University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA DESTINATION SELECTION DETERMINANTS AND REVISIT INTENTIONS: THE ROLE OF SATISFACTION AND SOCIO- DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS BY EMMANUEL NII-AYI SOLOMON (10450122) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL MARKETING DEGREE JULY, 2019 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I do hereby declare that this work is the result of my own research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this or any other University. All references used in the work have been fully acknowledged. I do bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. ……………………………………………….. ……………................ EMMANUEL NII-AYI SOLOMON DATE (10450144) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION We hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University. ……………………………………… ……………………. DR. STEPHEN MAHAMA BRAIMAH DATE (SUPERVISOR) ………………………………………… ……………………. PROFESSOR ROBERT E. HINSON DATE (CO-SUPERVISOR) ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to Almighty God. I am so much grateful to Him for seeing me through this academic journey. To my family especially my beloved mother who made a great investment in my life by contributing to my education, may God grant you long life. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere and greatest gratitude goes to God Almighty for the protection and wisdom given to me to complete this thesis successfully. Special thanks go to Dr. Stephen Mahama Braimah (Principal Supervisor) for his mentorship, constructive criticisms, directions and guidance in carrying out this research. To you, Professor Robert E. Hinson (Co-Supervisor), I am sincerely grateful for all the help and advice in shaping this work. Additionally, I am grateful to all the lecturers who taught me during this period of my MPhil Programme at the most precious business school (University of Ghana Business School). I will also like to appreciate Michael Nana Amoakoh whose analytical skills helped me in analyzing my data. May God richly bless you. To my beloved mother, thank you for always believing in me and my hefty dreams. I love you, Mummy. My sincere appreciation also goes to Pastor Osei Bonsu of ICGC Christ Temple and his wife for all the help and encouragement. To Mr. Bruce Tagoe, I want to say a big Thank you for being the father I never had. Your godly counsel and advice are what has brought me this far. I am very grateful for everything. Special thanks also go to all my MPhil. colleagues, especially Gidard Awini and Vida Owusua Zumanu, with whom I shared academic thoughts and discussions. Life in UG would have been more challenging without you. To all those who directly or indirectly helped me to complete this program successfully, God richly bless you all for your diverse support, encouragement, and prayers iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................ ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 1.0 Chapter Overview ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Background of the Study ............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...................................................................................................... 4 1.3 Purpose of the Study .................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objective of the Study ................................................................................................. 7 1.5 Research Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................ 8 1.7 Chapter Disposition ..................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 11 CONTEXT OF THE STUDY ............................................................................................. 11 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 11 2.1 Background of Ghana ................................................................................................ 11 2.1.1 Location .............................................................................................................. 12 2.1.2 Land .................................................................................................................... 13 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.3 Climate ................................................................................................................ 13 2.1.4 Topography ......................................................................................................... 13 2.1.5 Vegetation ........................................................................................................... 14 2.1.6 Resources ............................................................................................................ 14 2.1.7 Political History of Ghana – Past, Present & Future .......................................... 14 2.2 Ghana’s Tourism Industry ......................................................................................... 16 2.3 Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) .............................................................................. 18 2.3.1 Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) ...................................................................... 18 2.3.2 Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF) ............................................................. 18 2.3.3 Tour Operators Union of Ghana (TOUGHA)..................................................... 19 2.3.4 Tour Guides Association of Ghana (TORGAG) ................................................ 19 2.3.5 Ghana Hotels Association (GHA) ...................................................................... 19 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 21 LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK ................................... 21 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 21 3.1 Travel Motivation ...................................................................................................... 21 3.2 Tourist Destination .................................................................................................... 24 3.3 Destination Selection Determinants & Revisit Intentions ......................................... 28 3.4 The Role of Satisfaction on Revisit Intentions .......................................................... 30 3.5 The Travel Destination Determinants & Socio-Demographic Factors ..................... 32 3.6 The Use of Social Networks in Destination Selection .............................................. 34 3.7 Conceptual Framework ............................................................................................. 39 3.7.1 Novelty Seeking .................................................................................................. 40 3.7.2 Cultural Experience ............................................................................................ 41 3.7.3 Ego Enhancement ............................................................................................... 41 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7.4 Escape ................................................................................................................. 42 3.7.5 Rest & Relaxation ............................................................................................... 42 3.7.6 Education/Learning ............................................................................................. 42 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 44 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................ 44 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 44 4.1 Research Paradigm .................................................................................................... 44 4.2 Research Design ........................................................................................................ 45 4.3 Research Approach .................................................................................................... 47 4.3.1 Qualitative Research ........................................................................................... 48 4.3.2 Quantitative Research ......................................................................................... 48 4.3.3 Mixed Method..................................................................................................... 49 4.3.4 Justification for Quantitative Research Approach Choice .................................. 50 4.4 Research Strategy ...................................................................................................... 50 4.4.1 Experiment .......................................................................................................... 51 4.4.2 Survey ................................................................................................................. 51 4.4.3 Case study ........................................................................................................ 51 4.4.4 Action research ................................................................................................... 52 4.4.5 Grounded theory ................................................................................................. 52 4.4.6 Ethnography ........................................................................................................ 53 4.4.7 Archival research ................................................................................................ 53 4.4.8 Justification for Survey Research Strategy Choice............................................. 53 4.5 Study Population ....................................................................................................... 54 4.6 Sample Frame of Study ............................................................................................. 54 4.7 Sample Size of the Study ........................................................................................... 55 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Research Sampling Technique .................................................................................. 56 4.8.1 Probability sampling ........................................................................................... 56 4.8.2 Non-Probability Sampling .................................................................................. 56 4.8.3 Justification of non-probability Sampling Technique choice ............................. 56 4.9 Data Collection .......................................................................................................... 57 4.9.1 Types of Data ...................................................................................................... 57 4.9.2 Data collection instrument .................................................................................. 58 4.9.3 Pilot test of questionnaires .................................................................................. 58 4.9.4 Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................ 59 4.10 Mode of Data Analysis ........................................................................................ 59 4.10.1 Factor Analysis ................................................................................................. 60 4.10.2 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) ............................................................... 61 4.10.3 Testing Model Fitness ....................................................................................... 61 4.11 Quality Criteria ........................................................................................................ 63 4.11.1 Reliability.......................................................................................................... 63 4.11.2 Validity ............................................................................................................. 64 4.12 Ethical Consideration ........................................................................................... 65 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 67 DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ................................................. 67 5.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 67 5.1 Data Screening and Treatment of Missing Data........................................................ 67 5.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents ........................................................................ 68 5.3 Descriptive Statistics and Tests of Normality ........................................................... 70 5.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis ...................................................................................... 73 5.4.1 Varimax Rotation and Reliability of the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) ... 73 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 Data Purification ........................................................................................................ 74 5.5.1 Profile of respondents for the confirmatory factor analysis ............................... 74 5.6 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) ........................................................................ 76 5.6.1 Measurement Models .......................................................................................... 77 5.6.2 Validity and Reliability of Final Measurement model ....................................... 78 5.7 Measurements Model for Final SEM ........................................................................ 82 5.8 Structural Equation Model ........................................................................................ 83 5.8.1 Analysis of Hypothesized Relationship .............................................................. 85 5.8.2 Testing for Mediation Effect............................................................................... 87 5.9 Test of Moderation .................................................................................................... 89 5.10 Discussion of Results .............................................................................................. 92 5.10.1 Establish the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions ........................................................................................................... 93 5.10.2 The mediating roles of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. .......................................................................................................... 93 5.10.3 The influence of social demographic factors on destination selection determinants. ................................................................................................................ 94 CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................... 96 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................................... 96 6.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 96 6.1 Study Summary ......................................................................................................... 96 6.2 Summary of Major Study Findings ........................................................................... 97 6.3 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 99 6.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 100 6.5 Implication for theory .............................................................................................. 101 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.6 Limitations of the study and future research direction ............................................ 102 REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 103 APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE ..................................................................................... 130 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 5.1: Demographic Profile of Respondent .................................................................. 69 Table 5.2: Descriptive Statistics and Test of Normality of Variables................................. 72 Table 5.3: KMO and Bartlett's Test .................................................................................... 73 Table 5.4: Demographic profile of Respondents ................................................................ 75 Table 5.5: Improvement in Fit of Measurement Research Model ...................................... 78 Table 5.6: Validity and Reliability results for CFA Final Measurement Model ................ 79 Table 5.7: Correlation Matrix ............................................................................................. 80 Table 5.8: Measurement Model Fit Indices ........................................................................ 81 Table 5.9 Model Fit Indices for Individual Constructs ....................................................... 83 Table 5.10: Proposed Model Fit Indices ............................................................................. 85 Table 5.11: Hypothesized Relationship .............................................................................. 86 Table 5.12: Mediation effect ............................................................................................... 88 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Framework on tourists’ motivations and revisit intentions. Source: Adapted from Yoon and Uysal (2005) ............................................................................ 40 Figure 5.1: Final Measurement Model ................................................................................ 80 Figure 5.2: Measurement Model for Final SEM ................................................................. 82 Figure 5.3: Proposed Model ................................................................................................ 84 Figure 5.4 Hypotheses Testing ............................................................................................ 87 Figure 5.5: Post-Study Conceptual framework for Mediation ............................................ 89 Figure 5.6: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin on Destination Selection Determinants (DSD) & Revisit Intentions (RI). ............................................... 91 Figure 5.7: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin (COO) on Education (EDU) & Revisit Intentions (RI). ...................................................................................... 91 Figure 5.8: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin (COO) on Ego Enhancement (EE) & Revisit Intentions (RI). ......................................................................... 92 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Understanding what influences a tourist’s choice of a tourism destination has received much attention in academic literature in recent times. Against this background, the purpose of the study is to ascertain the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions in the Ghanaian context. The study further assessed the impact of tourist’s satisfaction and socio-demographic variables (Country of Origin) on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. A quantitative approach was adopted for the study and a structured questionnaire was used to gather data from 284 respondents. Tourist sites for the study were purposively selected to gather data from international leisure tourists. The sample was selected using convenience sampling approach. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), AMOS version 20 was used to analyze the data. The findings of the study revealed that there is a significant and positive relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. However, the disintegration of the constructs of the destination selection determinants into individual components revealed that education/ learning and ego enhancement are a major predictor of tourist revisit intentions. The findings of the study also revealed that country of origin as a socio-demographic variable strengthens the positive relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The findings of the study also revealed that Education/Learning achieved full mediation effect with satisfaction to influence destination selection determinants on revisit intentions. The study concluded that tourism brings people with different cultural and geopolitical landscape to enjoy a destination offering. When tourists are fulfilled with the travel experience, they will return to the destination or recommend it to others. The study had a geographical limitation as it only focused on some tourist sites in the Greater Accra, Central and Ashanti Regions of Ghana; hence future research could expand the scope of the study to cover other geographical areas or perhaps the entire country. The study also focused only on country of origin as a moderator among the various demographic factors. Future study could measure how other socio-demographic characteristics affect the destination selection determinants and tourists revisit intentions. xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Chapter Overview An overview of the study is discussed in this chapter. It presents the concept of travel motivation highlighting the determinants of tourists visit to a destination and what influences their revisit intentions. Furthermore, the research gaps that this research seeks to address, are stated in this chapter of the thesis. The chapter also outlines the research objectives and hypothesis, research purpose, significance of the study, scope of the study and chapter disposition. 1.1 Background of the Study Globally, the hospitality industry can be described as one of the most vibrant economic generators (Habibi, et.al 2008) making the industry the fastest growing economic institution over the last six decades (Fourie & Santana-Gallego, 2013). It can be argued that tourism development can take place in any form. A typical development situation considers the tourism product as it grows from infancy to maturity (Kotler et al., 2003). New destinations, therefore, appear on the tourist market and many perpetual annuities for mature destinations are heading for a fall or at least to having to resize their force (Manente & Cerato 2000) to attract the right kind of tourists to itself. Tourists’ intention to visit a destination is particularly seen as a push factor for the behavior they exhibit at the destination and for tourism marketing (see Dann 1977). According to Erbes (1973), developing countries see tourism development at a destination as a means of providing for all their foreign settlement difficulties. It is argued that many African countries have embraced the travel and tourism sector as a panacea to generate foreign income, expand their export frontiers, generate employment and improve economic 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh growth and development (Fourie & Santana-Gallego, 2013). The tourism industry in Ghana, compared to other developing countries is strategizing towards the attainment of national development and economic recovery (Fredholm, 2015). Ghana is strongly believed to be one of several Sub-Saharan African countries that have positioned tourism to be part of government policy and the industry has received a lot of support for economic expansion both at the regional, national, and international levels (Amissah, 2013). Tourism development in Ghana since 1989, has been at the center stage of government’s policy framework including the 15-year National Tourism Development plan among others. According to Amissah (2013), this move by the government has resulted in the country attracting large volumes of business travelers. Ghana is endowed with several tour sites some of which include pristine beaches, rich traditional culture, heritage sites and national Parks (GTA, 1999). The travel and tourism industry over the years has emerged as a strong financial indicator for the development of the Ghanaian economy. This claim is supported by the World Tourism Organization (2016) as it indicated that, in 2013 for example, the direct involvement of tourism to the economy of Ghana was GH₡2.6 billion (US$721.5 million) equivalent to 3% of the GDP. As per the statistics, 55% was accounted for domestic travel. The main contribution of the industry to GDP that year reached 7.2% or GH₡6.3 billion (US$1.7 billion). The industry provided 311,000 jobs, translating into 5.8% of total employment (WTO, 2014). There was a steady growth in the sector at an annual average rate of 4.5% up until the year 2024 (Amissah 2013). According to UNWTO (2009), tourism has contributed immensely to the global leisure activity. In 2015 for example, international tourists globally were 1,184 (UNWTO, 2016), and global tourism earnings have surpassed $1,100bn in recent years [World Tourism 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Organization (UNWTO), 2014, 2015]. According to the World Tourism Organization (2016), the influx of tourists globally will reach 1.6 billion trips, which is estimated to produce approximately US$2 trillion in foreign tourism earnings. People across the globe daily interact with destinations. These interactions may include first-time visitors to a destination, while others may have visited the same destination many times (Dayour and Adongo, 2015). Tourists arrival at a destination presents those put in charge of managing the destination an opportunity of providing travel services that cater to the needs of tourists (Blain et al., 2005), and to a large extent facilitate an experience that may result in the tourists returning and promoting the destination aggressively to friends or family. Tourism is considered as a multipart experiential good (Bieger, 2002) that is closely connected to tourist expectations which are activated by individuals’ motivations to visit a destination (see Dann 1981). According to Hall (2000), destinations are a “well-defined geographical areas, such as a country, an island, city or a town”. Buhalis (1999), posits that tourists’ destination is a perceptual concept, which may be viewed instinctively by tourists, as per their tour itinerary, cultural experience, educational background, motivation for embarking on the journey and past experience. London can be classified as a tourism destination for a business traveler from Germany for example, whilst a Japanese who can blend different themes to travel across six European countries may consider Europe as an ideal travel destination for two weeks tour program. There are certain sections of travelers that will consider a cruise ship to be their ideal place to visit, while others on the same cruise may perceive the ports visited during the trip as their destination. There is, therefore, the need for destination marketers to carefully ascertain the needs of tourists to make them competitive. According to Buhalis and Cooper (1998), tourists overall experience at a destination consists of amalgam of services such as taxi service, hoteliers, tour operators, bartenders, as well as 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the local tour sites such as museums, waterfalls, theatres, beaches, theme parks, and so forth that are put together with the aim of meeting the needs of tourists. The overall impression created by tourists after visiting, helps them to craft an image about the destination. This has therefore created an overlapping situation between the deliberate promotion of the destination and the distinct actors in the region. Destination Management Organizations (DMOs) play a key role in this regard as they become part of government decision making machinery as well as provide financial strength to the benefit of all stakeholders at the destination (Buhalis, 1999). Management of destinations and its promotion can be employed as a tactical tool in achieving the destinations objectives of stakeholder engagement and fulfillment of the needs of tourists. This research work seeks to explore destination selection determinants and revisit intentions by assessing the mediating and moderating roles of satisfaction and socio-demographic factors. The research seeks to understand the individual factors that compel or motivates an individual to choose a tourist’s destination to visit. Are there key attractions or facilities that the destination possesses that acts as a compelling force in “pulling” visitors to itself? Marketing research is used expansively by destination promotors to help identify the types of tourists the destination can attract (active demand), as well as potential visitors (suppressed demand) who do not have the interest to embark on tourists’ activities for several of reasons (Athiyaman, 1997). Identifying the right kind of tourists to a destination and meeting their needs with the most suitable tourism product and services is key for the success of a destination (Fyall, 2011). 