UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES DEPARTMENT OF SOCIAL WORK THE EXPERIENCES OF STUDENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES IN TWO SELECTED UNIVERSITIES IN GHANA BY ANDREWS BERCHIE (10536551) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF AN MPHIL SOCIAL WORK DEGREE DECEMBER, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Berchie Andrews, hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my research. This research was carried out under the supervision of Dr. Augustina Naami and Dr. Kwabena Frimpong- Manso, both of the Department of Social Work. All references cited in this work have been duly acknowledged. This thesis has not been submitted elsewhere in part or whole for any other degree. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii ABSTRACT Students with physical disabilities face a plethora of challenges in learning and participating in higher education in Ghanaian universities. Studies on students with physical disabilities have focused on challenges with built environments. However, students with physical disabilities could face barriers that are related to teaching and learning, bureaucratic issues, and attitudinal barriers in higher education. Hence, the purpose of this study was to explore the experiences of students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology regarding the challenges they face and the factors that foster their academic learning and to ascertain their educational needs. A qualitative research design was employed for this study. Purposive sampling techniques were adopted to select 18 participants for the study. Purposive sampling helped the researcher recruit participants who possessed the characteristics as determined by the researcher. Data were collected through face- to-face and phone interviews using a semi- structured interview guide in English. Data for this study were analysed using the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis developed by Smith and Osborn (2008). The results of the study showed that students with physical disabilities encounter barriers such as inaccessible school environments, inaccessible information, poor lighting systems and seating arrangements, and negative relational experiences with students without disabilities. The findings indicate that familial, personal, religious, and institutional factors led to the improvement in the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. Additionally, it was revealed in the study that students with physical disabilities needed fixing elevators and ramps in buildings and eBooks on library computers as measures to improve their learning in higher education. The study recommends that in the long run, university buildings in both universities should be renovated following provisions in the disability act of Ghana to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii enhance access to services by students with physical disabilities. However, in the short run, the study recommends that classes that have students with physical disabilities in both universities be held on the ground floor of buildings to enable easy access. Additionally, the study recommends that faculty members be trained in inclusive pedagogy to enhance their knowledge and skills in teaching students with disabilities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my mother, Rev. Irene Ohenewaa Hanson Gunn, and my siblings Selorm, Lydia, and Danny for their care, love, and support throughout my life. I am forever grateful to them. I also dedicate this work to myself for not giving up throughout tough times. I dedicate this work to all persons with disabilities; indeed, disability is not inability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My deepest gratitude goes to the Almighty God for His unfailing love, protection, provident, grace, and mercies upon my life. Master Jesus, you have shown that you are the Lord indeed. My sincerest gratitude goes to my supervisors Dr. Augustina Naami and Dr. Kwabena Frimpong-Manso for their continuous guidance and support throughout this research. I say may the good Lord bless and grant you answers to all your prayers. I acknowledge Dr. Abigail Adubea Mills, Dr. Doris Akyere Boateng, Dr. Kingsley Saa-Touh Mort, and all Senior Members at the Department of Social Work for their continuous support, encouragement, motivation, and love throughout my stay at the University of Ghana. I pray that God replenishes the resources you have lost because of me. My appreciation also goes to Mr. Daniel Teye and Ms. Margaret Mensah for their love and support throughout this research. I also appreciate my friends, Portia Brempong, Isaac Prince Ofori, Prince Lamptey, Bonsu Emmanuel, Mrs. Joana Okine, Sandra Mensah, and all my colleagues for their continuous support during my stay at the University of Ghana. I appreciate Mrs. Margaret Bosompem for her kind reception. My warmest gratitude goes to all persons who in one way or the other supported me, I say God richly bless you all. Finally, my earnest gratitude goes to my beloved, Georgina Naa Dedei Aryee, for her love and support even in my toughest times. God richly bless you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ............................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT .............................................................................................................. v CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Background Information ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 7 1.2 Research Objectives ............................................................................................................ 10 1.3 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 10 1.4 Significance of the Study .................................................................................................... 10 1.4.1 Policy ........................................................................................................................... 10 1.4.2 Social Work Practice.................................................................................................... 11 1.4.3 Research ....................................................................................................................... 11 1.5 Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 11 CHAPTER TWO .......................................................................................................................... 13 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE ............................................ 13 2.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 13 2.1 Challenges of Students with Physical Disabilities in Higher Education ........................ 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 2.1.1 Inaccessible Physical Environment .............................................................................. 13 2.1.2 Attitudinal Barriers ...................................................................................................... 17 2.1.3 Inaccessible Curriculum, Information and Communication Barriers .......................... 19 2.2 Factors that Foster Academic Learning Among Students with Disabilities ....................... 23 2.2.1 Personal Characteristics ............................................................................................... 23 2.2.2 Demographic Characteristics ....................................................................................... 26 2.2.3 Institutional Factors ..................................................................................................... 27 2.3 Support and Needs of Students with Physical Disabilities ................................................. 29 2.4 Theoretical Perspective ....................................................................................................... 30 2.4.1 Multidimensionality ..................................................................................................... 32 2.4.2 Social Model of Disability ........................................................................................... 32 2.4.3 Voices of Disability ..................................................................................................... 33 2.4.4 Language ...................................................................................................................... 33 2.4.5 Rights ........................................................................................................................... 34 2.4.6 Valuing Diversity ......................................................................................................... 35 2.4.7 Transformative Politics ................................................................................................ 35 2.4.8 Relevance of Critical Disability Theory to the Study. ................................................. 36 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 37 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................. 37 3.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 3.1 Research Approach and Design .......................................................................................... 37 3.2 Study Sites .......................................................................................................................... 38 3.2.1 The University of Ghana .............................................................................................. 38 3.2.2 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology .......................................... 39 3.3 Target Population and Study Population ............................................................................ 40 3.4 Sampling Techniques and Selection Criteria ...................................................................... 40 3.5 Recruitment Process............................................................................................................ 41 3.6 Sample Size ......................................................................................................................... 42 3.7 Data Collection ................................................................................................................... 43 3.8 Data Analysis ...................................................................................................................... 44 3.9 Ethical Considerations ........................................................................................................ 46 3.10 Measures to Ensure Credibility ......................................................................................... 47 3.11 Limitations of the Study.................................................................................................... 48 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 49 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................... 49 4.0 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 49 4.1 Demographic Characteristics of Participants ...................................................................... 49 4.1.1 Various Types of Disabilities....................................................................................... 50 4.1.2 Religious Affiliation of Study Participants from both Schools ................................... 50 4.2 Objective One ..................................................................................................................... 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 4.2.1 School Environment..................................................................................................... 51 4.2.2 Inside Arrangement of Buildings ................................................................................. 55 4.2.3 Information .................................................................................................................. 