1 UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES EXPLORATION OF THE LIVED EXPERIENCES AND INTERVENTIONS AVAILABLE TO CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN BY DIANA ABENA ADE (10523867) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL. CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY DEGREE, DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY DECEMBER, 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 2 DECLARATION This is to certify that this thesis is the result of my own research and has not been presented by anyone for any academic award in this university or any other. All references within this study have been duly acknowledged. 10/01/2022 DIANA ABENA ADE DATE (CANDIDATE) ……………… 10/01/2022 DR. JOANA SALIFU YENDORK DATE (PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR) 10/01/2022 DR. ERNEST DARKWAH DATE (CO-SUPERVISOR) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 3 DEDICATION First and foremost, I dedicate this work to the Almighty God for His love and kindness. I also dedicate this work to my parents, Mr. Isaac and late Mrs. Juliana Aderinto and my sister (Rebecca Aderinto) for their inspiration in helping me pursue my dreams. Also, to the family of Mr. Joseph and Dr. (Mrs.) Joana Salifu Yendork for their support. Finally, to everyone who has supported me one way or the other to make this thesis fruitful. Thank you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 4 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT All praise and adoration be given to the Almighty God for His grace and mercies towards me from the beginning of this study to its successful completion. My heartfelt gratitude goes to my parents, Mr. and late Mrs. Aderinto and to the family of Mr. and Mrs. Solomon Atiba for their support in diverse ways. Also, I offer my special appreciation to my supervisors, Dr. Joana Salifu Yendork and Dr. Ernest Darkwah, for their hard work and encouragement in bringing this study to completion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 5 TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION........................................................................................................................... 2 DEDICATION............................................................................................................................... 3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................ 4 ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... 9 CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 9 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................ 10 1.2 Child Poverty in Ghana .................................................................................................... 10 1.3 Problem Statement ............................................................................................................ 12 1.4 Aims and objectives ........................................................................................................... 17 1.5 Relevance of the study ...................................................................................................... 19 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 21 2.0 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 21 2.1 Theoretical framework ..................................................................................................... 21 2.1.1 The Family Stress Model (Conger, Elder & Lorenzo, 1994). ................................. 21 2.1.2 Family Investment Model –FIM (Conger & Donnellan, 2007). ............................. 21 2.2 Review of related studies .................................................................................................. 23 2.2.1 The concept of childhood poverty in Ghana ............................................................ 25 2.2.2 Children’s perception of poverty .............................................................................. 25 2.2.3 Lived experiences of poor children ........................................................................... 26 2.2.4 How perceptions of child poverty affect well-being ................................................ 28 2.2.5 Coping strategies......................................................................................................... 31 2.2.6 Existing interventions for children in poor contexts ............................................... 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 6 2.3 Rationale ............................................................................................................................ 35 2.4 Research questions ............................................................................................................ 37 2.5 Operational definition of terms ........................................................................................ 39 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 40 3.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 40 3.2 Design ................................................................................................................................. 40 3.3 Population/sample/ sampling techniques ........................................................................ 40 3.4 Inclusion criteria ............................................................................................................... 41 3.5 Exclusion criteria............................................................................................................... 41 3.6 Research settings ............................................................................................................... 42 3.7 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ................................................................ 43 TABLE 1. DEMOGRAPHIC TABLE OF ADOLESCENT SAMPLE .............................. 43 TABLE 2. DEMOGRAPHIC TABLE OF PROFESSIONAL SAMPLE.….………….….34 3.8 Data collection materials .................................................................................................. 46 3.9 Trustworthiness of the results .......................................................................................... 47 3.10 Data collection procedure ............................................................................................... 47 3.11 Ethical consideration ...................................................................................................... 48 3.12 Data analysis .................................................................................................................... 