1.2 Problem Statement Tourism destinations today are plagued with challenging issues emanating from the taste and preferences of patrons of the destination and the environment (Prideaux, 2000). It is argued that tourism destinations that identify the fluctuations in the tourism marketspace 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and act on them, will continue to thrive and produce positive results in the future (Soteriades, 2012). Tourists that visit a destination on the hand hope to have an unforgettable, unique and superior experience which is largely viewed as very relevant in the strategic goal of tourism expansion and development, particularly in the area of destination attractiveness and sustainability (Perovic et al., 2018). Arguably, Ghana can be considered as one of the most competitive tourist destinations in the West Africa sub-region that appeals to an appreciable number of tourists (Ghana Tourism Authority [GTA], 2009). Ghana as a destination has a drawing power due to the immeasurable natural to ecological, cultural and heritage attractions it possesses (GTA, 2013). It is therefore argued that, tourism research to provide information on the destination’s competitiveness concerning tourist’s preference, types of resources, where there is a tourism potential, and there exists no meaningful tourism potential is lacking (Awaritefe 2007). In research conducted by Lim (1997), over 70 studies were reviewed on the demand for tourism globally, none of which centered completely on African countries. So far, studies on tourism demand have centered on the impact of the exchange rate and revenue generated from tourist activities rather on tourist’s arrival to a destination and the determinants that stimulate their choice of a destination (Naude & Saayman, 2005). Destination marketing literature indicates that there is no generally accepted agreement on what influences tourist’s destination choice (Littrell et al., 2004). Johann et al. (2016) conducted research that found the desire to see new things, get away from repetitive activities, exploring tour sites and experience the culture of the destination, closing a stage of life, rest and relaxation, comfort and pampering, touring eco-friendly sites and challenging and motivating oneself were some tourist’s motivation to travel and the choice 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of a destination. These findings confirm the study of Jang et al. (2009) that indicated tourists’ motivation for traveling may include novelty seeing, boosting of self-worth, ego enhancement, socialization and rest and relaxation. According to Lim (1997), factors that explain tourists’ arrivals include the income generated by the country of origin, price variances, cost of travel (including travel insurance, visas, flights, etc.), differentials in the exchange rate, destinations competitiveness, and cost of marketing the destination. Literature, therefore, appears to be rife with regards to destination selection determinants and revisit intentions (Perovic et. al., 2018). However, tourism literature seems to be silent on the mediating role of satisfaction between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions (Lam et al., 2004). Studies in tourism destination marketing have centered more on the relationship between satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Fournier & Mick, 1999; Mittal & Kamakura, 2001), rather than mediating the role of satisfaction between tourism destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. Furthermore, many travels demand studies have focused largely on measuring the variety-seeking behavior of tourists and what motivates consumers in looking for different travel options or purchases (Kahn, 1995), rather than the role of satisfaction on their revisit intention (Barroso et al., 2007; Berne ´ et al., 2005; Niininen et al., 2004). Tourism studies on destination selection have focused largely on understanding the relationship between attitude towards a place or the perceived image about the place, and choice of the place as the ideal travel destination (Rajaratnam et. al.,2015; Yoon and Uysal 2005; Bozic et. al., 2017). However, the findings in these researches were restricted to preference and did not extend to whether sociodemographic factors played a role in choosing that destination. Building on this theoretical foundation, there is no critically accepted determinants that measure what drives tourist arrivals. Again, previous studies did not consider social demography factors in measuring why tourists visit a destination. These 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh issues to some extent have remained undiscussed by researches, hence constitute a knowledge gap that requires research to add knowledge to the issues relating to Ghana and by extension West Africa. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The study seeks to ascertain the key determinants of tourist’s visit to a destination. Precisely, the study seeks to understand what informs or would motivate a tourist choice of destination by interviewing international leisure tourists in some selected tours sites in Ghana. The aim is to help destination marketers to better position the destination and its offering; thereby making it more appealing to visit and to attract the right kind of tourists to itself. 1.4 Objective of the Study Identifying the significance of the issue, this thesis seeks to examine the following objectives: i. To establish the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. ii. To assess the mediating roles of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions iii. To determine the influence of social demographic factors on destination selection determinants. 1.5 Research Hypotheses H1: There is a significant and positive effect of destination selection determinants on revisit intentions. H2. Satisfaction mediates the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh H3. Education/Learning & Ego Enhancement manifested as major predictors of tourists visit to the destination with Education/Learning fully mediating between the destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. H4a. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between the determinants and revisit intentions. H4b. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between education/learning and revisit intentions. H4c. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between Ego Enhancement and revisit intentions. It is imperative that an improved understanding of these determinants, by which means they relate with each other would assist management, policymakers, and practitioners to fashion out appropriate strategies in attracting the right tourists and ensuring that their needs are met. This will help tour operators, for example, to design customized tour itineraries that specifically speak to the needs of tourists. 1.6 Significance of the Study Interestingly, the study is significant in the area of providing scholarly contributions to the foregoing destination marketing concepts. Thus, the study will adopt Dann’s (1977) Push and Pull Motivation Theory in examining traveler motivation and what informs their choice of a destination and revisit intentions. The study ought to provide new information on the key issues in marketing a competitive destination and what attracts tourists to a destination. The study, however, contributes to conceptual and empirical literature discussions on tourist destination motivation and tourism destination marketing. The study sought to provide direction to marketing practitioners specifically, tourism destination marketers on the key determinants of tourists' visits to a destination. The study 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh further provides an understanding of the role played by socio-demographic factors in tourists choosing a destination. 1.7 Chapter Disposition The thesis will be grouped into six chapters. The introduction and research background, literature review and conceptual framework, context of the study, research methodology, data analysis and findings and finally, summary, conclusions and recommendations. These are briefly explained below: Chapter One – Introduction and Background to the Study. This is the first chapter of the study and therefore presents the introduction and background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions, significance of the study, methodology, scope of the study and the chapter disposition. Chapter Two – Literature Review and Conceptual Framework Chapter two of this study presents a review of extant literature, which provides an understanding of existing thought in the area of study as well as providing an understanding of the issues and identifying the existing research gaps Chapter Three – Context of the Study This chapter focuses on the issues relating to the travel and tourism industry in Ghana. It describes the industry stakeholders and their role with indications of key developments. Chapter Four – Research Methodology This chapter discusses the research methodology of the study. This chapter also highlights the research approach, design, sample size, sources of data, data collection procedures and data analysis approach. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chapter Five – Data Analysis and Discussion The fifth chapter explains the major findings of this research using thematic analysis of the data collected through the questionnaire that were sent out. Chapter Six – Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations This is the concluding chapter of this study and reports on the previous chapters providing a summary of the study, major findings and conclusions, recommendations for managerial adoption as well as providing a basis for future academic study in the area. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO CONTEXT OF THE STUDY 2.0 Introduction This section defines the boundaries of the study by establishing its context. The contextual chapter provides information on the background of Ghana, the political and economic history of Ghana, Ghana Tourism Industry, Ghana Tourism Authority among others. 2.1 Background of Ghana The Gold Coast now Ghana made history in 1957 when it became the first country in sub- Saharan Africa to be liberated from the British dominance, and has since espoused a decentralized planning system influenced by British Colonial model. (Fredholm, 2015). Out of the union of the British colony and the Togoland Trust Territory, Ghana was formed (CIA, 2014). The name Ghana was derived from the medieval Ghana Empire, which translates "Warrior King" (Jackson, 2001). Ghana is named after the ancient Ghana Empire located in West Africa. The empire’s original name was Wagadugu, Ghana, therefore, was a title for the king who ruled the kingdom. It is believed to have been governed by Sundiata in 1240 AD and constituted into the larger Mali Empire (Touringghana.com, 2019). After Ghana gain her freedom from British rule in 1957 up to the beginning of the 1960s, it is noted that the economy depended largely on mining and agriculture (Frimpong-Ansah, 1991; Osei et al., 1993). According to Bani (2003), the economy was on the edge of breakdown by the mid-1960s. It took the timely intervention of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund to save the situation by using various structural adjustment programes. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Provisional GDP estimates for 2017 from the Ghana Statistical Service indicated that there was a growth rate of 8.5% compared to 3.7% in 2016. According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2018), the tourism industry gained the highest growth rate of 16.7%, closely followed by Agriculture (8.4%) and the Services (4.3%) sectors. The Statistical Service noted that the service industry remains a major contributor to the sector. It decreased in the share of GDP from 56.8% in 2016 to 56.2% in 2017. However, there was a decrease in the sectors growth from 5.7% in 2016 to 4.3% in 2017. Information and Communication and Health and Social Work were the two subsectors that recorded growth rates with double digits of 13.2% and 14.4% respectively. In 2017, mining and quarrying emerged as the subsector with the highest growth of 46.7%. In recent times, there has been an increase in the administrative regions of the country from ten (10) to sixteen (16) as a result of a successful presentation of the Constitutional Instruments (C I) on the creation of the six new regions. The newly created 16 regions are Oti, Bono East, Ahafo, Bono, North East, Savannah, Western North, Western, Volta, Greater Accra, Eastern, Ashanti, Central, Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions. Tourism has been embraced as a critical instrument for poverty eradication and the creation of employment opportunities. At 12% annual growth rate, the tourism industry has emerged as the fastest-growing sector of the Ghanaian economy and the third-largest foreign exchange earner after gold and remittances from Ghanaians abroad (Ghana National Tourism Document Plan, 2013). 2.1.1 Location The location of Ghana is very unique. The country can be found in western Africa and shares a border with countries such as Cote d’Ivoire, Togo, Burkina Faso (Saffu et al., 2008). 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.2 Land The total land area of Ghana is 238,537 km2 (92,000 sq. miles) extending 672km north to south and 357 km east to west. The large size of the land in Ghana is been found to be favourable for agriculture with a total area of 13 million hectares representing 57% and 5.3 million hectares representing 39% of this is under cultivation (Profile of Ghana). 2.1.3 Climate The climatic condition in Ghana is tropical with a temperature between 21-32°C (70-90°F). There are two main seasons in Ghana – the rainy season and the dry season. The eastern coastal belt is warm and comparatively dry. The south-west corner, on the other hand, is hot and humid, and the north of Ghana is hot and dry. The annual rainfall in the south averages 2,030 mm, but varies largely throughout the country, with the heaviest rainfall in the southwestern part. Ghana is located on the Gulf of Guinea, only a few degrees north of the Equator, giving it a warm climate (Profile of Ghana). 2.1.4 Topography The coastline of Ghana mostly consists of a low sandy shore that stretches the coastal plain, except in the west, where the forest comes down to the sea. The forest belt extends northward from the western coast about 320 km (200 mi) and eastward for a maximum of about 270 km (170 mi), and it’s broken up into heavily wooded hills and steep ridges. The northern part of Ghana is undulating savanna drained by the Black Volta and White Volta Rivers, which join and flow south to the sea through a narrow gap in the hills. Ghana's highest point is Mount Afadjato at 880 m (2,887 ft) in a range of hills on the eastern border. Apart from the Volta, only the Pra and the Ankobra rivers permanently pierce the sand dunes, most of the other rivers terminating in brackish lagoons. There are no natural harbors. Lake Volta, formed by the impoundment of the Volta behind Akosombo Dam, is the world's largest manmade lake (8,485 sq km/3,276 sq mi) (Ghana Encyclopedia.com). 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.5 Vegetation The vegetation of Ghana is predominantly savannah in the north and the middle section (extending to the southwestern part) is a typical rainforest. The coastal section has a thicket interspersed with savannah (Ghana, 2012). 2.1.6 Resources Rich mineral resources such as gold, diamonds, manganese, limestone, bauxite, iron ore as well as various clays and granite deposits. In 2008, Ghana produced 2,994,610 ounces of gold and 599,007 carats of diamond. Ghana is the second-largest producer of gold in Africa (Ghana, 2012).Extensive forests, which are arguably the best managed in West Africa (with 252 permanent forest reserves in the rain forest zone alone. In total about 11% of Ghana is defined as forest.). Ghana is the second- largest producer of cocoa in the world. It is also the third-largest producer of timber and the second largest exporter of wood and wood products in Africa; Rich marine fishing resources (tuna and game fishing); Beautiful landscape, inviting sunshine, pristine beaches, exotic wildlife and exciting national parks, and game reserves. 2.1.7 Political History of Ghana – Past, Present & Future Favourable economic conditions may create an environment for the success or failure of a political era; but a critical factor determining the success of a particular political regime is leadership (Dartey-Baah, 2015). According to Dartey-Baah (2015), prior to the advent of colonization, Ghana, then Gold Coast, did not have any notable political leader because it was not unified as a single country with one leader. To shed light on this claim, Buah (1998) contends that the region was made up of states and kingdoms, which were independent of each other. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh At the head of each kingdom was the supreme ruler who secured and consolidated his position through hereditary succession, either maternally or paternally; and also through a due consideration by elders of certain traits possessed by the person. For example, Odotei and Awedoba (2006) revealed that the Kasena-Nankana, Kusasi and Bulsa chieftaincy successions are paternally based; and the personality traits that qualified a successor among others were eloquence, charisma, intelligence, courage and physical fitness. As Buah noted, once installed as a king, the ruler assumed the executive, legislative and judicial powers of the kingdom. However, the declaration of the Gold Coast as a colonial administrative unit under the British Empire introduced a system of leadership that was new to the natives. This system of leadership which was constructed based on the western style of governance had very little appreciation of traditional institutions, customs and values, which the people of the Gold Coast were familiar with (Buah, 1998). Since Ghana’s political independence in 1957, reforming the administrative state inherited from the colonial authorities became the country’s major quest for development. Various governments, military or civilian, have made reforms a major priority on their developmental agenda and have, therefore, expended significant resources, both human and financial, in these efforts (Dartey-Baah, 2015). Ghana’s post-independence history has been characterized by long periods of military rule, marked by gross human rights abuses (Abdulai, 2008). With the exception of the first republic under Nkrumah (1960-1966), the interludes of civilian governments under the second (1969-1972) and third (1979-1981) republics have been short-lived, unable to survive for up to three years without coup d’états (Abdulai and Quantson, 2008). In the late 1980s, after nearly one decade of quasi-military rule under the Provisional National Defence Council (PNDC), strong internal and external pressures on the government led to the promulgation of a liberal constitution in 1992; and the reinstatement of multi-party 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh democracy in the same year, thus, ushering Ghana into the Fourth Republic (Kwasi, 2015). Dartey-Baah (2015) further posits that since 1992, Ghana has held five successful multiparty democratic elections. The peaceful transfer of power from the government of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) to the New Patriotic Party (NPP) following national elections in December 2000 clearly demonstrates how far Ghana has travelled towards democratic consolidation over the past decade. Beyond successful elections, Ghana has made appreciable progress in institutionalizing multiparty democratic governance within the framework of the 1992 Constitution. To date, there is considerable evidence of political liberalization, which allows Ghanaians to enjoy a much wider range of rights and liberties, as well as the emergence of a vibrant civil society and a free and independent media that increasingly hold government accountable on behalf of citizens. Indeed, with these significant developments, Ghana’s democratization has been touted as one of the political success stories in Africa (Gyimah- Boadi, 2008; Whitfield and Jones, 2009). 2.2 Ghana’s Tourism Industry Tourism is the world’s largest industry and one of the most dynamic and fastest-growing sectors of the economy of many nations (Saffu et al., 2008). In particular, the critical role of tourism in achieving several of the United Nation’s Millennium Development Goals, such as poverty alleviation and employment creation opportunities has been stressed (United Nations World Tourism Organisation, 2006). Ghana’s tourist’s industry, like that of other developing countries, is largely concerned with attracting and caring for vacation or business traveler. The country generates very little leisure travel because of the generally low levels of disposable incomes (Akyeampong, 2003). Since 1987, the government of Ghana has adopted and implemented measures aimed 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh at making the country an important hub for tourists (Arthur & Mensah, 2006). Under Ghana’s “Vision 2020” tourism was tagged as one of the “growth poles” to propel national economic growth to high levels. Promotional exercises intensified at national, regional and district levels in support of Ghana’s 15-year Tourism Development Plan. Most promotional activities have taken the form of seminars and lectures and they are designed to alert the private sector and government agencies to identify opportunities and programs that are necessary for the advancement of the tourism industry in Ghana (ISSER, 1998, p. 146). The policy of the tourism sub-sector is to develop Ghana as an internationally competitive tourist destination. The implication is that tourism must be supported by good hotel and restaurant services, telecommunication and efficient transportation system that meet international standards (Arthur & Mensah, 2006). Over the past two decades, Ghana’s tourism sub-sector has taken a giant step in terms of international arrivals, receipts, and expansion in the stock of tourist accommodation. Tourism is seen as a crucial tool for poverty reduction and job creation. At 12 percent annual growth rate, tourism is the fastest-growing sector of the Ghanaian economy and the third- largest foreign exchange earner after gold and remittances from Ghanaians abroad (Ghana National Tourism Development Plan 2013). This is evidenced in the speeches by senior government officials which further underscore the significance of tourism to contribute to national economic development, employment generation, wealth creation and poverty reduction at national and community levels, and environmental conservation on a sustainable basis (World Tourism Organisation, 2007; Daily Graphic (2007). Tourism, therefore, contributes about 5 percent of Ghana’s GDP and has a growth rate of 12 percent annually. According to Ghana Tourists Board (2003), International tourist arrivals in Ghana increased from 85,332 in 1985 to 145,780 in 1990, 285,000 in 1995, and 482,643 in 2002. The corresponding revenues were US$20, 81, 233, 520 million. The focus 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the sub-sector in 2002 was to create 115,223 direct and indirect jobs, increase foreign exchange inflows from US$447.8 million in 2001 to US$519.6 million, and contribute 3.5 per cent to GDP by the end of 2002 (ISSER, 2003, 2004). In order to promote tourism domestically, government policy is geared towards collaborating with the Tour Operators’ Union of Ghana and the Ghana Hoteliers’ Association (ISSER, 2003). According to Ghana’s 15-year Tourism Development Plan, a conceptual marketing strategy must aim at developing and positioning Ghana as a prime African destination with excellent cultural and environmental attractions (Withers, 1995). 