58 4.2.4 Negative Relational Experiences ................................................................................. 64 4.3 Objective Two:.................................................................................................................... 66 4.3.1 Familial Factors ........................................................................................................... 66 4.3.2 Personal Factors ........................................................................................................... 68 4.3.3 Positive Relational Factors .......................................................................................... 71 4.3.4 Religious Factors ......................................................................................................... 73 4.3.5 Institutional Factors ..................................................................................................... 75 4.4 Objective Three ................................................................................................................... 78 4.4.1 Fixing Elevators ........................................................................................................... 79 4.4.2 Need for Electronic and Braille Books ........................................................................ 80 4.4.2 Other Needs ................................................................................................................. 80 4.5 Discussion of Findings ........................................................................................................ 85 4.5.1 Challenges Students with Disabilities Encounter in Higher Education ....................... 85 4.5.2 Factors that Foster Learning among Students with Physical Disabilities .................... 92 4.5.3 Needs of Students with Physical Disabilities in Higher Education ............................. 97 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 101 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ......................... 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x 5.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 101 5.2 Summary of Findings ........................................................................................................ 101 5.3 Conclusions of the Study .................................................................................................. 103 5.4 Recommendations of The Study ....................................................................................... 104 5.5 Implications for Social Work Practice .............................................................................. 106 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 108 APPENDIX A ............................................................................................................................. 129 APPENDIX B ............................................................................................................................. 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background Information Higher education is an open forum of endless opportunities for individuals who happen to obtain access to its doors. It provides avenues for people to broaden their perspectives about the world and sharpen their potential to benefit themselves and their communities. In a broader sense, the United Nations Education Sociocultural Organization (UNESCO, 2009) asserts that education has proven beyond doubt to promote the development of individuals, societies, and nations as a whole. This is affirmed through the contribution it brings to the lives of individuals in terms of higher income, better health, better life choices and long life (Kusi & Sarpong, 2019). As such, many countries have made efforts (for example, the Individuals with Disability Act of the United States of America and the Equality Act of the United Kingdom) to enhance access to higher education in all forms for all qualified persons including students with physical disabilities. These efforts have culminated in increased access to higher education for students with physical disabilities, rising to the attention of international policy agendas (United Nations, 2015). International educational policy directives give entrenched priority to the education of students with physical disabilities, to which many countries are signatories. The Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) set the pace for the creation of educational opportunities for every person, including students with physical disabilities. Article 26 states that every individual, regardless of their differences, should have equal access to higher education. Similarly, access University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 to higher education as a right of students with physical disabilities was clearly stated in the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child Article 28 Clause 3, Convention on the Right of Persons with Disabilities Article 24, and it was later reaffirmed in nonbinding instruments, for example, the World Program of Action Concerning Disabled Persons (1982) and the 1993 Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities. Moreover, in the early 1990s, the heads of States from 92 countries and 25 international organizations (UNESCO, 1994) embarked on an agenda of inclusive education that not only aimed at providing accessible structures but also an all-inclusive pedagogy. The main idea of inclusive education came to the limelight at the Salamanca World Conference on Special Education held in Spain in 1994 (UNESCO, 1994). This was reiterated at the World Education Forum in Dakar, Senegal in 2000. Furthermore, the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) show a considerable amount of concern regarding the issue of inclusiveness in the area of education. Several goals (8, 9, 10, 11, and 16) focus on addressing the issue of inclusiveness and equality to a greater extent, with goal 4 underscoring the promotion of inclusive education, which is equitable to all (Kusi & Sarpong, 2019). The various international policy directives, including the United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), provide a strong foundation for countries to ensure equitable access to higher education by students with physical disabilities without much hindrance upon ratification. Although efforts by the international community have led to increased access to higher education for students with physical disabilities (United Nations, 2015), students with physical disabilities continue to have lower academic achievement than their peers without disabilities University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 (World Health Organization, 2011a). The lower academic achievement of students with physical disabilities is worsened by learning barriers, barriers in the assessment of examinations and assignments, barriers in accessing information about disability support services on campus and barriers that result from inadequate support on the part of the staff (Fuller, Healey, Bradley & Hall, 2004). Students with physical disabilities have to encounter issues of institutional bureaucracy, discrimination, and the architecture of university buildings that were supposedly meant to aid in the process of academic learning (García-González, Gómez-Calcerrada, Hernández & Ríos-Aguilar, 2020). In Africa, many countries are signatories to global policies on disability and have made political commitments with particular emphasis on the United Nations Convention on the Right of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD), World Declaration on Education for All (EFA, 1990), and the 1993 Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with Disabilities (Kochung, 2011). Despite these international treaties informing Africa’s domestic policies and legislation on the education of students with physical disabilities, for example, the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR) and its protocol on the rights of students with physical disabilities, Africa has less than 1% of its people with disabilities accessing higher education, and the successes of these small populations are very limited (Kochung, 2011). In the African region, students with physical disabilities find it difficult to access university education due to barriers that exist in the higher education institutions and communities or societies from which these students come (Kochung, 2011). Kochung (2011) makes a list of external barriers that pose a threat to students with physical disabilities in accessing higher education. These include the unavailability of higher education institutions that cater to the needs of students with physical disabilities in every community, social exclusion and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 stigmatization by society, stringent admission criteria to higher education institutions, and many students with physical disabilities seeking to enrol in higher education coming from low-income families. Again, Kochung outlines the internal barriers that students with physical disabilities experience when they finally gain admission to higher education institutions in Africa. These include rigid curriculum and examinations, lack of appropriate teaching and learning methodologies, and teachers’ inadequate knowledge about disability pedagogy. These challenges notwithstanding could emanate from the lack of political will exhibited by successive and incumbent governments of African countries. It could also be aggravated by the politicization of educational institutions, giving rise to the high negligence of necessities that enhance the smooth knowledge acquisition by students with physical disabilities. The Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) estimates the prevalence of disability in Ghana to be 8 percent (2,098,138) of the total population (GSS, 2021). It is estimated that 4 out of 10 persons with disabilities aged 3 years and above have no formal education (GSS, 2014). Available data suggest that less than 10% of persons with disabilities have vocational, technical, and university education (Senadza, Ayerakwa, Mills, Oppong & Asare, 2019). Ghana has been at the forefront of the ratification of international treaties on education and the subsequent formulation and implementation of its domestic policies to that effect. The Persons with Disability Act (Act 715), the Ghana National Disability Policy (2000), and the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana (1992) collectively emphasize that educational institutions must ensure that students with physical disabilities are not subjected to discrimination or disadvantage (Ashigbi, Danso, Tudzi, & Torgbenu, 2017). The government of Ghana through the Ministry of Education launched the Inclusive Education Policy in 2015 with an overarching aim of redefining educational delivery and management to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 correspond to the diverse learning needs of all learners, including students with physical disabilities in higher education. The objectives of this policy are to improve and adapt education and related systems and structures to ensure the inclusion of all learners, particularly those with special educational needs; to promote learner-friendly school environments for enhancing the quality of education for all learners based on the principles of universal design; to promote the development of a well-informed and trained human resource cadre for the quality delivery of inclusive education throughout Ghana; and to ensure the sustainability of inclusive education implementation (Ministry of Education, 2015, pp. 5-9). Due to its relatively high enrollment rates (1,370 per 100,000 residents) and high government spending, that is, 