 2010). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The occurrence of conflict among humans is natural where two or more people may be together for some time (Rahim, 2001). Nevertheless, the manner in which conflicts arise in various working environment varies. Conflicts are attributed either to disagreements or differences in attitudes and perceptions, tasks and policies, needs and values, limited or conflicting interests in a project, or to differences deriving from competition, mistakes or ignorance, or the negative behavior and reactions of organizational members, such as regular absenteeism, many complaints, among others (Kantek and Gezer, 2009; Rahim, 2000, 2001; Shih and Susanto, 2010; Tjosvold and Hui, 2001). Consequently, conflict could occur anywhere, in any organization, and its repercussions for organizational performance are unescapable. Schools are not left out when it comes to the issue of conflict because schools consist of individuals of deferring ages, aspirations, abilities, personalities, needs and values, and conflict may occur among students, school leaders and/or educators, as well as between the school itself and other social parties of the school such as local authorities or parents (Henkin and Holliman, 2009). Additionally, ‘‘the teaching profession is being characterized by an individualist approach because training, development and promotion focus on specialization . . . while the development of teamwork in the educational setting is really sparse’’ (Somech, 2008: 360). It would be therefore, reasonable to assume that there is an increased likelihood for conflicts to occur within schools. Based on the above, it would be almost impossible to find a school unit that is free of any conflict. In reality, conflict is a general phenomenon of school life (Saity, 2015), and, as a result, school principals often spend valuable time trying to solve problems that arise as a result of a conflict or disagreement among school members ( Bagshaw, Lepp & Zorn, 2007; Balay, 2006; Fassoulis, 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2006; Somech, 2008; Tekos & Iordanidis, 2011). This diminishes the time available for fruitful planning and the advancement of creative initiatives and solutions. Because school conflict is closely related to the stability and the effective running of a school unit and thus may be considered to carry an economic cost, both for the school leadership and the school unit itself, the regular occurrence of conflicts in the school units disturbs a large part of school activities and certainly does not promote educators’ constructive contribution to the improvement of the school process (Balay, 2006; Brouzos, 2009; Paraskevopoulos, 2008; Somech, 2008; Tekos and Iordanidis, 2011). In Africa, Sharpeville massacre of 1960 had a severe effect on students in South Africa, and that considerable number of students lost their lives due to the racial conflict over the apartheid regime. In 1976 the students opposed the introduction of Afrikaans language as a medium of instruction in South African schools through the Black Consciousness Movement (Wanyande, 1990). In a similar vein, educational institutions in Nigeria, from 1972-1979, and in 1990 experienced so much conflict that soldiers were deployed to schools to assist in control of students’ behavior ((Muindi, 2016). In Kenya, student-student, student-teacher and student-administration conflicts have been frequent and have most times climaxed into unrests. These conflicts have ranged from sit in to violent destruction of property and loss of lives (Muindi, 2016). In Ghana, several current studies have explored the sources, causes, types, practices and handling of conflicts (Afful-Broni, 2006; Afful-Broni, 2012; Bekoe & Quartey, 2013), Donkor, 2016; Gyan & Tandoh-Offin, 2014; Opoku-Asare, Takyi, & Owusu-Mensah, 2015). Afful-Broni (2007) for example, outlined eleven concrete roots of organisational conflict which are worth mentioning chiefly because they relate to educational institutions. His first focus was on choice of administrative personnel as a source of conflict. In any given organization, the appointment of 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh leadership will be met with some resistance from certain quarters. There may be occasions when some individuals anticipated having a specific individual chosen, appointed or elected to the available leadership position and where that may not be possible, the new administrator may not find co-operation with these individuals. In such an instance, conflict could be the outcome whenever the new leader proposes, recommends and sends out a directive. Tribal or ethnic differences can also serve as a source of conflict according to the author. Within every community, there are sub-communities or sub cultures whose beliefs and practices vary from one another. He also identified source Earlier Entrants a source of conflict. In nearly every institution, one is likely to find a category of individuals or a group of individuals who were perhaps part of or close to the age of the pioneering working team but may find themselves at the lower section of the organogram due to low academic qualification. Another source of conflict outlined by Afful-Broni (2007) is competition for scarce resources. There are times when within a financial organisation, the cause of conflict can be traced to a number of units, departments or individuals struggling for the same scarce resource. For example, it is possible for two workers to have a seriously fierce argument over who has the priority to use particular office equipment or the departments’ only laptop or television for a particular programme. The author further enumerated economic sources, “generational gap” and power struggle as other sources of organisational conflict. Gyan and Tandoh-Offin (2014) also, in a research, found several types of conflicts in Senior High Schools in the Central region of Ghana. The types of conflicts identified are ranked as follows: inter-personal conflicts (34.7%), inter-union conflicts between staff and school administrators (20.9%), conflicts between labour and government (13.6%), others( i.e. students versus staff or students versus school administrators, students versus food vendors, conflict between parents and teachers) ( 13.6%), with inter-personal conflicts ranking the highest among the several types of 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conflicts that were identified in the selected schools. On a few occasions, there were cases between schools and the community members. In another study, Gyan and Tandoh-Offin (2014) concluded that school managers should be encouraged to be proactive and sensitive to sources of conflict and be well prepared to deal with conflict situations. And recommended that communication and training in conflict resolution is core in efficient and effective management of conflicts. “When a school opens up communication channels and appropriate leadership training is provided, conflicts situations can be productive and be prevented from degenerating into unmanageable, full-blown conflicts that destroy life, property and unity among the school administrators, teachers, students, parents and the community”. The authors suggested (p 124). In managing conflict, Afful-Broni (2012) observed that reaching a consensus through collaboration had been one of the techniques headmasters adopt. To achieve this agreement, the research reveal that heads had often avoided arguing over individual ranking or position; they had avoided win-lose statements and the perception of “someone should always be found guilty”. In their efforts to manage conflict, the heads of schools admitted the need to overcome their personal emotions, be conversant with information and be competent with strategies that will work well for me and for the school” Afful-Broni (2012). The above studies indicate that school conflict is a significant problem that often arises in Ghanaian schools and has both interpersonal and organizational attributes. In support of these claims, Amir, and Naz, (2012) in their paper conclude that; since conflicts always exist in a working environment, total elimination of conflict from the organisation cannot be conceived. It is thus, required of the principals that these conflicts be properly managed. This nevertheless, depends on the situation as well as the principal’s personal preference of which style/s they wish to adopt to deal with the conflict. The findings show that the principals adopt one or other type of conflict management style. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Grounded on the relevant literature (Blake & Mouton, 1964; Benoliel. 2017; Dean, 1995; Frisby & Westerman, 2010; Gross & Guerrero, 2000; Lussier; 2010; Rahim, 2001, 2002; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979; Rahim et al., 1992; Tjosvold & Hui, 2001; Walton, 1969), five main styles of conflict management have been identified. Avoiding style involves low concern for self and others which is associated with a tendency for people, or groups in conflict to withdraw from the conflict situation or remain neutral (Rahim & Bonoma, 1979; Rahim, 2001). According to Lussier (2010), avoidance is being neither assertive nor co-operative and is commonly used by people who are emotionally upset by the tensions and frustrations of conflict. The style is often used when the potential consequences of confronting the other party seem to outweigh the benefit of resolving the conflict (Wanyonyi, Kimani, & Amuhaya, 2015). According to Yuan (2007), obliging or accommodating style of conflict management is associated with low concern for self and high concern for others and associates while attempting to play down the differences and focusing on relationships, cooperation and harmony. This style is associated with attempting to play down the differences and emphasizing commonalities to satisfy the concern of the other party, and may take the form of selfless generosity, charity, or obedience to another party’s order (Rahim, 2017). Integrating or collaborating style of conflict management is linked with problem solving and involves openness, sharing information, searching for alternatives and examination of differences to reach an effective solution acceptable to both parties. (Copley, 2008). Maier (2010), however noted that problem solving is the only method that is directed towards attitudinal, situational and behavioral components of conflict. In addition, the approach must involve confrontation and open 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discussion of the problem if it is to succeed in generating innovative solutions and promoting justice and fairness – two vital elements for effective teamwork (Chen and Tjosvold, 2002; Rahim, 2001; Tjosvold, 2008; Tjosvold et al., 2000). This style is preferred when the long-term relationship and outcome are paramount (Benoliel, 2017). Dominating (competing) style indicates high concern for self and low concern for others. This style has been identified with a win–lose orientation or with forcing behavior to win one’s position. (Rahim, 2001; Rahim & Bonoma, 1979). A dominating or competing person goes all out to win his or her objective and, as a result, often ignores the needs and expectations of the other party (Rahim, 2017). Dominating may mean standing up for one’s rights and/or defending a position that the party believes to be correct, and may want to win at any cost. A dominating supervisor is likely to use his or her position power to impose his or her will on the subordinates and command their obedience (Rahim, 2017). This management style saves time and is best suitable when the outcome is not critical (Benoliel. 2017). Compromising Style indicates intermediate concern for self and others (Rahim, 2017). It involves give-and-take or sharing whereby both parties give up something to make a mutually acceptable decision (Thomas & Kilmann, 1974). It is often used when the goals of the conflicting parties are mutually exclusive or when both parties, who are equally powerful, such as a labour union and management, have reached a stalemate (Wanyonyi, Kimani, & Amuhaya, 2015). Conflict management styles are dependent upon the delicate interaction of cultural, situational, and individual factors (Ting-Toomey & Oetzel, 2001, 2013). On the whole, culture exerts a strong effect on people’s conflict management style preferences. People from individualistic cultures tend to be more competing and confrontational, but less avoiding, accommodating, and compromising, 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh than people from collectivistic cultures (Oetzel & Ting-Toomey, 2003; Zhang, 2007). According to Ting-Toomey (2006), conflict style is a concept founded on culture which implies the significant role culture plays in determining the kind of conflict management style an individual will prefer in a conflict situation. Understanding and acceptance of cultural values are much easier with people from a similar cultural background than those from different cultures. Gunkel, Schlaegel, and Taras (2016) similarly argued that people choose those styles of management that fit their cultural values. Geert Hofstede identifies five cultural dimensions, which assign mathematical scores designating a particular country's beliefs about each of the dimensions. The five cultural dimensions are power distance (PDI), individualism (IDV), masculinity (MAS), uncertainty avoidance index (UAI), and long-term orientation (LTO) (Hofstede, 1980). Power Distance is the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. Individualism is the extent to which people feel independent, as opposed to being interdependent as members of larger wholes. Masculinity is the extent to which the use of force is endorsed socially. Uncertainty avoidance deals with a society’s tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity. Long-term orientation deals with change. Interpersonal conflict situations at work often arouse negative emotions, such as anger, mistrust, and deviant behavior (Bruk-Lee & Spector, 2006; Schieman & Reid, 2008). Though emotional intelligence is linked to the acknowledgement and regulation of own and others’ emotions, it may play a significant role in minimising interpersonal conflict, as emotional intelligent employees are able to regulate their emotions and use their ability to lessen or even resolve conflict (Mulki, Jaramillo, Goad, & Pesquera, 2015). Recent meta- analytic evidence (Schlaerth et al., 2013) also suggests that individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to manage conflict more constructively. In the same vein, Jordan and 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Troth (2004) show that individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to solve conflicts more productively than individuals scoring low. The critical role emotion plays in conflict management and negotiation has been consistently established in several empirical studies (Halperin, & Tagar, 2017; Hopkins, & Yonker, 2015 ; Liu, 2009; Rispens, & Demerouti, 2016; Van Kleef, Van Dijk, Steinel, Harinck, & Van Beest, 2008; Zhang, Ting-Toomey, & Oetzel, 2014),).Emotional intelligence has been found to play an imperative role in conflict management since fruitful outcomes for conflict may involve concessions which are built on the capacity to detect and regulate emotions (Schlaerth, Ensari, & Christian, 2013). Emotional intelligence as a concept is attributed to the works of Salovey and Mayer (1990). However, a number of researchers have contributed to different definitions of the concept which are to be seen as complementary (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Dartey-Baah & Mekpor, 2017; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). While Goleman (1998a, p. 317) perceives emotional intelligence as “the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationship”, Bar-On (2002) conceptualizes the construct to involve emotional awareness, independence, interpersonal relationships, social responsibility, empathy, problem solving, stress tolerance, happiness, optimism and impulse control (cited in Dartey-Baah & Mekpor, 2017). The concept can also be seen as a set of abilities that includes how effectively one deals with emotion both within oneself and others; it consists of one’s ability to interpret and manage self-emotions and those of others (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009; Mayer, Salovey & Caruso, 2008; Salovey & Mayer, 1990). 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Emotional intelligence defines how well individuals understand and express themselves, apprehend and interact with others, and cope with regular hassles, trials, and burdens (Bar-On, 2007). Thus, conflict management and emotional intelligence are correlated with each other in many ways. People who are highly emotionally intelligent are said to be more competent at dealing with conflict and successfully resolving them (Jones & Bodtker, 2001). Goleman (1998) postulated that highly emotionally intelligent people would have superior conflict resolution abilities, which in turn makes them engage in better collaboration, an assertion grounded on the acceptance that persons with high emotional intelligence put in the effort to keep relations. These individuals are likely to keep relationships with minimal conflict or have more effective ways of managing them should they occur (Al-Hamdan, Al-Ta'amneh, Rayan, & Bawadi, 2019). 1.2 Statement of the Problem Societies worldwide are looking up to schools for the fostering of ground-breaking concepts that will transform the industrial, social and economic aspects of people’s lives in the direction of growth (Sampson, 2003). This is one reason why governments in every nation will generally apportion vast resources in training the right human resource, formulating appropriate plans, and supplying the required structures for the effective running of schools. Schools are on the heart of many people in every society, as they are considered to be the cradle of progress and advancement. Thus conflict should be among the last occurrences anyone would expect to take place in schools. However, this is not so because conflict is a part of any human setting and the school community is of no exception. Ingersole and Smith (2003) have suggested that one of the main motives behind teachers' turnover is conflict. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Conflicts in Ghanaian senior high schools are on the rise in the recent past (myjoyonline.com, August 2, 2010). According to Mankoe as cited in Gyan and Tandoh-Offin (2014), government over the years has expressed concern over the occurrences of conflicts in learning institutions, where in some cases, students have destroyed properties and even attacked teachers. In other instances, teachers and head masters and even parents engage in one form of conflict or another (Gyan & Tandoh-Offin, 2014). Although the Ghana Education Service (GES) has various channels through which Senior High Schools could employ to address grievances and resolve conflicts, conflicts situations are still poorly managed in Senior High Schools, resulting in serious consequences on academic work (Donkor, 2016). Existing research (Başoğul, & Özgür, 2016; Chen, Xu, & Phillips, 2019; Choi et al., 2011; Shih & Susanto, 2010) postulates that emotional intelligence plays an essential role in conflict management. However, little is known about the influence of emotional intelligence on specific conflict management styles in the Ghanaian context. Additionally, the association between cultural values and conflict management styles has been firmly established (Caputo, Marzi, Maley, & Silic, 2019; Caputo, Ayoko, & Amoo, 2018; Holt, & DeVore, 2005; Kaushal, & Kwantes, 2006; Gunkel, Schlaegel, & Taras, 2016). Nevertheless, limited research exists in Ghana and the educational sector in particular, regarding the effect of cultural values on an individual’s preference for a specific conflict management style. This study thus adds insight to literature by providing more in-depth knowledge on the effect of cultural values and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles among teachers in Ghana. 