2.3 Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) The Ghana Tourism Authority is a regulatory institution of government whose focus is mainly on the travel and tourism industry of Ghana. The Authority regulates travel agencies and ensures that all service providers in the travel and tourism sectors are duly trained and able to provide world-class service to visitors – both domestic and international tourists. 2.3.1 Ghana Immigration Service (GIS) The Ghana Immigration Service has been established the agency of the government of Ghana to advise on and to ensure the effective implementation of all laws and regulations pertaining to immigration and related issues (Ghanaimmigration.org). The Ghana Immigration Service is mandated to regulate and monitor the entry, residence, employment and exit of all foreigners, this also includes Ghanaians. 2.3.2 Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF) The Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF) by law is established to champion the cause of the private sector in Ghana’s tourism industry. Membership of GHATOF, known as the Governing Council, is comprised of the Presidents of the various trade associations engaged either directly or indirectly in the tourism industry and meets regularly to discuss issues 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confronting the tourism industry and to consider possible ways of addressing such issues with the aim of properly positioning the industry (Commonwealth Network, 2019). The vision of the federation is to become the primary advocate for private sector leadership in the development of responsible and sustainable tourism in Ghana. 2.3.3 Tour Operators Union of Ghana (TOUGHA) The Tour Operators Union of Ghana (TOUGHA) is the umbrella body for all Licensed Tour Operators in Ghana. TOUGHA was established in the year 2000 with a total membership of 12,806 members drawn from close to eighty different tourism firms. The primary aim of TOUGHA is to influence tourism legislations and create an enabling environment for growth and development of tourism in the country. It is also aimed at creating the platform for its members to compare notes and share ideas on issues relating to the travel and tourism industry. TOUGHA is currently affiliated to the Ghana Tourism Federation (GHATOF) as well as the International Tourism Federation in addition to other sub-regional Tourism Associations (www.touroperatorsghana.com). 2.3.4 Tour Guides Association of Ghana (TORGAG) The Tour Guides Association of Ghana is an umbrella body under the Ghana Tourism Authority that houses all the tour guides in Ghana. TORGAG has the mandate of exposing Ghana to tourists and to provide accurate and truthful information to tourists. The mission of the association is to impact maximum satisfaction to all tourists and tourism stakeholders by providing essential tourism information and services for the sustainable promotion of tourism in Ghana. 2.3.5 Ghana Hotels Association (GHA) Ghana Hotels Association was formed in 1975 with the mandate of offering accommodation, catering and other tourism services in Ghana. The association is made up 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of Managing Proprietors, Managing Directors or Accredited Representatives of Hotels, Motels and Guest Houses that have been certified and licensed by the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA). Based on GTA categorization, members have facilities that are certified as either budget or one to five stars offering essentials services to both domestic and international tourists. 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE LITERATURE REVIEW AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 3.0 Introduction This chapter reviews the existing literature on tourist’s choice of a tourism destination with a discussion on the main issues put forward by various scholars within the field of tourism destination marketing. It also includes a conceptual framework and an examination of the constructs, which have been used in this study. 3.1 Travel Motivation Travel motivation in academic literature has been a central focus of tourism research, as it is perceived as one of the key ways of understanding travel needs and tourist behavior at a destination (Yoon and Uysal, 2005, Prayag, 2012). Moutinho (2011), defined motivation as an inner state of need or a condition that directs an individual to do particular types of action to achieve a feeling of fulfillment. With regards to tourism, travel motivation essentially attempts to understand why tourists travel to a certain place or destination (Wijaya, Wahyudi, Kusuma, & Sugianto, 2018). It is also the basis for understanding why tourists behave in certain ways, as it reflects the intrinsic needs of each individual. In reality, tourist’s motivation can be very extensive and complicated to study as people travelling might seek to satisfy not only one single need but also several distinct needs simultaneously (Gonzalez and Bello, 2002). For tourism destination marketers, it is important to know what major motivators drive tourists for travelling. Since a paradigm of tourism is always related to human beings and human nature, it is a complex proposition to investigate why people travel and what they want to enjoy (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Research in tourism marketing has identified a wide variety of motivators ranging from the physical characteristics of the desired destination areas such as natural landscape, local 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh people and culture, to psychologically-based motivations like an escape from routine and relaxation (Chiang and Jogaratnam, 2006). A study by Johann et al. (2016) found that Indonesian seniors’ travelers for example motivation to travel include seeing something new, getting away from routine, visiting and experiencing sights and culture, concluding a phase of life, rest and relaxation, comfort and pampering, experiencing landscapes and nature and challenging and stimulating oneself. In tourism research, the travel motivation concept can be classified into two forces, which indicate that people travel because they are pushed and pulled to do so by “some forces” or factors (Dann, 1977, 1981). Uysal and Hagan (1993) posit that these forces describe how individuals are pushed by motivation variables into making travel decisions and they are pulled or attracted by destination offerings. In other words, the push motivations are related to the tourist’s desire, while the pull motivations are associated with the attributes of the destination’s choices (Cha, McCleary, & Uysal, 1995; Crompton, 1979, Dann, 1981). Motivation has, therefore, become the meta-concept that functions as a trigger for travel behavior and determines different aspects of tourist activity, in respect of (i) the reasons for traveling or why, (ii) the specific destination or where, (iii) and the results obtained or overall satisfaction with the trip (Castano, Moreno, Garcia, & Crego, 2003). There are various theories adopted by different researchers to fully comprehend travel motivation (Jang et al., 2009). Maslow’s hierarchical theory of motivation is widely acknowledged as one of the most commonly applied theory to explain tourist motivation to travel. It was modeled as a pyramid consisting of the physiological needs as the most basic need existed at the bottom ladder of the hierarchy, followed by higher levels of the psychological needs and topped by the need for self-actualization (Wijaya et al., 2018). The theory was critiqued because of the prepotency assumption. That is unless lower-level needs are satisfied, the inquiry to satisfy higher-level needs would not exist. Human needs would 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh not necessarily go following the order of the pyramid (Hsu et al., 2007). The seminal work of Iso-Ahola (1980, 1982, 1983) also proposed that seeking (intrinsic rewards) and escaping (free from routine) are two major reasons explaining why people travel or taking leisure activity. The two factors are broken down into four, namely, personal escape, personal seeking, interpersonal escape, and interpersonal seeking. The critique of Iso-Ahola’s is the ignorance of the biological aspect of tourists where some segments, for instance, for the older people, biological factor may become a determinant in shaping an individual motivation to travel (Hsu et al., 2007). An appraisal of the literature on tourist motivations for visiting destinations present a number of common broad factors including novelty seeking (Mansfeld, 1992; Rittichainuwat, 2008; Ooi & Laing, 2010), search for cultural experience (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Amuquandoh, 2011), ego enhancement (MacCannell, 2002; Wheeller, 2007; Wheeller, 1993, 1994; Munt,1994), escape from routine environments (Mak, Wong & Chang, 2009; Niggel & Benson, 2007; Prayag & Ryan, 2010), rest & relaxation (Jonsson & Devonish, 2008; Hsu, Cai & Li, 2010) and education/learning (Park & Yoon, 2009; Dayour, 2013; Yoo, Yoon, & Park, 2018; Grimm & Needham, 2012). This plethora of tourist motivations is tersely captured by Dann (1977) as push-pull factors. Dann’s (1977) push and pull motivation theory is seen as the most widely adopted in many studies examining traveler motivation (Baniya et al., 2017; Prayag, 2012). Push factors are defined as “socio-psychological needs that predispose a person to travel and pull factors are ones that attract the person to a specific destination after push motivation has been initiated” (Jang et al., 2009). Push factors relate to the internal needs and preferences of travelers such as ego-enhancement, self-esteem, knowledge-seeking, relaxation and socialization (Jang and Wu, 2006). On the contrary, pull factors are characteristics pertaining to the visited destination and this may include the level of cleanliness, safety; facilities, event and cost 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and natural and historical sight (Kim et al., 2003). Baloglu and Uysal (1996) argued that push and pull factors are profoundly related to each other, as pull factors could be seen as the stimuli of push factors that strengthen the reason why travelers choose to visit or not to visit a destination. In other words, the push factors give travelers a reason to visit certain destinations, whilst the pull factors describe their selection of destination on certain attributes that are embedded in a destination (Johann et al., 2016). Push and pull factors are fundamental in understanding travel behavior and explaining why people travel which are examined from both the internal and external state of a tourist (Jang et al., 2009). As the nature of this study is exploratory and undertaken within the context of developing country of Ghana with a specific focus on some selected tour sites, Dann’s (1977) push and pull motivation constructs were therefore considered as more relevant than other motivation theories to be used as a basis for accomplishing the empirical work. 3.2 Tourist Destination When people decide to travel, there are confronted with numerous destinations to choose from. According to destination choice-sets models (Crompton,1992; Sirakaya and Woodside, 2005; Um and Crompton, 1990), making a choice on a travel destination is a funnel-like process where tourists narrow down their choices among hundreds of destinations within their awareness set. During the early stages of this destination selection process, tourists will not only eliminate unfavorable destinations but more importantly, will not even consider destinations they are unaware of (Hahm & Severt, 2018). Therefore, it is essential for destinations to be in people’s choice-sets if they want to be considered a potential travel destination. Tourism destinations are often described as fragmented, consisting of companies and other stakeholders with diverse goals and strategies who are responsible for delivering different products and services (Prideaux, 2000). Traditionally, destinations are regarded as a well- 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh defined geographical area, such as a country, an island or a town (Hall, 2000; Davidson & Maitland, 1997). However, it is increasingly recognized that a destination can be a perceptual concept, which can be interpreted subjectively by consumers, depending on their travel itinerary, cultural background, the purpose of visit, educational level and past experience (Buhalis, 2000). While tourists perceive the destination as a unit, offering an integrated experience or a destination product (Buhalis, 2000), this experience or product is still produced and composed by the individual actors. The success of individual actors, as well as the success of the entire destination, is dependent on efficient coordination and integration of individual companies’ resources, products, and services (Beritelli et al., 2007). And this comes through the destination offering a number of elements that allow individuals a choice of activities, and which culminate in experiences to remember to return. According to Kotler et. al., (2003), tourist destinations do not need spectacular attractions such as an Eiffel Tower, Grand Canyon, or Leaning Tower to participate in today’s tourism. The modest city of Ruili in Yunnan, southwest China, has only 60,000 residents but is vying for the title of “Top Tourist City”, a distinction awarded by the China National Tourism Association. Ruili spent 10 million Yuan to improve roads and actively promotes water sprinkling festival, its local jewelry manufacturing, local farms, and tropical scenes. The result was 800,000 foreign visitors each year from Thailand, India, Pakistan, and Myanmar, as well as 850,000 domestic tourists (Kotler et. al., 2003). According to Batchelor (1999), understanding the tourist’s destination is important for any destination marketing plan. Sautter & Leisen (1999) also posits that destinations are some of the most difficult entities to manage and market, due to the complexity of the relationships of local stakeholders. Managing and marketing destinations is also challenging because of the variety of stakeholders involved in the development and production of tourism products. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The destination experience is essentially comprised of regions, resources and amalgams of tourism facilities and services, which often do not belong to individuals (Buhalis, 2000). Instead they represent a collection of both professional and personal interests of all the people who live and work in the area. Due to the complexity of the tourism product, it is imperative, therefore, for Destination Marketing Organizations (DMOs) to use legislative and management tools during planning and management of destinations in order to ensure that the benefits of tourism activity are shared fairly between all stakeholders and that sustainable practices safeguard the regeneration of resources utilized for the production of tourism (Buhalis,1995; Buhalis &Fletcher, 1995; Sautter & Leisen, 1999). In our effort for the destination to enjoy frequent visit, it is essential for destination marketers to ensure that the destination is in the people’s choice-sets if they want to be considered a potential travel destination. If there is a negative image or even no perceived image of a destination, the chances of being visited are highly limited (Hahm & Wang, 2011). Understanding destination types and characteristics is of paramount importance for its marketing. Each destination can only match certain types of demand and hence tourism marketers need to appreciate travel motivations in order to develop appropriate offerings and brand destination for the right target markets (Buhalis, 2000). Destination marketers can then develop a product portfolio, which will enable the optimization of benefits and adapt their marketing mix to their target markets (McKercher, 1995; Tribe, 1997). According to Buhalis (2000) destinations in authentic (often Third World) countries are often off the beaten track. Tourists enjoy authentic experiences in places which have experienced limited tourism development. Emerging destinations in Asia, South America and Africa attract a small number of adventurous tourists who are prepared to forego their comfort in order to interact with local communities and unspoiled surroundings (Sofield, 1991). Although these 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh regions may develop at a later stage to mass tourism destinations, they need to be planned properly in order to sustain their resources. They often lack the required infrastructure to deliver tourism services (Silver, 1993; Hughes, 1995; Sofield, 1991). Due to the increase in competition for tourist’s destination in attracting the right tourists, it is therefore imperative for destination marketers to ensure that they develop quality products and brands value as important factors that can make visiting their destination more attractive (Palmer & Bejou, 1995). Quality and value are concepts that can provide insights on how to rejuvenate products and the way they are viewed by customers (Murphey & Pritchard 1999). Several destination marketing organizations have highlighted quality and value as critical objectives for revitalizing their flagging tourism industries. Northern Ireland for example, recently documented several government initiatives to increase its industry performance and the number of people who visit, by developing a sense of quality in their visitor experiences (O'Neill & McKenna, 1994). A tourist's destination experience, however, is not solely derived from the consumption of various travel services (Cohen, 1979). Indeed, factor analytic work on the international travel experience at tourist’s destination has described how tourists desire particular (novelty-familiarity) experiences from the physical setting of the destination, as well as from the service infrastructure that supports their visit (O'Neill & McKenna, 1994). One particular study (Mo, Howard & Havitz, 1993) showed that the destination's environment was the primary factor (“Destination Orientation Dimension”: e.g. social and cultural features), and the destination's service infrastructure the secondary factor (“Travel Service Dimension”: e.g. transportation, food and lodging services) in an international tourist's experiential desires of the destination product. Smith (1994) supports this assertion of a hierarchy of influential factors by noting that service infrastructure is housed within the larger macro-environment or “physical plant” of 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the destination. Indeed, as Watson and Kopachevsky (1994) have argued, tourist [service] experiences at a destination cannot be properly understood unless we take into account the larger context and setting in which these encounters take place. Consumer research on service experiences also corroborates this notion. That in addition to the service itself, the physical environment in which the encounter takes place plays a significant role in the consumer's experience (Bitner, 1990). 3.3 Destination Selection Determinants & Revisit Intentions Tourism Destinations are viewed to be part of the service industry in which the nature of its products is considered an intangible experience (Chew & Jahari, 2014) that is susceptible to risks and threats (i.e., crime, socio-political instability, natural disasters, epidemic diseases). Such vulnerability can be a strong catalyst to tarnish the image of a travel destination (Sonmez et., al, 1999). This poses difficulty for tourists to evaluate the attractiveness of a destination as their travel decision or choice tend to be based on what they perceive of the destination rather than reality (Baloglu & McCleary, 1999a; Chon, 1990, 1992; Echtner & Ritchie, 1991). This therefore plays a key role as to whether the destination will be chosen or not by the tourist. Understanding the determinants that informs tourists choice of a holiday destination is key to developing effective tourism marketing and management strategies as well as building travel motivation and decision-making theories (Grzinic & Saftic, 2012; Lau and McKercher, 2004; Oppermann, 1997; Petrick, 2004). Contemporary tourism has become intensively competitive and marketers must find and apply approaches and techniques that effectively communicate the unique identities of their destinations (Zhang, Wu, Morrison, Tseng, & Chen, 2018) thereby attracting the right kind of tourist and increasing revisit intentions. There are several factors that influence a tourist’s choice of a destination. Some of these factors may include examination of the destination from the perspective of culture, 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh economic and political situations, climate, and accessibility to attractions (e.g., cultural events, monuments, and festivals), as well as from the viewpoint of customers, their age and sex, family and socio-economic status, the size of the domicile location, their financial and physical wellbeing, country of origin etc. (e.g., Vukic et.al., 2015; Kim et.al., 2007; Dwyer & Kim, 2010; Blumenberg et.al., 2012). According to Pike (2009), 70 per cent of tourists worldwide visit only ten countries and the remaining countries are struggling to attract the rest of the 30 percent of international arrivals (Morgan et al., 2003). This problem sterns from understanding tourists’ preferences. Tourists are complex in nature and have varied needs, motivation and preferences in relation to the places they choose as their preferred destination (Dolnicar et al., 2008); hence destination marketers must blend the tourism infrastructure and key attributes of destination- brand in order to achieve equilibrium in tourism marketing (Campo-Martinez et al., 2010; Wood, 2007). Destination marketers need to figure out methods to convey positive images in order to increase and motivate tourists’ revisit intentions (Roodurmun & Juwaheer, 2010). When prospective tourists plan for holiday destinations, they consider several attributes in relation to the destination’s offerings and attributes before their actual visit (Morrison, 2013), usually when they are satisfied, that may inform their revisit intentions (Pike and Ryan, 2004). Tourists pre-travel expectations relating to visiting a destination depends upon the information about the destination and its image (Pike, 2002; Hosany et al., 2006), weather and climate ((Melián-González et al., 2011; Becker, 1998), cultural orientation of the destination (Seddighi et al., 2001; Wagner and Westaby, 2009; Clarke, 2013) and convenience and expenses (Lu et al., 2011; Deng, 2012). It would seem some tourists prefer to exchange the familiarity of their immediate place of domicile with the familiarity of a holiday destination (Rojek, 2000) sometimes with the 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intension of revisit. The quest for what is familiar via repeat tourism becomes more pronounced when ‘‘the rewards of security outweigh any possible rewards brought by the high costs of uncertainty’’ (Burch, 1969, p. 132). It is likely that repeat tourists enjoy a holiday destination for either (or both) aesthetic reasons (sentimentality, memory, a sense of belonging) or utilitarian reasons (better knowledge of geographic area for selected activities) (Li et al., 2008). The perception tourists hold about a holiday destination can either facilitate its success or failure (Formica, 2002; Kozak and Rimmington, 2000) since loyal tourists indirectly play the role of ‘‘information channels that informally link networks of friends, relatives and other potential travellers to a destination’’ (Reid and Reid, 1993, p. 3), produce more sales revenue (Hennig-Thurau and Hansen, 2000) and minimize marketing costs (Kozak, 2001; Lau and McKercher, 2004; Oppermann, 2000). Since there exist a clear distinction between first-time and repeat visitors (Oppermann, 1997), there is a need for research to focus on modelling a repeat destination choice process with the same robustness as modelling a first- time destination choice process (Um et al., 2006). Understanding the determinants that make a destination attractive can assist DMOs in identifying what attracts tourists to return to a holiday destination (Um et al., 2006). Tourists appear to be willing to spend more if they perceive the service quality to be high and are more likely to make a repeat visitation if their expectations are fulfilled. The high value that tourists place on their experience of a holiday destination also has the potential to influence their return to the destination (Capon et al., 1990). 