13% of total education spending allocated to tertiary education (Darvas, Gao, Shen, & Bawany, 2017), Ghana's educational system was acknowledged as one of the region's success stories (Darvas et al., 2017). However, there is little to no information available on the representation of students with physical disabilities in higher education in Ghana (Braun & Naami, 2019). In a study by Braun & Naami (2019) conducted in Ghana, students with physical disabilities reported having difficulties accessing buildings on campuses. Access routes to these buildings were further hindered by open gutters and the sloppy nature of the environment within the university premises. Braun and Naami (2019) added that inaccessible buildings and environments have a detrimental impact on the social, emotional, and psychological well-being of students with physical disabilities and eventually result in lower academic performance. Similarly, Ashigbi et al. (2017) found that 55% of access routes on campuses of higher education institutions were very restrictive to students with physical disabilities. Students with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 physical disabilities also grapple with financial setbacks that affect their access to higher education institutions in Ghana (Naami, 2015). Conversely, some students with physical disabilities excel despite these challenges. A study by Sachs and Schreuer (2011) compared academic success as measured by grade point average (GPA) and participation in higher education of 170 students with physical disabilities and 156 students without disabilities across the Republic of Israel. Students with physical disabilities had similar experiences concerning social, athletics, and academics. Again, the authors found that in terms of academics, as in grade point averages, students with physical disabilities performed similarly to their counterparts without disabilities. Similarly, Sparks, Javorsky, and Philips (2004) found that 68 college students with ADHD at a medium-sized university were academically competitive with their peer group without disabilities and graduated with grade point averages similar to those of typical graduates of the same university. Within five years, all 68 students, with and without disabilities, graduated from the university. Additionally, students with physical disabilities’ personal characteristics, such as understanding their disability, how it impacts their academic performance (self-awareness), and knowledge of how to request accommodations (self-advocacy), have been linked to several outcomes in higher education, including achievement, persistence, and satisfaction (Belch, 2004; Daly Cano, Vacarro & Newman, 2015; Lombardi et al., 2011; Terras, Leggio & Phillips, 2015; Yssel et al., 2016). Given that students with disabilities from other countries, such as Israel and the United States of America, have similar grade point averages as their counterparts without disabilities (Sparks, Javorsky, & Philips, 2004; Sachs & Schreuer, 2011), as well as factors that improved their academic learning (Belch, 2004; Daly Cano, Vacarro & Newman, 2015; Lombardi, Gerdes & Murray, 2011; Terras, Leggio & Phillips, 2015; Yssel et al., 2016), there is virtually nothing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 regarding factors that could enhance the academic learning and participation of students with physical disabilities in Ghanaian higher education institutions. Additionally, deducing from the few studies performed in Ghana (Braun & Naami, 2019; Ashigbi et al., 2017) placed much emphasis on the physical and environmental barriers encountered by students with physical disabilities (SPDs). Students with physical disabilities could also experience other barriers, such as attitudinal barriers, communication and information barriers, in higher education institutions in Ghana. It is therefore imperative to explore the experiences of students with physical disabilities in higher education in Ghana. 1.1 Problem Statement Many countries around the world continue to experience challenges in achieving universal access to education for students with physical disabilities despite international frameworks such as Education for All, Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities and the Dakar Framework for Action in the African region calling for equitable and accessible higher education for all including students with physical disabilities. Although there is a general improvement in educational accessibility, the education of students with physical disabilities is marred with challenges. The report on 74 countries, including Ghana, by the World Report on Disability (World Health Organization, 2011), which adopted the World Health Survey Data for comparative analysis, found that study participants with disabilities have substantially lower rates of primary level completion and a lower number of years spent in school than their counterparts without disabilities. According to the report, these poor educational outcomes for students with physical disabilities emanate from challenges that have to do with divided ministerial responsibility concerning the education of students with disabilities, inadequate resources, inadequate training and support for teachers, rigid curriculum, and teaching methods. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 This shows that there are still challenges that could hamper access to higher education for students in general including those with physical disabilities. The situation is not different from Ghana. Even though the Persons with Disabilities Act, of 2006 (Act 715), the Inclusive Education Policy in 2015, the Ghana National Disability Policy (2000), and the 1992 Constitution of Ghana specify that students with physical disabilities should not be disadvantaged in any educational institution. The provisions of these policies appear to be well-defined, however, educational institutions, including higher education may lack the resources and facilities to operationalise these policies to facilitate the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. Furthermore, there seem to be barriers in the application process, admission procedures, school environment, information access, and curriculum that could affect the participation of students with physical disabilities in higher education. The literature on the education of students with physical disabilities is limited in Ghana, with a focus primarily on mobility disabilities and the challenges these students face in relation to built environments (Ashigbi et al., 2017; Braun & Naami, 2019). Research conducted by Tudzi, Bugri, and Danso (2020) highlighted the inaccessibility of the university’s built environment for students with mobility disabilities. The study indicated that due to a lack of data on disabled students, examination officers were unaware of the specific needs of these students, leading to a failure to provide necessary accommodations. Further research by Ashigbi et al. (2017) quantitatively demonstrated that the university’s built environment posed various degrees and types of barriers to students with mobility impairments. The authors disclosed that 55% of the access routes at the study site were restrictive for disabled students. The study also revealed a disregard for universal design principles in the university’s built environment. In a similar vein, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Braun and Naami (2019), using a photovoice methodology, unveiled the challenges faced by physically disabled students in accessing campus buildings. The accessibility of these buildings was further impeded by open gutters and the sloping nature of the university premises. While previous studies (Tudzi et al, 2020; Ashigbi et al, 2017; Braun & Naami, 2019) concentrated on a single university and students with mobility disabilities, conducting research across two universities could yield diverse information, enriching the research findings. This study bridges this gap by comparing the experiences of students with physical disabilities at two universities. Moreover, broadening the research scope to include students with other physical disabilities, such as visual and hearing impairments, could help us understand students with diverse forms of disabilities in higher education. While these studies focused primarily on physical accessibility issues, they overlooked other potential challenges that students with physical disabilities could face. Students may struggle with having access to information, communication, and technological tools designed to assist students academically. Also, there remains a notable gap in the literature regarding the factors that contribute to the academic success of students with physical disabilities who make it to institutions of higher education, especially in the context of Ghana. Additionally, students with physical disabilities could face negative attitudes from their peers without disabilities and the broader university community. Therefore, this study sought to explore the experiences of students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana (UG) and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) using qualitative research methods. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 1.2 Research Objectives 1. To investigate the challenges students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology face. 2. To determine what fosters academic learning among students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 3. To ascertain the needs of students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 1.3 Research Questions 1. What are the challenges that students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology face? 2. What fosters academic learning among students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology? 3. What are the needs of students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology? 1.4 Significance of the Study 1.4.1 Policy The study provides information to the Ministry of Education’s section on tertiary education in its policy formulation to enhance the academic learning of students with physical disabilities in higher education. The special education unit of the Ghana education service can use the findings and recommendations of this study to provide the necessary resources to assist students with physical disabilities in their quest to pursue higher education at various levels. The study University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 findings and recommendations could be useful to the office of students with special needs at the University of Ghana in providing services that are tailored to meet the needs of students with disabilities as needed by its mandate. Additionally, the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology could also use the findings of this study to provide comprehensive services and resource centres that cater to the needs of students with disabilities. 1.4.2 Social Work Practice It would help social workers and disability support workers develop appropriate interventions to boost the factors that foster academic learning for students with physical disabilities. With the issues confronting students with disabilities unearthed, social workers working in both government and nongovernmental agencies can step up in their advocacy efforts so that the challenges raised in this study can be addressed. Social workers could also enhance the motivating factors to help students with disabilities improve their academic learning and performance in higher education institutions. 1.4.3 Research This study would serve as a frame of reference for future research on persons with disabilities and the field of disability studies. It will also serve as a source of information for other scholars to read about disability in Ghana. 