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Aims and objectives The main objective of this study is to assess the effect of cultural value dimensions and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. Specifically, the following objectives are proposed:  To explore the effect of collectivism on conflict management styles  To determine the effect of uncertainty avoidance on conflict management styles  To investigate the effect of long-term orientation on conflict management styles  To assess the influence of power distance on conflict management styles  To examine the influence of masculinity on conflict management styles  To determine the effect of emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. 1.4 Relevance of the Study The findings of the study may have benefits for teachers, who are the targeted population, as well as for administrators. Ensuring institutions free of conflict is a national priority because conflict management is connected with the effectiveness in organisations. The findings of this research would be of importance to the administrators and teachers of both private and public Senior High Schools in Ghana who could use identified conflict management styles to improve relationships and interactions in the schools. The findings from the study can be used as a guiding tool for both in-service training workshops and seminars for school leaders, teachers and other stakeholders in the identification, appreciation, and management of conflict. As stated, conflict may have negative consequences on the performance of teachers. The adverse effect of conflict on teachers can expose them to other negative behaviour and attitudes such as job dissatisfaction, turnover and counterproductive behaviours (Hofstede, 2011). Investing in 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conflict prevention of teachers is therefore extremely important. Understanding the appropriate management styles that promise effective resolution of conflicts, and factors that are likely to influence teachers’ choices for a specific style of managing conflict could be a step towards improving the performance of teachers in Ghanaian schools. Parents and guardians would also benefit from the findings to escape situations that generate undesirable conflicts which subvert the stability in schools. Furthermore, the study will increase the understanding of the power of cultural values and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. Consequently, Ghana Education Service could consider incorporating into the school curricula the concepts of emotional intelligence and “cultural intelligence”. Additionally, the findings of the research will help researchers to understand the correlation between cultural values and effective conflict management of teachers. One of the aims of the study is to identify the components of cultural values that significantly predict conflict management styles. Out of the findings from this study, we will be able to determine which cultural value dimensions plays a significant role in preventing conflict. A better understanding of the relationship between emotional intelligence and teachers’ conflict management style may indicate how beneficial it may be to the Education Service in training and building either or both traits. Consequently, policy makers in education may consider professional development programs that will promote the development of emotional intelligence among heads of schools and teachers in Ghana. An assessment of emotional intelligence can be included as part of the process of selecting new school administrators, principals/managers as well as other heads 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of educational institutions in the country can also be given a serious attention. The Ghana Education Service may also consider including emotional intelligent tests as a prerequisite for promoting teachers. Finally, it will expand our knowledge concerning the critical role of EI in the workplace. Few empirical studies thus far have been conducted to examine how cultural values and emotional intelligence influence styles of managing conflicts in Ghana. Moreover, to the best of knowledge, no study has been done in Ghana examining the effect of cultural dimensions and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles among teachers. This study, therefore, attempts to bridge this gap in Ghana. The findings will, therefore, contribute to reducing the dearth of literature in this area and provide direction to future researchers on relevant areas to examine. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter specifically offers an overview of theories and a theoretical framework for this study. The chapter also includes a review of empirical studies, study rationale, hypotheses and the operational definitions of variables. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The theory for the study was based on Rahim and Bonoma Model of Conflict Management Styles and Hofstede’s theory of cultural dimensions. 2.2.1 Model of Conflict Management Styles (Rahim & Bonoma, 1979) One of the most significant factors of constructive and effective management of interpersonal conflict is the style that individuals use to resolve conflicts (Rahim et al., 2000). Conflict management style is the over-all attitude demonstrated by an individual in response to conflict in mutual interactions of individuals (Xu & Davidhizar, 2004 as cited in Kantek & Gezer, 2009). Due to the process of socialization of cultural values, exposure to education and experiences of encountering conflict throughout one’s life, people develop their own distinct conflict management styles. (Xu and Davidhizar, 2004, as cited in Kantek & Gezer, 2009). A number of approaches for determining individuals’ styles in managing interpersonal conflict exist. Although each one of these approaches has produced its own terminology for conflict management strategies (Rahim, 1983; Kaushal and Kwantes, 2006), the conflict management conceptualization of Rahim and 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bonoma (1979) is the most popular (Brewer et al., 2002, as cited in Kantek & Gezer, 2009). This model of conflict management style was based on both the grid of managerial styles proposed by Blake and Mouton, as well as the Thomas’s five modes model. As pointed out by Rahim (2011), these dimensions portray the motivational orientations of individuals during conflict. Combination of these two dimensions results in five specific styles of managing conflict, as shown in Figure 1. Integrating style refers to “retaining high concern for self and others, strong cooperation and assertiveness, and involves openness, exchange of information, and examination of differences associated with problem solving and creative solutions.” (Schlaerth et al., (2013), p.127). It may lead to creative outcome as a result of its association with problem-solving. This is a mutually beneficial style for resolving conflicts. Since the association is a prerequisite for satisfying and accommodating the opinions, perceptions, interests and values, of both parties, high skills for problem solving are essential to identify similar needs. Satisfying the needs of all parties can improve the interpersonal contacts and enhance the creation of mutual trust. This style can be used to resolve instant conflict and drastically reduce the occurrence of future conflict. According to De Church and Marks (2002), this style was commonly used when the problem in question was a complex one. They explained a complex problem as one that required a combination of ideas in order to arrive at an appropriate solution. Studies conducted by Lahana et al. (2019), revealed that collaboration (integrating) as a strategy was the choice by the more educated nurses and that majority of nurses reported their authorities’ use of integrating style when handling conflict, a sign of a more suitable and a unified management style that frequently relates to better and work relations and job satisfaction. A number of researchers including Pruitt and Carnevale (1993) were of the view that problem solving, also known as integrating style by Rahim 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2002) was the more suitable style when dealing with social conflicts. Issues which were strategic in nature also yield positive results when integrating style was used. The main advantage of using this style is its enduring impact on outcomes as the important issue is identified and addressed. The setback, however, has to do with the amount of time spent to arrive at a solution as relative to other styles. Obliging – refers to a style of managing conflict where a person shows low anxiety for oneself and more concern for others. It is connected with trying to disregard the variances and to emphasize shared interests to satisfy the concern of the other party. As indicated by Almost (2006), this is a style of managing conflict where a person is more concerned about the interest of others rather than his/her own interest (high cooperativeness and low assertiveness). The style includes cooperation and compromises with others and the absence of insistence about the individual’s private concern. It is a lose‐win style to conflict management. When the contending party has unreasonable influence, it is imprudent to fight against it. In this style, one party sacrifices his/her perceptions, interests, values and opinions so as to release the tensed atmosphere of conflict conditions, which could possibly result in long‐term advantage such as better surviving interpersonal bond. The advantage of the adoption of this style is that it encourages cooperation but is inadequate in dealing with the cause of the conflict. Dominating - refers to a style of managing conflict in which an individual shows low regard for other people and high regard for oneself. This individual uses a forcing behavior in order to win at the cost of the other person. This conflict management strategy is dominated by self- interest and there is little regard for collaboration with others. This self‐concerned dictating style of managing 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conflict results in unique party protecting their interests, opinions, values, and perceptions temporarily. However, because of the lack of deliberation for others, the long-term result is inequality of interests. Low concern for students’ welfare in the school setting, may lead to student unhappiness and further protests or conflicts. Hence, the dominating conflict style is not likely to resolve conflict either in the present or the future. Avoiding - refers to a kind of managing conflict where people shows low regard for oneself and for others. It is another conflict management approach that has been connected to buck-passing, withdrawal, or circumventing circumstance. This style has been considered as an approach where both parties lose. In other words, individuals make no efforts to protect their own opinions, interests, perceptions, and ideals. This approach involves evading after the conflict has occurred but does not imply conflict prevention. Evasion is viewed as not leading to any progress to the situation and doing nothing to better the situation that causes the conflict. This conflict management style aids in the stoppage of subsequent conflict. It fails to resolve the existing conflict, hence, the persistence of the existing conflict with its devastating effect on parties involved. In effect, avoiding only slows down the short-term outcomes of the conflict. This delay, however, can be advantageous if it is constructive because it can provide time for the parties to consider better management style options. For example, when the parties are emotionally stimulated in a conflict situation, the avoiding style can serve as an intervention to prevent immediate deterioration of conflict. According to Kreitner and Kinicki (2004), the main advantage of using the avoiding style is that one is able to buy time in ambiguous situations but its weakness is that it just provides a temporary solution to the issue without dealing with the root cause. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Compromising refers to a style of managing conflict where there is halfway concern for oneself and for the other. This style involves both sides forfeiting something to arrive at an equally agreed decision. Because it includes equivalent concern for both oneself and for others, the compromising style is observed as a “win‐win” approach. Nonetheless, this win‐win approach only ends up in both parties being partially satisfied. It can also be taken as a “no-win or no-lose” (a mixed) style of managing conflict. The goal of this style is to bring an agreement between the concerning and the opposing parties; hence the importance of negotiation skills during conflict management activities. This style is likely to get rid of the harmful outcome on whichever party. As the gains and losses arising from conflicts could be estimated, the stability of anticipated results and alternative costs arising from decision‐making during the management of conflict can be evaluated. While each of the five conflict management styles may be suitable depending on the circumstance, the integrating style has been found to be the most suitable conflict management approach (Rahim, Buntzman & White, 1999) 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh High concern for self Dominating Integrating Compromising Low concern for self Avoiding Obliging Low concern for others High concern for others Figure 1: Rahim and Bonoma Model for Conflict Management Styles 2.2.2 Hofstede's Cultural Dimensions Theory Culture, the ‘‘collective programming of the mind which distinguishes one group from another (Hofstede, 1980, 25) fixes the basic values and norms for a society. People from varied cultures have different values, perceptions, rules of how to behave and interact in society, which may, in turn, influence their way of life, including how they work, how to relax and how they socialize with others, and their forms of consumption behaviour (Hofstede, 2011). This is likely to influence their way of handling conflict as well. As Hofstede (2011) puts it, culture refers to the beliefs, moods, and actions of human beings. The hereditary human characteristics and its capabilities including anger, love, fear, and joy are generally not affected by culture but culture does affect what individuals use those capabilities for. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Furthermore, culture is acquired early in life through socialization, and not inborn, and thus disturbing many young-age beliefs and values, causing them to remain insentient and absolute to oneself (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006). Because culture is a shared occurrence, this “cultural inheritance” is unique among groups of people. This “grouping” may take place at varied stages, such as national, regional, generational, gender, social class, occupational or organizational. Hofstede’s cultural differences are disparities based on regional, ethnic, religious, gender and generational and social class differences (Kirkman, Lowe, & Gibson, 2006). In effect, culture can be perceived as a public experience, a set of collective beliefs, practices, values, and used between different groups of people as “grouping” mechanism. Values are an essential part of all humans and are used to expound personal and social union and what motivate attitudes and behaviour in humans. Cultural values are acknowledged by all cultures, and though there is no consensus on the plain human values, different value dimensions have been created (Schwartz, 2011). These fundamental human values are posited to be general as they are stuck within the universal requests of human existence including the welfare of groups’ needs of individuals, and social organization and survival. The dominant features of values are that they shape what is relevant to us and they serve as controlling principles in life, impacting our beliefs, goals, drives, attitudes, actions, and standards among others (Schwartz, 2011). As indicated by Schwartz (2011), “societal harmony value-orientation is connected with peace and unity with nature” (p. 29). It is conceived to encourage a bigger social communal orientation and interdependent contacts. As a result, better harmony-orientation countries are less probable to see a foreign culture in a clash with the prevailing culture and anticipate cultural absorption as a 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh requirement for acceptance. Additionally, Leong and Ward (2006) stated that “these cultures are able to accept diversity as part of the natural order, emphasizing the symbiotic rather than the hierarchical nature of relationships” (Schwartz, 2011, p. 807). As a shared phenomenon, culture is inherent in more or less conscious values and norms (Hofstede, 2001). The cultural dimensions framework by Hofstede (1980) became widely known for a number of reasons. First, its dimensions both cover and extend other major conceptualizations of culture (Kirkman et al., 2006). Additionally, Hofstede's framework is empirically derived whereas several other cultural constructs remain theoretical, Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, (2011) asserted. Further, Hofstede’s research provides quantitative data on cultural values and, hence, allows researchers to easily differentiate between cultures (Yoo et al., 2011). Accordingly, researchers across diverse research fields have applied and validated Hofstede's framework and find it to be the most important theory of culture (Kirkman et al., 2006; Yoo et al., 2011). The Hofstede theory provides an excellent way of viewing cultural differences. According to his theory, every country has a preference for one of two contrasting behaviors: individualism- collectivism; high-low uncertainty avoiding; high-low power detachment; long-short term orientation; masculinity-femininity. These factors determine an individual's predisposition to certain behaviors and attitudes. “Individualism pertains to societies in which the ties between individuals are loose... Collectivism as its opposite pertains to societies in which individuals from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups...” (p. 92). While individualist cultures are likely to normalise acting 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for one's own needs over the needs of others around them, collectivist cultures tend to normalise prioritising the needs of people beyond one's own needs. As Taras, Kirkman, and Steel (2010) indicate, “individualism- collectivism has received the bulk of attention from cross cultural researchers” in literature (p. 2). This dimension has received a lot of attention in relation to teaching space culture. It has been proposed that learners from collectivist cultures, “may be more persistent in their efforts to achieve high educational results” (Faitar 2006), and that they may be more likely to get support from their parents on homework but be less independent (Tamis-LaMonda et al., 2008). As suggested by Oyserman and Lee (2008), a collectivist culture could be obvious in the classroom as students are hesitant to expose one's peers for dishonesty, and as Parrish and Linder- Vanberschot (2010) speculate, students from highly individualist cultures would be more at ease speaking in a whole-class environment and be driven by individual achievement such as admiration or good grades. Students from collectivist cultures are more likely to choose small- group conversations, to agree to the teacher's viewpoint, and to be driven by “the greater good” (p. 4). Uncertainty avoidance (UAI): Hofstede, et al., (2010) define uncertainty avoidance as the degree to which the members of a culture feel helpless by unknown or ambiguous conditions. These cultures need rules, written and unwritten, to enable them maintain a sense of security. Ambiguity tolerance, as some writers call it, is the opposite of uncertainty avoidance where members are less threatened by the unknown. When the affiliates of a culture are highly uncertainty avoidant societies put a high value on procedures, schedules, and clear answers because they find it difficult to cope with ambiguity. A low uncertainty avoidance society on the other hand are able to handle ambiguity, unclear plan and schedule are no issue for them, for example, you do not need to get everything right to be considered as being good at your job. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Long-term orientation (LTO): Hofstede, Hofstede, et al. (2010) defines this dimension as standing towards promotion of qualities concerned with future rewards- in particular, determination and thrift. Short-term orientation on the other hand, points at promoting of values associated with the past and present, especially, respect for tradition, safeguarding of "face," and satisfying social responsibilities. With respect to particular choice for conflict management styles, long - term oriented societies will be more relatively positive to those conflict management styles (integrating, obliging, and compromising style) that may bring positive outcomes for the parties involved in the conflict. This is because persons in long-term oriented societies place value on past experiences and analytically reflect on these experiences (Hofstede, 2001). A result which is viewed as being comparatively positive would impact the experience of the conflict parties positively leading to positive influence on the relationship between the conflict parties, and this would possibly give rise to progressive long-term effects. On the contrary, if fights are not properly handled, they can result in long-term negative effects (Friedman, Chi, & Liu, 2006). Finally, if a culture is more long-term oriented, members of that culture may easily follow the conflict management behaviour of obliging and integrating with in expectation of long-term gains. This also is likely to foster the preservation of long-term relationships over temporary benefits. Power distance is the extent to which less influential members of societies and organisations anticipate and receive the power unequally (Hede, et al., 2010). In a high-power distance society, the dynamics of power are paired in the role. The paired roles such as teacher-student, parent- child, and boss-employee, have the tendency to control the affair of society. Hence the powerful 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh member may be perceived as an incontestable expert. These role pairs are more democratic, and contributions from the junior are anticipated and fortified in a lower power distance. In a low power distance society, teachers are expected to handle their students as being fundamentally equal and look forward to being treated by students as equals. Teachers are never contracted nor publicly criticized in the high-power distance society. An interpretation supported by Nguyen et al. (2009), relaying a narrative in which a teacher from Vietnam became extremely offended when a mistake made in class was pointed out to them by a student as a typical example of power distance occurring in the classroom. Relating to conflict management, high power distance individuals are expected to choose to avoid conflict-handling styles. When conflict is avoided the likely differences remain whereas a conflict solution may change. Masculinity (MAS) deals with categorising society into femininity vs masculinity. A masculine society is one in which gender roles are stereotypically distinctly outlined based on emotions. Men are meant to aim at material success, though, and assertive. Alternatively, women are expected to be more nurturing, tender, and modest. A feminine society is when emotional gender roles intersect where both men and women are expected to exhibit humility, tenderness equally, and both concern themselves with the quality of life. These authors maintained that Masculinity-femininity concerns stress on an individual’s ego as against stress on an individual’s rapport with others, irrespective of group bonds (Hofstede, 2010). A study associated with integrating online features into curricula revealed that “in a feminine culture, accepting a new system will be influenced by others in the organization whereas in a masculine culture, decision for adopting a new system is influenced by rewards, recognition, 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh training, and improvement of the individuals (Thowfeek & Jaafar, 2012, p. 879). This dimension has been clearly linked to classroom norms, (Hofstede, et al., 2010). Their proposal was that “Failing in school is a disaster in a masculine culture... whereas failure in school in a feminine culture is a relatively minor incident” (p. 161). Relating to the conflict management style, it is less likely that individuals with more masculine cultural values would choose an obliging style. They are likewise less likely to choose rather being considerate, in the case of integrating and compromising conflict-handling styles. Although Hofstede’s (1980, 2001) theory has had its share of been criticisms for reasons such as sample bias, methodological issues and for not considering individual differences within cultures (LoweGibson, 2006; McSweeney, 2013), the theory still remains the most widely used in literature as far as studies involving culture are concerned, and that it is the most extensive concept in the specific context of conflict management styles. In order to incorporate the assessment of this study into the pool of existing research and to be able to compare findings to previous studies in this research zone, the concept of cultural dimensions is used as the fundamental frame for scrutiny. 2.3 Review of Related Studies 2.3.1 Cultural values and conflict management styles Research has indicated the significant impact culture makes in individuals' choice of conflict management (Imai & Gelfand, 2010; Ogliastri & Quintanilla, 2016). Also, Thowfeek and Jaafar (2012) propose that the choice of managing conflict is culturally defined and is fueled by individual cultural values and orientations. However, studies which have assessed the association between cultural value dimensions and styles of managing conflict have focused on the effect of only a single cultural dimension, mostly, that of individualism/collectivism, overlooking the relative role 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of different cultural elements (Littrell, 2012; Brewer & Vanaik, 2014). Consequently, limited studies (Caputoa, Ayokob, & Nii Amoo, 2018; Gunkel et al., 2016) have focused on the comparative importance of different cultural elements in influencing the choice of different conflict management styles. This is startling giving the importance of cultural elements in defining conflict management. Holt and DeVore (2005) conducted a meta-analytical study on the role of culture in styles of conflict management. The results of the study show strong evidence for variations in conflict management styles across cultures, particularly regarding the cultural dimensions of individualism vs. collectivism. Persons from collectivistic cultures choose compromising, avoiding, and integrating styles of conflict management more frequently than individuals from individualistic cultures. Dominating style is more frequently selected by individual from individualistic cultures than those from collectivistic cultures, the study reveals. This study argues that individuals with collectivistic morals are more likely to adopt conflict management styles that have the ability to improve the results for all conflict parties involved. The styles of an integrating, avoiding, obliging, and compromising are most likely as they allow these individuals to behave in a manner that is compatible with their cultural values (Leung, & Cohen, 2011). That is, people with collectivistic values are less likely to prefer a more opposing conflict management style (dominating style), that may benefit the interest of one conflict party at the costs of the other party as such a behavior would not fit the cultural values of more collectivistic individuals. In another study, Gunkel, Schlaegel, and Taras (2016) assessed the influence of components of cultural values on conflict management styles among managers in the United State. One hundred 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and twenty-seven (127) managers took part in the study. The self-reporting measure of the Cultural Dimensions Scale (CDS) and the Conflict Management Styles Measure (CMSM) were used to measure cultural dimensions and conflict management styles respectively. Data were analysed using structural equational model. Results showed that uncertainty avoidance and long-term orientation positively correlated with integrating, compromising and obliging conflict management styles. The influence of cultural elements on the conflict management styles among management was also reported in a study by Umar, White, and Prabhakar (2008). Their study indicated that Masculinity and Individualism adopted a competitive conflict management style. Uncertainty Avoidance significantly predicted Avoiding conflict style. The current study proposes that persons with advanced level of uncertainty avoidance are more likely to choose an obliging style because the high concerns for the interests of the other party, and the readiness to receive the position and demands of the other party enables potential outcome of the conflict as the individual can better evaluate the concerns that are needed to reach a solution. In addition, avoidance of conflict can be understood as a strategy to avoid uncertainty, doubt and change. When individuals don’t utter a word, everything remains the same, and the risk of interruption and change can be avoided. Furthermore, Ting-Toomey et al. (1991) showed that the obliging conflict style is commonly used in collectivist than in individualistic cultures. Individuals having collectivistic values are less probable to choose dominating management style. Additionally, Wong, Wei, Wang, and Tjosvold (2018) conducted a research to identify devices to manage conflicts that arise when organizations with different cultural values, converge for effective planning in international joint ventures. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Findings confirmed their hypothesis that “collectivist values predict cooperative conflict management which in turn aids joint venture learning and performance”. Individualistic cultural dimensions also encouraged the dominating style of management. Purohit and Simmers (2006) evaluated the connection between cultural values and avoiding conflict among inhabitants of Costa Rica. Two hundred and twenty-five (n=225) respondents who were all teachers took part in the study. The five cultural values, namely, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, collectivism, masculinity, and long-term orientation were assessed. The researcher assessed how cultural values using the Cultural Values Scale and the avoiding was measured using the Avoiding Subscale of Conflict Management Styles Scale. The results of the study revealed that each of the cultural values was related to avoiding conflict management. Uncertainty avoidance was found to correlate significantly with avoiding conflict management. Another study by He, Zhu, and Peng (2002) found a negative association between uncertainty avoidance and integrating style and a positive connection between uncertainty avoidance and obliging style. In contrast to their hypothesized anticipation, He and friends found that uncertainty avoidance was associated with avoiding conflict management style. Contrary to their projection, Oudenhoven and Mechelse (2016) discovered that uncertainty avoidance individuals less often used integrating style than those from less uncertainty avoidance cultures. The inconsistent findings might be due to the reliance on secondary data in classifying cultural value dimensions of a country. In what ways does uncertainty avoidance then apply to the context of preferences for different conflict management styles? This study suggests that individuals that tend to evade uncertain situations may choose conflict management styles that minimise the extent of 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh uncertainty. Persons with an inclination to avoid uncertainty may choose an integrating and a compromising style, because a win-win solution satisfies both parties making the result of conflict more predictable and thereby reducing any uncertainty. This argument, however, contradicts the study by He et al. (2002) which emphasized the variations between conflict parties and the perceived risks associated with these variations. Because the likely results of conflict solution can vary, predicting the outcome of a given conflict can be quite complicated. Accordingly, persons who score high on uncertainty avoidance may desire to escape conflict situations altogether. If the conflict situation is trivial to the other party, or the opposing party is the more powerful side, dominating style is likely to be the style appropriate in achieving a solution. This situation can often persist in the initial stage of the conflict without the conflict parties noticing. It is therefore expected that the dominating style of managing conflict may not be preferred by individuals who may portray the greater degree of uncertainty avoidance because the reaction of the opposing party coupled with the unpredictable nature of the conflict outcome could lead to an even higher degree of uncertainty avoidance. Long-term oriented societies regard long-term commitment and reverence for traditions as very essential and they believe hard work today will yield long-term benefits (Hofstede, 2001). It is associated with a person’s choice to focus on the future, present or past for their efforts (Hofstede, 2011). A conflict that is dominated by one party can generate a rather undesirable experience for the other party which encourages possible destructive long-term influence for the relationship. Consequently, persons who are more long-term oriented may choose not to dominate conflict in order to remain consistent with their cultural values. 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Comparatively not many researches whether or not power distance has a relationship with conflict management styles. Purohit and Simmers (2006) in their study found a positive relationship between power distance and the dominating style of managing conflict and established that power distance has a progressive association with the avoiding style of managing conflict. He et al. (2002) also confirmed this positive relationship between power distance and avoiding and obliging conflict management style negatively linked with the integrating style. On the contrary, a positive relationship was found between power distance and an integrating conflict management style in a study carried out by Oudenhoven et al. (1998). These mixed results could be explained on the fact that these studies used secondary data in characterizing countries based on different cultural dimensions. The current study, therefore, hypothesized that power positively predicts the conflict management styles of (I) avoiding and (II) dominating but negatively predict the conflict management styles of (III) integrating, (IV) obliging, and (V) compromising. This is because to maintain power, high degree power distance individuals could only prefer those conflict management styles that allow them to keep power distance in social interactions, and so are less likely to choose those conflict styles that minimize power distance in order to achieve desirable outcomes. For these high-power distance individuals, more cooperative styles of managing conflict may not be appropriate to maintain power distance and to behave in accordance with their cultural values. With respect to power distance, this study expects that persons with high power distance orientation will choose the dominating style because they anticipate inequality and may experience feelings of discomfort to act within the context of collaboration. Overall, the present study expects power distance to increase individuals’ choices 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for avoiding and dominating conflict management styles, and to decrease the preferences for an integrating and compromising conflict-handling styles. Societies with high masculinity choose persuasive and hostile management, and, the stronger party wins in a conflict situation, while low masculine societies use intuition and agreement based on management and prefers to resolve conflicts through cooperation, negotiation, and compromise. Not many studies have paid attention to the effect of masculinity/femininity on individual choices for particular conflict management styles. A study by Gabrielidis et al. (1997) reveals an association between femininity and obliging style, while both masculinity and femininity were associated with integrating style. 