3.4 The Role of Satisfaction on Revisit Intentions The concept of tourist’s satisfaction at destinations has attracted the attention of scholars and practitioners for many decades as a result of the agreement on its key influence on 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consumer loyalty (Lam et al.,2004; Zeithaml et al., 1996). This concern takes it root from the assumption that satisfied customers will return to the company in the future and that loyal customers are more profitable than new ones (Anderson et al., 2004; Jones and Sasser, 1995), because they provide increasing income with decreasing costs (Mittal and Lassar, 1998; Rust and Zahorik, 1993). Furthermore, loyal customers are more willing to continue doing business with the company even when prices rise (Bolton and Lemon, 1999; Zeithaml, 2000). Usually when tourists are satisfied with the services at a destination, they either become spokesperson for the destination or carry the intentions of returning (Petrick, 2004). According to Oliver (1997), satisfaction can be described as the fulfillment gained by a tourist after consuming a product or service. It may be described as an individual’s subjective consumption evaluation based on all the elements associated with the experiences, such as accommodation, attractions, activities and food. Chi and Qu (2008) and Santouridis and Trivellas (2010) posits that satisfaction is a key determinant of repeat visit. Just like a product, whenever tourists are satisfied with the destinations offering or travel experience in a particular destination, it has both the short run and the long run behavioral effects, of which revisit intentions is key (Hutchinson, Lai & Wang, 2009; Santouridis & Trivellas, 2010). Previous studies seem to suggest that when tourists’ holiday expectations are met or exceeded, they are more likely to return in the future (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Oliver, 2010; Som, Marzuki, Yousefi & Khalifeh, 2012). However, Bigne, Sanchez and Andreu (2009) argue that in a competitive market even satisfied patrons may switch to rivals because of the opportunities to achieve better results or because they perceive that there are more attractive alternatives on the market (Andreassen and Lervik, 1999). In tourism research, it has been recognized that aesthetic features of the destination affect tourists’ experiences and satisfaction, contributing to their loyalty towards the destination. Hence, a destinations’ aesthetic qualities, such as scenery and cleanliness, have been an 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh essential element of many satisfaction scales used in tourism research (Chi and Qu, 2008; Moutinho et al., 2012; Yoon and Uysal, 2005). Marketers have recognized the concept of satisfaction as a post purchase behaviour, making it an important strategic tool because of its influence on repeat purchase and word-of-mouth recommendations (Heung and Quf, 2000). According to Soutar (2001) satisfied customers are much more likely to exhibit positive post purchase behaviour, such as making repeat visits, remaining loyal and providing positive word-of-mouth recommendations. For tourism authorities to measure customer satisfaction, it is important for them to anticipate which of the service attributes do tourists use for their overall quality assessment (Pizam and Ellis, 1999). 3.5 The Travel Destination Determinants & Socio-Demographic Factors Holiday destinations are shaped by the way in which tourists view the world (Bowie and Chang, 2005) and are dependent on personal characteristics such as culture, age, travel experiences and marital status (Chen and Tsai, 2007; Deslandes, 2003). Goodrich (1980), Woodside and Lysonski (1989) and Um and Crompton (1990) stated that sociodemographic factors and trip variables can affected the perception that a tourist hold of a destination. Goodall and Ashworth (1988) suggested that sociodemographic factors such as age, country of origin, occupation, and income are important destination determinant factors in influencing tourist images and perceptions of the travel experience. Weaver, McCleary, Lepisto and Damonte (1994) found that age was a discriminating demographic variable that influenced choice of destination, while Zimmer, Brayley and Searle (1995) identified that income and education influenced travelers when choosing nearby and farther-away destinations. Weaver et al. (1994) found out that travelers under 45 years choose destinations for novelty seeking and Zimmer et al. (1995) said that travelers who are better educated and have more disposable income tend to travel farther from their immediate place of domicile. Baloglu (1997) for example examined motives of West 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh German travelers to the United States in terms of socio-demographic factors and trip characteristics. He identified six image variables: adventure, nature and resort; urban environment; budget and value; history and culture; friendly environment; and active outdoor sport. These six image factors were found to vary significantly with travelers’ socio- demographic and trip characteristics. According to Blum (1996), tourism destination marketing and its associated strategies are collectively driven by (sometimes deterred) by changes in:  Income, wealth and influence  Employment trends  Geographic shifts  Minorities  Working women  Household composition trends; and  The aging population In discussing the determinants associated with increased tourism demand at destinations, Weaver and Oppermann (2000) argue that demographic transformation has a bigger influence on people to engage in touristic activities. In a study conducted by Uysal et al. (1994), on Australian visitors to US National Parks and natural areas, observed demographic characteristics besides motivation and information as sources used by Australian visitors and found that college graduates, professionals and high-income groups appear to have a stronger propensity to visit National Parks and natural areas. Another study conducted by Huang and Xiao (2000) suggested that income also affects leisure-based tourist behaviour, especially with reference to vacation duration and accommodation services used. Ryan (2003) in discussing the economic determinants of 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh demand for tourism has also identified that income plays a role. Mohsin & Ryan (2004) argue that socio-demographic variables will only have comparatively little predictive power when considering a specific holiday destination, given that many different competing destinations are able to duplicate the key components of any one destination. This is particularly the case when main determinants of demand are generic holidaying ones such as relaxation, escape from work or need for time with family. Similarly, Huang and Xiao (2000) suggest that research in understanding the sociographic determinants on travel demand is significant in that they may extend the breadth of knowledge of tourism behaviour, on the one hand, and contribute to destination management and planning, on the other. Hence, the literature suggests the importance of studying socio-demographic variables to facilitate understanding, managing, and promoting a destination and/ or facility (Mohsin & Ryan 2004). 3.6 The Use of Social Networks in Destination Selection The emergence of information technology and its broad adoption within the tourism industry has led to an explosion in the availability of destination-related information, which greatly helps travelers in planning trips and/or formulating expectations about tourism experiences information (Buhalis and Law, 2008). Technological development and globalization of media create new possibilities for information sharing among visitors in tourism through web blogs, websites or destinations´ assessment sites such as tripdviser.com, expedia.com, booking.com (Kiráľová & Pavlíčeka, 2015) According to Loredana et. al, (2012) the increasing changes in the tourism sector coupled with advances in technologies and tourists’ changeable needs have forced the industry to outline a new framework based on a systemic approach, in destination governance as well as in tourism destination marketing strategy. In fact, several factors, such as more experienced consumers, global economic restructuring, and environmental boundaries to 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh growth require rapid changes, especially in tourism destination to respond to market trends (Pechlaner and Tschurtschenthaler, 2003). Loredana et. al, (2012) further explained that advances in web-based technologies, as well as the increasing interest in social networking systems prompt industry to reconsider the way for planning and consuming tourism products and services. As a consequence, there is a wide potential for marketers to use internet for tourism purposes. Internet plays a new role as intermediary, by overcoming the traditional role of tour operators and travel agencies and providing tourist the possibility to buy several tourist products and services by themselves (Buhalis and Law, 2008). Social media technologies provide the tools to both produce and distribute information. These technologies support collaborative writing (e.g. wikis), content sharing (e.g. text, video, and images), social networking (e.g. Facebook, Twitter), social bookmarking (e.g. ratings, tagging), and syndication (e.g. RSS feeds) (Dawson, 2007; O’Reilly,2005). Furthermore, they increase the potentiality of the websites, by combining interactive functions. It is therefore highly debated that the introduction of the internet has increased the productivity and efficiency of hotels’ marketing efforts, allowing hospitality companies to reach their customers directly in order to offer them promotions and sales (Law and Lau, 2005; Pantano et al., 2011; Tse, 2003), as well as to improve the role of traditional tour operators and travel agencies (Ye et al., 2011). For example, social networks are becoming an efficient tool for IT-based business, by providing several services for tourism market. In fact, through the social network, the way people plan for, buy and consume tourist products and services dramatically change the role of tourism intermediaries (Buhalis and Law, 2008; Kracht and Wang, 2009). Tourists can post their thoughts and opinions about holidays and past experiences, by making them available to the global community of internet users (Dellarocas, 2003) and share their reason(s) for choosing a particular tourist’s destination. For instance, according to TechCrunch.com (2010), in February 2010, Twitter attracted an 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh average of 21 million unique visitors over the month, and sent about 50 million tweets every day. This information sharing process includes the increasing use of social network to link actors across market boundaries, to share common knowledge (Cheng, 2010), and to create new connections among users and between firm and clients (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). In fact, these virtual and free spaces play an important role in information diffusion among tourists capable of influencing their behavioral intentions of choosing a destination (de Valck et al., 2009; Pantano and Servidio, 2011) as well as on the creation of a common topic-oriented knowledge. Social media for example allows destinations to contact visitors at relatively low cost and higher levels of efficiency that can be achieved with more traditional communication tools (Kaplan & Haenlein, 2010). According to Graham (2005) social media is anything where users can participate, create, and share content. Kaplan and Haenlein (2010) distinguish the following social media: blogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds. Social media also include forums, ratings, reviews, social networking sites, micro-blogging sites, pod-casts and video-casts and photo sharing sites (FPRM, 2009). The benefit of social media and their effectiveness to tourism destinations can be seen especially in an increase in brand awareness, brand engagement, word of mouth, friends/liking, trust and social validation (Pergolino, et. al.,2012; Kiráľová, 2014) According to SMT (2013), the number of social media users around the globe has risen by 18% in 2013. Nearly 25 % of people in the world now use social media. By 2020, the number of social media users should rise to 4.33 billion (Statista, 2014). Stikky Media (2014) found that in 2013 eighty-two million people have downloaded a TripAdvisor application, 2.800 new topics were posted every day to the TripAdvisor forums. TripAdvisor shows more than 150 million reviews from over 60 million members worldwide and has 1.23 billion monthly active users as of December 2013 (Kiráľová & Malachovský, 2014). Kiráľová & 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Malachovský (2014) further posits that online content drives significant business supporting 49% of all tourist arrivals in Europe, including research and booking. Online content provides benefits to new unknown as well as well-known brands. As stated by PhoCusWright’s Social Media in Travel 2012: Social Networks and Traveller Reviews (Juman, 2012), more than 75% of travellers use social networks to find shopping-related deal, while 30% specifically seek out travel-related deals. Fifty-two percent of Facebook users said their travel plans were affected by seeing pictures of trips posted by friends. Fifty- two percent of travellers who had already made travel plans changed some part of their plan after checking out what was being said on social media channels – 33% changed their hotel, 10% changed their resort, 7% changed their destinations, and 5% changed their airlines. According to the study, travellers are looking for tips and inspiration on social media. The following social media campaigns demonstrate how destinations can take advantage of new technologies and new media. The State of Colorado launched the campaign “Snow at First Sight” in 2009 with the aim to raise awareness to Colorado as a winter sport destination. The search of three people who have never experienced snow started as a competition. Potential participants were asked to submit a minute-long video to www.snowatsight.com and explain why they´ve never had a “snow rendezvous”, and why they are most deserving of such a unique first-time experience. They were encouraged to use their social media channels, such as Facebook and Twitter, to spread the word about their entry - the winners were selected based upon audience voting. They have been asked to write about their experiences and took pictures and video to share on YouTube, Facebook, Twitter, Flickr, and the rest. The prize included winter season experience in Colorado from January to March, 2010 ski, snowboard, and snowshoe courses, exciting après ski nightlife, pampering, and spas. The media coverage the campaign has drawn is worth $2.9 million in advertising dollars, and has generated 300 million media impressions (CTO, 2010). In 2012, Cape Town 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tourism launched the “Send Us Your Facebook Profiles” competition. The campaign asked visitors to send their profiles for a virtual tour of Cape Town’s least explored areas. After sending their Facebook profiles, participants could create their own five-day Cape Town holiday, and watch their profiles explore the hidden gems of the city. After over 150 Point of View videos, 400-first-person Facebook status updates, and 10,000-holiday photos, the campaign registered 5,800-page impressions and 41,000 monthly page visits. Through the campaign, tourist numbers in Cape Town rose by 4% and the Table Mountain received its highest volumes in 83 years. The competition also helped Cape Town Tourism win the Best Overall Use of Social Media Award (Convention and Visitors Bureau) at the 2013 Travel + Leisure Social Media Awards (Athenkosi, 2014). In 2011, VisitSweden launched the Twitter campaigns “Curators of Sweden”. The aim of the campaign was to hand over the reins of the tourist board’s official Twitter account, @Sweden, to a different Swede each week. The tweets were uncensored; the idea being to provide an eclectic, entertaining insight into the country, resulted in more holiday bookings. VisitSweden’s campaign has won 28 awards, attracted over 65,000 followers from 120 countries, and started thousands of conversations. The campaign has been featured on international television, newspapers, magazines, radio stations and blogs, generating a public relations value of more than $40 million, more than 400 times the investment (Volontaire, 2012). The tourism and hospitality industries have widely adopted information technology (IT) to reduce costs, enhance operational efficiency, and most importantly to improve service quality and customer experience (Law et al., 2009). The internet in particular has become one of the most important sources of consumer information (Zins, 2007), especially for young and better educated consumers (Beritelli et al., 2007; Casanova et al., 2005; Seabra et al., 2007). Consumers use IT extensively to evaluate alternative travel opportunities and for comparing and contrasting offerings (Buhalis and O’Connor, 2005). Growing numbers 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of customers now purchase tourism products through websites, and perceive that a website’s image and usability directly affect their purchase intentions (Chiang and Jang, 2006; Law and Cheung, 2006; Law and Hsu, 2006). 3.7 Conceptual Framework A review of the extant of literature provides a thorough examination of the issues relating to the key determinants of tourists visit to a destination and how those destinations can be marketed. A conceptual framework is needed to provide a more succinct view of what this study seeks to focus on. A conceptual framework by Yoon and Uysal (2005) will be adapted to guide the course of the study (Figure 1). The framework was found appropriate because it provides some key variables which are relevant to the current study. The basic argument advanced by the proponents is that tourist visitation to a particular destination is a function of the push and pull factors. Accordingly, the push forces constitute the internal emotional desires of the tourist including novelty seeking, culture experience, escape, rest and relaxation and ego enhancement others whereas the pull factors are those forces that define the tourist choice of a destination (e.g. scenery, cities, climate, wildlife, historical and local cultural attractions). They are largely destination specific enticing elements. Therefore, collectively the two generic factors explain why a person would want to embark on travel and where he or she would go to satisfy this need. Consequently, just like a product, whenever tourists are satisfied with travel experience in a particular destination, it has both the short run and the long run behavioral effects, of which revisit intentions is one (Hutchinson, Lai & Wang, 2009; Santouridis & Trivellas, 2010). 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Satisfaction Destination Selection Revisit Intentions Determinants 1. Novelty Seeking 2. Cultural Experience 3. Rest & Relaxation 4. Escape 5. Ego Enhancement Socio- 6. Education/Learning Demographic Factors Figure 3.1: Framework on tourists’ motivations and revisit intentions. Source: Adapted from Yoon and Uysal (2005) 3.7.1 Novelty Seeking Novelty seeking is one of the reasons why tourists would consider visiting a tourism destination. The literature considers novelty as the degree of contrast between the known and unknown, making it the opposite of familiarity that leads to little or no experience (Dayour & Adongo, 2015). Novelty seeking is an inner urge that stimulates individuals to engage in observation, exploration, manipulation, and questioning (Park, Andrew & Mahony, 2011). It is therefore the inner desire to acquire new knowledge, explore a new place and new sensory experiences are central to tourists in search of novelty (Trauer & Ryan, 2005). McIntosh, Goeldner and Ritchie (1995) and Park, Mahony and Kim (2011) put forward various sources of novel experiences, ranging from the discovery of nature- based attractions, events and activities, innovative physical places, to the gaining of prestige and attention from others. However, the psychocentric tourists tend to favour familiar destinations unlike their allocentric counterparts who want to experience the unknown or discover untapped destinations. This means that individuals vary in terms of destination 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seeking behavior (Elsrud, 2001). It is, therefore, possible that certain attributes of Ghana may attract some tourists and equally fend off others. 3.7.2 Cultural Experience The second motivational header is cultural experience. Cultural motivation essentially has to do with the need to participate and learn about a destination’s local culture which includes their food, music, rituals, values, festivals and dance. Kim and Eve (2012) and Hjalager (2003) further explained that travel for local food experience can be highlighted as a cultural motive. From existing literature, cultural experience involves taking a trip to celebrate cultural diversity which involves looking outside for what individuals cannot find inside (Mansfeld, 1992). Hjalager (2003) observed that during holidays, eating and drinking a particular local food and beverage respectively, means sharing the local food culture. 3.7.3 Ego Enhancement The ego factor as tourists’ travel motives has been long recognized in tourism literature. Dann (1977) identified the ego enhancement as one of the strongest travel motivators, which is derived from the need for recognition, acquired through the status conferred by travel. Therefore, some people will travel to destinations because of the status they will gain from the trip. MacCannell (2002) states that dominant way commercially successful destinations have organized touristic experience has been to model themselves as closely as possible on the ego – e.g. the luxury island destinations, and more recently by the United Arab Emirates. The concept of ego tourism was first introduced by Wheeller (1993) as a reaction to the eco and sustainable tourism research myopia (see also Wheeller, 2007). Wheeller (1993, 1994) posits that “ego-tourists” travel with like-minded companions to previously un spoilt destinations where they will not feel part of the mass tourism. However, these tourists still use types of accommodation and means of transport that pollute the environment, which 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh diverts their trip from the pure theoretical eco and sustainable tourism concepts, but creates a calm psychological state in ego tourists’ minds. Therefore, ecotourism can be viewed as mask covering other travel and business motives, and as a mode of re-designing of the same old tourism model (Munt, 1994), leading Wheeller (2005) to declare that the “eco in eco- tourism is the eco in economics, not the eco in ecology” (p. 269). 3.7.4 Escape Travel has the power to let you not only escape but also heal. A new place with lots of fun distractions can work wonders. You’ll return home more at peace with yourself and your challenging situations. According to Jarvis and Peel (2010), the desire to travel is often associated with the yearning to escape. That is to “break from routine” activities of the home and work (Kim & Ritchie, 2012). This break affords people the opportunity to refresh their minds by engaging in non-routine forms of leisure activities (Ritchie, Tkaczynski & Faulks, 2010). 3.7.5 Rest & Relaxation Closely related to escapism is the travel for relaxation. It has to do with resting from one’s day-to-day activities. It is also seen as a state of being liberated from tension, anxiety and day-to-day stress (Grimm & Needham, 2012). According to Leonard and Onyx (2009), relaxation aside escape is the most central psychological predisposing factor for tourist movement. 3.7.6 Education/Learning Learning is a strong reason why people love to travel. They want to experience something unfamiliar and leave with new skills or knowledge. Additionally, tourists display the differences in the extent of their knowledge about destinations, as well as in their motivations to learn about new destinations (Grimm & Needham, 2012; Park & Yoon, 2009; 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Dayour, 2013) and seek new experiences in a culturally different environment. Tourists positioned in this level are willing to engage in longer-distance travel and first-time visiting, and openness owed to their motivation to experience and learn about a genuine local culture (Yoo, Yoon, & Park, 2018). The scenarios in the conceptual framework would be hypothesized as follow; H1: There is a significant and positive effect of destination selection determinants on revisit intentions. H2. Satisfaction mediates the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. H3. Education/Learning & Ego Enhancement manifested as major predictors of tourists visit to the destination with Education/Learning fully mediating between the destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. H4a. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between the determinants and revisit intentions. H4b. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between education/learning and revisit intentions. H4c. Country of Origin significantly improves the positive relationship between Ego Enhancement and revisit intentions. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 4.0 Introduction This chapter of the study outlines the methodology adopted by the researcher for the entire study. The research method is described in terms of the research paradigm, the design of the study, the targeted population, the sample size used, data sources and the instruments used to collect them, the management of data, challenges and limitations encountered on the field as well as the ethical considerations. 