1.5 Definition of Terms For a better understanding of the study, some key concepts must be defined and operationalized. Persons with disabilities: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 According to the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF), disability connotes an umbrella term for impairments, activity limitations, and participation restrictions. Disability refers to the negative aspects of the interaction between individuals with a health condition (such as cerebral palsy, Down syndrome or depression), and personal and environmental factors (such as negative attitudes, inaccessible transportation and public buildings, and limited social supports)” in this case, persons with mobility impairment such as those using wheelchairs, crutches, etc., as well as those with sensory impairment such as visual impairment (ICF 2001 cited in WHO 2011, p.7). For this study, students with physical disabilities included those with visual impairment, students with mobility impairment, and students with hearing impairment. Hence, disability is operationalized in this study as students who have impaired functioning regarding movement, seeing (either total or partial) and hearing. In this study, the built environment refers to the buildings and structures on the campuses of higher education institutions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE 2.0 Introduction This section focuses on discussing and synthesizing literature about the experiences of students with physical disabilities in higher education institutions. The literature review discussed the challenges affecting students with physical disabilities in higher education and factors that foster academic learning among students with physical disabilities in higher education as well as exploring the needs of students with physical disabilities in higher education. Again, the review also discussed the theoretical frameworks that underpin the study and their relevance to the study. 2.1 Challenges of Students with Physical Disabilities in Higher Education Students with physical disabilities may be confronted with a myriad of obstacles as they access and participate in the acquisition of knowledge in higher education institutions. These hindrances come in the form of inaccessible physical environments, attitudinal barriers, inaccessible curricula, and information and communication barriers. 2.1.1 Inaccessible Physical Environment Difficulties that exist in the environment of higher education institutions pose a major threat to service access by students with physical disabilities. In a systematic review survey comparing the accessibility of structures and services between students with disabilities and those without disabilities in the United Kingdom, Madriaga et al. (2010) revealed that students with mobility University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 disabilities complained of having a severe challenge in using built structures in universities. This indicates that students with physical disabilities suffer many hurdles in regard to physical access and participation in higher education institutions. Similar to the study conducted by Madriaga and colleagues, Engelbrecht and de Beer (2014) in a mixed method study to determine access constraints of students with physical disabilities in South African higher education institutions, it was revealed that 40% of the architectural environment was inaccessible to students with physical disabilities, which rendered them incapable of obtaining services that were supposed to aid them in their studies. In another study by Emong and Eron (2016) in Uganda, it was found that students with physical disabilities have challenges accessing library facilities, lecture halls, and halls of residence due to the steep nature of the staircase as well as ramps that were meant to provide restriction-free access to some building facilities on campus. Emong and Eron (2016) went further to assert that as a result of challenges with the built environment in Ugandan higher education institutions, students with physical disabilities end up missing and losing interest in their classes, thereby affecting their academic learning. According to a study conducted in Ghana by Tudzi et al. (2017) that used a mixed method approach with 53 students across six universities, 80% of students with physical disabilities attested that the built environment on the campuses of the universities was very restrictive. The study also revealed that students with physical disabilities had difficulties accessing transportation on campus, especially those with mobility impairment. Additionally, obstruction in access routes and entrances to buildings were estimated to be 55% (Ashigbi et al., 2017). Furthermore, in detailing the assessment of the built environment in a university in Ghana using a quantitative methodology to measure adherence to the codes of the universal design, Ashigbi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 et al. (2017) posits that many entrances of structures on the campus of the university, such as libraries, sanitary facilities, and lecture halls, were very restrictive to students with physical disabilities. A similar study conducted in Ghana by Braun and Naami (2019) found that students with physical disabilities find it difficult to access the physical environment in the course of their studies. These physical environments were marred with staircases, open gutters, and narrow access doors, they said, not only prevent access to teaching and learning materials but also have an emotional and psychological impact that eventually affect their grade point average. In addition to the physical structures, the terrains of university compounds were a major challenge that hampers physical accessibility on campuses of higher education institutions. In Tanzania, a study by Kabuta (2014) using both qualitative and quantitative research methods revealed that institutions of higher learning selected for the study had undulating terrains, which made it difficult for students with physical disabilities to have access to services and move around campus. The surroundings of the universities both inside and outside were flooded with open gutters, dunes and debris from rocks and building blocks, making it extremely difficult for students with physical disabilities to move around campus without assistance from other people (Kabuta, 2014; Tudzi et al., 2017; 2020). These unsafe environments can bring additional financial constraints to students with physical disabilities, especially those who use wheelchairs and crutches, as they constantly have to change their tire and crutch pads. Additionally, overcrowded classrooms in some institutions of higher education, especially in African universities, also hinder access to students with physical disabilities. In his study of the inclusion of students with physical disabilities in higher education in Zimbabwe, Chataika (2010) found that students with physical disabilities also encounter barriers that have to do with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 overcrowded classrooms and lack of specially reserved seats for students with disabilities, inadequate standing space and very poor acoustics. Chataika (2010) continues to argue that as a result of overcrowding in lecture halls, students with physical disabilities who happen to come late will have to sit at the back, and they find it difficult to hear from lecturers. Chataika’s (2010) findings can be attributed to the fact that there are few universities in most African countries that have contributed to a large number of students in the classrooms. In a divergent view, Venter, Rickert, and Maunder (2012) assert that there are numerous barriers that disabled students must overcome to attend colleges in South Africa, such as the lack of wheelchair accessibility in the country's public transportation networks. The majority of developing nations, according to the authors, are working to establish specialized environmental access for persons with disabilities rather than general access, which makes travelling to and from institutions challenging. On the other hand, in Spain, Morina and Morgado (2018) found that students with hearing impairments complained of nonaudible announcements at the various bus stops in public transport, which makes it difficult to locate their destination. The authors pointed out that in the event students with disabilities were driving their cars, they encountered difficulties with parking spaces, as the spaces left for the persons with disabilities were often occupied by other people in the school. In conclusion, the environment, as seen in built infrastructure and terrains in higher education institutions, has become a major hurdle for students with physical disabilities to grapple with every day of their life during the period they stay in school. These physical barriers, as evident in the studies above, could also be the plight of the students with physical disabilities at the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, hence the need for the current research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 2.1.2 Attitudinal Barriers Students with physical disabilities are prone to experience negative attitudes from their peers without disabilities as well as faculty and disability support workers. Attitudinal barriers in the form of discrimination, prejudice and labelling from lecturers, disability support workers and students without disabilities have been a constant threat to the participation of students with physical disabilities in higher education institutions (Chikwature, Oyedele & Ntini, 2016; Jenjekwa, Rutoro & Runyowa, 2013; Liasidou, 2014). According to a qualitative research study conducted by Majoko (2018) in Zimbabwe, faculty members' perceptions and patronizing behavior hindered the participation of students with physical disabilities in higher education. Majoko further points out that lecturers’ inability to meet the needs of students with physical disabilities undermines the participation of students with disabilities in the teaching and learning process. These findings may be due to the inadequate training given to lecturers on disability pedagogy and the educational requirements of individuals with disabilities. A similar study conducted in the Czech Republic by Strnadová, Hájková & Květoňová (2015), with an overarching aim of exploring students’ experiences regarding barriers to access to education at the tertiary level using a semi-structured interview, revealed that students with physical disabilities encounter challenges due to faculty members’ lack of understanding and lack of inclusive practices. The authors posit that some lecturers refused to allow students with physical disabilities to audiotape them while teaching. This assertion by Strnadová et al. (2015) was confirmed by Macleod and Cebula (2009) and Madriaga (2007), who opined that participation in higher education by students with physical disabilities is compounded by disablist practices and attitudes by higher education institution staff. In contrast, Madriaga (2007) asserts that students with physical disabilities were not aware of the people who have University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 the responsibility of attending to their needs as well as their information regarding support facilities and entitlement or rights that were due to them. This study suggests that students with physical disabilities always live in oblivion of the resources that will make their lives better on the campuses where they find themselves. Students with physical disabilities also suffer discrimination and exclusion from their peers without disabilities, which is evident in their daily interactions on campus, in lecture halls, in halls of residence and in general gatherings (Musenga & Chireshe, 2012). Students with physical disabilities, for example, those with hearing impairment, experience moments of subtle social exclusion in the events that their peers become unaware of their presence. In South Africa, Swart and Greyling (2011) assert that the lack of awareness, lack of understanding of disabilities and consistent negligence of the presence of students with hearing impairments by students without disabilities creates feelings of social exclusion for students with hearing impairments. The findings of Swart and Greyling (2011) are in tandem with Croft and Morley (2011), who assert that students with disabilities are socially isolated and that their presence is not felt during social gatherings. For Nel, Rankoana, Govender & Mothibi (2015), these experiences of concurrent hypervisibility and invisibility leave students with disabilities feeling misunderstood by their counterparts without disabilities as well as their lecturers. This implies that students with physical disabilities experience ghost shadowing, as no one turns to notice them during social gathering activities on the campus of higher education institutions. Students with physical disabilities experience labelling and name tagging from their peers without disabilities, which affects their self-worth and self-esteem (Tremblay, Harris, Berman, MacQuarrie, Hutchinson, Smith, Braley, Jelley & Dearlove, 2008; Troaino, 2003; Moswela & Mukhopadhyay, 2011). The lives of people with disabilities are significantly impacted by the negative attitudes of their peers. The individual's sense of self, social University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 and cognitive growth, academic achievement, and general psychological wellness may all be significantly impacted (Idrees & Ilyas, 2012). To ensure that students who have physical disabilities are treated fairly and without any form of discrimination, colleges must play a critical role. In conclusion, the attitudes of students without disabilities and faculty members, including disability support workers, add up to the difficulties students with physical disabilities encounter as they engage in interactions on campuses of higher education institutions. These behaviors can demean the self-esteem of students with physical disabilities, and of course, they could be the situation of Ghanaian higher institutions, which needs to be investigated. 2.1.3 Inaccessible Curriculum, Information and Communication Barriers Inaccessible information consists of curriculum and policies that are not suited to the needs of students with physical disabilities, a lack of information about disability support services from the onset of application and admission and difficulties when communicating with people, especially students with hearing impairments. According to Habulezi and Phasha (2012), modifications should be made to the classroom's physical layout and teaching methods, specifically concerning those who have disabilities in higher education institutions. Additionally, access should entail employing a communication medium that is appropriate and available to all students to promote individual engagement with teaching materials. The challenges surrounding how social institutions generate fantastic and equitable chances for everyone to profit take centre stage inside the access discourses. Skrtic (1991) contends that students’ disability is an organizational pathology resulting from the inherent structural and cultural characteristics of traditional school organizations. It is neither a human pathology nor an objective differentiation. (p. 169). With regard to Skrtic's (1991) justification, the institutions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 that house disabled students are to be blamed for their marginalization. Although it may seem excessive, providing minority groups and students with disabilities access to school is fundamentally an endeavour to change institutions so that they can promote and accommodate human diversity. However, studies from the UK, Turkey, and Canada reveal that obstacles frequently prevent institutions from carrying out this task. According to Vickerman and Blundell (2010), the UK has robust policies, but these regulations are not supported by enough staff training outlining educators' duties to ensure that education at higher education institutions is accessible. Although some students continue to conceal their disabilities to prevent harassment, institutions are rewarded for creating equality plans, and funding is linked to the participation of students with disabilities (Riddell & Weedon, 2014). The implementation of well-known policies and laws supporting the right to education for students with disabilities at all levels exists in nations such as the United States of America (USA), but it is still a challenge. That is, it has been determined that there is a shortage of assistance for students with impairments at the level of policy implementation. Furthermore, as reported by Gelbar et al. (2015), students with disabilities continue to face barriers such as inaccessible buildings, rigid curricula, and negative attitudes of staff and lecturers who lack knowledge of disability issues and allow only minor accommodations, limiting access to education for students with disabilities (Murray, Wren, & Keys, 2008). Similarly, in Turkey, the requirements of disabled students are overlooked (Arslan-Ari & Inan, 2010), owing to a lack of resources and the location of disability units inside authority departments that do not deal with disability concerns. Services for students with impairments suffer as a result of the lack of a separate budget. Based on Mullins and Preyde's (2013) study in Canada, despite the country's rules requiring higher education institutions to remove physical University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 obstacles and enable access, structural hurdles remain an impediment to curricular access. As noted by Sachs and Schreuer (2011), some institutions prioritize academic and physical accessibility at the expense of students' social participation and support. There are grounds to suspect that the integration of students with impairments in higher education institutions is frequently mismanaged. As these authors point out, there is clearly a gap between what policies indicate and what happens, and the challenges to inclusion and accommodation are not only practical but also social. The curriculum is an important element in regard to the participation and success of students with physical disabilities; however, this is not always the case. The curriculum employed in higher education institutions fails to meet the needs of students with physical disabilities. In a study by Morina, Cortes and Melero (2014), participants complained about the bulkiness of the syllabus used in the university, as the syllabus that was due to being completed in a year was compressed into a four- or five-month period of completion. This rendered students with physical disabilities incapable of completing their courses as needed by the higher education institution (Morina et al., 2014). The finding of this study could be likened to the current social reality as evident in the reduction of the duration of the normal period of university education due to the outbreak of the coronavirus disease in 2019. Students with physical disabilities experience poor academic performance as a result of not having access to course materials on time. Students with physical disabilities' access to course materials is delayed due to transcription at the resource centres and as a result of the uncertainty of course instructors about the types of reading materials that will be used in the teaching and learning process (Bollard, 2009; Pozo & Monero, 2009; Pozo & Perez, 2009). Morina et al. (2014) found that students with physical disabilities complained of inflexible tutorial times as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 well as rigid assessments and examinations that were not favourable to students with physical disabilities. They assert that students with physical disabilities often receive the same time duration during tests and examinations as their counterparts without disabilities. This is evident in the study of Hopkins (2011), who found that there were no adaptation modules for students with disabilities during examinations. In a similar study, Vickerman and Blundell (2009) reveal that teaching and assessment were not tailored to meet the individualized needs of students with disabilities because tutors felt it would be an unfair advantage to other students without disabilities. Vickerman and Blundell argue that students with physical disabilities were reluctant to disclose their disabilities to higher education institutions due to fear of not being placed on the course of their choice. The findings of Vickerman and Blundell (2009) show the insensitivity of higher educational institutions to the plight of students with disabilities. Additionally, students with physical disabilities experience information barriers at the onset of the application process and within higher education institutions. In the United Kingdom, students with disabilities lamented the lack of adequate information provided to students during the application process (Wray, 2011). According to Wray (2011), participants with disabilities reported that they found it difficult to obtain information on campus, which obstructed their ability to participate in the activities that go on campus. In summary, challenges and difficulties emanating from inaccessible curricula and information and communication add up to the daily hurdles students with physical disabilities have to go through before completing their higher education. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 2.2 Factors that Foster Academic Learning Among Students with Disabilities Despite the plethora of challenges that students with physical disabilities go through in their bid to access and participate in higher education, some still manage to excel and make headway in their chosen fields of study. There are many contributing factors that enhance the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. These factors are evident in their personal characteristics, institutional factors and demographic characteristics. 