50 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 53 4.0 Findings .............................................................................................................................. 53 4.1 Children’s Perceptions of poverty ................................................................................... 53 4.1.3 Children’s perception of their poverty status and perceived indicators ............... 53 4.2 Lived experiences .............................................................................................................. 55 4.2.1 Positive Experiences ................................................................................................... 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 7 4.2.2 Negative Experiences .................................................................................................. 59 4.2.3 Feelings associated with poverty ............................................................................... 59 4.3 Perceived impact of poverty on well-being ..................................................................... 60 4.3.1 Future assurance about being rich............................................................................ 65 4.4 Coping mechanisms .......................................................................................................... 65 4.4.1 Resilience attributes ................................................................................................... 68 4.4.2 Support from friends and families ............................................................................ 70 4.4.3 Religion as a coping mechanism ................................................................................ 71 4.5 Interventions Available To Children ............................................................................... 73 4.5.1 Effectiveness of these interventions........................................................................... 74 4.5.2 Challenges associated with intervention implementations ........ Error! Bookmark not defined. 4.5.3 Recommendations from professionals ...................................................................... 81 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 81 5.1 Findings .................................................................................................................................. 84 5.1.1 Perceptions of children in poor contexts .................................................................. 84 5.1.2 Lived experiences of children in poor contexts ........................................................ 84 5.1.3 Perceived impact of poverty ...................................................................................... 86 5.1.4 Coping mechanisms .................................................................................................... 89 5.1.5 Interventions available to children in poor contexts ............................................... 90 5.2 PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS ...................................................................................... 91 5.3 RECOMMENDATION FOR POLICY MAKING AND CLINICAL PRACTICE ... 93 5.4 LIMITATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES ............... 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 8 5.5 GENERAL SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ............................................................. 95 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 98 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR ADOLESCENT SAMPLE ....................................................... 119 INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PROFESSIONALS ................................................................... 122 CONSENT FORM…………………………………………………………………………….109 ETHICAL CLEARANCE LETTER…………………….....………………………………..111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 9 ABSTRACT Poverty is the "world's biggest killer" and the major cause of misery and ill health. Children are however the most affected by poverty regardless of the level of development within a country often due to their dependence on adults. The vulnerable nature of children is heightened by the very presence of poverty. Children living in poverty are usually deprived of sanitation, nutrition, shelter, education, quality water, and health services. Studies have shown that over eight million children in developing countries die from preventable diseases mainly from poverty and deprivation. Urban towns in recent years have housed many individuals from diverse regions due to urbanization and the dire need for greener pastures. As a result, population growth outnumbers the available resources within such communities, creating over-dependency on the limited resources available, which makes children more vulnerable. Also, the inability to distinguish between child and adult poverty within Ghanaian society has led to the oversight of the implications of poverty on children. Therefore, this study sought to explore perceptions of children from poor urban contexts in Ghana and their positive and negative lived experiences and gain information about their coping mechanisms. This qualitative study interviewed thirty (30) participants: twenty (20) adolescents (between twelve and seventeen years) from James Town and ten (10) professionals. Results revealed that poor children suffer from inadequate access to basic education, decent shelter and clothing; and good nutrition. As a result of their condition, they are forced to engage in activities in the bid to cope with poverty such as begging and running basic errands. The implications of this study highlight the vast distinction between child and adult poverty and the importance of social support, including the role of religion to adolescents in coping with poverty. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 10 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Poverty is the "world's biggest killer" and the major cause of misery and ill health (WHO, 1995, p 1). It was previously thought to be in the eye of the beholder and was therefore often measured perceptually (World Bank Group, 2017), however Townsend's (1967) work gave rise to a paradigm shift in the measurement of poverty. According to Townsend, poverty denotes a limited control of resources over some time (World Bank Group, 2012). Touray (2016) defined poverty as a "multidimensional concept that seeks to measure levels of deprivation encountered by a person, household or community" (p. 1). The measurement of poverty has since been a function of the World Bank which measures poverty largely on an income basis (World Bank Group, 2017). Around the late 1990s, the World Bank mentioned that individuals who lived below a dollar ($ 1 Purchasing Power Parity-PPP) a day were considered extremely poor. This figure went to $1.08 a day per person in 2001, $1.25 a day per person in 2013, and now $1.90 a day per person since 2015. The World Bank Group (2016) revealed that even with the increased figure, poverty remains excessively high, as a greater percentage of the world's population lives below $1.90 a day. The United Nations' key vision of reducing poverty started in the year 2000 with the inauguration of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) through to the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in 2015 (World Bank Group, 2017). Even with that, poverty continues to be on the rise in recent years (World Bank Group, 2017). As of 2015, about 900 million people around the globe lived in severe poverty (Touray, 2016). Poverty is known to be University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 11 severe in conflict-affected countries as well as lower and middle-income countries that solely depend on available natural resources (specifically South Asia and sub-Sahara Africa) (Touray, 2016). According to the Children's Defense Fund (2019), children are the most affected by poverty regardless of the level of development within a country heightening the vulnerable nature of children (Chaudry & Wimer, 2016). According to DeNavas-Walt and Proctor (2014), about 1 in 5 children live in households with incomes below the national poverty mark, with Short (2016) mentioning that child poverty is measured by the number of households living below the poverty line considering the number of children within that household. In 2006, the United Nations General Assembly (UNGA) adopted, for the first time, a universal definition of child poverty. The Assembly defined children living in poverty as the section of individuals who are deprived of sanitation, nutrition, shelter, education, water, and quality health services (UNGA, 2006). Non-availability of these basic facilities makes children more vulnerable as it infringes on their basic rights and thereby inhibiting their full potential (Leriou, 2019; UNGA, 2006). The United Nations Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF), the agency tasked to promote international child well-being, equally believes measuring child poverty must not be based solely on income, however, must be measured on a multidimensional basis (UNICEF, 2017). Globally, about thirty percent of children live in poor and deprived conditions (Nandy & Minujin, 2012) and as a result of this deprivation, it becomes difficult for them to survive. Again, Nandy and Minujin (2012) indicated that a child lives in absolute poverty only if he/she suffered from two or more severe deprivations of their basic human needs. Black et al. (2010) estimated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 12 that over eight million children below five years in developing countries die from preventable diseases mainly resulting from poverty and deprivation. Also, the human rights-based approach to poverty acknowledges that poverty is neither natural nor unavoidable but it is the responsibility of significant individuals within the society to minimize or curb it (Peels & Silvander, 2016). The right-based approach to child poverty encompasses a framework of multidimensional perspectives of poverty, i.e., healthcare, sanitation facilities, education, food, information, etc. (Nandy & Minujin, 2012). Hence, using the World Bank's US$1 per day purchasing power parity may not accurately measure and distinguish child poverty from adult poverty (Nandy & Minujin, 2012). In light of this, Nandy and Minujin (2012) suggested that child poverty required the consideration of non-monetary factors that encompassed the development of the child and promote both physical and psychological well-being. Non-monetary conditions include the child's ability to partake in societal endeavors as part of being a citizen, protection against exploitation or abuse, and freedom against discrimination and favoritism (UNICEF, 2017). McKenzie (2019) mentioned that as a result of child poverty, over 200 million children around the globe are unable to attain their potential for cognition, and/or socio-emotional development. 1.2 Child poverty in Ghana In 2017, Ghana's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rates increased from 3.7 percent to 14.0 percent, making Ghana one of the fast-growing economies in the globe (Ghana Statistical Service [GSS], 2018). Within that same period, Ghana moved from a poor country to a lower- middle-income country as a result of the commercial production of crude oil in 2011 (GSS, 2018). This made Ghana the first country in Sub-Saharan Africa to achieve the then Millennium University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 13 Development Goal One (MDG 1) of halving poverty (National Development Planning Commission [NDPC], 2019). Nonetheless, poverty continues to be present in the country. As a result of the widespread and adverse effects of poverty, the UN SDG's first challenge was targeted at eradicating poverty in all dimensions by 2030. As part of poverty eradication, the UN including their representatives in Ghana also acknowledges the increased prevalence of child poverty. As such, a major sub-target is to reduce by half the number of children living in poverty within the Ghanaian society (1.2.2 of the SDGs) (Liu, Yu & Wang, 2015; NDPC, 2019). According to the NDPC (2019), children in Ghana are more vulnerable and easily susceptible to poverty compared to other age groups as a result of their reliance on the resources of their guardians. Similar to other countries, child poverty in Ghana is multidimensional, encompassing malnutrition, low income, insecurity, illiteracy, and many more (GSS, 2018). The combination of these several factors keeps children, households, and the community at large in abject poverty (GSS, 2018). Based on the Population and Housing Census in 2010, the number of people projected to be living in abject poverty increased from 2.2 million to 2.4 million from the year 2013 to 2017. This is a result of the rapid increase in population growth leading to over- dependency on the limited resources available within the country (GSS, 2018; NDPC, 2019). Globally, poverty is primarily a rural