4.1 Research Paradigm A research paradigm essentially denotes a set of certain beliefs, techniques, values and norms that are commonly shared by a particular scientific community and act as a guide to what and how research problems are addressed and the explanations that is acceptable within that particular scientific community (Kuhn, 2012). Denzin and Lincoln (2011) noted that, research should be directed by a philosophy that typifies the researcher’s particular belief about the nature of data collection, analysis, and how phenomena are to be perceived and interpreted. As a result, scholars like Saunders et al. (2011) argued that there is a philosophy that allows the researcher to think critically about the enhancement of knowledge. The concept of paradigm can therefore not be overlooked but seen as critical to the research process within a study. Generally, all academic research has been noted to be established on a paradigm or philosophical perspective (Blaikie, 2010; Proctor, 2005; Holden & Lynch, 2004). The most common among these research paradigms includes positivism, interpretivist, realism, relativism and critical realism (Chan, 2015) which have their own arrangement of 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh epistemology, ontological and methodological proposition to clarify and separate them from each other. Epistemological assumptions are concerned with what kinds of knowledge are possible; how we can know these things; and what criteria exists for deciding when knowledge is both adequate and legitimate. Ontological assumptions are concerned with the nature of social reality. These assumptions make claims about what kinds of social phenomena do or can exist, the condition for their existence, and the ways in which they are related (Blaikie, 2010). Methodology on the other hand refers to the outline used to conduct research, within the context of a particular paradigm (Wahyuni, 2012). The latter can be contrasted from a research method (characterizes the set of specific tools and techniques used to gather and analyze the data specified by the research methodology) which is independent from methodologies and paradigms (Sarantakos, 2012; Blaikie, 2010). Thus, methodology becomes a more specific manner in which both empirical and logical work is performed (Creswell, 2014). For this study, a positivist methodological paradigm is adopted to the test the hypothesis. This research paradigm was adopted because it involves formulating research questions, hypotheses and testing them empirically under carefully controlled settings (Boateng, 2014). According to Boateng (2014), this research paradigm is mostly based on deductive reasoning (Boateng, 2014). 4.2 Research Design A research design is a framework for conducting marketing research (Malhotra, 1996). It describes a plan that guides the researcher in data collection, and analytical phases of the research work. According to Dobson (2002) the research design becomes a guideline that clearly depicts the strategy of inquiry suitable for a particular research. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zikmund, Babin and Griffin (2012) define a research design as “a detail blueprint used to guide the implementation of a research study towards the realization of its objectives”. Zikmund et al’s definition of research design also emphasizes on the methods and techniques for gathering and analyzing data. Thus, a research design is mainly about deciding on a best research approach or methodology to obtain the data. It is therefore a blueprint of a detailed plan on how the research was completed. The research design in this study essentially focuses on such issues particularly with reference to research paradigm, research purpose, research strategy, research approach, and data collection methods (including sample size determination, sampling techniques adopted in this work, sources of data, and survey instrument). With reference to the discussions in the previous chapters as well as the underpinning research question, the philosophical assumptions for this study follows the positivist perspective. This is because the researcher examines this study from an objective point of view where the responses to the research questions are expected from the collated and objective responses of the sampled respondents. The research questions and hypothesis have been formulated from literature and have been tested empirically under carefully controlled circumstances. For this study, an explanatory scheme is adopted, as the researcher purports to study a phenomenon by explaining the relationships among some constructs (Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2011). Furthermore, the study is quantitative in nature and adopted a survey research approach involving the use of structured questionnaires, which were designed to obtain information from respondents (Zikmund et al., 2012). The research problem was formulated based on existing theory, and the intention is to create more knowledge about specific factors and their relationships among one another (Creswell, 2014; Yin, 2009). 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In order to draw a general inference and collect optimum valid results, a significant sample was needed for this study. For this reason, a deductive approach was adopted in this study; the theories examined needed some empirical test to make appropriate analysis (Creswell, 2014). The study is cross-sectional in nature and previous cross-sectional studies have mainly employed the survey strategy (Easterby-Smith et. al., 2012; Bughin et al., 2010). The choice for this research design therefore became necessary not only due to the explanatory nature of the study but also because it has been suggested to be suitable for analyzing such phenomena, situations, and problems by considering a cross-section of the population at one point in time (Litvin et al., 2008; Hakim, 2000). Again, the suitability of using the survey strategy in this study is to help the researcher identify and explain statistically, the relationship that exists among service innovation, customer value creation and customer satisfaction. 4.3 Research Approach In order to arrive at a valid statistical result, it is relevant for a study to employ the right research approach. These approaches are the plans and procedures for research that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis and interpretation (Creswell, 2014). Generally, research method can either be quantitative (deductive) and qualitative (inductive) or mixed method according to some scholars of research methodology (Blaikie, 2009; McGivern, 2009). When conducting any kind of research, these three approaches may be considered when deciding on how to carry out the research in the most efficient and effective manner. According to Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009), the key difference between the three types of research approaches is commonly the number of participants and how to analyze the answers from the research. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.1 Qualitative Research According to Flick (2014), qualitative research approach is a distinctive way to describe an alternative to the ‘quantitative research’ and was coined against the background of a critique of the latter and especially the development it had taken in the 1960s and 1970s. Qualitative research emphasizes getting close to the subject(s) of study and assuming the role of a participant to describe a social reality from the perspective of the subject rather than observer. Bryman (2006) describes qualitative research as an “approach that studies the social world, and seeks to describe and analyze the culture and behavior of humans and their groups, from the point of view of those being studied”. It is also concerned with rich and detailed description, understanding and insight rather than measurement (McGivern, 2009). In qualitative research, methods of in-depth interviews or focus group discussions are usually used to explore the attitudes, behaviour and experiences of research participants. Often, the number of participants is few, but the contacts with the participants normally tend to last for a longer period (Creswell, 2014). Qualitative research normally emphasizes on the relationship between contextualized elements in relation to a relatively few cases. 4.3.2 Quantitative Research According to Creswell and Clark (2007, p.4), “a quantitative research is a means for testing objective theories by examining the relationship among variables. These variables, in turn, can be measured typically on instruments, so that numbered data can be analyzed using statistical procedures”. Quantitative research can be viewed as an extreme of empiricism according to which theories are not only justified by the extent to which they can be verified but also by an application of facts acquired (Amaratunga et al., 2002). Quantitative researches are also used as a measurement of how people feel, think or act in a particular way and it seeks to quantify data and apply some statistical analysis which is often formalized, well-structured and data is usually obtained from large samples (Tull & 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hawkings, 1990). Generally, quantitative researchers emphasize on the use of numbers. These numbers often represent values and levels of theoretical constructs and concepts, and the interpretation of the numbers is viewed as a strong scientific evidence of how a phenomenon exists or works. Some common quantitative approaches include survey methods, laboratory experiments, formal methods (e.g. econometrics), and numerical methods such as mathematical modeling (Myer, 2000; Straub et al., 2004). Using a quantitative method, the number of variables studied is often few but they are studied on several number of units. Here, the participants usually take part in a large-scale survey in the form of either a questionnaire or a structured interview. This method studies a larger sample of the population which makes it possible to draw general conclusions, but the contact with those people is shorter than in the qualitative method. Quantitative research typically focuses on the relationship between several defined elements concerning many cases. The emphasis on quantification during gathering and analyzing of data depends much on a certain group of the population (Bryman & Bell, 2015). Results from such groups are deemed to be very relevant in providing generalized assumptions on the entire population. 4.3.3 Mixed Method The use of mixed methods involves the collection, analysis and mixing of both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or a series of studies (Creswell & Clark, 2007). It involves the use of both approaches in tandem so that the overall strength of a study is greater than either quantitative or qualitative research (Creswell, 2014). Mixed methods research has been classified in various ways such as; triangulation (concurrent use of both quantitative and qualitative methods); embedded (one type of method is supplementary to the other); explanatory (sequential use with quantitative proceeding qualitative); and exploratory (sequential use in the reverse order). To this end, scholars have even contended that mixed methods research constitute a third methodological movement (with quantitative 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and qualitative research being the other two) which should be seen as a normal, and perhaps, necessary part of knowledge generation rather than as a special type (Blaikie, 2010; Johnson et al., 2007). 4.3.4 Justification for Quantitative Research Approach Choice The focus of this study was to quantitatively establish the relationships between various constructs (Novelty seeking, Cultural Experience, Ego Enhancement, Escape, Rest & Relaxation, Education/Learning) within the tourism industry in Ghana. The study used the quantitative approach because this method enabled the researcher to use a questionnaire to collect data from a larger number of participants for analysis. Also, choy (2014) posit that quantitative studies can be carried out quickly as responses can be analyzed within a short period as compared to the qualitative and the mixed methods approaches. In order for the researcher to establish, confirm or validate relationships, and to develop generalizations that will contribute to theory, the quantitative approach was considered appropriate for this study. 4.4 Research Strategy According to Marshall and Rossman (1999), “research strategy is a road map or an overall plan for undertaking a systematic exploration of a phenomenon of interest”. Within the social sciences, Yin (2009) identified five major research strategies; these are “experiments, surveys, archival analysis, histories, and case studies”. However, Saunders et al. (2011) in a study identified seven research strategies that can be adopted for a study, thus, “experiment, survey, case study, action research, grounded theory, ethnography, and archival research”. Each of these strategies can be used for the purposes of explanatory, descriptive, and exploratory studies. It is worth noting that these strategies will be either suitable for the inductive or deductive schools of thought. Rather than viewing one strategy as superior to the other, the emphasis should be on the strategy that helps the researcher to 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh achieve the desired research objectives of the study. According to Saunders et al. (2011), these strategies should not be thought of as being mutually exclusive, but rather seen as complementary to each other. Next is a brief discussion of these strategies: 4.4.1 Experiment Experiment strategy is usually adopted in situations where the researcher can control the samples (Saunders et al., 2011). According to McGivern (2006), this strategy is essentially relevant in finding out the existence of causal relationships, to leave out the effect of other variables, and to create time sequence of events. Additionally, Saunders et al. (2011) mention that this strategy is usually functional in laboratories, and are used in answering questions relating to “how” and “why” in research. Further, the aforementioned scholars’ postulate that although experimental research appears to be strong in most social science research, it is highly indebted to the natural sciences. 4.4.2 Survey The use survey in research is very relevant with scholars such as Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005) have reputed surveys as very effective in sampling opinions, attitudes, and descriptions, as well as cause and effect relationships. Though seen as a common and popular strategy used in most research, Saunders et al. (2011) mentions that survey is used in answering the “who”, “what”, “where”, “how much” and “how many” questions in business and management research. Saunders et al. (2011) additionally posit that the survey strategy is frequently linked to the deductive approach, thus, explaining quantitative data as being analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. 4.4.3 Case study A case study strategy involves the study of a happening in its actual situation (Saunders et al., 2011). According to Robson (2002), the case study strategy is used to conduct research 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that involves practical examination of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context using multiple sources of evidence. Yin (2011) posits that a case study strategy allows researchers to explore individuals or organizations simply through complex interventions, relationships, communities, or programs. Inferences drawn from this definition show that, researchers looking for a good understanding of a given situation must view a case study strategy as more appropriate (Morris & Wood, 1991). Again, Saunders et al. (2011) opine that in finding answers to questions relating to “why”, “how” and “what”, even though generally associated with a survey strategy, a case studies strategy will be supportive. 4.4.4 Action research Action research is adopted or considered appropriate to help develop a close association between researchers and practitioners (Saunders et al., 2011). Extant researchers (Bogdan & Bilken, 1997; Stringer, 2013) are of the view that, action research involves the process of logical analysis that inquiries about developing social issues troubling the lives of people. According to Meyer (2000), with the focal point of producing answers to realistic problems, and involving practitioners in successive development, the strength of action research can be felt. 4.4.5 Grounded theory In the view of Saunders et al. (2011), the grounded theory strategy is generally used by researchers with the primary focus of generating series of observational data. It is explained as a type of research that assists in forecasting and explaining behaviors, and is geared towards developing and building theory (Goulding, 2002). According to Lingard, Albert and Levinson (2008), the main thrust is to generate theories regarding social phenomena. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.6 Ethnography This strategy believes that the social world within reach is ethnography. Traced from anthropology field, and deeply rooted in the inductive approach (Saunders et al., 2011), Creswell (2014) posit ethnography to involve the study of the meaning of behavior, language, and relations among members of a culture-sharing group. Viewed as a naturalistic research, this strategy expects the researcher to immerse into the everyday life of a cultural- sharing group through observations and interviews (Saunders et al., 2011). 4.4.7 Archival research As the principal source of data collection, archival research strategy involves the analysis of administrative records (Saunders et al., 2011). Using this strategy, researchers are able to ask pertinent questions concerning the past and changes over time. However, Saunders et al. (2011) posit that the nature of the administrative records and documents usually constraint the ability to answer questions. In effect, researchers‟ adopting this study must establish and design the study in such a way that data is mostly available (Saunders et al., 2011). 4.4.8 Justification for Survey Research Strategy Choice Based on the above-mentioned discussions, this current study employed the survey strategy to gather primary data using questionnaires from tourists in Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina and Kumasi. This study adopted the survey strategy because of the cross-sectional nature of data collected, and cross-sectional studies usually employ the survey strategy (Easterby-Smith et. al., 1991). Saunders et al. (2007) is of the view that this strategy is a popular, common and frequently used approach in business and management research to answer “who”, “what”, “where”, “how much”, and “how many” questions. Survey is usually associated with a deductive approach and explanatory research. Additionally, as this study examines cause and-effect relationships, the excellent and most appropriate strategy that can be 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh adopted is a survey. Thus, the survey strategy was taken on to statistically ascertain destination selection determinants and what informs their revisit intentions by understanding the roles of satisfaction and socio-demographic factors in informing their revisit intentions. It must therefore be mentioned clearly that the researcher deems the survey strategy to be appropriate for this study. 4.5 Study Population Population is the target group that the researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusions (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001). Target population of a study according to Malhotra (2007) is the collection of elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are made. Dillman (1994) observed that a prerequisite to sample selection is to define the target population as narrowly as possible and that sample selection depends only on the population size and its homogeneity, as well its cost and the degree of precision required. A distinction has been made between a target population and a survey population. A target population is the population from which the results are required whereas the survey population is the population actually covered by the research (Moser & Kalton, 1971). Therefore, the actual population can then be any size and are usually referred to as the target. The study population for this study includes all International Tourists that visited tour attractions in Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina and Kumasi. 4.6 Sample Frame of Study Denscombe (2014) argue that researchers in the social sciences are frequently restricted with regards to the collection of data from everyone within the research unit under study. This problem arises due to the difficulties faced concerning the easy sampling and convenience of the total target population. Wallen (2006) postulate that to save time, money and research effort, defining the population as narrowly as possible is encouraged, resulting in what is termed as the sampling frame. The solution to this problem is to rely on a portion 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the target population, hoping that they are a true representation of the entire population. According to Afro Tourism (2018), the large number of international tourists that visit southern Ghana, visit attractions in the Greater Accra Region, Central Region of Ghana and the Ashanti Region. This claim was supported by Apstar Tours Limited, one of the leading Destination Marketing Organisation that tourists visit Accra for historical tourism, Elmina and Cape Coast for Heritage tourism and the Ashanti Region for Cultural Tourism. The sampling frame for the survey was described to include international tourists that visited Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina and Kumasi and its environs. This frame restricts itself to Greater Accra, Central and Ashanti Regions of Ghana with the assumption that more than 50% of international tourists visit these regions. 4.7 Sample Size of the Study After specifying the sample population, the sample size is determined. The sample size is a subset of the larger population (Saunders et al., 2011). There are many different methods of determining the sample size. Scholars such as Osborne and Costello (2009), and Field (2009) postulate that in order to conduct a reliable factor analysis; the sample size needs to be big. For this study, 284 international leisure tourists that visited Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina and Kumai were considered as the sample size for this study. This sample size selection was informed by Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson and Tatham (2010) who assert that the minimum sample size for SEM analysis should be 100 and above. Supporting this assumption Garver and Mentzer (1999), and Hoelter (1983) have also recommended that for a sample to be representative and acceptable for a quantitative study, a sample of 150 is considered fair and 200 and above as good. Additionally, the selection of the sample size was also based on Bradley et., al (2001) argument, which states that many sample sizes for research studies are defined by the researcher’s time and money available for data collection. Hence, the researcher sampled 284 respondents based on the cost basis approach (Burns & 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Bush, 2000) and also because a sample of 200 and above is deemed fit for a structural equation modeling analysis (Hair et al., 2014). 4.8 Research Sampling Technique Generally, two broad choices are available for a sampling technique, thus, probability and nonprobability sampling (Malhotra, 2011). 4.8.1 Probability sampling The kind of sampling in which every element in the population has a non-zero chance of being selected is known as probability sampling (Stuart, 1984). Four generally accepted probability sampling techniques indicated by Saunders et al. (2011) include; random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified random sampling, and cluster sampling. 4.8.2 Non-Probability Sampling Quite the opposite, while probability sampling offers an equal chance of selecting respondents, a non-probability sampling empowers the researcher to make own conclusions in the selection of sample elements. In support of this, Malhotra & Birks (2007) makes it clear that this sampling technique does not depend on chance-based selection but on researchers' own judgment. Some earlier scholars (Saunders et al., 2011) opine that some examples of non-probability sampling techniques include; purposive or judgmental sampling, convenience sampling, quota sampling, and snowball sampling. 4.8.3 Justification of non-probability Sampling Technique choice The non-probability sampling technique was adopted for this study. Specifically, the researcher used convenience sampling technique for selecting the respondents for the study. This method was deemed appropriate due to the difficulty of getting a sample frame for the study. Additionally, this sampling method was considered suitable since it was less time consuming and inexpensive. In addition, convenience sampling helps to overcome the 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenge of determining the sample frame for probability sampling (Zikmund et al., 2013). Three Hundred & Ten (310) international tourists who were available and willing to participate were included in this study. The researcher drew these respondents from (Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina & Kumasi) that visited tourist sites in these areas. Out of the 310 international tourists sampled, 284 was returned and well administered; hence could participate in this research study. The remaining 26 were either not returned or not well administered. 