2.2.1 Personal Characteristics Personal characteristics are the inherent skills and capabilities, including self-efficacy, self- motivation and self-determination, that students with physical disabilities employ to enhance their academic learning. Students with physical disabilities employ several means and techniques to manoeuvre the academic ladder. According to a study conducted by Dinther, Dochy & Segers (2011), student self-efficacy was a major driving force behind the heightened academic performance of students with physical disabilities. Self-efficacy has been defined as the belief in one’s abilities to perform a given course of action to achieve an expected end (Bandura, 1997). When students with physical disabilities believe in their self-worth and capabilities, it overrides the difficulty that their specific impairments present in the course of performing a given task, in this case, the task of learning and participating in higher education. Similarly, belief in one’s capabilities affects students with physical disabilities’ performance and learning behaviour in certain aspects of their life, such as the task they choose, their exertion, perseverance and performance (Schunk, 1995; 2003). Moreover, student factors evident in their behaviors and academic characteristics have been earmarked to change students’ success in higher education. That is, academic engagement, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 which is usually defined as a student's ability to participate and interact with faculty members and colleagues in social and educational activities as an integral part of university programming, has a strong correlation between students with disabilities and success (Kuh, Kinzie, Buckley, Bridges & Hayek, 2006; Strayhorn, 2012). In their study looking at the experiences of college students with disabilities and the importance of self-determination in higher education settings, Getzel and Thoma (2008) reveal important themes and activities related to self-advocacy germane to college students with disabilities, which include the ability to seek appropriate disability support services, forming a formidable relationship with faculty and lecturers, developing an on-campus support system and being aware and understanding of their own needs as students with disabilities. Self-advocacy and the age of students with disabilities in higher education have also been closely linked to high academic performance (Getzel & Thoma, 2008). Similarly, determination to succeed in academic endeavours is a factor that helps foster academic learning and participation in higher education by students with physical disabilities. Researchers have accepted the fact that self-determination is a major instrument in regard to higher education success for students with physical disabilities (Bae, 2007; Cobb, Lehmann, Newman-Gonchar & Alwell, 2009). Self-determination, as defined by Field, Martin, Miller, Ward & Wehmeyer (1998), is “a combination of skills, knowledge, and beliefs that enable a person to engage in goal-directed, self-regulated, autonomous behaviour” (p.115). These characteristics enable students with physical disabilities to forge forward in their academic pursuits in the face of difficulties. In a synthesis of the literature on self-determination and academic success for students with physical disabilities, Ju, Weng & Landmark (2017) found that self-determination and self-advocacy were important determinants for students with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 physical disabilities to excel in their academic endeavours in higher education. They argued that students with physical disabilities develop diverse self-determination skills, including problem-solving skills, self-awareness, goal setting, self-management and self-advocacy. Additionally, these self-determination skills employed by students with physical disabilities are used in areas such as self-knowledge to help students understand their disabilities and needs for accommodations, advocacy for academic accommodations and disability services, self- regulation in academic studies, and perseverance and resilience in academic learning (Getzel & Thoma, 2006, 2008; Hadley, 2006; Skinner, 2004; Thoma & Getzel, 2005; Ju et al., 2017). Multiple outcomes in higher education have been connected to students' understanding of their disability, how it affects their academic learning and performance (self-awareness), and knowledge of how to obtain adjustments (self-advocacy), including performance, persistence, and satisfaction (Belch, 2004; Daly Cano et al., 2015; Lombardi et al., 2011; Terras et al., 2015; Yssel Pak & Beilke, 2016). In contrast, self-motivation has been proven to be a driving force behind successful academic learning for students with disabilities. According to a study conducted by Dryer et al. (2016) in Australia using a quantitative method and a sample size of 83, it was revealed that there was a strong correlation between self-motivation and the quality of life and academic achievement of students with physical disabilities. The study also found that students with physical disabilities who have poor social relationships happen to obtain higher grade point averages at the end of their assessment years. The findings of Dryer et al. (2016) seem to suggest that students with physical disabilities invested more time in their studies and neglected their social relationships, which were able to help them focus on their academic endeavours. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 In conclusion, for students with disabilities to enhance their academic learning and succeed in their academic aspirations, they must learn to employ these personal skills to overcome the challenges presented by their impairment as well as the environment. The personal characteristics involving self-efficacy, self-determination and self-motivation could also be a strength that persons with physical disabilities possess in Ghanaian higher education institutions and therefore warrant an exploration into these coping strengths. 2.2.2 Demographic Characteristics Demographic characteristics of students with physical disabilities include their gender, type of disability, family background and income. The demographic characteristics of students with physical disabilities influence their ability to excel and improve their learning. Students arriving at college with a collection of demographic factors and prior experiences form "inputs", such as disability, income, and gender status, which influence their academic learning and engagement, according to Astin's (1977, 1993) model of student involvement. Students’ characteristics, such as gender, socioeconomic status and type of disability, speak volumes about the extent to which students with physical disabilities learn and succeed in higher education institutions (Kim & Kutscher, 2020). The socioeconomic status of students with physical disabilities has been indicated to influence academic learning and participation in higher education. Empirical evidence shows that students with disabilities whose families, parents or guardians have higher income can complete their higher education programmes and do well in terms of academic performance, learning and participation in academic activities (Rojewski et al., 2013). In contrast, students with disabilities who come from lower socioeconomic backgrounds are more likely to have experienced financial constraints that affect their academic learning and their participation in college University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 (Lombardi et al., 2012) and reduce the rate at which they graduate from college (Thompson- Ebanks, 2014). Students with physical disabilities attending inclusive education institutions at the secondary school level stand a better chance of excelling in their academic learning at higher education. According to Bolt et al. (2011), early success in obtaining accommodations for students with reading and writing difficulties in high school may boost their confidence in seeking comparable help in college, which may be reflected in their participation and academic learning in higher education. In conclusion, the demographic characteristics of students with disabilities play a major role in determining their success in higher education. Demographic characteristics such as socioeconomic status and prior inclusive education experience are gaps that are non-existent in the Ghanaian literature and require further exploration to enhance the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education. 2.2.3 Institutional Factors Academic learning and participation of students with disabilities are influenced by support factors in higher education institutions, as is evident in the role of faculty members, institutional facilities and institutional administrators. Encouragement from faculty members about the high academic expectations of students with physical disabilities increases their participation and learning levels (Kim & Kutscher, 2020). Another study by Lau (2003) to suggest roles that faculty members could play to improve the academic success, learning, and retention of college students with disabilities recommended diverse roles that faculty members can play to help students with disabilities do well in their chosen fields of study. These roles include employment of computer-based teaching methods University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 to make teaching and learning interesting and fun, adopting a more practical way of teaching and learning that inculcates practical activities that are germane to students’ future careers and encouraging cooperative learning where students with physical disabilities learn from their peers without disabilities, engage with students in academic advising and subsequent follow- up sessions in the semester. These roles could enhance the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. Institutional facilities have been recognized as a contributing factor in the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. In Pakistan, Kamal et al. (2014) found that school facilities were positively associated with the academic performance of students with disabilities. Teaching and learning materials in accessible digital platforms contribute significantly to the learning and participation of students with physical disabilities. They offer a supplementary platform for learning. For example, Garcia et al. (2009) opine that the introduction of learning management systems (LMSs) enhances the learning of students with physical disabilities in and out of university premises to select their pathway to learn through a course. They can share their perspectives and ideas through tools provided on these platforms, such as chat rooms, emails, forums and discussion groups (Garcia et al., 2009). Distraction ally reduced testing, alternative format examinations, and assignment and test date flexibility were all significant predictors of academic learning, participation and graduation among students with disabilities who received university-based accommodations (O’Neil, Markward & French, 2012). In summary, accessible university facilities are the first step in promoting higher education for students with disabilities. If these facilities can meet the individual needs of students with disabilities, the gap between the performance of students with disabilities and their counterparts without disabilities could significantly close. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.3 Support and Needs of Students with Physical Disabilities To improve the experiences of students with disabilities, their specific needs must be met. These needs could range from accessible environment, information, curriculum, assistive technology, etc. These needs are both the responsibility of the higher education institutions and the faculty involved with the students with physical disabilities. According to a quantitative study by Wessel et al. (2009), prior information should be provided to students with physical disabilities even before admission. This information according to the authors should be about the disability support offices and their services to students with disabilities, personnel who will be responsible for attending to students’ needs and the type of accommodations available for students with physical disabilities. In another study, Tagayana et al. (2005) posit that assistive technology, education instructional support, career assessment and placement are needed to ensure students' success. This will enable students with physical disabilities to have a stress-free educational experience similar to their counterparts without disabilities. Additionally, disability support guidelines could be consulted by higher education institutions to enhance teaching and learning for students with disabilities. For example, international guidelines such as Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) and Instructional Management Systems (IMS Global) could be adopted to provide accessible text, images and multimedia resources for students with disabilities (IMS Global Consortium, 2020). Another guideline that is worthy of emulation by higher education institutions is universal design. Universal design has been defined as a method of designing products, architecture, goods and services that are accessible and usable by all people, including students with physical disabilities (Ostroff, 2011). These guidelines, if adhered to by the authorities and management University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 of higher education, can be a step in the right direction to enhance higher education opportunities for students with physical disabilities. To conclude, knowing the needs of students with disabilities in higher education helps university authorities best serve them, so they can participate in the acquisition of knowledge without much hindrance. The absence of knowledge of the needs of students with disabilities in their Ghanaian context requires more research to ascertain the needs of students with disabilities, hence the need for this current study. 