2.3.2 Emotional intelligence and conflict management styles Existing literature on the association between emotional intelligence and conflict management styles have been diverse; while some studies examined emotional intelligence as a composite variable and its association with specific conflict management styles other studies have examined the relationship as a multidimensional approach. Several researches on emotional intelligence and conflict management styles have been directed towards a number of domains such as the financial sector, frontline employees, customer service representatives, human resource managers and nurses , but most of these studies have been conducted outside the shores of Africa and Ghana to be specific, and few studies done among teachers. While emotional intelligence is associated with the recognition and controlling of own and others’ emotions, it may play a substantial role in lowering interpersonal conflict, as emotional intelligent 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh employees are able to regulate their emotions and use their ability to reduce conflict and maybe even solve conflict (Mulki, Jaramillo, Goad, & Pesquera, 2015). A study conducted by Rahim, Psenicka, Polychroniou, Chan, and van Wyk (2002) examined how emotional intelligence influence styles of conflict management among employees in the United State revealed a link between emotional intelligence and each of the five conflict management styles. Recent meta- analytic evidence (Schlaerth et al., 2013) also suggests that individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to manage conflict more constructively. Along the same lines, Jordan and Troth (2004) show that individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to solve conflicts more productively than individuals scoring low on emotional intelligence. A longitudinal design was conducted by Yu, Sardessai, Lu and Zhao's (2006) to assess how emotional intelligent influences conflict management style by applying the conflict management styles propounded by Rahim (1986). Rahim (1986) conflict management styles were “avoiding, dominating, integrating, obliging, and compromising”. Conflict styles were assessed from respondents for three years followed by assessing the emotional intelligence. Findings revealed that emotional intelligence was positively related to compromising, integrating, and dominating styles of conflict management. Integrating conflict management style was the most preferred conflict management style. In another study, Al-Hamdan, Al-Ta'amneh, Rayan, and, Bawadi (2019) assessed the impact of emotional intelligence on each style of conflict management. Participants included 248 nursing managers in Jordan. The study found emotional intelligence to be associated with each of the conflict management styles. However, the direction of association was not fully in line with extant studies. Similar to Yu (2006) study, the Al-Hamdan study’s limitations included the use of 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh longitudinal design. Though their findings cannot be questioned, the inability to control other confounding environmental factors such as leadership styles and work ethics could make it a problem in drawing causation. Kabanoff (2015) revealed studies on emotional intelligent and styles of conflict management in a meta-analytical design. The researcher predicted that emotional intelligence would have a significant influence on conflict management style. After analysing twenty-four (24) studies published in scientific journals, the compromising style was the preferred conflict management style. Emotional intelligence predicted all the conflict management style in nineteen (19) of the twenty-four (24) studies reviewed. Only five of the studies did not indicate a significant relationship between emotional intelligence and some of the conflict management styles (avoiding and dominating). The findings of a direct relationship between emotional intelligence and styles of conflict management from 24 published articles seem to have answered the question of this relationship being asked in this present study. However, the inconsistent findings of relationship between emotional intelligence and some aspects of conflict management makes it prudent to conduct more studies with different populations, especially among teachers. Susanto (2006) has conducted a study on emotional intelligence, conflict management styles and job performance in a Public organization in Indonesia. This empirical study reveals that when respondents are confronted with conflicts with their bosses, the respondents have inclination toward cooperation and seek out compromising style. Farzadnia (2010) in his study conducted investigated the relationship between emotional intelligence and conflict management styles and found a positive relationship between emotional intelligence and conflict management styles of 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collaboration and compromise. Lashkari, Sadhi Isfahani (2012) as cited in Shamoradi, Jahangiri, Chahardoli, Tirafkan, and Mohajeran, (2014) in their study, “studying the relationship between emotional intelligence and conflict management strategic style in staff managers”, concluded that there is a positive and significant relationship between mangers’ emotional intelligence and conflict management strategies and that this relationship is direct. An indication that increasing managers’ emotional skills improves the conflict management strategies. Lee (2003), in his researches on the university faculty revealed that while there is a positive relation between emotional intelligence and conflict management, the avoidance style is the preferred style used by the people of Taiwan in solving conflicts. For in Taiwan, it is still the use of old and traditional culture that are emphasized for establishing the peace and preventing the problems in communicating. Also, Lee Fan Ming (2003) and Farzadnia (2010) found a positive correlation between emotional intelligence and conflict management. Similarly, Kimball and Scot (2004) examined the relationship between the styles of conflict management and emotional intelligence over 739 employees from the seven districts in East of The United States. They concluded that there is a significant relation between the various styles of conflict management and emotional intelligence. The results of these researches in different countries and especially in sensitive and conflicting environments such as educational organizations and teaching profession should be considered closely. A study was conducted by Basogul and Ozgur (2016) to assess the correlation between emotional intelligence and conflict management styles among nurses in Turkey. Data was collected on emotional intelligence and styles of conflict management on 277 stratified samples. Only data 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh obtained from 56.8% of respondents were used for the analysis. Data were analysed using the descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation and the t-tests. Participants reported higher levels of obliging, dominating and avoiding conflict management. However, integrating and compromising management styles were low. Emotional intelligence correlated positively with dominating, obliging, compromising and integrating conflict management strategies. The correlation between emotional intelligence and avoiding conflict management was negative. The findings indicated that emotional intelligence determines these conflict management styles. These researchers concluded that skills requiring a high level of emotional intelligence, such as problem solving, interpersonal relations, and stress management, play a key role in effective conflict management. They stress the need for training programs designed to improve conflict management and emotional intelligence for nurses in order to effectively manage conflicts among them, which is inevitable in healthcare institutions. Kumari (2015) conducted a study to assess the correlation between emotional intelligence and conflict management styles of managers in Ethiopia. Eighty (80) convenient sampled managers took part in the study. The self-reporting measure of the Emotional Intelligence Scale (EIS) and the Style of Conflict Management Scale (SCMS) were used to measure emotional intelligence and conflict style of management respectively. The independent variable was the emotional intelligence and the conflict management styles as the dependent variables. Data were analysed using multivariate logistic regression. Findings indicated that emotional intelligence predicted avoiding and compromising conflict management styles. Compromising conflict management style was predicted highly by emotional intelligence. Individuals with more self-awareness understand better their conflict resolution styles. Being aware of self and situation, an individual 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is likely to understand better the solution of conflicts. The sample of the study by Kumari (2015) was relatively small. Using a larger sample size could help give a clearer picture of the impact of emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. On the contrary, a study by Abas, Surdick, Otto, Wood, and Budd (2012) failed to find a significant influence of emotional intelligence and conflict management styles. This researcher set out to investigate how subordinates' assessment of emotional intelligence of the leaders affect the leader's conflict management style. The study was conducted using XYZ University employees in Malaysia. Data was gathered from 426 subordinates in Malaysia through the use of Emotional Intelligence Questionnaires (Observer) and Conflict Management Style Scale. The analysis showed no significant relationship between subordinates’ ratings of supervisor emotional intelligence and any of their conflict management styles except for compromising and integrating conflict management styles. The study could have allowed the leaders to rate their own emotional intelligence. Emotional intelligence is best revealed by the person giving their own perceptions. 2.4 Rationale of the study Earlier research has revealed that individuals differ in their general preferences as well as in their conflict management style and negotiation preferences, and that such differences are culture specific (Elfenbein, 2015; Gunkel, Schlaegel, & Taras, 2016). While Hofstede's framework of cultural dimensions offers considerable number of benefits for researchers, using national culture to explain individual differences and behaviors would be faulty (Yoo et al., 2011) as national culture mirrors generalized values, norms, beliefs, and behaviors based on exogenous regional demographics and, hence, similar to stereotyping. There might be variations in cultural values 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh across the individuals within one regional area. Thus, researchers, managers, and policy makers ought to account for these specific cultural variations before drawing conclusions, inferring behavioral expectations, and making decisions. Today, it is even more imperative to measure culture at the individual level since Hofstede's data were collected decades ago when organizational environments could still be somewhat representative of national characteristics. However, due to increased mobility and modern communication systems, the composition of people in one country and their values have strongly changed and one can no longer assume that people with the same national boundaries share the same cultural values (Caputo, Marzi, Maley, & Silic, 2019). Consequently, researchers request future studies to address these limitations of Hofstede's cultural value framework (Tu, 2014). To overcome these limitations, Yoo et al. (2011) developed an individual-level measure of Hofstede's five cultural dimensions. This measure allows scholars to directly assess the cultural values of an individual, rather than inferring them from national-level scores provided by Hofstede's research (Caputo et al. 2018). This study bridges the gap in the literature by assessing the joint effect of the five cultural value dimensions on conflict management styles, examining the effect of individual cultural values and conflict management styles, and by investigating the emotional intelligence influence on preferred conflict management styles of teachers in Ghana. 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses In light of the literature reviewed, the following hypotheses are formulated:  H1: Collectivism will positively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising, (IV) an avoiding conflict management styles, but negatively predict (V) a dominating conflict management style. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  H2: Uncertainty avoidance will positively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising, (IV) an avoiding conflict management styles, but negatively predict (V) dominating conflict management style.  H3: Long-term orientation will positively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising conflict management styles, but negatively predict (IV) an avoiding and (V) dominating conflict management styles.  H4: Power distance will negatively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising conflict management styles, but positively predict (IV) an avoiding and (V) a dominating conflict management styles.  H5: Masculinity will negatively predict the conflict management styles of (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising, (IV) avoiding, but positively predict (V) dominating conflict management style.  H6: Power distance will predict higher amount of (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising, (IV) avoiding, (V) dominating conflict management style than all the other cultural values.  H7: Emotional intelligence will positively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising conflict management styles but negatively predict avoiding and (V) a dominating conflict management styles.  H8: Emotional intelligence will account for higher variance in integrating compared to the other component of conflict management style. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Conceptual Model Conceptual model of the effect of cultural value dimensions and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. Independent Variables Dependent Variables Cultural Value Dimensions Integrating 1. Power Distance (PO) 2. Uncertainty Avoidance (UN) 3. Collectivism (CO) Obliging 4. Long-Term Orientation (LTO) 5. Masculinity (MA) Compromising Avoiding Emotional Intelligence Dominating Figure 2. Conceptual model of the relationship between cultural values and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles 2.6 Operational Definitions of variables The following variables are operationally defined to acquaint the reader with the terminology associated with this research study. Cultural Value Dimensions: Operationalized at the individual level was measured with the cultural values scale. Emotional Intelligence: It is assessed by the manner teachers use emotions to solve problems intra- and interpersonally. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Conflict management style: It measures the assertive or cooperative behaviour of a teacher in a conflict situation. Higher scores show greater use of a particular style of managing conflict. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter elucidates how the study was conducted to ensure that the most valid and reliable results were reached. This chapter discusses the methods followed in details. This chapter provides a detailed description of the method that guided the study. It contains the design of the research, targeted population, sampling technique, and sample size. It also contains the instruments used in data collection indicating the validation and reliability of research materials, and then outlines the procedure and analysis of instrument used. 3.2 Research Paradigm The choice of the research paradigm guides the methodology of research. The philosophical beliefs and the research process are determined by the research paradigm. Paradigm, therefore, informs the methodology (Mahembe, 2014). The study adopted the positivistic paradigm. Positivism assumes that the only way to establish the truth and objective reality is through scientific research. A positivistic paradigm typically assumes a quantitative methodology. The positivistic approach was adopted because the study is based on detailed observation and measurement that can be quantified and the conclusion drawn. 3.3 Research Design With the aim of achieving the research objectives, the study followed a quantitative research approach using questionnaires. Quantitative studies are either experimental or descriptive 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Mahembe, 2013). The descriptive quantitative approach which basically establishes relationships between the predictor and the outcome was adopted in this study. The quantitative research approach using a cross-sectional descriptive survey was employed in this study. A cross-sectional descriptive survey is a research design used for collecting a large amount of data from different subgroups of the population at a given point in time. This design was adopted for the study to gather detailed information in order to provide an insight into the influence of cultural values and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles among teachers. The design is also appropriate because it allows the use of quantitative data collection instruments. 3.4 Research setting and population of Study This study was conducted within the Accra Metropolitan Assembly (Accra Metropolis) in the Greater Accra region which was established by the Local Government Act (Act 426) in 1993. The Assembly has a land area of 137sq km. It shares boundaries to the East by the La Dade-kotopon Assembly, the Gulf of Guinea on the South, Ga South on the West, and on the North by the La- Nkwantanang Municipal Assembly. The choice of Accra Metropolitan Assembly for this study is influenced by the fact that it hosts a great number of senior high Schools (9), and it also dictates every branch of economic and social activity. It is also representative of different school contexts. In addition, due to time constraints, the Accra Metropolitan Assembly has been selected so that the researcher is able to meet deadlines set for the study. According to Creswell (2009), the target population is the total collection of elements from which the researcher makes inferences. The population of the study was limited to teachers in the Greater Accra. There are 21 Senior High Schools in Accra Metropolis with 1,119 teachers (756 males and 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 363 females). Teachers were used for the study because they are the driving force of our educational institutions. Additionally, studies on cultural values and emotional intelligence influence on conflict management styles related to the teaching profession in Ghana is scarce. 3.5 Sample Size The sample was selected based on Krejcie and Morgan (1979) sample size criteria. According to the criteria by Krejcie and Morgan, a population of 12,000 should have a sample of 400. For a study involving regression analysis, the minimum sample size when testing for the overall fit of the model (R2) is 50 + 8k and when testing for the individual predictors within the model is given by 104 + k where k is the number of predictors. The interest of this study was in both the overall fit and the individual predictors within the model, therefore, the minimum sample size should be 104 + 6 = 110. This nevertheless, depends on the effect size of interest. Four hundred (400) teachers were therefore, selected to respond to the questionnaire using a multi-stage sampling technique. This catered for nonresponse rate. 3.6 Sampling Technique The modified version of the two-stage sampling approach was used (Bryman, 2008) (see Figure 3). This process typically involves the stratified sampling of schools that form the population the researcher is interested in, followed by a further sampling of respondents from each group (Bryman, 2008). The first stage of sampling involved the stratified selection of schools from the nineteen (19) secondary and technical schools. In order to do this, the researcher compiled the list of all the secondary and technical schools that were documented in the 2017-18 Ghana Education Service 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (GES) Report. Nineteen (19) secondary schools and two (2) technical schools were compiled with each school forming a stratum. The strata are formed based on members' shared attributes or characteristics. Seven (6) secondary schools and two technical schools were selected for the study. The stratified sampling ensured that all subgroups within a population are represented in the sample especially small minority groups (Mahembe, 2013). It must be reiterated that, as a result of time and financial challenges, private schools were not selected and a limited number of schools were selected for this study. Selected schools are La Presby Senior High, Accra Senior High, Labone Senior High, O'Reilly Senior High, Accra Wesley Girls High, Holy Trinity Senior High, Accra Technical Training Centre, and Sacred Heart Technical School. The proportional sampling technique was then employed to select the respondents from those schools identified for the study. In using the convenience sampling procedure, the researcher requested volunteers from the targeted population. In this case, teachers were targeted for the study and as a result, the researcher recruited volunteers from the available teachers in the six (6) secondary and two (2) technical schools selected. Fifty (n=50) teachers were selected from each school for the study. Figure 3 shows the stages of sampling of the schools. The number of schools and the respondents selected was also influenced by the practicability of data collection within the apportioned time frame. The convenience sampling was adopted because the researcher was only interested in teachers who were readily available during the data collection process and were prepared to participate in the study. 