4.9 Data Collection In this study, data collection involved a series of systematically planned activities. These activities include the decisions regarding the type of data to be collected, selecting an appropriate source, preparation and design of research instrument, data collection procedures, data analysis techniques, quality criteria and ethical considerations. The following sub-sections are explained into details next. 4.9.1 Types of Data Identification of the data type required was the first step in the data collection process. Corbin and Strauss (2008) support this assertion and cautioned that failure to define appropriate data may lead to inadequate results. Generally, there are two accepted types of data used in research, thus, primary and secondary data (Ghauri & Gronhaug, 2005). Data obtained by a researcher for the specific purpose of addressing the present research is what Malhotra & Birks (2007) normally calls primary data. Secondary data can be explained as data that have been gathered and assembled for the purpose other than the current research work but have some significance and usefulness to the current study (Hair et al., 2010). For this study, primary data was collected from tourists that visited in Greater Accra, Central and Ashanti Regions of Ghana. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.9.2 Data collection instrument According to Malhotra and Briks (2007), four (4) instruments can be used to gather primary data. Thus, participant observation, personal interviews, telephone interviews and self- administered questionnaires. Due to the quantitative methodological approach selected for this study, self-administered questionnaire was deemed appropriate as a data collection instrument. Accordingly, Hair et al. (2010), and Saunders et al. (2011) posit that the consistent character of self-administered questionnaires aids in the assessment of unrelated responses of participants. 4.9.2.1 Questionnaire Design Critical to every survey research is the attainment of quality data. Quality data can only be obtained through the design of high-quality questionnaires. For this thesis, the researcher designed a closed ended structured questionnaire to gather primary data from research participants. The introductory part of the research questions was designed in such a way that the purpose of the research was clearly spelt out to respondents, together with assurances of confidentiality. Next, the questionnaires captured the respondents’ demographics, thus, gender, age, educational qualification, purpose of visit and how they got to know about the destination. The second part of the questionnaire captured the major constructs of the conceptual framework presented in chapter 2. Six (6) variables in all were addressed in this research. These questions were generated from pervious empirical studies on tourism destination marketing, tourist’s motivation and revisit intentions and customer satisfaction. The adapted scales were used to measure all six constructs of novelty seeking, cultural experience, ego enhancement, escape, education/learning, and rest and relaxation. 4.9.3 Pilot test of questionnaires In social research, there is the possibility that written questionnaires will be misunderstood and interpreted differently by different people. To overcome this problem, the researcher 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh carried out a pilot-testing of questionnaires following the recommendation of Hair et al. (2010) and Devellis (2003). Thus, the appropriateness of the wording of both modified and newly created scales was evaluated using panel of academic experts as well as some other 3 tour operators and a professional tour guide with extensive knowledge on the subject being studied. From the pretest feedback obtained, certain sections of the questionnaires were modified to address all ambiguity or difficulty concerning clarity, relevance and instructions. Again, the questionnaires were subject to critique by the researcher’s supervisors who had vast experience and knowledge with the quantitative nature of this study. Useful insights were derived to further shape the research instruments, thereby escalating the quality of the questionnaire designed (Saunders et al., 2011). 4.9.4 Data Collection Procedures After piloting of the questionnaire, the researcher proceeded to the next phase of the study to administer the questionnaires. The questionnaires were distributed to tour sites in Accra, Elmina, Cape Coast and Kumasi and some selected hotels in Greater Accra. The process of collecting data started with the explanation of the purpose of this study to respondents included in the study, while giving them the assurances of utmost confidentiality of information provided for the study. This was done in conformity with the suggestion of Dillman (1994). The administering of questionnaire to respondents who qualified for the study followed this. Only participants who agreed to assist in the research were given a copy of the questionnaire to fill. The process of data collection lasted for a period of six (6) weeks. 4.10 Mode of Data Analysis Techniques used in data analysis for this study is extensively discussed in this section. The researcher used SPSS version 22.0 and Amos 20.0 as the analytical tools for this study. These softwares have been widely used by researchers in the area of focus as quantitative data analysis instruments. SPSS was used for the preliminary coding and inputting of the 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh raw data as well as for data cleaning and exploratory factor analysis, before onward transferal to Amos for further analysis. Checking the data set for errors is an essential prelude to data analysis. In order to avoid errors that will likely have an influence on the results during the analysis, a thorough data screening process is highly necessary. According to Pallant (2011), it is recommended to do data coding, screening and cleaning. The coded data was checked for outliers, missing values or scores that might be out of range and wrong inputs for further analysis. 4.10.1 Factor Analysis Literature presents two main approaches to factor analysis, thus, exploratory and confirmatory. Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) is often used in the early stages of research to gather information about (explore) the interrelationships among a set of variables. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) on the other hand, is a more complex and sophisticated set of techniques used later in the research process to test (confirm) specific hypotheses or theories concerning the structure underlying a set of variables (Pallant, 2011; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007). Data for the current study was assessed using EFA at the initial stage. According to Hair et al. (2010), EFA can be used for examining the underlying patterns or relationships for a large number of variables and to determine whether the information can be condensed or summarized in a smaller set of factors or components. Drawing on Pallant’s (2011) view, three main steps were followed in carrying out EFA, thus, “(1) Assessment of the suitability of the data for factor analysis, (2) Factor extraction, and (3) Factor rotation and interpretation”. After EFA, a CFA was performed. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.10.2 Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) SEM is a statistical procedure for testing measurement, functional, predictive, and causal hypotheses (Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). SEM is also referred to “as causal modelling or analysis of covariance structures” (Ullman 2006, p.35). SEM is “a statistical method that takes a confirmatory approach to estimate a series of separate, but interdependent, multiple regression equations simultaneously with the considerations of measurement errors of latent variables” (Jöreskog et al., 1979, p.45). SEM was applied in examining the structural paths among the constructs (i.e. to test the various hypothesis proposed in this research). Two stage approaches, thus, one stage approach and two stage approach exist in the performance of SEM analysis and have been widely used by scholars. In this research, the two-stage approach is used to test the research model; the first stage was carried out in the exploratory phase while the second stage continues in the confirmatory phase. Researchers such as Anderson and Gerbing (1988) have severally posited that the two-stage approach avoids interaction that is unnecessary between constructs during testing of the structural model as compared to the one stage approach. Kline (2015) maintains that a test of the measurement model needs to be conducted because all of the correlations between constructs must be estimated before testing the structural model. In addition, the measurement model can assess whether the constructs meet the requirements of validity and reliability (Byrne, 2013). The measurement model for this study was tested through confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), where all constructs involved were assumed to covary with each other (Kline, 2015). 4.10.3 Testing Model Fitness Assessing model fit involves the interpretation of how well the conceptualized model fits the empirical research. The process is comparative in nature because it involves choosing between numerous fit indices that subjectively indicate whether the data fit the theoretically 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh postulated model (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012; Hair et al., 2010; Schumacker & Lomax, 2004). Scholars have proposed a number of fit indices. However, there are at least two main conventions for the assessment of model fit that are apparent in literature, thus, the assessment of the absolute fit of the model and the assessment of the comparative fit (Tanaka, 1993). Model fit criteria commonly used in absolute fit are chi-square (χ²), goodness-of-fit index (GFI), adjusted goodness-of-fit index (AGFI), root-mean-square residual (RMR) and Root-Mean-Square-Error of Approximation (RMSEA). These criteria are based on differences between the observed and model-implied correlation or covariance matrix (Hair et al., 2014). Comparative fit deals with whether the model being considered is better than a competing model in accounting for observed data. Comparative fit assessment is based on the examination of a “baseline” model in comparison with theoretically derived models (Kelloway, 1998). Some criteria in this category include normed fit index (NFI), comparative fit index (CFI) and the relative non-centrality index (RNI). The following fit indexes were used to evaluate how well the measurement model fit the data collected, with each one having conventionally acceptable values: RMSEA ≤ 0.08, GFI ≥ 0.90, NFI ≥ 0.90 and CFI ≥ 0.90 (Hair et al., 2014; Bagozzi & Yi, 2012; Hu & Bentler, 1999). The sufficiency of the theorized model’s creation of a covariance matrix is evaluated by the χ² goodness-of-fit value; it also estimates coefficients compared with the observed covariance matrix. However, since the value of χ² is affected by the sample size, a large number of participants can cause χ² to be inflated when assessing model fit (Hu &Bentler, 1999). Many researchers have applied the method that divides the value of χ² by degrees of freedom instead of relying only on the overall χ²and its associated test of significance. It is typically suggested that a Normed Chi-square of less than 3 is favorable for a large sample. These fit indices were employed to assess the strength and acceptability of the construct 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measurements. The selection of these fit indices was based on the classification proposed by Kline (2015) and Byrne (2013) as being the most commonly accepted criteria in social sciences. 4.11 Quality Criteria Extra cautiousness is usually required for a research of this nature, so as not to compromise the quality of the study. The utilization of various measures of reliability and validity provides the potency to achieve this goal (Yin, 1994). Scholars such as Golafshani (2003), Read (2013), and Roberts, Priest and Traynor (2006) explain that the methods of evaluating the soundness of a measurement to ensure that they are free of bias and distortion is termed as reliability and validity. According to Hair et al. (2014), questionnaires are considered dependable and suitable when the results given are alike when repeated. Thus, the study would yield the same results if replicated for the second time. 4.11.1 Reliability In the opinion of Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005), measuring the stability of a proposed measure is termed as reliability. Saunders et al. (2011) have severally stated that reliability is a sign of accuracy, precision and consistency of a measurement. There are scholars like Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2012) who are of the view that reliability is an indicator of a measurement of internal consistency, as well as, how appropriate items on the test measure the same construct or idea. In accordance with earlier scholars, Hinkin (1998) and Guy (1987) are of the view that ensuring consistency and stability of measurement over time is achieved through reliability measures. This means that, regardless of environmental factors, reliable item scale will not change. Malholtra and Briks (2007) has mentioned test-retest, alternative-forms, and internal consistency reliability approaches as three ways through which reliability can be accessed. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh However, Cronbach alpha coefficient is generally tested through the use of the internal consistency measurement scale items (see Hair et al., 2014; Pallant, 2011). In the opinion of Malholtra and Briks (2007) the easiest way of computing the internal consistency of a scale is using the split-half reliability. However, Cronbach alpha is the most commonly used test (Guy, 1987), this is because, consistency of an entire scale is assessed by measurement of reliability coefficient (Cronbach, 1951). Several scholars have continuously reiterated that achieving a reliability range of 0.5 to 0.6 is considered adequate when testing reliability of constructs even though a cronbach alpha is usually estimated to be over 0.6. Conversely, scholars such as Dawson (2002) and Hair et al. (2014) have used a more stringent rule of thumb cut-off of 0.7 to examine the sufficiency of reliability. Churchill and Iacobucci (2006), Hair et al. (2014), and Peter (1979) point out that in computing the cronbach alpha value, inter-correlations that subsist between samples of items must range between 0 and 1. In this study, reliability of the research instrument was tested and confirmed using Cronbach alphas, composite reliability (CR), and Average Variance Extracted (AVE). Composite reliability is a measure of the overall reliability of a collection of heterogeneous but similar items. The AVE on the other hand illustrates the amount of variance the items share with the construct it purports to measure. 4.11.2 Validity Zikmund et al. (2012) explain validity as the correctness of a measurement or the extent to which a score honestly represents a concept. Supporting this assertion, Burns and Bush (2014) reiterate that validity refers to the appropriateness of the measurements to assess the variable it claims to measure. The main types of validity espoused by research scholars are content validity, criterion validity and construct validity (Streiner, 2013). Content validity refers to the adequacy with which a measure or scale has sampled from the intended universe or domain of content. Criterion validity concerns the relationship between scale scores and 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some specified, measurable criterion. Construct validity involves testing a scale not against a single criterion but in terms of theoretically derived hypotheses concerning the nature of the underlying variable or construct. Construct validity comprises of two (2) sub-types: convergent validity and discriminant validity. In the study of Rezaei (2015), and Rezaei and Ghodsi (2014), discriminant validity was used in identifying the extent to which a construct is different from other constructs; while the convergent validity was used to ensure that the constructs identified are truly reflected by their indicators. In the works of Kim, Hwang, Zo and Lee (2016), and Rezaei (2015), discriminant validity was applied using construct correlations and cross-loading criterion, while convergent validity was applied using Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and factor loadings. In this research, content and construct validity were used to confirm the research instrument. Content validity was ensured by allowing senior marketing experts (both academia and practice) to peruse the scales used in the study; an initial test for convergent and discriminant validity employed in this research was an EFA (Anderson & Gerbing 1988). Constructs used in this study were subject to both EFA and CFA. The final measurement model was subjected to a SEM process in the analysis section to examine the various structural propositions postulated in the conceptual framework for the study. Results for both reliability and validity measures are presented in Chapter 5. 4.12 Ethical Consideration In any research, ethics is one of the most important issue researchers must consider and not overlook (Malhotra & Birks 2007). In accordance with this, the researcher took steps to make sure that no participant in this research work was harmed in any way. Potential ethical issues were therefore considered in the collection of data, analysis, and presentation of findings. This study process was guided by three ethical principles adopted from Denscombe (2014). These principles suggested that participants interest was protected, the 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh researcher avoided deception or misrepresentation, and participants provided their informed consent. 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.0 Introduction As stated in the earlier chapters, this section presents the data analysis and discussion of findings, and sets a pivotal stage for discussing the theoretical chapters with empirical evidence. The order in which the results are presented closely follows the research objectives proposed in the introduction section of this study. First, descriptive statistics of the scale variables are provided. This is followed by the results from the exploratory factor analysis (EFA) as well as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) for the constructs in the conceptual framework (i.e. novelty seeking, cultural experience, escape, ego enhancement, education/learning and rest and relaxation). In addition to this, various reliability and validity tests on the scales used in this research are carried out to validate and authenticate the final model obtained in the empirical data presentation. Finally, the chapter presents the structural model assessments as well as mediation tests evidenced in the conceptual framework for the study by use of structural equation modeling (SEM). 5.1 Data Screening and Treatment of Missing Data Data collected from the survey was coded, entered into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and screened for analysis. The screening process, according to Coakes and Steed (2001), involves scanning through the data to check for missing data and outliers that could skew the data and the results of the analysis. Two hundred and eighty-four (284) questionnaires were obtained from a total of three hundred and ten (310) distributed for the study, representing a 94% response rate due to the large number of tourists willing to participate in the study. From the data screening process, it was revealed that twenty-five (25) of the questionnaires obtained, representing 6%, are 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unusable due to incomplete data and/or biased responses or unreturned questionnaires. There were no missing data from the remaining two hundred and eight five (285) questionnaires, hence they were usable for the analysis of the data. 5.2 Demographic Profile of Respondents The demographic profile of the respondents sought to describe the demographics of international tourists who visited Ghana. It also gives an impression of how the respondents’ engagement is related to destination product satisfaction and if that would inform their revisit intension. Table 5.1 depicts the frequency and percentages of the various demographic variables describing the respondents. The participants in the survey were profiled according to age, gender, educational level, country of origin, how they arrived in Ghana, where they heard about the destination, and whether if it is their first visit. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.1: Demographic Profile of Respondent Profile of respondents Descriptions Frequency Percentage Mean SD Age 2.6 0.69 Under 20 years 4 1.4 21-30 years 144 50.7 31-40 years 114 40.1 41-50 years 19 6.7 Above 50 years 3 1.1 Gender 1.6 0.49 Male 118 41.5 Female 166 58.5 Country of Origin 3.9 0.71 Nigeria 2 0.7 Spain 8 2.8 UK 44 15.5 USA 191 67.3 Germany 34 12 Other Countries 5 1.8 Arrival in Ghana 1.06 0.23 By Air 267 94 By Road 17 6 Employment Status 2.08 0.92 Unemployed 73 25.7 Salaried Worker 139 48.9 Self-employed 59 20.8 Retired 1 0.4 Others 12 4.2 Destination Knowledge 1.7 0.9 Internet 145 51.1 I already know it 99 34.9 Friends & Family 26 9.2 Books & Guides 8 2.8 Others 6 2.1 Total Valid Responses (N) = 284; Missing = 0 for all variables presented (Source: Field Data, 2019) 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From Table 5.1, it can be observed that, from a total of 284 respondents the majority were between the ages of 21-30 years. This was closely followed by those in the range of 31 to 40 years, representing 50.7% and 40.1% respectively. Those ranging from 41 to 50 years, 20 years and above and 50 years and above were represented by 6.7%, 1.4% and 1.1% respectively. This is an indication of the youthful nature of the respondents. The statistics on the gender of the 284 respondents depicts that 41.5% of them were male, while female constituted 58.5%. In terms of their country of origin, 0.7% of the 285 respondents were Nigerians, 2.8% from Spain, 15.5% from UK, 12% from Germany, 1.8% from other countries with the large number of 67.3% respondents from the United States of America. This is an indication that, to a very large extent, most of the respondents that visited the destination came from different countries to explore the destinations attribute. The large majority of tourists that visited the destination arrived by air as that is indicated by 94% of the respondents with 6% arriving by road. The tourists that visited got to know about the destination through various means. It is worth nothing that the large of the tourist got to know about the destination through the internet as that was represented by 51.1%, tourists who already knew about the destination represented 34.9%, those that got to know about it through family and friends represented 9.3% of the total number of respondents, 2.8% knew about the destination through books and guides, while 2.1% represented a portion of the respondents that got to know about the destination through other means. This therefore represents a fair share of tourist’s knowledge about the destination. 5.3 Descriptive Statistics and Tests of Normality In studies involving human participants, prior to doing any of the statistical analyses (e.g. t- test, ANOVA, correlation), it is important to subject the data to descriptive analysis before any further data validation and analysis (Pallant, 2011). These descriptive statistics include measures of central tendency such as means, standard deviation, standard error mean, and 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh many others. The table below shows the descriptive statistics of the variables used in the survey instrument. They indicate the extent to which the respondents disagreed or agreed with the statements in the questionnaire and indicate how each statement performed from the respondent’s point of view. From the table the highest mean was 4.28 (I visited this destination because of the prestige that comes with it) while the lowest means was 3.77 (This destination gives me an experience of a simple lifestyle, I am in this destination to visit historical sites, I will speak highly of this tourist destination to my friends and colleagues ). This gives an indication that tourists that visited the destination engaged in this touristic activity because of the prestige that comes with the visit. However, some of the tourist indicated that they were unsure if the destination offered a simple lifestyle, neither were they at the destination to visit historical sites and may not speak highly of the destination to their friends and colleagues). The 33 variables displayed in Table 5.2 below represented the components of the eight main constructs depicted in the conceptual framework for the study; Satisfaction (SS) Revisit Intentions (RI), Novelty Seeking (NS), Cultural Experience (CE), Escape (EP), Rest & Relaxation (RR), Ego Enhancement (EE), and Education/Learning (EL). 