2.4 Theoretical Perspective The study at hand is rooted in the framework of critical disability theory (CDT), which serves as its theoretical foundation. CDT is chosen for its ability to elucidate the root causes of barriers faced by individuals with disabilities while proposing innovative approaches to dismantle these obstacles. An essential aspect of CDT is its recognition of the diversity within the disabled community, which is pivotal for the integration and advancement of individuals with disabilities. CDT, as advocated by Hoskings (2008), calls for a comprehensive transformation of society's social structure to facilitate the full participation of individuals with disabilities. This perspective also emphasizes the importance of inclusive policies and empowering students with physical disabilities. Furthermore, CDT champions equal access for individuals with disabilities across various facets of social life, encompassing transportation, housing, economic entitlements, health, and education. Consequently, this theoretical framework enabled the researcher to gain a deeper understanding of the challenges encountered by students with physical disabilities and formulate appropriate recommendations to mitigate these issues. Critical Disability Theory finds its origins in Max Horkheimer's work from 1937, particularly in his essay titled 'Traditional and Critical Theory,' as highlighted by Hosking (2008). This University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 theory emerges as a response to the dominance of the medical model of disability explanation during the early 19th century, subsequently supplanted by the social model of disability. CDT critically evaluates and challenges existing disability discourses and stereotypes that perpetuate disadvantages for individuals with disabilities and infringe upon their human rights, as noted by Gillies (2014). CDT posits that disability is fundamentally a matter of politics and power rather than a mere issue of medicine or compassion. It seeks to counter ableism and rectify the injustices arising from the denial of economic and social opportunities to individuals with disabilities, advocating for their rights to be renegotiated (Rioux & Prince, 2002). Furthermore, CDT emphasizes the importance of fair access to all aspects of social life, including transportation, housing, economic entitlements, health, education, and employment. It moves beyond the individual pathology perspective inherent in the medical model and transcends liberalism, embracing the social model of disability (Oliver & Barnes, 1993). In the Critical Disability Theory framework, disability is defined as the intricate interplay between an individual's disability, their response to it, and how they are treated by others, among other factors (Hosking, 2008). Therefore, proponents of CDT hold the existing social realities accountable for their failures and call upon individuals responsible for effecting change (Bohman, 2005; Baffoe, 2013). According to Hosking (2008), there are seven basic tenets of critical disability theory. They include multidimensionality, social model of disability, voices of disability, language, rights, valuing diversity and transformative politics. For the present study, all seven tenets were applicable for the study: multidimensionality, social model of disability, voices of disability, language, rights, valuing diversity and transformative politics. All seven tenets are applicable because they provide a concrete understanding of the phenomenon under study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 2.4.1 Multidimensionality The experiences of persons with disabilities are shaped by different factors. According to Hosking (2008), multidimensionality is attributed to the work of Kimberle Crenshaw in 1989 on intersectionality. According to Kimberle’s work, intersectionality aims at demystifying the relationship that exists between gender and race and how it impacts black women (Carastathis, 2014; Dutta 2015 cited in Bekoe, 2018). Hosking explains intersectionality to mean that there is an interrelationship between educational level, gender, employment status, ethnic group and sexual orientation and how all these factors contribute to inequality and social injustices and shape the experiences of people, which include persons with disabilities. Multidimensionality, therefore, uncovers the different factors that intersect to influence the experiences of students with disabilities. Hence, it helps to understand the different intersecting factors that impact the experiences of students with physical disabilities in higher education institutions. This implies that many intersecting factors affect the academic learning of students with physical disabilities in higher education. For this study, the intersecting factors that could influence the experiences of students with physical disabilities may include the school environment, institutional facilities, peers, and tutors. 2.4.2 Social Model of Disability This tenet posits that disability is not located in the impairment of the individual with the disability but rather is located in the barriers that are present in the environment (Sztobryn- Giercuszkiewicz, 2017). Therefore, the negative social effect experienced by people with disabilities is caused by the physical and institutional environment as well as the attitudes in this environment towards persons with disabilities who are not able to live up to the expectations of normalcy (Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz, 2017). Thus, people's negative cultural University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 patterns, attitudes, and assumptions are examples of attitudinal barriers, while inaccessible buildings, transportation, and insufficient assistive devices are examples of environmental barriers that prevent persons with disabilities from participating (Barnes & Mercer, 2005). This implies that the experiences of students with disabilities in higher education, whether positive or negative, could be a result of institutional provisions or negligence. This element of critical disability provided insight into institutional and environmental factors that could affect the academic learning of students with physical disabilities in higher education. For this study, negative attitudes from peers were evident. 2.4.3 Voices of Disability Hosking argues that persons with disabilities' voices are distorted and silenced because they contradict "mainstream" conceptions of disability and their capacity and relevance. According to him, nondisabled individuals only hear what they want to hear from persons with disabilities and what is consistent with their perception of disability. As a result, the views of persons with disabilities about what best suits their needs are not taken into consideration during the decision- making processes. Critical disability theory gives voice to persons with disabilities. Thus, when the nondisabled give ear to the voices of persons with disabilities, it can better help to meet their needs. Therefore, this tenet could help provide the opportunity for students with physical disabilities at higher education institutions to voice out what best promotes their academic learning. 2.4.4 Language This tenet posits that the concept of disability and the status of persons with disabilities are heavily influenced by language. According to Hosking (2008), language consists of words and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 images that are used to describe disability. These words and images directly impact how people view disabilities and interact with them (Baffoe, 2013). The words used to describe persons with disabilities are also embedded in culture and perpetuated in the mass media, giving negative connotations about persons with disabilities (Hosking, 2008). This implies that words and definitions used to describe students with disabilities in academic discourses as well as within the higher education environment either from faculty or students without disabilities can affect the performance of persons with disabilities in higher education institutions. Hence, it helps to understand how the language used to portray persons with disabilities could either upwardly or downwardly impact the academic learning of students with physical disabilities. For this study, participants encountered name calling such as ‘yarefuo’. 2.4.5 Rights Rights are an important instrument needed to ensure that persons with disabilities receive equal treatment and are also given opportunities that will enhance their full participation in society (Hosking, 2008). Hence, critical disability theory views the rights-based approach as an essential tool for promoting people with disabilities’ equality statements and encouraging their full incorporation into society in all respects while also bringing the importance of diversity into society (Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz, 2017). Persons with disabilities are entitled to education, and higher education institutions need to provide the necessary resources for the realization of this right. The element of right helps in uncovering some of the resources available for students with physical disabilities at higher education institutions, which will enable them to exercise their full right to education. The resources available in Ghanaian higher institutions could be libraries, internet access, and assistive technology. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 2.4.6 Valuing Diversity The value of diversity talks about the fact that society with all its institutions cannot do away with differences, and it is an inevitable characteristic that cannot be visible all at once (Imle, 2016). Thus, persons with disabilities are unique individuals with different characteristics, such as the visually impaired and the hearing impaired, which have different needs and require different resources to meet their goals. They also have unique skills, abilities and contributions that require attention to help them contribute their quota to their communities. According to Hosking (2008), when these differences are not considered, it leads to the neglect and marginalization of the particular group with such characteristics. This implies that there are different calibres of students with disabilities pursuing higher education, and their unique characteristics must be taken into consideration when making decisions. This tenet helps our understanding of individual experiences of the higher education environment and how it impacts their academic learning. 