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Senior High and Technical Schools Schools based on 2017-18 Report Senior Secondary Schools Technical Schools (19 secondary schools) (2 technical schools) Stratified sampling of 6 secondary schools and 2 technical schools 50 teachers from 50 teachers from the each secondary technical schools school (Total = 300) (Total = 100) Figure 3 Diagram representing the modified version of the two-stage sampling approach 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Participants’ Demographics The demographic data in Table 3.1 indicates that 197 males and 195 females representing 50.3% and 49.7% participated in the study. 34(48.5%) of participants were within the age range of 25- 35years, 121(30.9%) participants were within the ages of 36-45years, 58(14.8%) participants were between ages 46-55 years and 23(5.8%) participants were above 55years. About 63 (16.1%) had less than 5 years of teaching experience. Moreover, 138 (35.2%) of participants had tenures between 5year 10 years. Participants who had taught between 10 and 15 years were 118 (30.1%) whiles those with 15 years and above of teaching experience were 73 (18.6%). Participants’ highest levels of education were 44(11.2%), 74(18.9%), 260(66.3%) and 14(3.6%) representing diploma, post-diploma, degree, and masters respectively. 144(36.7%) of teachers were single, 240(61.2%) were married and 8(2.0%) of teachers were widowed. Table 3.1 Demographic characteristics of the participants Variable Frequency Percent Sex  Male 197 50.3  Female 195 49.7 Marital Background  Marriage 152 38.8  Single 240 61.2 Age  25 – 35years 190 48.5  36 – 45years 121 30.9  46 – 55years 58 14.8  55years and above 23 5.3 Educational Achievement 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Diploma 44 11.2  Post diploma/Professional 74 18.9  Degree 260 66.3  Postgraduate 14 3.6 Years of work Experience  Less than 5years 63 16.1  5 – 9years 138 35.2  10 – 14years 118 30.1  At least 15years 73 18.6 3.8 Data collecting Instruments Questionnaires were used to gather data from respondents for the study. One of the most less expensive means of collecting data in a quantitative study is through the use of questionnaires. The use of questionnaires is advantageous because it can gather a wide range of data in a relatively short time (Bertram & Christiansen, 2014). The questionnaires used were categorised into four sections A to D. Section A consisted of the measures of respondents’ demographic characteristics. Section B assessed the predictors (cultural values and emotional intelligence) while segment C measured the outcome variable (conflict management styles). The questionnaires for measuring the variables are described below. 3.8.1 Demographic Factors Questions were asked that provided overall data about respondents. These questions dealt with aspects of respondents such as gender, educational status, age, marital status, and years of working experience. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8.2 Cultural Values Dimensions Scale (Yoo, Donthu, & Lenartowicz, 2011) Cultural value dimensions were measured using the Cultural Value Dimensions Scale designed by Yoo et al. (2011). Cultural Value Dimensions Scale is a 26-item instrument designed to assess the dimensions of organisational culture. The scale has five (5) dimensions with each measuring a different aspect of culture. Collectivism was measured using six items measuring how individuals value group welfare and group success. It has a Cronbach alpha of α = .79. Uncertainty avoidance was measured using five items with a Cronbach alpha of α = .78 measuring how group valued operations. The third aspect is Power distance which was measured using five items with a Cronbach alpha of α = .85. The Power distance measured the extent by which people make decisions without consulting other people. Long term orientation was measured with a 6-item subscale with a Cronbach alpha of α = .71. Masculinity was also measured using four items that used an active and forcible approach in solving difficult problems. Scores are computed for each subscale by summing responses across items. The response scales ranged from 1 (“strongly disagree”) to 5 (“strongly agree”) for all items measuring the five dimensions of culture except long term orientation which was measured from “very important” to “very unimportant.” 3.8.3 Emotional Intelligence Scale (Wong & Law, 2002). Respondents’ emotional intelligent was measured using the Emotional Intelligent Scale (EIS) developed by Wong and Law (2002). The EIS is an endorsed 16-item self-report questionnaire developed to measure trait measure of interpersonal and intrapersonal emotions. It indicates a 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh global score on four dimensions namely, regulation of emotion, use of emotion, emotion appraisal of others, and self-emotion appraisal (Karim, 2010). Respondents respond to the EIS using 5-point response options. The 5-point response options ranged from “strongly agree” (5) to “strongly disagree” (1). Aslan and Erkus (2008) reported a Cronbach alpha of .84 for the EIS. Some of the items on the scale include: “I understand why I have certain feelings most of the time” and “I am good at controlling my own emotions.” The Emotional Intelligent Scale is scored from one to five. Since there are 16 items on the scale, scores ranging from 16 to 80 are awarded. A higher score indicates a higher level of emotional intelligence. 3.8.4 Conflict Management Styles Scale (Rahim, 1983). The Conflict Management Styles (CMS) scale developed by Rahim (1983) was used to measure the five elements of managerial conflict style of the teachers. The scale consists of 28 items. The CMS scale is a hypothetically grounded scale that explicitly measures each style of conflict management as a single entity. The five aspects of conflict management style measured by the CMS scale are “integrating, avoiding, dominating, obliging, and compromising” (Rahim, 1983, p. 2). The Cronbach alphas for the five conflict management styles are as follows: the dominating style (α =.82), integrating style (α= .82), obliging style (α =.79), avoiding style (α = .86) and compromising style (α =.74). One item measuring the integrating style is “I try to investigate an issue with my teammates to find a solution acceptable to us”, for Avoiding style (“I usually avoid open discussion of my differences with my teammates”, for dominating style (“I use my authority to make a decision in my favour”, for obliging style (“I generally try to satisfy the needs of my 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teammates” and for compromising style is “I usually propose a middle ground for breaking deadlocks”. Respondents rate each statement of the scale on five response options, with 1 indicating strongly disagree and 5 indicating strongly agree. Higher scores indicating persistent use of that conflict managerial style. 3.9 Procedure 3.9.1 Pilot Study (Pre-test) An initial pilot study was conducted to re-test the adapted instruments which were revised and refined for internal consistency and reliability and also to ascertain the applicability of the study instruments in the Ghanaian work setting. A sample of 50 teachers was used for the pilot study but not used for the main study. Item analysis was conducted. Item analysis is a form of assessing the quality of the constructs by removing some items in a test that do not relate to or have an extremely low relationship with the total subscale score (Pallant, 2010). The primary objective of performing item analysis is to improve the content validity of the subscale. In this study, item analysis was performed to detect and eliminate items that did not contribute to the internal reliability of the component of the subscales measured as means of increasing the validity of the subscale (Mahembe, 2013). Item analysis was executed in this study using the reliability analysis technique. Reliability of measurement instruments can be assessed in different ways (Pallant, 2013). For this study, the reliability of the scales was assessed to generate the inter-item correlation statistics, item-total correlation statistics, and the Cronbach alpha values. An item was omitted from subsequent 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh analysis if it produced a total-item coefficient value of less than 0.3 and deleting it would significantly increase the reliability coefficient of the scale (Pallant, 2013). No item was deleted for this study since all the items produced a total-item coefficient which was greater than .03. 3.9.1.1 Item analysis of the Cultural Value Dimensions Scale The cultural value dimension scale (26 items) is a measure widely used for evaluating cultural dimensions. The reliability of the scale was assessed as dimensional since the scale produced five factors. The cultural value dimension scales produced an internal reliability of α = 0.83 for the Collectivism, α = 0.80 for the Long-term Orientation, α = 0.91 for the Uncertainty Avoiding, α = 0.73 for the Masculinity, and α = 0.88 for Power Distance which was considered as satisfactory (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). As indicated by the correlation of item-total corrected, all the items of each subscale related above 0.30 with the total scale and also deleting any of the items would not increase the internal reliability of the total scale (Pallant, 2010). This means all the items satisfactorily formed part of the total scale and as a result, each item was maintained. The inter- item correlations of each subscale ranged from 0.45 to 0.82 which suggests a convincingly high correlation among the items. 3.9.1.2 Item analysis of the Emotional Intelligence Scale The emotional intelligence scale (16 items) showed a Cronbach alpha value of α = .814 which is acceptable (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Each item correlated above .40 to the item-total as indicated by the corrected item-total correlation. This means each item formed a significant part of the total scale (Pallant, 2010). No item was deleted since none of them showed a significant 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh increase to the alpha value of the total test when deleted. The inter-item correlation of individual items showed a strong moderate relationship with the coefficient ranging from .31 to .57. 3.9.1.3 Item analysis of the Styles of Conflict Management Scale The conflict management scale (28 items) was used to measure styles of conflict management. The reliability of the scale was assessed on five dimensions. The conflict management scale produced an internal reliability of α = 0.77 for the Integrating, α = 0.71 for the Obliging, α = 0.91 for the Avoiding, α = 0.79 for the Compromising, and α = 0.81 for the Dominating subscales. This was acceptable since each alpha value was greater than the satisfactory cut-off value of .70 (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). Each item of each subscale correlated above .30 with the score of the overall scale (Pallant, 2010). This means each item constituted a major part of the same construct with none recognized as problematic. The values of the inter-item correlation matrix ranged from 0.27 to 0.47 for each subscale which suggests that the items moderately correlated with each other (Pallant, 2010). None of the items was omitted since none of them showed an improvement in the total item coefficient when deleted. 3.10 Data Collection Procedure Before the data gathering process, the researcher contacted each school to be granted permission for data to be collected from their teachers. A letter of request, supported with an abridged research proposal was sent to the targeted schools through the academic heads. All the schools targeted granted permission for the study. For all the schools, the researcher met with the management to introduce herself. The researcher had to elaborate further the goal and procedure of the study and then fix the dates for the actual data collection. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Upon permission and consent of the management of the selected organisations and consent of the participants themselves using an authorization letter from the Psychology Department of the University of Ghana, a set of questionnaires measuring employee’s cultural values, emotional intelligence and styles of conflict management was administered. The researcher took time to explain the instruments to the participants and how responses were to be indicated. Names of respondents were not taken to ensure anonymity. Participants who were willing to keep the questionnaires were allowed to do so for one week. Thus, participants filled and returned questionnaires between one (1) and seven (7) days. The data collection period lasted for ten (10) weeks. 3.11 Ethical Consideration The researcher took various measures to ensure that there was no risk to the teachers. In conducting this research, ethical clearance was obtained from the Institute of Statistical Social and Economic Research (ISSER). Further, an authorization letter was taken from the Department of Psychology and with the letter, permission, and consent of the management of the selected Schools was sought. As such the following ethical concerns were met to ensure absolute adherence to ethical guidelines and procedures. Informed Consent: The researcher explained the purpose of the study to the respondents. The participants were informed about the duration, procedures and their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research. Participants were made to know that the study involved no risk or adverse effect. To actually indicate their consent, participants were made to read and sign the 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh informed consent form. All respondents consented to take part in the study before completing the questionnaires. Confidentiality: Respondents were also assured of absolute confidentiality and anonymity and that at no instance was their name(s) required. A conscious effort was made not to ask participants about their names to make them feel at ease in the data collection process. The researcher provided each respondent with the questionnaire individually at the respective schools in order to ensure confidentiality. Benevolence and Non-maleficence: No possible risk was employed by the researcher in achieving the stated objectives of the research. This is to say that the researcher disclosed to the teachers the aims and objectives of the study and discussed with them all material risks. The disclosure included risks that were likely to affect the teachers in their decision to contribute to the study or not. None of the teachers decided against taking part in the study. There was nothing beyond minimal risk aside the duration (25 minutes) spent in the study. Freedom of Participation: The participants were allowed to opt-out in the course of the study whenever they felt uncomfortable or developed unexpected problems. Any complaints raised by the respondents in the course of the study were addressed by the researcher accordingly to his best of ability and to the satisfaction of the research respondents. The participants were informed that they have the freedom to opt-out in the course of the study. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.12 Statistical analysis Data was analysed to make statistical inference. The results of the data analysis forms the research findings and the basis of the conclusions drawn (Zikmund & Babin, 2010). In data analysis, the research findings are interpreted based on the research questions, and consistency is determined between the obtained results and the research hypotheses (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). Two types of analysis were conducted. The first was the descriptive analysis and the second section was the inferential statistics testing the proposed hypotheses. With the descriptive analysis, the data was first prepared to cater for data loss. The inter-correlation of all the variables using the Pearson product correlation was also conducted. The hypotheses were tested using the correlation coefficient and the regression analysis. The processes involved in data analysis are discussed in the following subsections. 3.12.1 Data preparation The quality of statistical results in most cases depends on the preparation of data (Roberts- Lombard, 2002). Data preparation is most often used for handling messy data, assessing inconsistencies, combining data from multiple sources and reporting on data that was entered manually or from unstructured sources (Weiss, 2004). The steps followed in data presentation include validation, coding, entry, editing, and cleaning of data. These steps are outlined below. 3.12.2 Data validation Data validation is the first data preparation stage which consists of determining whether the primary data was collected fittingly and without bias (Cant et al., 2005). In data validation, raw 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh data is assessed to ensure that the collected information is precise. This helps to determine that the data collected does not contribute to inaccuracies. Validating the data in the present study was aimed at determining whether the researcher had followed the acceptable processes during the information-gathering stage and also to assess whether the researcher had followed the important fieldwork instructions or not. 3.12.3 Data editing Data editing consists of assessing the questionnaires with the aim of increasing precision and accuracy. According to Cant et al. (2005), data editing deals with the “inspection of questionnaires to make modifications or corrections” (p. 151). In data editing, completed questionnaires are critically reviewed in terms of compliance with the standard data collection process, and to deal with missing data or uncompleted data (Cooper & Schindler, 2006). As indicated by Roberts- Lombard (2002), in editing data, the questionnaires collected are screened to “identify illegible, incomplete, inconsistent or ambiguous questions” (p.150). In this study, questionnaires were examined meticulously for inconsistencies, ambiguities, double selections, and omissions. 3.12.4 Data coding Two approaches to data coding were conducted. The first approach was the pre-coding where numbers were assigned to dichotomous questions such as 1 for employed and 2 for unemployed. In the final data coding process, a codebook was created to describe each variable in the dataset to assist in identifying the variables. 