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.2: Descriptive Statistics and Test of Normality of Variables Scale Item Code Mean SE Mean Std Deviation Novelty Seeking I visited this destination to engage in an event NS1 3.92 0.064 1.084 This destination has always been on my bucket list NS2 3.99 0.065 1.088 The urge to discover new places NS3 3.96 0.065 1.224 The desire to explore new destinations NS4 4.08 0.071 1.191 Cultural Experience I visited to see the arts and craft of this destination CE1 3.96 0.065 1.102 I like the folklore of this destination CE2 4.14 0.063 1.066 I interacted with different ethnic groups CE3 3.75 0.064 1.079 I attended a festival while at this destination CE4 4.11 0.007 1.186 Ego Enhancement I travelled to this destination to discover something new EE1 4.25 0.007 1.186 I visited this destination because of the prestige that comes with it EE2 4.28 0.067 1.136 To be the first among my peers to have discovered this destination EE3 4.26 0.069 1.168 To strive for a homestay with a family EE4 3.97 0.066 1.118 Escape I visited this destination to get away from the familiar EP1 4.02 0.07 1.177 The desire to explore a new life and culture EP2 4.14 0.067 1.125 The destination offers me a break from everyday routine EP3 4.13 0.069 1.163 To break away from boredom EP4 4.26 0.065 1.104 Rest & Relaxation I visited this destination to take a break from my everyday job RR1 4.05 0.068 1.153 This destination offers me the opportunity to relieve stress RR2 4.16 0.066 1.109 This destination gives me an experience of a simple lifestyle RR3 3.77 0.067 1.453 This destination offers me the opportunity of to rest RR4 4.00 0.065 1.098 Education/Learning I am in this destination to visit historical sites EL1 3.77 0.067 1.122 This destination offers lots of cultural events (festivals, music, food) EL2 3.93 0.066 1.11 This destination has tour sites that offer basic skills to tourists. EL3 3.78 0.064 1.078 This destination has available information about tour sites EL4 4.05 0.067 1.131 Satisfaction I was satisfied with the services at the destination SS1 4.05 0.066 1.110 My expectations were met SS2 4.20 0.063 1.058 Compared to other destinations I will always choose this destination SS3 3.92 0.069 1.156 The visit to this tourist destination exceeded my expectations. SS4 4.01 0.066 1.115 I will speak highly of this tourist destination to my friends and colleagues. SS5 3.77 0.066 1.107 Revisit Intentions If I had to decide again, I will choose this destination again RI1 4.02 0.057 0.966 I will recommend this destination to my friends RI2 3.94 0.061 1.025 I will recommend this destination to my friends RI3 4.00 0.063 1.053 I feel at home at this destination RI4 4.01 0.061 1.023 (Source: Field Data, 2019) 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Exploratory Factor Analysis The 33 items used for the scales on the conceptual constructs were factor analyzed and subjected to principal components analysis (PCA) using SPSS version 22. Prior to performing PCA, the suitability of data for factor analysis was assessed. The Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin (KMO) value was 0.957, exceeding the recommended value of 0.6 (Kaiser, 1970) and Bartletts Test of Sphericity (Bartlett, 1954) reached statistical significance (Approx.: Chi- square= 7958.412, df. 528, sig. 0.000). This confirms that there was a significant correlation among the variables, thus, factor analysis was appropriate. Table 5.2 below displays the results of the KMO and Bartlett's Test which was ran for the data obtained from the respondents. The PCA also revealed the presence of 8 components with eigenvalues exceeding 1. The 8-component solution altogether explained 76.459 % of the variance, with the highest component contributing 53.02% and the lowest component contributing 2.107%. Table 5.3: KMO and Bartlett's Test Table 5.2: Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling .957 Adequacy. Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi-Square 7958.412 Sphericity Df 528 Sig. .000 5.4.1 Varimax Rotation and Reliability of the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) The thirty-three (33) items were subjected to rotations to further interpret the eight (8) components. The assumption behind this exercise is to assess variables with strong loadings on a specific component. Hair et al (2014) suggested a loading of .5 as adequately strong, however the current study considered .6 and above item loadings for further analysis of the 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh remaining items. The remaining items were further assessed to measure their level of reliability. The assumption of reliability testing is to determine whether the constructs could be replicated and achieve similar result in another context (Malhotra & Birks, 2007). The most widely used indicator to assess the reliability of the measurement scales for surveys is Cronbach’s alpha coefficients. The reliability assessment is undertaken to ensure that, items making up the scales are internally consistent (Pallant, 2011). Pallant (2011) and Hair et al (2014) suggested .7 and greater as an ideal value for reliability of the scales for surveys to aid managerial decisions, although a threshold of .6 is acceptable in exploratory study. 5.5 Data Purification The Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) helped in determining the internal consistencies of all measurement scales and items that fell below the threshold were excluded from the study. The eventual thirty-three (33) items that remained were reworded into new questionnaire to test the relationships among the constructs. This is in accordance with recommendations suggested by scholars (Blunch, 2008; Byrne, 2013). The thirty-three (33) item questionnaire was redesigned to collect data from three hundred and ten (284) international tourists that chose Ghana as their preferred destination. The variable codes used in the exploratory study is maintained in the Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA). 5.5.1 Profile of respondents for the confirmatory factor analysis The demographic profiles of respondents included in the study are presented in the Table 5.4 below. Respondents for the study have been profiled according to gender of respondents; age of respondents, gender, country of origin, means of arrival at the destination, employment status, where they heard about the destination, and whether it is their first visit. 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.4: Demographic profile of Respondents Profile of respondents Descriptions Frequency Percentage Under 20 Age years 4 1.4 21-30 years 144 50.7 31-40 years 114 40.1 41-50 years 19 6.7 Above 50 years 3 1.1 Gender Male 118 41.5 Female 166 58.5 Country of Origin Nigeria 2 0.7 Spain 8 2.8 UK 44 15.5 USA 191 67.3 Germany 34 12 Other Countries 5 1.8 Arrival in Ghana By Air 267 94 By Road 17 6 Employment Status Unemployed 73 25.7 Salaried Worker 139 48.9 Self-employed 59 20.8 Retired 1 0.4 Others 12 4.2 Is this your first visit Yes 152 53.5 No 132 46.5 Destination Knowledge Internet 145 51.1 I already know it 99 34.9 Friends & Family 26 9.2 Books & Guides 8 2.8 Others 6 2.1 Source: Field Data, 2019 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the above table, the first item captured was age. The results from the study indicated that majority of the respondents who took part in the survey have their age bracket fallen between the ages of 21-30 years representing 50.7%. The second item on the demographic variable was gender. The outcome of the survey revealed that majority of the respondents were female representing fifty-eight-point five percent (58.5%). The researcher intended to identify respondents’ country of origin. The outcome of the study indicated that, the large number of tourists that visited the destination were from USA with a percentage of 67.3% with 0.7% being the lowest and these were tourist that visited the destination from Nigeria. The rest of the tourists were from the UK, Germany, Spain and other countries not mentioned above. This represented by 15.5%, 12%, 2.8% and 1.8% respectively. The table indicated that 94% of the respondents arrived at the destination by air with the remaining 6% by road. 5.6 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) Running EFA alone to establish a construct is not sufficient to determine its dimensionality. Rather the technique must be complemented with CFA. One of the major advantages of CFA is the ability to estimate multiple interrelated dependence relationships (Hair et al. 2010; Bagozzi & Yi, 2012). Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) using AMOS was employed since it relies on multiple statistical tests to describe the overall strength of a model’s predictions (Jöreskog et al., 1979). There are a number of goodness-of-fit measures that need to be combined to assess the results from three perspectives: overall fit, comparative fit to a base model, and model parsimony (Hair et al., 2010; Byrne, 2013). As a result of the multiple perspective evaluation, Bollen (1989) suggests that determining an acceptable model fit ultimately rests with the researcher. Hence, the researcher selected the commonly acceptable fit indices used in social research. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.6.1 Measurement Models Research scholars have suggested that testing of a structural model may be meaningless unless it is established that the measurement model holds; if the chosen indicators for a construct do not measure that construct, the specified theory must be modified before it can be tested (Bagozzi & Yi, 2012). In this regard, it is imperative to report the characteristics of the measurement model that will subsequently be used for addressing the structural hypotheses. The measurement models of the eight constructs (NS, CE, EP, EE, EL, RR, RI, SS) were assessed through a CFA. It must be noted that the variable codes stipulated in the exploratory analysis were maintained in the confirmatory stage. As a result, the codes represent the scale statements indicated earlier in this chapter. An initial output generated from the AMOS software revealed some unfit indices (see Table 5.5 below). As a result, there was the need for modifications and further purifications (Kline, 2015). Possible modifications to the proposed model may be indicated through the examination of the modification’s indices from the AMOS output file. It is strongly suggested that theory and content should always be considered in making model modifications. In a parallel vein, Hair et al. (2010, p. 713) stated that “the most common change would be the deletion of an item that does not perform well with respect to the model integrity, model fit, or construct validity”. Consequently, the original measurement model was then subjected to modification according to the sizes of factor loadings, cross loadings, measurement errors, and correlation between measurement errors. In the case of this investigation, the AMOS software output suggested modification of some items via stage-by-stage deletion/re-specifications of some weak variables. However, the re-specifications were not theoretically coherent and could result in the danger of empirical modifications without theoretical justifications (Hair et al., 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2014). As a result, scale items were rather dropped/deleted systematically to ensure that the deletion of each item was necessary. During the modification (phase II) of the original unfitted model, two items were deleted from Novel Seeking, two items from Cultural Experience, one item from Ego Enhancement, one item from Escape, two items from Rest & Relaxation, two times from Satisfaction, two items from Education/Learning and one item from Revisit Intentions. Thus, thirteen (13) items were eliminated after the CFA which left the new purified constructs with 20 items which provided the best fit indices. Table 5.5 below presents the improvement of the goodness-of-fit indexes as a result of modifications to the measurement model. Table 5. 5: Improvement in Fit of Measurement Research Model RMSEA NFI RFI IFI TLI CFI χ² /df Phase 1: Original Model 0.075 0.852 0.832 0.9 0.885 0.899 2.776 Phase 2: Deleted: NS (1,2); CE (3,4); EE (1) EP (3), RR (3,4); SS (3,5) EL (1,3); RI (1) 0.069 0.932 0.909 0.960 0.945 0.959 2.362 Source: Field Data, 2019 5.6.2 Validity and Reliability of Final Measurement model The reliability measures in this study are above the acceptable satisfactory levels (Cronbach’s alphas > .70, Average Variance Extracted > .50, composite reliability > .70) as recommended by scholars (Fornell & Larcker, 1981; Vandenbosch, 1996; Nunnally, 1978). Furthermore, the factor loadings showed good convergent validity. The resulting validity and reliability indicators of the final measurement model are displayed in tables 5.6 and 5.7 below. Thus, the measurement model represented in Table 5.6 and Fig 5.1 below is regarded as the model which adequately fits the data for this research. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.6: Validity and Reliability results for CFA Final Measurement Model Standardized Cronbach's Constructs Items Loading CR AVE α Novelty Seeking (NS) NS3 0.769 0.826 0.704 0.82 NS4 0.904 Cultural Experience (CE) CE1 0.841 0.855 0.746 0.845 CE2 0.886 Ego Enhancement (EE) EE1 0.899 0.936 0.829 0.935 EE2 0.918 EE3 0.914 Escape (EP) EP1 0.83 0.874 0.698 0.872 EP2 0.866 EP4 0.81 Education/Learning (EL) EL2 0.75 0.764 0.619 0.763 EL4 0.822 Rest & Relaxation (RR) RR1 0.844 0.821 0.696 0.821 RR2 0.824 Satisfaction (SS) SS1 0.796 0.838 0.633 0.835 SS2 0.818 SS4 0.772 Revisit Intentions (RI) RI2 0.871 0.882 0.713 0.88 RI3 0.866 RI4 0.794 Table 5.7 below shows that the squares of the correlations of the individual constructs were less than the Average Variance Extracted (AVE), indicating its support for discriminatory validity. Several studies have validated this approach and certified that, in the assessment of the discriminant validity, each construct’s AVE’s must be compared with the squared correlations between each pair of the variables. Segars (1997) and Anderson and Gerbing (1988) indicate that AVE’s which are greater than any squared correlation suggest discriminant validity has been achieved. 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.7: Correlation Matrix Items NS CE EE EP EL RR SS RI NS 1 CE .664** 1 EE .662** .647** 1 EP .594** .675** .833** 1 EL .514** .556** .700** .746** 1 RR .355** .423** .549** .582** .545** 1 SS .558** .571** .724** .813** .851** .545** 1 RI .500** .553** .646** .753** .760** .546** .788** 1 Note: Average Variances extracted (AVE) are on the diagonal; squared correlations are off diagonal. The AVEs for each construct are far greater than the corresponding inter-construct square correlations, thereby supporting discriminant validity. Source: Field Survey (2019) Figure 5.1: Final Measurement Model 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5. 8: Measurement Model Fit Indices Threshold Value Chi square (CMIN) 7958.412 DF 142 CIMIN/DF ≤3 2.362 Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI) ≤.90 0.892 RMSEA ≤.80 0.069 Normed Fit Index (NFI) ≥.90 0.932 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) ≥.90 0.959 Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) ≥.90 0.945 Relative Fit Index (RFI) ≥.90 0.909 Incremental Fit Index (IFI) ≥.90 0.960 SRMR 0.044 Source: Field survey (June, 2019) Table 5.8 reports the measures used to test the fitness of the model. The use of at least three fit indices has been recommended as essential in verifying the fitness of the model. Popular indices used in structural equation modelling recommended by scholars are considered in the table above (Hair et al., 2010; Holmes-Smith et al., 2006). From the table, it can be deduced that the various measures indicate that the fitness of the model are beyond reproach. The Chi-square value was 7958.412 and Degree of Freedom (DF) was 142 which indicates a statistical value of 2.362 representing CMIN/DF which is within the threshold of less than three (<3). The Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) was the second measure that was deployed to test for the fitness of the model. The RMSEA value obtained (0.069) was within acceptable range of 0.80 or less, further corroborating the fitness of the model (Diamantopoulos & Siguaw, 2000). The incremental fit measures were used because they provide a comparison between the proposed model and the null model (Hair et al., 2010). The Normed Fit Index (NFI) was the first incremental measure reported, and the value obtained was 0.932, which indicated a near perfect fit (Hair et al., 2010). The Comparative Fit Indices (CFI) was also used as a measure 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to support the NFI given that the NFI does not control for degrees of freedom. CFI values are said to be acceptable when they fall within the range of 0.90 or greater. The CFI value obtained for this study was 0.959, further certifying the fitness of the model. The Tucker- Lewis Index (TLI) had a good value which fell within the accepted range of 0.90 or greater (Hair et al., 2010) and the value was .945. All the incremental fit measures indicated that the model was fit as indicated in the table above. 5.7 Measurements Model for Final SEM This study also modeled each individual construct, namely Novelty Seeking, Cultural Experience, Ego Enhancement, Escape, Rest & Relaxation, and Education/Learning, and assessed its measurement model. The six constructs having been hypothesized indicated that there is a direct relationship between destination selecting selection and revisit intentions. Table 5.8 below shows that all the values were above the minimum required level. Figure 5. 2: Measurement Model for Final SEM 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5. 9 Model Fit Indices for Individual Constructs Threshold Value Chi square (CMIN) 317.626 DF 112 CIMIN/DF ≤3 2.836 Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI) ≥.80 0.881 RMSEA ≥.80 0.081 Normed Fit Index (NFI) ≥.90 0.920 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) ≥.90 0.947 Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) ≥.90 0.903 Relative Fit Index (RFI) ≥.90 0.903 Incremental Fit Index (IFI) ≥.90 0.947 SRMR 0.60 5.8 Structural Equation Model The proposed model for this research is best tested with a dependence method such as regression analysis or structural equation modeling techniques (Hair et al., 2014). However, given the complexity of the framework/model, and the fact that interrelationships between latent constructs were of interest, regression analysis was not considered suitable; hence the application of structural equation modeling. Testing the structural model is the main stage of an SEM analysis, after all constructs are validated and the measurement model is fit (Anderson & Gerbing, 1988; Kline, 2015).Byrne (2013) argues that structural models aim to specify which latent constructs directly or indirectly influence the values of other latent constructs in the model. Therefore, the structural model conducted in this study was intended to test some hypothetical propositions based on the conceptual framework for this research. Figure 5.3 below present proposed model for the study and Table 5.10 presents its corresponding indices indicating the fitness level of the proposed model. 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5. 3: Proposed Model The above model postulate that, Destination Selection Determinants (DCD) is conceptualized in this study as representing six dimensions or forces that propels an individual in choosing a tourist’s destination. These dimensions or forces are Novelty Seeking, Cultural Experience, Ego Enhancement, Escape, Rest & Relaxation, and Education/Learning. These six dimensions has been hypothesized as having direct effect on tourists selecting a destination. Satisfaction is introduced to assess the level of its impact on revisit intentions when mediated between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5. 10: Proposed Model Fit Indices Threshold Value Chi square (CMIN) 493.015 DF 161 CIMIN/DF ≤3 2.062 Goodness-of-Fit Indices (GFI) ≥.90 0.852 RMSEA ≤.80 0.085 Normed Fit Index (NFI) ≥.90 0.900 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) ≥.90 0.930 Tucker Lewis Index (TLI) ≥.90 0.917 Relative Fit Index (RFI) ≥.90 0.881 Incremental Fit Index (IFI) ≥.90 0.930 SRMR 0.063 Source: Field survey (June, 2019) 5.8.1 Analysis of Hypothesized Relationship This section presents the results for the hypothesized relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. Six hypotheses were set and all of them were analyzed. The first analysis looked at all the direct relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions followed by individual dimension of the determinants on Satisfaction. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5. 11: Hypothesized Relationship Path Hypothesis Std. S.E. t- p- Outcome β value value Novelty Seeking—› Revisit 1 0.15 0.131 1.028 0.304 Not Intentions Supported Cultural Experience —› 2 0.17 0.114 1.304 0.192 Not Revisit Intentions Supported Ego Enhancement—› Revisit 3 0.54 0.17 2.421 0.015 Supported Intentions Escape—› Revisit Intentions 4 0.59 0.305 1.597 0.110 Not Supported Education/Learning—› 5 0.84 0.233 3.304 *** Supported Revisit Intentions Rest & Relaxation—› Revisit 6 0.00 0.067 0.023 0.982 Not Intentions Supported Source: Field survey (June, 2019) The above table highlight the direct relationship between the conceptualized destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The outcome of the result suggests that, there is a direct relationship between the destination selection determinants and revisit intentions with respect to tourists that visited Ghana and this is indicated in the table above. H1 and H3 were both statistically significant in predicting that the ability to learn about a destination offering and the prestige that comes with visiting the destination are key determinants to which tourists visit Ghana. This suggests that, each of the two conceptualized dimension of destination selection determinants can influence revisit 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intentions significantly. The beta estimates of six constructs of destination selection determinants indicates Education/Learning (β=0.84) as the most influential in predicting revisit intentions of tourists to Ghana. The path diagram of the direct relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions is represented in the figure 5.4 below: Revisit 0.54 Intentions E go Enhancement 0.84(***) Education/ Learning Figure 5.4 Hypotheses Testing 5.8.2 Testing for Mediation Effect This section of the analysis seeks to assess the mediating effect of satisfaction between destination section determinants and revisit intentions. The table below presents full details of the mediation effect of the proposed framework: 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5. 12: Mediation effect Relationships Direct Direct with Indirect Mediation Without mediation Effect Effect Mediation Destination Selection Determinants 0.85(***) 0.42 0.43 (0.172) No →Satisfaction →Revisit Intentions (0.004) Mediation Education/Learning→ Satisfaction→ 0.839 (***) 0.116 0.614(0.041) Full Revisit Intentions (0.499) Mediation Ego Enhancement→ Satisfaction→ 0.543 (0.015) 0.369 0.199(0.227) No Revisit Intentions (0.072) Mediation As indicated in the table above, using bootstrapping, destination selection determinants achieved no mediation with satisfaction to influence revisit intentions. The disentangled of the destination selection determinants into six dimensions also produced two mediations effect with satisfaction to influence revisit intentions. Education/Learning dimensions of the conceptualized destination selection determinants model for this study achieved full mediation effect with satisfaction to influence destination selection determinants on revisit intentions by tourists that visit destination Ghana. On the other hand, ego enhancement achieved no mediation with satisfaction to influence destination selection determinants on revisit intentions. This is highlighted in the figure below: 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ego Enhancement Revisit Satisfaction Intentions Education/ Learning Figure 5. 5: Post-Study Conceptual framework for Mediation 5.9 Test of Moderation The role of socio-demographic variables has also been studied in relation to tourist’s destination choice. In a study conducted by Wong et al. (1999), they reported on how gender, marital status, age, education and income impact the job-related motivators of tourists. Socio-demographic variables do not only reflect holiday destination choice but also play a role in the customer complaint behavior and service quality perceptions as noted by Mohsin (2003) and Heung and Lam (2003). Hence, literature suggests the importance of studying socio-demographic variables to facilitate understanding, managing, and promoting a destination and/ or facility. It is hypothesized in this study that destination selection determinants have a direct relationship with revisit intension and in this relationship, ego enhancement and education have been found to be very significant to tourists that choose Ghana as their preferred destination. Using these two key determinants, there is therefore the need to test this 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh relationship with a demographic variable, hence, a moderating effect. Among the socio- demographic variables, country of origin was selected to moderate the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The moderating effect of country of origin was tested and analyzed as represented in the figures below. The study showed that country of origin of tourists can cause a variation in the relationship between the destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The moderating effects of country of origin was tested and analyzed as presented in figure 5.6, figure5.7 & figure 5.8. To carry out the tests of moderation, multiple regression analysis with interactions was used. The composite scales derived from the CFA analysis are used as continuous variables with the interaction effects applied (that’s, the moderating effect of COO on DSD---->RI, COO on EDU ----> RI, and COO on EE---->RI paths). According to Baron and Kenny (1986), in a moderation test the interaction/moderating term(s) should be a statistically significant predictor symptom of the relationship between the constructs being tested, as well as be able to change the direction and/or strength of the relationship. Figures 5.6, 5.7, and 5.8 graphically illustrates the moderation effects of Country of Origin (COO) on the relationship between Destination Selection Determinant (DSD), Education (EDU), Ego Enhancement (EE) and Revisit Intentions (RI), respectively. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 4.5 4 3.5 Moderator 3 Low Country of Origin 2.5 High Country of Origin 2 1.5 1 Low DetermntsHigh Determnts Figure 5. 6: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin on Destination Selection Determinants (DSD) & Revisit Intentions (RI). Country of Origin strengthens the positive relationship between Determinants and Revisit Intentions. 5 4.5 4 3.5 Moderator 3 Low Country of Origin 2.5 High Country of Origin 2 1.5 1 Low Edu High Edu Figure 5. 7: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin (COO) on Education (EDU) & Revisit Intentions (RI). 91 Revisit Intensions Revisit Intensions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Country of origin strengthens the positive relationship between Edu and Revisit. 5 4.5 4 3.5 Moderator 3 Low Country of Origin 2.5 High Country of Origin 2 1.5 1 Low Ego High Ego Figure 5. 8: Test of Moderation Effect of Country of Origin (COO) on Ego Enhancement (EE) & Revisit Intentions (RI). Country of Origin strengthens the positive relationship between Ego and Revisit. 5.10 Discussion of Results The main objective of this study is primarily to ascertain the key determinants of tourist’s visit to a destination and the roles of satisfaction and socio-demographic factors on their revisit intentions. The fundamental question underlying the current study is thus articulated as: What informs your choice of a tourist’s destination and your revisit intentions? In an attempt to address this question, the study sought to evaluate three key questions which cumulated into both theoretical and empirical investigations in the previous chapters. The major results found from the current research have been deliberated upon in relation to previous literature on the subject/ themes under discussion. These are discussed in detail 92 Revisit Intensions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh based on the research questions and study objectives in the subsequent section of this chapter. 5.10.1 Establish the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions The first objective showed that there is a significant relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions of tourists that selected Ghana as their preferred tourist destination. Results of the study indicate that the destination selection determinants are the underlying factors that define tourist motivation to visit destination Ghana. This affirms the findings of Pollard et al. (2002) and Amuquandoh (2011) who are of the view that tourists travel for several reason. Some of these reasons may include the desire to spend time with family and/or friends as well as a need to meet new people beyond the normal circle of acquaintance. These reasons serve a strong motivational factor for tourists to choose a destination to visit and or participate in a touristic activity. The experiences from the destination visited helps in creating lasting memories worth sharing. 5.10.2 The mediating roles of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The second objective of this study seeks to assess the mediating role of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The study pointed out that the disintegration of the constructs of the destination selection determinants into individual components revealed that education/learning and ego enhancement are a major predictor of tourist revisit intentions. The study also revealed that Education/Learning manifested as one of the predictors of tourist satisfaction due to the tangible and intangible manifestations of the destination demonstrating the ability to offer tourists the opportunity to explore and experience the destination's attributes. According to Jarvis & Peel (2008), tourists that travel for educational purposes fulfill their desires of travelling through a socially legitimate travel 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motivation. An Australian study found that this group of tourists, accounting for about 29% of the total nights spent in the destination, and contributed an estimated $3 billion per year to the Australian economy (Jarvis & Peel, 2008). Evidence from the current study has revealed, most of the respondents who took part in the survey believe that education or visiting to learn about a new destination influence tourist selection of a destination and their revisit intentions. The partial nature of satisfaction mediating between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions with respect to tourists that visit Ghana can be considered a destination marketing strategy. To further assess the significance of satisfaction mediating between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions, Chi and Qu (2008) and Santouridis and Trivellas (2010) were of the view that satisfaction is a significant determinant of a repeat visit. Similarly, previous studies have also suggested that when tourists’ holiday expectations are met or exceeded at the destination visited, they are more likely to return in the future or recommend the destination to their friends and family (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Oliver, 2010; Som, Marzuki,). Chi & Qu (2008) and Santouridis and Trivellas (2010), for instance, observed that overall satisfaction on travel experience is a major antecedent of revisit intention. Based on these findings, this study puts forward that satisfaction with trip experience would have a positive influence on tourists’ revisit intention to Ghana. 5.10.3 The influence of social demographic factors on destination selection determinants. In discussing the determinants that influence tourist’s choice of a destination, Weaver and Oppermann (2000) argue that demographic transformation has increased the propensity of the population to engage in tourism-related activities and to a large extent influence their choice of a destination. This was better clarified by Huang and Xiao (2000) who suggested that such research is significant in that they may extend the breadth of knowledge of tourism 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh behavior, on the one hand, and on the other hand, contribute to destination management and planning. Their study revealed that gender differentiation and occupational composition exert significant influence on behavior patterns and attraction preferences of leisure-based tourists to Changchun. In consolidation with previous findings, this study found that country of origin as one of the demographic variables strengthens the positive relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions, such that the higher the country of origin, the greater the determinants resulting in revisit intentions. This can be interpreted as socio-demographic variables play a role in tourists’ choice of Ghana as their destination. This is also evident from the significant number of travelers who visit the destination from the different continent of the world for purposes such as education, thus, to learn about the destination’s attributes and offerings or for ego-enhancement, thus, for the prestige associated with visiting a new place or destination. The implications of the study are therefore pertinent as it reinforces the importance of destination marketing and economic variables as determinants of destination choice. The results also showed that the country of origin of tourists has an influence on their choice of a destination and when satisfied with the destinations offering; they may want to return to it. Indeed, testing this hypothesis with the current data set showed that country of origin strengthens the relationship with the destination selection determinants. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0 Introduction The preceding chapter presented the results of quantitative data analysis and a discussion of the study results. This chapter goes on to provide a summary of the major findings of the study, conclusions in accordance with the study objectives, the implication of the study to management and practice, contributions and implications of the research, study limitations and further research directions. 6.1 Study Summary This research commenced with the main goal of understanding the determinants that motivate tourists in selecting a destination and what informs their revisit intentions. In detail, it inquired the mediating role played by satisfaction and how that influence revisits intentions. The role-played socio-demographic factors were also moderated against some of the determinants to ascertain their influence on revisit intentions of tourists that visit Ghana. The rationale behind this is to understand what informs tourist’s choice of visiting or choosing Ghana as their preferred destination. In attempting to address the goals of the study, previous literature on tourist’s destination, travel motivation, tourist’s satisfaction and revisit intention, travel determinants and socio- demographic variable (Sirakaya and Woodside,2005; Buhalis, 2000; Yoon and Uysal, 2005, Prayag, 2012; Lam et al.,2004; Zeithaml et al., 1996; Santouridis & Trivellas, 2010; Weaver, McCleary, Lepisto and Damonte,1994) were extensively reviewed. From the critical review of literature, some major factors of destination selection determinants and their impact on revisit intentions and tourist satisfaction intents at a destination were drawn. From this, a conceptual framework was developed using these factors with a focus on the roles of 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfaction and socio-demographic variables or factors, thus, formulating hypotheses applicable to the study. The study’s context was also discussed in relation to the travel industry in Ghana. The study was quantitative in nature and adopted a survey strategy with structured questionnaires as the data collection instrument. The study framework and objectives formed the basis for questionnaire development. A total of three hundred and ten (310) questionnaires were sent out. Out of which Two hundred and eighty-four (284) was considered for the data analysis as the remaining twenty-six (26) were not returned and others not well administered. International leisure tourists that visited Accra, Cape Coast, Elmina, and Kumasi were selected as the study sample using the convenience sampling technique. An analysis of data was done using descriptive statistics, exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis, and structural equation modeling as quantitative data allow for numerical demonstration and operation of data for gaining explanations of a phenomenon as depicted by the data. It also helped in the test of hypotheses and generalizing the study results. 6.2 Summary of Major Study Findings This section discusses the major findings from the data analysis based on the study objectives. To establish the relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The first objective of the study provided evidence for the justification that there is a relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions of tourists that visit Ghana. Gunn (1972) is of the view that without attractions there is no tourism, thus though tourists may be motivated to choose a destination based on any of the determinants, 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the destination’s attractions or offerings plays a role in tourists’ choice and even their revisit intentions. The implication of this finding is that though there are several determinants that can motivate a tourist to visit a destination, the destination’s appeal lies in the attractions and products including but not limited to the ancillary services offered by the managers of the destination. This must be considered as a critical destination marketing construct that can influence revisit intentions of tourists that choose Ghana as their preferred destination. Assess the mediating roles of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions The second objective of the study sought to assess the role of satisfaction on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. The study revealed that although the dimensions or constructs introduced were significant in influencing revisit intentions of tourists, Education/Learning and Ego Enhancement produced a more positive significant relationship (β= 0.84(***), β= 0.54). Out of the two (2), Education/ Learning required full mediation as a destination selection determinant on revisit intention. This, therefore, implies that tourists that visit Ghana usually want to learn about the destinations offering and visit tour sites that provide them with enough knowledge and a learning experience. Others also visited to enhance their ego; thus, offering them the prestige that comes with experiencing a new destination and perhaps being the first among their peers to have visited the destination. Destination Marketers must, therefore, take advantage of this by ensuring that the travel products and services that are packaged for these tourists to meet their specific travel demand. Determine the influence of social demographic factors on destination selection determinants. The third objective intended to determine the influence of socio-demographic factors on destination selection determinants. The study found out that country of origin strengthens 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the positive relationship between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions, such that the higher of origin, the greater the revisit intentions. This can be interpreted as socio-demographic variables play a role in tourists’ choice of Ghana as their preferred destination. The more tourists that come from a particular country, it is an indication that they are pleased with the destination’s attributes and offerings; hence may recommend it to others once they experience it. The implications of the study are therefore relevant as it reinforces the importance of marketing and economic variables as determinants of destination choice. It is therefore evident from the findings of this study that, country of origin has a greater positive effect on destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. It strengthens revisit intentions resulting from the motivation derived from selecting the destination, such that their relationship is positive and significant, which hitherto was not; hence the destination visited can be recommended to others to visit. 6.3 Conclusions The current study established that there is a relation between destination selection determinants and revisit intentions. According to Brown and Lehto (2005), tourism brings people with different cultural and geopolitical landscapes together for the purpose of exploring a destination offering. Based on the aforementioned, the findings of education/learning and ego enhancement as a motivational factor in influencing revisit intention with the introduction of satisfaction is not strange because tourists as part of their holiday experiences desire to explore new places with the hope of sharing those experiences. This is an indication that when tourists are fulfilled with their travel experience at a destination, they would be prepared to make a return visit to where they received such experience and even recommend it to others. The study, therefore, observed a positive bearing of tourist satisfaction on their revisit intention. This finding is consistent with the Yoon and Uysal’s (2005) model which served 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as the conceptual basis for the study. (Parasuraman, Zeithaml & Berry, 1994; Santouridis & Trivellas, 2010). The model establishes that tourists are willing to go back to a particular destination if they feel satisfied. The study also established that Country of Origin as a socio- demographic variable strengthens the positive relationship between the destination selection determinants and revisit intentions such that the higher the country of origin, the greater the determinants resulting in revisit intentions. 6.4 Recommendations The following recommendations are suggested to the management of tourism institutions in Ghana; thus, the Ministry of Tourism & Creative Arts (Policy Formulation Body), Ghana Tourism Authority (Implementation Body), Destination Marketing Organizations and other tourism institutions and professionals. The outcome of the current study has established that tourists visit this destination for education/learning and this influences their revisit intentions. The implication for tourism practitioners is that they have to develop tour packages that communicate the needs of the tourist or tour groups that visit the destination. Attractions at the destination must offer reason enough to these tourists to want to visit the destination and even more, return to it. Also, it is essential that destination managers in Ghana and tourism practitioners like tour operators and travel agents in the country must take into consideration these dimensions in the quest to marketing Ghana. Particularly, the office of the Ghana Tourism Authority (GTA) could leverage on the heritage sites across the country to increase tourists’ arrivals to Ghana; as some of these tour sites are located in natural and eco-friendly environments and may appeal to these tourists. However, in exploiting such cultural heritage, it should be done with caution as this may result in the commoditization of culture or staged authenticity (King, Pizam & Milman, 1993), which can affect the originality of cultural attributes. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Even though the study noted that tourists who visit Ghana among other determinants of selecting Ghana as their preferred destination seeks after education and ego enhancement, such tourists may be seen as “high expectant guest”. Any efforts at attracting and satisfying them require the discovery of unique tourism resources as well as the development of new ones that would impact positively on their experiences. Arguably, such a category of tourists is likely to return to the destination or recommend it to their friends and family. When dissatisfied, they can also be disloyal to the destination. The study also recommends that satisfied tourists are more likely to revisit, it is therefore imperative for service providers in whatever capacity, to ensure that tourists are satisfied with services rendered to them to generate repeat visits. This requires effective destination management. The GTA which has the mandate of ensuring quality in the industry should ensure that industry practitioners uphold basic service standards that would contribute positively to visitors’ experience at the destination 6.5 Implication for theory The primary focus of this study was to establish destination selection determinants and revisit intention; the roles of satisfaction and socio-demographic variables. This study has contributed to literature by highlighting the motivations of tourists to some parts of Ghana where the study was carried (Accra, Elmina, Cape Coast & Kumasi) which previous studies may have not paid attention to. The practicality of the destination loyalty model developed by Yoon and Uysal (2005) has also been validated, especially in the areas where the study was carried, one with different destination attributes compared to Northern Cyprus, Mediterranean region (where the original model was developed); hence its adaptation for this study. Owing to the above, it is concluded that education/learning and ego enhancement, are the factors motivating tourists to visit Ghana. These factors support the model by Dann 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (1977) and Yoon and Uysal (2005), which explains tourist motivation to travel being a function of push and pulls factors. 6.6 Limitations of the study and future research direction Like any other study, the current study was conducted under certain limitations. Firstly, the study had a geographical limitation. It only focused on some tourist sites in the Greater Accra, Central and Ashanti Regions of Ghana. 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Exploring travel information search behavior beyond common frontiers. Information Technology and Tourism, 9(3), 149-64. 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX: QUESTIONNAIRE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF MARKETING AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP Destination Selection Determinants & Revisit Intentions; The Role of Satisfaction & Socio-Demographic Factors Dear Respondent, I am an MPhil Marketing student from the University of Ghana Business School. If you have spent at least one night at our destination we kindly ask you to participate in this research survey under the topic “DESTINATION SELECTION DETERMINANTS & REVISIT INTENTIONS: THE ROLES OF SATISFACTION & SOCIODEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS”. This information will be used strictly for research purpose and will take about 10-15 minutes and is conducted anonymously. SECTION A: GENERAL INFORMATION Few questions about you. 1. Gender Male [ ] Female [ ] 2. Age Range Under 20 years [ ] 21-30 years [ ] 31-40 years [ ] 41-50 years [ ] Above 50 years [ ] 3. Please name your country of origin? _____________________________________ 4. How did you arrive to Ghana? (mark the appropriate answer) By bus [ ] With low-cost airline [ ] With Major Airline [ ] Other, what: _____________________________________ 5. What is your employment status? Unemployed [ ] Salaried Worker [ ] Self-employed [ ] Retired [ ] Other, what: ______________________________ 6. Where did you hear about this tourist destination? (mark the appropriate answer, more answers possible) 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Internet [ ] I already knew of it [ ] Friends & Relatives [ ] Books & Guides [ ] Other, what: ____________________________________ 7. Is this your first visit to this tourist destination? (mark the appropriate answer) 1. No. [ ] 2. Yes. [ ] SECTION B 8. Below are listed some statements which refer to the determinants of visiting this tourist destination. For each statement please indicate to what extent you agree with it. »1« means you Completely Disagree (CD)»2« Disagree (D) »3«I do not know (IDK) »4« Agree (A) and »5« means you agree with it completely (CA). I completely I completely disagree agree Novelty Seeking 1 2 3 4 5 CD D IDK A CA 1. I visited this destination to engage in an event that I 1 2 3 4 5 have never participated in before (sports events, cultural activities, traditional festivals, naming ceremony etc) 2. The desire to explore this destination as it has 1 2 3 4 5 always been on my bucket list. 3. The urge to discover new places and acquire 1 2 3 4 5 knowledge about unfamiliar things. 4. The desire to explore new destinations 1 2 3 4 5 Cultural Experience 5. I visited to see the arts and craft of this destination 1 2 3 4 5 6. I like the folklore of this destination (Music, dance, 1 2 3 4 5 artifacts etc) 7. I interacted with different ethnic groups during my 1 2 3 4 5 stay at this destination. 8.I attended a festival while at this destination 1 2 3 4 5 Ego Enhancement 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9.I traveled to this destination to discover something 1 2 3 4 5 new 10. I visited this destination because of the prestige that 1 2 3 4 5 comes with. 11. To be the one among my peers to have discovered 1 2 3 4 5 this destination first. 12.To strive for a homestay with a family 1 2 3 4 5 I completely I completely disagree agree Escape 1 2 3 4 5 CD D IDK A CA 13. I visited this destination to get away from the 1 2 3 4 5 familiar 14. The desire to explore a new life and culture 1 2 3 4 5 15. This destination offers me a break from my 1 2 3 4 5 everyday job or routine. 16. To break away from boredom 1 2 3 4 5 Rest & Relaxation 17. I visited this destination to take a break from my 1 2 3 4 5 regular routine 18. This destination offers me the opportunity to 1 2 3 4 5 relieve stress and tension 19. This destination gives me an experience of a simple 1 2 3 4 5 lifestyle 20. This destination offers me the opportunity of to rest Education/Learning 21. I am in this destination to visit historical sites 1 2 3 4 5 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22. This destination offers lots of cultural events 1 2 3 4 5 (festivals, music, food) 23. This destination has tour sites that offer basic skills 1 2 3 4 5 to tourists. 24. This destination has available information about 1 2 3 4 5 tour sites Satisfaction 25. I was satisfied with the services at the destination 1 2 3 4 5 26. My expectations were met 1 2 3 4 5 27. Compared to other destinations I have visited; I 1 2 3 4 5 will always choose this destination 28. The visit to this tourist destination exceeded my 1 2 3 4 5 expectations. 29. I will speak highly of this tourist destination to my 1 2 3 4 5 friends and colleagues. Revisit Intentions 30. If I had to decide again, I would choose this tourist 1 2 3 4 5 destination again. 31. I will recommend this tourist destination to my 1 2 3 4 5 friends and relatives. 32. I will return to this tourist destination. 1 2 3 4 5 33. I feel at home in this tourist destination. 1 2 3 4 5 133