2.4.7 Transformative Politics The idea of transformative politics emanates from the Frankfurt school of thought, which posits that change in the economic, political and social structure of society will lead to the liberation of humanity (Sztobryn-Giercuszkiewicz, 2017). This change should be able to bring about empowerment as well as equality. Critical disability theory argues that welfare programmes and policies should move away from the paternalistic and inflexible nature (Hosking, 2008) and adopt an all-inclusive method of policy formulation and implementation (Sztobryn- Giercuszkiewicz, 2017). This suggests that the plight of persons with disabilities should be considered whenever decisions are made. This tenet helps to understand how policies, laws and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 regulations impact the academic performance of students with physical disabilities. An example of these policies could include the Persons with Disabilities Act (2006) Act 715. 2.4.8 Relevance of Critical Disability Theory to the Study. Critical Disability Theory (CDT) helps researchers understand the different facets that contribute to the challenges and factors that foster the academic learning of students with physical disabilities in higher education. Additionally, CDT provided an in-depth understanding of language (words and images) used to describe students with physical disabilities in the academic discourse, its environment and how it affects academic learning and contributes to the challenges of students with physical disabilities. In other words, the CDT gave a clear explanation of how words and images in daily discourses and prints are used to label students with physical disabilities. Moreover, CDT was also useful in understanding how the rights of persons with disabilities as spelt out in the UNCRPD and the Ghana Disability Act (Act 715) can improve academic learning and eliminate the challenges experienced by students with physical disabilities in higher education. Additionally, the theory was helpful in understanding how institutional and environmental factors in higher education contribute to academic learning and the challenges of students with physical disabilities. The CDT helped to understand the diverse population of students with physical disabilities, their different challenges, and the necessary resources needed to meet their individual needs. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter focuses on the research methods employed in the study. It discusses the research approach and design, study area, target and study populations, sampling techniques, methods of data collection and data analysis. It also provides information on ethical considerations and how ethical approval was obtained as well as measures that were put in place to ensure the credibility of the study. 3.1 Research Approach and Design A qualitative research approach was used for this study. This approach was used because it helped to explore and understand meanings and definitions individuals and groups associate with their environments, including social problems (Cresswell, 2014). This approach was used to enable the researcher to understand and make meaning of the experiences of students with physical disabilities in their quest for higher education in Ghana. Furthermore, a phenomenological qualitative research design was adopted for the study. According to Creswell (2014), phenomenology design helps to describe the lived experiences of individuals or groups about a particular social phenomenon. Additionally, phenomenological design deepens the understanding of the meaning of the daily experiences of people (Patton, 2002). In this regard, Patton (2002) opines that phenomenological design enabled the researcher to have an in-depth understanding of the day-to-day experiences of individuals who experience phenomenology. Therefore, to shed light on and pinpoint the distinctive experiences of students with physical University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 disabilities in higher education from their viewpoints, the phenomenological technique was adopted. 3.2 Study Sites The study was conducted in two selected public universities in Ghana. These universities were the University of Ghana (UG) and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) situated in the Ashanti and the Greater Accra regions of Ghana, respectively. These institutions were chosen because one (UG) has a special unit that provides services to students with disabilities and the other (KNUST) does not have a special unit for students with disabilities. Thus, the researcher chose these two institutions because he believes that students could report different experiences due to the presence or absence of disability support services in the selected institutions. Additionally, both institutions have different environments that could impact the experiences of students with physical disabilities in unique ways. Ultimately, the study sought to compare the experiences of students with physical disabilities at two study sites: the University of Ghana and the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. 3.2.1 The University of Ghana The University of Ghana was the first university established in the country by an ordinance in 1948. The university operates in the collegiate system with four colleges. These colleges include the College of Basic and Applied Sciences, College of Health Sciences, College of Education and College of Humanities. The university has a student population of approximately 53,643 enrolled in Regular, Sandwich and Distance Education programmes (University of Ghana, n.d.). The University is a coeducational institution with an established Office of Students with Special Needs (OSSN). The Office of Students with Special Needs (OSSN) was University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 set up in 2005 to provide support services to students with special needs. Currently, the office caters to students with hearing, visual, and physical disabilities and specific learning difficulties, as well as students with chronic medical conditions such as sickle cell anaemia, mental health disorders and cerebral palsy. The OSSN serves a population of approximately 45 students with special needs (University of Ghana, n.d.). At the time this research was being conducted, the University of Ghana was the only public university that had an office complex to address the concerns of persons with disabilities pursuing various programs. This necessitated its selection as a study site. 3.2.2 Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology The Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology is a public higher education institution located in the Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana (KNUST, n.d.). It was accredited by the Ghana National Accreditation Board in 1951. The University is stationed approximately on a sixteen-square-kilometre campus of undulating land, approximately seven kilometres away from the central business district of Kumasi (KNUST, n.d.). The university operates six collegiate systems, namely, the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, College of Health Sciences, College of Humanities and Social Sciences, College of Art and Built Environment, College of Engineering and College of Science. Currently, the university has a population of approximately 64,187 students pursuing varied undergraduate and postgraduate programs (KNUST, n.d.). The university houses the Centre for Disability and Rehabilitation Studies and a hospital that provides health services to students, staff and the general public (Owusu-Ansah, Agyei-Baffour & Edusei, 2012). Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology was chosen because it was yet to organize services for students with disabilities and data on students with disabilities (Owusu-Ansah et al., 2012). Currently, the university University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 admits students with mobility impairments, students with visual impairments and students with hearing impairments. The present population of students with disabilities is 29. Although there were other universities without offices for students with special needs, the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology was chosen because of convenience and proximity, as the researcher had some family members close to the school to provide accommodation for the researcher. 3.3 Target Population and Study Population The target population for this study was students with disabilities in universities. The study population was students with physical disabilities (visual impairment, mobility impairment and hearing impairment) who were pursuing their undergraduate and graduate studies at any of the selected higher education institutions (the University of Ghana and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology) who had stayed in the school for at least one year. This was because the researcher believes that staying in a school for a minimum of one year was enough for the students to discuss any experiences, they had with regard to participating in higher education. The researcher opted for undergraduate and graduate students with disabilities because they are the category of students regularly admitted by both universities. Additionally, undergraduate and graduate students were chosen to compare their experiences. 3.4 Sampling Techniques and Selection Criteria A purposive sampling technique was employed for the study. The purposive sampling technique is the selection of research participants based on desired traits or characteristics determined by the researcher (Kumar, 2011). According to Kumar (2011), purposive sampling aids the researcher in sampling participants who have in-depth information or understanding of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 the topic under study and meet some characteristics that were determined by the researcher. Purposive sampling was adopted because the researcher selected participants based on a predetermined characteristic that was useful to the study. The participants were selected to be part of the study if they met the following criteria: 1. The student must be a person with a physical disability (i.e., visual impairment and mobility and hearing impairment). 2. The student must be pursuing undergraduate or graduate studies. The researcher opted for undergraduate or graduate students because they are the ones the university regularly admits. 3. The student must be enrolled in the school for at least one year. Students were excluded from the study if they had other forms of disabilities other than physical disabilities as defined by this study, if they had stayed in school for less than a year, or if the student was not willing to participate in the study. 3.5 Recruitment Process The researcher conducted a reconnaissance study in December 2020 to familiarize himself with Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. The researcher visited the academic affairs directorate and spoke to them about his intent and the purpose of his visit. He was told to submit an introductory letter from the Department of Social Work and Ethics Committee and a copy of his data collection instruments to the office of the dean of students. Subsequently, in the early part of May 2021, the researcher submitted the needed documentation to the office of the dean of students’ affairs for review and approval. The researcher received approval from the office of the dean of students’ affairs in mid-July 2021 and was directed to meet the person University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 who is in charge of the affairs of students with disabilities. The researcher then obtained a list of students with disabilities and their contacts. The researcher then called the students to ask them whether they would be willing to participate in the study and to create rapport. Some of the students responded positively, while others did not. Fortunately, for the researcher, he received the number of participants needed for the study. At the time the researcher contacted the students, they were already on vacation and therefore necessitated the need for the interviews to be conducted via te