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Emotional intelligent was a unidimensional variable and so was measured as composite constructs. Cultural values and the styles of conflict management were measured based on five dimensions. Each of these five elements was treated as a single construct. Conflict management styles scale has five subscales each of which was treated as a single construct. 3.12.5 Missing data The researcher addressed the problem of missing data which is one of the most common issues with self-reporting instruments such as questionnaires. Missing data typically happens when respondents fail to respond to some of the items in the questionnaires due to reasons best known to them (Williams, 2015). Inferences drawn from the data can be affected significantly as a result of missing values. There are different techniques used in fixing the problem of missing data. However, Mels (2003) indicated that the multiple imputation technique is the ideal method since it does not delete any missing values or lead to a reduction in sample size. The multiple imputation technique substitutes missing values with means computed from comprehensive cases on a variable (Mahembe, 2013). The software was used for the multiple imputation missing data assessment. 3.12.6 Descriptive statistics Descriptive statistics are computed once the data has been coded and double-checked. Descriptive statistics provide simple summaries about the quantum of data with regard to the sample and the scales (Mahembe, 2013). Thus, the descriptive statistics provides the summary of a relatively large amount of data. In this study, the descriptive statistics were employed to summarise data regarding 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh demographic characteristics and measures. Means, frequencies and standard deviation were the descriptive statistical techniques utilised. The Pearson moment correlation was used to estimate the relationships between two variables (Pallant, 2013). This correlation is used when the researcher is interested in the relationship between the predictor and the criterion. The correlation gives the degree and the direction existing among the predictor and criterion. The effect of each of the cultural identity on the conflict management style was tested using this simple correlation method. 3.12.7 Inferential statistics and hypotheses testing Inferential statistics involve drawing conclusions from a sample to a corresponding population by testing the research hypotheses (Opoku, 2006). They forecast population parameters from sample statistics (Burns & Burns, 2008). The estimate of population parameters from the sample statistics can either be right or wrong depending on how the sample was selected (Cooper & Schindler, 2011). The statistical technique selected for data analysis was based on the scale of measurement, the type of hypothesis tested, the type of data and the number of variables. To test the hypotheses of this study, the statistical analyses used are presented below. The Multivariate Analysis of Variance was used for testing the effect of emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. The Multivariate Analysis is used when there is one independent variable with two or more dependent variables. There are five components of conflict management styles each of which is treated as a dependent variable. This makes the analysis appropriate. Regression is an advancement of correlation used to estimate the relationships between two or more continuous variables (Pallant, 2013). The analysis used multiple regression. The simple 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh regression is used when the observed relationship between the predictor and the criterion is significant. Multiple linear regression was used because it models the association between more than two variables. The relationships between some of the dimensions of cultural value were compared based on the extent to which they were related to the conflict management styles. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Introduction The present study investigated the influence of cultural value and emotional intelligence on styles of conflict management using secondary school teachers in Ghana. Three hundred and ninety-two senior high and technical school teachers were used for the study. Seven hypotheses were stated and tested using version 22 of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). The analyses are presented in two stages. The first stage consisted of the preliminary analysis (description of data) and the second stage entailed the testing of the research hypotheses. 4.2 Descriptive statistics There are four phases of the descriptive analysis. The first phase presents a descriptive analysis of the respondents (Table 3.1). The second phase elaborated on the normality of the data distribution. The third phase assessed the reliability of scales used and the last phase involved assessing the correlations between the underlying variables. From table 4.1, the mean and standard deviation respectively of Power distance are 9.65 and 3.34 with minimum and maximum scores of 5 and 25 respectively. Uncertainty Avoiding reported a mean of 19.91 and a standard deviation of 3.36 with minimum and maximum scores of 5 and 25 respectively. Furthermore, Collectivism had a mean of 20.54 and standard deviation of 4.32 respectively with minimum and maximum scores of 8 and 30 respectively. Long term orientation had a mean of 24.81 and standard deviation of 3.87 with minimum and maximum scores of 8 and 30 respectively. Masculinity had a mean of 11.22 and standard deviation of 3.44 with minimum 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and maximum scores of 4 and 19 respectively. Emotional intelligence had a mean of 60.51 and a standard deviation of 8.04 with minimum and maximum scores of 31 and 78 respectively. The integrating style had a mean of 26.89 and standard deviation of 3.35 with minimum and maximum scores of 14 and 35 respectively. Obliging style had a mean of 20.62 and standard deviation of 3.22 with minimum and maximum scores of 9 and 27 respectively. Compromising style had a mean of 13.81 and a standard deviation of 2.14 with minimum and maximum scores of 7 and 20 respectively. Dominating style had a mean of 16.16 and standard deviation of with minimum and maximum scores of 5 and 25 respectively. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1 Summary of Descriptive Statistics of Variables in the Study Min Max Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Cronbach Power Distance 5 25 9.65 3.347 .383 3.790 .76 Uncertainty Avoidance 5 25 19.90 3.363 -.735 .608 .78 Collectivism 8 30 20.54 4.316 -.518 .140 .76 Masculinity 4 19 11.22 3.443 .008 -.579 ..76 Long Term Orientation 8 30 24.81 3.867 -.664 .096 .82 Emotional Intelligence 31 78 60.51 8.040 -.584 .614 ..87 Integrating 14 35 26.89 3.346 -.762 .079 .79 Obliging 9 27 20.62 3.223 -.706 .180 .78 Avoiding 10 28 20.90 3.215 -.643 .284 .71 Compromising 7 20 13.81 2.141 -.282 .547 .73 Dominating 5 25 16.16 3.219 -.384 .174 .71 4.2.1 Analysis of the normal distribution of variables In checking for the normal distribution of the data (Table 4.1), the skewness and kurtosis of the data were conducted. Skewness and kurtosis analyses for normality revealed no problem with the data considering its fitness for the use of parametric analysis. The analysis revealed that all the underlying variable of the study were normally distributed since the value for kurtosis and 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh skewness range between -1 and +1. A check on tolerance statistics were all above 0.2 which does not violate the multi-collinearity assumption when using parametric test (Mahembe, 2013). 4.2.2 Reliability analysis of the scales The Cronbach alpha was computed so as to find out the reliability of the scales used in the study as shown in Table 4.1. The coefficient of the internal consistency of the various measures are as follows: Power Distance (number of items = 4, α = .781), Uncertainty Avoiding (number of items = 4, α = .755), Collectivism (number of items = 6, α = .761), Long Term Orientation (number of items = 5, α = .820), Masculinity (number of items = 4, α = .757), Emotional Intelligence (number of items = 16, α = .865), Integrating Style (number of items = 7, α = .785), Obliging (number of items = 6, α = .776), Avoiding Style (number of items = 5, α = .711), Compromising (number of items = 3, α = .733) and Dominating (number of items = 5, α = .713). George and Mallery (2003) emphasize that reliability value above 0.7 is acceptable and above 0.80 is good indicating that the scale is reliable. Hence, the values obtained from the instruments of this study are good and reliable. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2 Inter-correlation of the study variables 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1. Power Distance 1 2. Uncertainty Avoidance -.05 1 3. Collectivism .14* .44** 1 4. Masculinity .19* .13* .17* 1 5. Long Term Orientation .17* .51** .39** .14* 1 6. Emotional Intelligence -.21* .33** .34** -.18* .43** 1 7. Integrating -.15* .13* .26* .11* .33** .39** 1 8. Obliging .19* .10* .28* .18* .21* .35** .47** 1 9. Avoiding -.13* .14* .11* -.07 .05 .31** .20* .31** 1 10. Compromising -.05 -.13* .24* -.22* .22* .29* .53** .47** .30** 1 14. Dominating .16* .27* .18* .12* .14* .22* .19* .31** .47** .28* 1 **p<.01,*p<.05,N=392 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Inter-correlation matrix was analyzed using the Pearson Product Moment Correlation and the results are presented in Table 4.2. In order to conduct multiple regression analysis, one needs to ensure that there is some existing linearity between the various independent variables. From table 4.2, the independent variables in this study were related, except power distance and uncertainty avoidance (r = -.05). 4.3 Hypothesis testing The various hypotheses were analyzed using regression analysis. In the regression analysis, all the cultural values were regressed against each of the conflict management styles. Table 4.3 Regression analysis of cultural values and integrating style of conflict management Model B Std. Error Beta t P 1 (Constant) 19.775 1.241 15.932 .000 Power Distance -.097 .049 -.097 -1.983 .048 Uncertainty Avoidance -.140 .058 -.141 -2.413 .016 Collectivism .155 .042 .200 3.675 .000 Masculinity .063 .047 .065 1.337 .182 Long Term Orientation .280 .049 .323 5.727 .000 R2 = .149, F = 13.518 From the regression analysis shown in Table 4.3, the components of cultural value made a significant contribution, 14.9% variance in explaining integrating style [F (1, 390) = 13.518, p < 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh .01)]. From the analysis, power distance (t = -1.983, p < .05) and uncertainty avoidance (t = -2.413, p < .05) negatively predicted integrating conflict management style. Collectivism (t = 3.675, p < .01) and long-term orientation (t = 5.727, p < .05) significantly and positively predicted integrating conflict management style. However, masculinity had no effect on integrating conflict management style (t = 1.337, p > .05). Comparing the relative contribution of the components of cultural dimensions in predicting integrating management style, long-tern orientation recorded a higher beta value (β = .323) compared to collectivism (β = .200), uncertainty avoidance (β = .141), power distance (β = .097), and masculinity (β = .065). This suggests that long-term orientation makes the strongest unique contribution (β = .323) to explaining integrating management style, when the variance explained by all other dimensions in the model is controlled for. This indicates that long-term oriented individuals would frequently use integrating management style in resolving conflicts. Table 4.4 Regression analysis of cultural value dimensions and obliging style of conflict management Model B Std. Error Beta T P 1 (Constant) 14.153 1.221 11.590 .000 Power Distance .053 .048 .055 1.096 .274 Uncertainty Avoidance -.080 .057 -.084 -1.407 .160 Collectivism .176 .042 .235 4.236 .000 Masculinity .118 .046 .126 2.540 .011 Long Term Orientation .106 .048 .127 2.196 .029 R2 = .113, F = 9.788 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Table 4.4, the amount of variance explained by cultural values in obliging conflict management style was 11.3%, [F (1, 390 = 9.788, p < .01)]. The analysis indicates that, collectivism (t = 4.236, p < .01), masculinity (t = 2.540, p < .05), and long term orientation (t = 2.196, p < .05) made statistically significant positive contribution in predicting obliging conflict management style Power distance (t = 1.096, p >.05) and uncertainty avoidance (t = -1.407, p > .05) however, did not have any significant impact on obliging conflict management. Assessing the relative contribution of the components of cultural value dimensions in predicting obliging conflict management style, collectivism makes the largest unique contribution (β = .176) to explaining obliging management style, when the variance explained by all other dimensions in the model is controlled for, compared to long term orientation (β = .127), masculinity (β = .126), power distance (β = .055), and uncertainty avoidance (β = -.084). This suggests that collectivist individuals would prefer an obliging conflict management style to other styles in managing conflict. 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.5 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of avoiding conflict management style Model B Std. Error Beta T P 1 (Constant) 19.404 1.278 15.178 .000 Power Distance -.018 .050 -.019 -.360 .719 Uncertainty Avoidance .089 .060 .086 1.874 .070 Collectivism .053 .043 .072 1.228 .220 Masculinity -.086 .049 -.082 -1.766 .078 Long Term Orientation -.004 .050 -.004 -.074 .941 R2 = .022, F = 1.766 From the regression analysis shown in Table 4.5, the amount of variance explained by cultural value dimensions in avoiding conflict management style was not significant (R2 = 022, F (1, 390) = 1.766, p > .05). Assessing the regression analysis, none of the cultural value dimensions significantly predicted the avoiding conflict management style (p > .05). This means that power distance, collectivism, masculinity, long term orientation, and uncertainty avoidance do not have any significant influence on avoiding style of conflict management. Uncertainty avoidance however, makes the largest unique contribution (β = .086) to explaining avoiding conflict management style, when the variance explained by all other dimensions in the model is controlled for, compared to masculinity (β = -.082), collectivism (β = .072), power distance (β = -.019), and long term orientation (β = -.004). This suggests that among the cultural 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh value dimensions, uncertainty avoiding accounts for higher variance in avoiding conflict management style compared to the other cultural values, an indication that uncertainty avoidance individuals will prefer to use the avoiding style in resolving conflict. Table 4.6 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of compromising conflict management style Model B Std. Error Beta t P 1 (Constant) 11.757 .797 14.759 .000 Power Distance -.051 .031 -.080 -1.640 .102 Uncertainty Avoidance -.195 .037 -.306 -5.233 .000 Collectivism .141 .027 .284 5.205 .000 Masculinity -.033 .030 -.053 -1.096 .274 Long Term Orientation .157 .031 .284 5.016 .000 R2 = .144, F = 13.004 Table 4.6 demonstrates that the amount of variance explained by components of cultural values in compromising conflict management style was significant (R2 = .144, F (1, 390) = 13.004, p < .01). Collectivism (t = 5.205, p < .01) and long-term orientation (t = 5.016, p < .01) positively predicted compromising conflict management style while uncertainty avoidance (t = -5.233, p < .01) negatively predicted compromising conflict management style. Power distance (t = -.080, p > .05) and masculinity (t = -.053, p > .05) did not predict compromising conflict management style. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Comparing the relative contributions of cultural value dimensions, uncertainty avoidance predicted higher amount of compromising conflict management style (β = -.306) compared to collectivism (β = .284), long-term orientation (β = .284), power distance (β = -.080), and masculinity (β = -.053). This suggests that uncertainty avoidance made the largest unique contribution to explaining compromising conflict management style compared to the other components of cultural values. In other words, individuals who are more of uncertainty avoidance will readily choose compromising conflict management styles in solving conflict. Table 4.7 Regression analysis of the cultural values as a predictor of dominating conflict management style Model B Std. Error Beta T P 1 (Constant) 11.554 1.264 9.140 .000 Power Distance .134 .050 .140 2.702 .007 Uncertainty Avoidance .021 .059 .022 .352 .725 Collectivism .006 .043 .008 .138 .890 Masculinity .059 .048 .063 1.223 .222 Long Term Orientation .085 .050 .102 1.713 .087 R2 = .046, F = 3.743 From Table 4.4, cultural value dimensions made a fairly significant contribution in explaining dominating conflict management style (R2 = 046, F (1, 390) = 3.743, p < .05). Only power distance significantly and positively predicted dominating conflict management style (t = 2.702, p > .01). 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh None of the cultural value dimensions significantly predicted dominating conflict management style (p > .05). Thus, in assessing the relative contributions of the cultural value dimensions in explaining dominating conflict management style, power distance accounted for higher amount of dominating conflict management style (β = .140) compared to long-term orientation (β = .102), masculinity (β = .063), collectivism (β = .008), and uncertainty avoidance (β = .022). This suggests that power distance accounted for higher variance in dominating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. In other words, individuals who are oriented towards power distance will prefer dominating style of conflict management in resolving conflict. Table 4.8 Multivariate analysis of variance Type III Sum Source Dependent Variable of Squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Emotional Integrating 1938.100 36 53.836 7.836 .000 Intelligence Obliging 1295.656 36 35.990 4.618 .000 Avoiding 1027.118 36 28.531 -3.359 .000 Compromising 549.856 36 15.274 4.363 .000 Dominating 859.357 36 23.871 -2.655 .000 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As depicted in Table 4.8, emotional intelligence contributed to all the five components of conflict management styles. Emotional intelligence had a strong significant positive impact on integrating (F = 7.836, p < .01), obliging (F = 4.618, p < .01) and compromise (F = 4.363, p < .05) styles but showed a negative relationship with avoiding (t = -3.359, p < .01) and dominating (F = -2.655, p < .05) conflict management styles. Thus, emotional intelligence positively predicted integrating, obliging and compromising, and negatively predicted avoiding and dominating conflict management styles conflict management styles. The results also indicates that emotional intelligence accounted for higher amount of integrating conflict management style (F=7.836) as compared to the amount accounted for in avoiding, obliging, dominating, and compromising styles. This suggests that individuals who are highly emotionally intelligent will most often choose integrating conflict management style in solving conflict. 4.4 Summary of Findings These results primarily formulated and tested eight (8) hypotheses to examine the influence of cultural dimensions and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles. The findings of the study are thus enumerated:  Collectivism positively predicted integrating, obliging and compromising conflict management styles. However, it was noted that collectivism did not significantly predict both avoiding and dominating conflict management styles.  Uncertainty avoidance negatively predicted integrating and compromising conflict management styles. However, it was noted that uncertainty avoidance showed no 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh significant relationship with obliging, avoiding, and dominating conflict management styles.  Long-term orientation positively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles. However, long-term orientation did not significantly predict obliging, avoidance and dominating conflict management styles.  Power distance negatively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles, but positively predicted dominating conflict management style. It was also noted that power distance did not significantly predict obliging and avoiding conflict management styles.  Masculinity positively predicted both obliging and dominating conflict management styles. On the contrary, masculinity did not significantly predict integrating, compromising and avoiding conflict management styles.  Long term orientation predicted a higher amount of integrating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values.  Collectivism accounted for a higher amount of obliging conflict management style compared to the other cultural values.  Uncertainty avoiding accounted for higher prediction of avoiding conflict management skills and compromising conflict management style compared to the other components of cultural values.  Power distance accounted for higher amount of dominating conflict management style compared to the other the cultural values. 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  Emotional intelligence positively predicted integrating, obliging and compromising conflict management styles but negatively predicted avoidance and dominating conflict management styles.  Emotional intelligence accounted for higher variance in integrating compared to the other components of conflict management style. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction The study was conducted purposely to assess the effect of cultural value dimensions and emotional intelligence on styles of conflict management. The discussion is therefore based on the above objectives, related studies, and findings. Additionally, it outlines the limitations of the study, summary and the conclusion drawn from the study with implications, and finally the recommendations. 5.2 Cultural value dimensions and conflict management styles The study first sought to examine the impact of cultural value dimensions on conflict management styles. The first hypothesis stated that collectivism will positively predict (I) an integrating, (II) an obliging, (III) a compromising and (IV) an avoiding conflict management styles but will negatively correlate with (V) a dominating conflict management style. This hypothesis was partially supported since collectivism positively predicted integrating, obliging and compromising conflict management styles. However, it was noted that collectivism showed no significant effect on either avoiding or dominating conflict management style. This finding is in line with extant studies assessing the association between collectivism and conflict management styles (Awad & Alhashemi, 2012; Matzler and Renzl, 2017) which found a positive association between collectivism and obliging, integrating and compromising conflict management styles. The finding is also in line with that of Gunkel, Schlaegel, and Taras (2016) studies which found that about 45%, 38%, and 50% accounted for obliging, compromising and 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh integrating styles respectfully in relation to collectivism. In a nutshell the findings of the study propose that cultural dimensions have an impact on individuals’ preference for a particular conflict management styles. Collectivism predicts in particular more favorable conflict styles (integrating, obliging, and compromising). Persons from collectivistic cultures choose compromising, avoiding and integrating styles of conflict management frequently than individuals from individualistic cultures. Thus, individuals with collectivistic values are not likely to choose a more confronting conflict management style (e.g., dominating style) which may increase the outcome of only one conflict party at the expense of the other party, a behavior which is inconsistent with the cultural values of more collectivistic individuals. Moreover, the findings suggest that individuals high in collectivism are also linked with cooperative conflict management styles. This is a novel and significant finding. Earlier findings in this area are rather contradictory perhaps because collectivism has mainly been operationalized at the national level. This study operationalized cultural values (e.g. collectivism) at the individual level permitting the researcher to obtain an individual's conflict management style regardless of the national cultural values. Considering the fact that collectivistic individuals think “we” and behave in favor of their group, this orientation is critical in promoting integrative, i.e., cooperative conflict management style. The second hypothesis stated that uncertainty avoidance will positively predict (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising and (IV) avoiding conflict management styles but negatively predict (V) dominating conflict management style. This hypothesis was partially supported as uncertainty avoidance negatively predicted integrating and compromising conflict management styles and positively predicted avoiding conflict management style. However, it did not have any relationship with obliging and dominating conflict management styles. The significant relationship between uncertainty avoidance and integrating, compromising and avoiding conflict management styles 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh supports the study by Umar, White, and Prabhakar (2008) which indicates that uncertainty avoidance negatively predicted integrating and compromising conflict management styles and positively predicted avoiding conflict management styles. The findings in the current study may be explained by the work of Graham et al. (1988) cited in Caputo et al. (2019) who showed that individuals with higher uncertainty avoidance tend to experience more stress and anxiety and, thus, need more clarity and structure. They also suggest that such individuals must trust, share information, and communicate more openly with their negotiation partners to reduce the risk in their relationship. Hence, it is possible that individuals with higher uncertainty avoidance are inclined toward cooperative conflict management as this may involve more open communication with the other party which provides reliable information and reduces risk and stress. The third hypothesis stated that long-term orientation will positively predict (I) integrating, (II) obliging, and (III) compromising conflict management styles but negatively predict (IV) avoiding and (V) dominating conflict management styles. This hypothesis was likewise partially supported because long-term orientation positively predicted only integrating and compromising conflict management styles. This is in line with the researcher’s expectation that individuals with long term orientation would be more of cooperative styles of managing conflict because they would prefer to sustain good relationships for their long term benefits. The fourth hypothesis stated that power distance will negatively predict (I) an integrating style, (II) an obliging style, (III) a compromising style but positively predict (IV) an avoiding style and 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (V) a dominating conflict management style. The findings partially supported this hypothesis since power distance negatively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles, but positively predicted dominating conflict management styles. It did not significantly predict obliging and avoiding conflict management styles. This means that persons having a higher degree of power distance are more likely to choose conflict management styles that allow them to preserve power distance in society, but are less likely to engage in those styles of managing conflict that reduce power distance, as these could lead to outcomes that are undesirable. This finding is in line with previous findings. For example, Graf et al. (2012) found that negotiators from power distant cultures (e.g. Asian) tend to apply more power-related strategies. This study revealed that an increase in power distance is linked with an increase in using a dominating conflict management style. This means that individuals who accept the unequal distribution of power (i.e., who score high in power distance) may consider it normal that negotiations end with winners and losers. This proposes that instead of searching for mutual goals, these individuals might emphasize their own gains, want to emerge winners, and, therefore, are more ready to compete. The fifth prediction stated that masculinity negatively predicts the conflict management styles of (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising and (IV) avoiding, but positively predicts a (V) dominating conflict management style. This hypothesis was partially supported as masculinity positively predicted both obliging and dominating conflict management styles. This agrees with Holt and DeVore (2005) who conducted a meta-analytical study on the role of cultural values in dominating conflict management. Masculinity was highly correlated with dominating conflict management. It also agrees with Umar, White, and Prabhakar (2008) study which indicated that masculinity positively correlated with obliging style of conflict management. Further, the results 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of this study buttress findings by Amanatullah and Morris (2010) who revealed that even self- advocating female negotiators conceded away only roughly 20% of the total value in just the first round of negotiation, indicating a cooperative negotiation style. Contrary, this implies that individuals with high values of masculinity tend to use competitive negotiation styles. The sixth prediction was that power distance will have a high correlation with (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising, (IV) avoiding, (V) dominating conflict management style than all the other cultural values. Contrary to this prediction, no single cultural value predicted any significant amount correlate to all the five conflict management styles. Collectivism was shown to have had a high amount of correlation with obliging conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Uncertainty avoidance correlated more with avoiding and compromising conflict management styles compared than other components of cultural values. Power distance also accounted a higher amount correlate with dominating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. The findings are in line with the study by He, Zhu, and Peng (2002) which found that collectivism correlated more with obliging conflict management style and uncertainty avoidance more with avoiding conflict management style. Similarly, Oudenhoven and Mechelse (2016) discovered that uncertainty avoidance accounted a higher amount correlate with avoiding and compromising conflict management styles. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The findings of this study are largely compatible with the culture fit viewpoint which forms the theoretical foundation of this study. Persons seem to prefer those conflict management styles that agree with their cultural values. 5.3 Emotional Intelligence and Conflict Management Styles The study also hypothesized that emotional intelligence will have a positive relationship with (I) integrating, (II) obliging, (III) compromising conflict management styles but will have a negative relationship with (IV) avoiding and (V) dominating conflict management styles. This hypothesis was supported. The results indicated that emotional intelligence had a positive relationship with integrating, obliging, and compromising conflict management styles but negatively correlated with avoiding and dominating conflict management styles. This finding is in line with extant studies assessing the relationship between emotional intelligence and styles of conflict management (Al-Hamdan et al., 2019; Yu, Sardessai, Lu, & Zhao, 2006) which indicated that emotional intelligence positively correlated with integrating and obliging conflict styles but negatively correlated with avoiding conflict management style. However, emotional intelligence did not have any relationship withs compromising and dominating conflict management styles. This finding is also consistent with the study by Shamoradi et al. (2014) which assessed the influence of emotional intelligence on the styles of conflict management in the University of Tarbiat Modarres. Results indicated that emotional intelligence positively correlated with integrating and obliging conflict styles but negatively correlated with avoiding conflict management style. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The integrating and obliging conflict styles are positive styles of conflict management. According to Jordan and Troth (2004), the integrating and obliging conflict management styles require an understanding of our own emotions and those of others and amending them to reach a resolution. The literature recognizes that emotional intelligence uses these styles because it leads to a higher and a healthier conflict solution. People who possess higher emotional intelligence are able to appreciate their own emotions and control others emotions which is imperative in circumstances which require one to give up their own vision so as to find an amicable solution. In doing this, they prefer the compromising and obliging conflict-handling styles. The negative association between emotional intelligence and avoiding style is however worth considering. The possible explanation could be that the avoiding conflict management style does not yield good results. The social skills of emotional intelligence include several elements, one of which is ‘influence’, that is, to wield effective tactics for persuasion. Teachers with high emotional intelligence are thus more likely to convince others to accept their views, and target to attain their objectives, typical of the dominating behavior rather than to adopt avoiding conflict management style. High emotional intelligence individuals not only have a good understanding of their emotions as well as those of others but good in regulating emotions to enhance thinking when engaged in activities, such as problem-solving, reasoning, and intra-communication. Furthermore, the study indicated that emotional intelligence accounted a higher variance in integrating style compared to the other components of conflict management styles. This finding is consistent with the study conducted by Rahim et al. (2002) which examined the influence of emotional intelligence on styles of conflict management among employees in the United States 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (U.S). Emotional intelligence correlated highly with integrating management style compared to other conflict management styles. This study was replicated in seven countries including South Africa which depicts that emotional intelligence predicted the higher amount of integrating conflict management style compares to the others. The findings are similar to the study Kabanoff (2015) which revealed that emotional intelligent had a high significant with integrating conflict management style compared to the other conflict management styles. The findings of the current study indicate that cultural value dimensions and emotional intelligence have an influence on conflict management styles of teachers in the Accra Metropolis of the Greater Accra Region. These results suggest that teachers who are well informed about the cultural values of different cultures, and are taught emotional management and discussion skills within their institutions may be better equipped to handle and resolve conflict in their daily interactions. 5.3 Contribution of the study Firstly, to the best of the researcher’s knowledge, this study conducted is the first and only study that has assessed the influence of cultural dimensions and emotional intelligence on conflict management styles in a single study among teachers in Ghana. A significant implication of the contribution of this finding is that emotional intelligence helps in selecting constructive conflict management styles among teachers. Secondly, not only has the study assessed the influence of emotional intelligence and cultural value dimensions on conflict management styles among teachers, but it also compared the amount of variance in the five elements of conflict management predicted by cultural value elements and emotional intelligence. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, the study provides external validity for the correlations among the underlying variables that were investigated. This is because extant empirical studies on the correlation among the underlying variables investigated in this study have been found in the Western communities but not in South Saharan African countries such as Ghana. 5.4 Limitations of the study As with any study, there are a number of shortcomings that limited the interpretability of the present findings. This limitation must, however, be noted when applying the study. Firstly, the respondents employed in the study were all teachers from Senior High Schools. The findings can therefore, not be generalized to all teachers in Ghana since teachers especially in the basic schools may not be similar in terms of their choice of conflict management styles compared to those teaching in second cycle schools. The sample may be some extent be representative of teachers in Accra. Also, the generalizability of the results to other sectors such as the financial and manufacturing sectors is a limitation, results were obtained from a specific sample of teachers within ten (10) public Senior High and Technical Schools in the Accra metropolis. Future researches could involve multi-group comparisons of teachers in the basic schools and the secondary schools. Secondly, the causality of the findings cannot be established since the study was a correlational survey that does not allow causal inferences. Although the study found substantial nexus between emotional intelligence, cultural dimensions, and conflict management style, causality cannot be inferred. Causal inferences regarding the correlations among the underlying variables could not be established. Moreover, the current study found that the direction of causality cannot be confidently 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh established. Longitudinal research on the relationship between the underlying associations between underlying variables would help better understand the causality or direction of the relationship. Moreover, data was gathered using self-report measures which are more reliable of yielding desirable responses. It is possible that the self-report of emotional intelligence or conflict management style may confound the current results. Compared with objective measures of emotional intelligence or conflict management style, however, subjective experiences of emotional intelligence or conflict management style might even be more prognostic of the actual situation on the ground. The perceptual nature of the data is subjective to perceptual bias. Nonetheless, a longitudinal survey would be beneficial. 5.5 Practical Implications This finding implies that every cultural value has a specific conflict management style that it predicts. Accordingly, identifying the appropriate cultural dimension will help in predicting conflict management style. The results indicated that long-term orientation predicted the higher amount of integrating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Thus, teachers who are interested in integrating conflict management style are likely to be long-term orientated. Collectivism accounted for a higher amount of obliging conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Power distance accounted for a higher amount of dominating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Uncertainty avoidance accounted for higher prediction of avoiding conflict management styles and compromising conflict management 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh styles compared to the other components of cultural values. Thus, each cultural value dimension has a larger effect on a particular conflict style. Moreover, knowing the cultural background of a teacher will help in determining his or her likely dominant conflict management style. This study also emphasized the role of emotional intelligence in conflict management. From the results, emotional intelligence serves as an imperative variable in choosing the preferred style of conflict management. That is, the capacity to understand the emotional intelligence of others helps in advancing toward selecting a constructive style of conflict management. It is therefore recommended for Ghana Education Service to consider examining emotional intelligence before employing teachers and also as a prerequisite for promotion to higher ranks. 5.6 Recommendations The results highlight the significance of emotional intelligence and cultural dimensions in determining the type of conflict management style chosen. Although this was relatively comprehensive, it is far from exhaustive. Therefore, the findings of this research could be considered inadequate due to the possibility of other intervening factors influencing the relationship between the underlying variables. Further research should continue to examine other important personal and background factors. Further research will add to existing literature if manifold factors such as educational level and rank of work should be simultaneously investigated. More research on the role of emotional intelligence and cultural values in determining conflict management styles is also recommended in different organisational contexts since the participatory organisations in this study share a similar work context, limiting the generalization of the findings. 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6 Summary and Conclusion In spite of the fact that studies have examined the influence of cultural values on the choice of conflict management styles, limited studies have focused on the comparative importance of different cultural value dimensions in influencing preferences for different conflict management styles. Further, most of the research in conflict management adopts a comparative approach in describing and explaining cultural differences among different samples, where culture is generally indirectly measured nationally or ethnically. This approach, which has facilitated research in understanding many aspects of cross-cultural relations, is near to have exhausted its ability to advance research. A more multifaceted and globalized world calls for more complex and combined research approaches, contributing more toward the integration of different cultures, rather than their comparison. Measuring directly cultural values, research in conflict management can contribute to the understanding of important and complex dynamics of today's environments. Also, although numerous studies have examined the influence of emotional intelligence on styles of managing conflicts and have found emotional intelligence to be an important element in individuals’ preference for conflict management styles, little is known about the effect of emotional intelligence on conflict management styles preferences in Ghana. The study was a cross-sectional design that assessed the impact of emotional intelligence and cultural value dimensions as predictors of conflict management styles in Accra. Data from 392 teachers from six SHS and two technical schools were used. Results indicated that Collectivism positively predicted integrating, obliging and compromising conflict management styles. Uncertainty avoiding negatively predicted integrating and compromising conflict management style. Long-term orientation positively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh management styles. Power distance negatively predicted both integrating and compromising conflict management styles, but positively predicted dominating conflict management styles. Masculinity also positively predicted both obliging and dominating conflict management styles. Long-term orientation predicted the higher amount of integrating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Collectivism accounted for a higher amount of obliging conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Uncertainty avoiding accounted for higher prediction to avoiding conflict management skills and comporting conflict management style compared to the other component of cultural values. Power distance accounted for a higher amount of dominating conflict management style compared to the other cultural values. Emotional intelligence also positively predicted integrating, obliging, and compromising conflict management styles but negatively with and avoiding and dominating conflict management styles. Emotional intelligence accounted for higher variance in integrating compared to the other components of conflict management style. The findings of this study will inform teachers and administrators of schools to be culturally sensitive in handling interpersonal conflicts. Further, in dealing with conflicts, the emotional intelligence of teachers, their level of concern for themselves and others are very crucial factors for successful conflict management and its prevention. Consequently, the findings will inform managers and administrators of schools to take steps towards improving the emotional intelligence quotients of teachers in order to ensure effective conflict management in Ghanaian schools. It is believed that this study will stimulate additional research which focuses on the mechanism underlying the association between especially, cultural values and style of conflict management of teachers in the workplace. In terms of practice, the study recommends cultural-sensitive handling of conflicts. 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International Journal of Conflict Management, 26(4), 450-478. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix 1- Ethical Clearance Letter from ECH 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 2- Introductory Letter from Department of Psychology 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 3-Informed Consent Form UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Official Use only Protocol number Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH) PROTOCOL CONSENT FORM Section A- BACKGROUND INFORMATION Title of Study: CULTURAL VALUES AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AS PREDICTORS OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT STYLES Principal FRANCISCA AMA BOATENG Investigator: Certified Protocol Number Section B– CONSENT TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh QUESTIONNAIRE General Information about Research The purpose of this study is to examine the specific cultural values that influence individuals’ preferences for conflict handling styles. Second, to determine the effect of emotional intelligence on conflict management styles of teachers. The study will require that participants respond to a questionnaire which will assess their cultural value dimensions, level of emotional intelligence and their preferred conflict management styles. The researcher took time to explain the instruments to the participants and how responses according to their preference would be indicated. In all the participants will be required to complete the questionnaire within 25 minutes. Benefits/Risks of the study This research is considered to be of a minimal risk. This implies that the risks associated with this study are the same as what your everyday experiences. There are no known additional risks to those who will take part in this study. There are no known benefits that would result from participating in this research. However, the outcome of the study can be a great source of information to managers to ensure effective management of conflict in their organisations. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Confidentiality Any information given out will be kept confidential and any report made public will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you. You will not have to give out your name or signature. Compensation Although you are not going to be paid for the time you volunteer while being in this study, the researcher will appreciate your effort and time. Withdrawal from Study Your participation in this research study is voluntary. You may choose not to participate and you may withdraw your consent to participate at any time. You will not be penalized in any way should you decide not to participate or to withdraw from this study. Contact for Additional Information If you have any question, concern or complaint about this study, you can contact Francisca Boateng at the University of Ghana, Psychology Department. If you have questions about your rights as a participant in this study, general questions, or have complaints, concerns or issues you want to discuss with someone outside the research, call the Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH), Institute of Statistics, Social and Economics Research (ISSER, IRB) on 00233- 303-933-866. If you experience an unanticipated problem related to the research contact Francisca Boateng on +233(0)265349582 or bfranca2018@gmail.com 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section C- PARTICIPANT AGREEMENT "I have read or have had someone read all of the above, asked questions, received answers regarding participation in this study, and am willing to give consent for me, my child/ward to participate in this study. I will not have waived any of my rights by signing this consent form. Upon signing this consent form, I will receive a copy for my personal records." ________________________________________________ Name of Participant ___________________________________ _______________________ Signature or mark of Participant Date If participant cannot read and or understand the form themselves, a witness must sign here: I was present while the benefits, risks and procedures were read to the volunteer. All questions were answered and the volunteer has agreed to take part in the research. _______________________________________________ Name of witness _____________________________________________ _______________________ Signature of witness / Mark Date 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I certify that the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research have been explained to the above individual. __________________________________________________ Name of Person who Obtained Consent ___________________________________________ ______________________ Signature of Person Who Obtained Consent Date 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix 4- Data Gathering Instrument The researcher is a student of University of Ghana conducting a study on Organisational Conflict. The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between Cultural Values, Emotional Intelligence and Conflict management Styles. The questionnaire will include questions about your cultural values, your emotional intelligence and your conflict management styles. The questionnaire will take about 25 minutes to complete. There are no anticipated risks involved in participating in this research. Any information given out will be kept confidential. If you agree to participate in this study, please read the instructions and continue to fill out the questionnaire. Instructions The four section questionnaire (A, B, C, and D) is to be completed by you. Please be honest and accurate as possible in your responses to ensure true results of the study. Thank you. Section A: Demographics Please answer the following questions by marking the appropriate boxes 1. Gender. Male Female 2. Age. 25-35 36-45 46-55 Above 55 3. Education. Diploma Post Diploma Degree Masters 4. Job Experience. Less than 5yrs 5yrs-10yrs 10yrs-15yrs More than 15yrs 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. Marital Status. Single Married Divorced Separated Widow/Widower Section B Using the following 5-point scale, please circle the number that best describes the extent to which you agree/disagree with each statement. 1 = strongly disagree (SD) 2 = disagree (D) 3 = neutral (N) 4= agree (A) 5 = strongly agree (SA) Statements SD D N A SA 1. People in higher positions should make 1 2 3 4 5 most decisions without consulting people in lower positions. 2. People in higher positions should not ask 1 2 3 4 5 the opinions of people in lower positions too frequently. 3. People in higher positions should avoid 1 2 3 4 5 social interaction with people in lower positions. 4. People in lower positions should not 1 2 3 4 5 disagree with decisions by people in higher positions. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. People in higher positions should not 1 2 3 4 5 delegate important tasks to people in lower positions. 6. It is important to have instructions spelled 1 2 3 4 5 out in detail so that I always know what I’m expected to do. 7. I always know what I’m expected to do. 1 2 3 4 5 8. It is important to closely follow 1 2 3 4 5 instructions and procedures. 9. Rules and regulations are important 1 2 3 4 5 because they inform me of what is expected of me. 10. Standardized work procedures are helpful. 1 2 3 4 5 11. Individuals should sacrifice self-interest 1 2 3 4 5 for the group. 12. Individuals should stick with the group 1 2 3 4 5 even through difficulties. 13. Group welfare is more important than 1 2 3 4 5 individual rewards. 14. Group success is more important than 1 2 3 4 5 individual success. 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15. Individuals should only pursue their goals 1 2 3 4 5 after considering the welfare of the group. 16. Group loyalty should be encouraged even 1 2 3 4 5 if individual goals suffer. 17. It is more important for men to have a 1 2 3 4 5 professional career than it is for women. 18. Men usually solve problems with logical 1 2 3 4 5 analysis; women usually solve problems with intuition. 19. Solving difficult problems usually requires 1 2 3 4 5 an active, forcible approach, which is typical of men. 20. There are some jobs that a man can always 1 2 3 4 5 do better than a woman. Please rate the extent to which the following statements are important/unimportant to you. Statement Very unimportant - Very Important 21. Careful management of money (Thrift). 1 2 3 4 5 22. Going on resolutely in spite of opposition 1 2 3 4 5 (Persistence) 23. Personal steadiness and stability. 1 2 3 4 5 24. Long-term planning. 1 2 3 4 5 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25. Giving up today’s fun for success in the 1 2 3 4 5 future. 26. Working hard for success in the future. 1 2 3 4 5 Section C Using the following 5-point scale, please circle the number that best describes how much you agree with each statement about yourself. STATEMENTS SD D N A SA 1. I have a good sense of why I have certain feelings 1 2 3 4 5 most of the time. 2. I have a good understanding of my emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I really understand what I feel. 1 2 3 4 5 4. I always know whether or not I am happy. 1 2 3 4 5 5. I always know my friends’ emotions from their 1 2 3 4 5 behaviour. 6. I am a good observer of others’ emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I am sensitive to the feelings and emotions of 1 2 3 4 5 others. 8. I have good understanding of the emotions of 1 2 3 4 5 people around me. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. I always set goals for myself and then try my best 1 2 3 4 5 to achieve them. 10. I always tell myself I am a competent person. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I am a self-motivated person. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I would always encourage myself to try my best. 1 2 3 4 5 13. I am able to control my temper and handle 1 2 3 4 5 difficulties rationally. 14. I am quite capable of controlling my own emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 15. I can always calm down quickly when I am very 1 2 3 4 5 angry. 16. I have good control of my own emotions. 1 2 3 4 5 Section D Using the following 5-point scale, please circle the number that best describes how much you agree with each statement about yourself. STATEMENT SD D N A SA 1. I try to investigate an issue with others before to 1 2 3 4 5 find a solution acceptable to us. 2. I try to satisfy the needs of others. 1 2 3 4 5 3. I attempt to avoid being “put to on the spot” and 1 2 3 4 5 try to keep my conflict with others to myself. 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4. I try to integrate my ideas others to find solutions 1 2 3 4 5 to a problem which satisfy our expectations. 5. I try to work with others to find solutions to a 1 2 3 4 5 problem which satisfy our expectations. 6. I avoid open of my differences with others. 1 2 3 4 5 7. I try to find a middle course to resolve an impasse 1 2 3 4 5 8. I use my influence to get my ideas accepted. 1 2 3 4 5 9. I am very persuasive whenever I have to be in 1 2 3 4 5 order to win in a conflict situation. 10. I accommodate the wishes of others. 1 2 3 4 5 11. I give in the wishes of others. 1 2 3 4 5 12. I exchange accurate information with others to 1 2 3 4 5 solve the problem together. 13. I usually give concessions to others. 1 2 3 4 5 14. I usually propose a middle ground for breaking 1 2 3 4 5 dead locks. 15. I negotiate with others so that a compromise can 1 2 3 4 5 be reached. 16. I try to stay away from disagreement with others. 1 2 3 4 5 17. I avoid confrontations with others. 1 2 3 4 5 18. I use my expertise to a decision in my favour. 1 2 3 4 5 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19. I often go along with the suggestions of other 1 2 3 4 5 persons. 20. I use “give and take” so that a compromise can 1 2 3 4 5 be made. 21. I am generally firm in pursuing my side of issue. 1 2 3 4 5 22. I try to bring all our concerns out in the open so 1 2 3 4 5 that the issue can be resolved in the best possible. 23. I collaborate with others to come up with 1 2 3 4 5 decisions acceptable to us. 24. I try to satisfy the expectations of others. 1 2 3 4 5 25. I enjoy competitive situations and play hard to 1 2 3 4 5 win. 26. I try to keep my disagreement with others to 1 2 3 4 5 myself in order to avoid hard feelings. 27. I try to avoid unpleasant exchanges with others. 1 2 3 4 5 28. I try to work others for proper understanding of 1 2 3 4 5 the problem. 118