phenomenon, with Ghana having an approximated number of 2.2 million people living in extreme poverty in rural areas as of 2017 (GSS, 2018). Research has shown that Greater Accra is the least affected by poverty while the Upper West region of Ghana is the most affected by poverty (Ghana Demographics Profile, 2018; GSS, 2018), specifically, the rural savannah area at 67.7 percent (GSS, 2018; Nyamah, 2019). Even with its University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 14 least number of poor people within its boundaries, the Greater Accra region in recent years has housed many individuals from diverse regions due to urbanization and the dire need for greener pastures. As a result, the population growth outnumbers the available resources within the region, creating over-dependency on the limited resources available (GSS, 2018). Efforts have been put in place to help reduce the marginalization of poor children within society. Some efforts from the Government of Ghana include the national immunization against polio, Community-based Health Planning Services (CHPS), Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP), School Feeding Programme, Free Senior High School Education, Capitation Grants, elimination of schools under trees, etc. (Wang, Otoo & Dsane-Selby, 2017). These policies were developed specifically to assist children and households within poor contexts. Nonetheless, the implementation of these interventions is problematic. Most of these interventions are not adequately implemented due to some forms of hindrances such as finance, logistics, staffing, etc. As a result, children in poor contexts are still subjected to the cruel influence of poverty (Bassoumah, Adam & Adokiya, 2021). This is indeed challenging as the government in whom the citizenry has placed their trust to make their lives better are not able to assist in improving their socio-economic status (Fusheini, 2016). GSS (2018) revealed that one out of every ten children lived in extreme poverty even with the presence of these interventions. Such persons are characterized by deprivation of their basic needs (Liu, Yu & Wang, 2015). Some deprivation of basic needs includes low educational achievement, poor health, and nutritional conditions, unsafe living conditions, etc. (Liu, Yu & Wang, 2015). Children living in poor communities are more exposed to food insecurity, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 15 depression, parental substance abuse, trauma and abuse, divorce, violent crime and many more (Children's Defense Fund, 2015; Schweiger, 2019). The Government of Ghana recognizes that poverty in itself is a multi-dimensional concept that has complex domains affecting men, women, adults, and particularly children (Nyamah, 2011). Schweiger (2019) mentioned that children raised in poor urban households are at risk of varied negative consequences from their very birth, extending into adulthood. This is because the various kinds of buffers that protect children from negative influences are limited or non-existent (Schweiger 2019). A significant number of children are constantly faced with challenges of meeting their daily basic needs such as food, shelter, etc. As such, children within poor urban households are equally disadvantaged as those from rural areas (Nyamah, 2011). Poverty has negative effects on children (The Children's Defense Fund, 2015). According to Poverty Brief (2017), poverty is "the most prevalent Adverse Childhood Experience (ACE) reported nationally" (p. 1). It is usually associated with unhappiness, impulsiveness, aggression and disobedience, high rates of dependency, feelings of anxiety, and many others (Children's Defense Fund, 2015; Schweiger, 2019). Poor children are also likely to experience some degree of social deprivation and neglect, negatively affecting their self-esteem (Ford & Stein, 2016). The British Medical Association [BMA] (2017) mentioned that children living in poor contexts have worse health conditions as they are more susceptible to overweight and obesity, asthma, infant mortality, low birth weights, shorter life expectancy, and lack of readiness to learn. A worrying cause of concern is the influence of poverty on the intellectual development of the child (Schweiger, 2019). According to Ford and Stein (2016), children in poor contexts have an increased risk of mental and behavioral problems such as aggression, depression, anxiety, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 16 substance addiction, and schizophrenia. Most often, these children lack cognitive stimulation and nutrition, leading to poor academic performance (Balter, 2015). Poverty also shrinks significant parts of a child's brain responsible for memory, decision-making, and planning (Rocheleau, 2019), thereby inhibiting brain development. Long-term poverty is associated with chronic stress which may subsequently affect the memory of the child, specifically the working memory (Blair & Raver, 2016). Hence, such children tend to have a reduced chance of completing high school (Schweiger, 2019), robbing them of their pleasant future (Poverty Brief, 2017). Moreover, thoughts of being poor may create low self- worth and self-efficacy among such children, and also increased the probability of becoming poor in the future, etc. (Blair & Raver, 2016). Most often, poverty places more stress on the child, affecting their ability to successfully perform in school (Rocheleau, 2019). Child poverty tends to affect children psychologically (Nyamah, 2011). For instance, children facing deprivation usually encounter difficulties in their academic performance (Lai, 2014). Blank et al. (2016) asserted that children from poor contexts suffer from increased levels of stress, hopelessness, and/or low levels of happiness and life satisfaction. Hopelessness creates severe outcomes as the perception of being a failure in adulthood is heightened (Lai, 2014). Also, in a study by Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber (2012), it was revealed that poor psychological health among children led to greater chances of psychopathology during adulthood. Deprivation in any form subsequently hinders the progressive development of the child. According to Abraham Maslow's theory, the child may not aspire to achieve higher levels of needs when the fundamental ones are not adequately satisfied. Hence, if Ghana hopes to eradicate child poverty and poverty in general, there is a need to understand and appropriately measure child poverty. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 17 1.3 Problem Statement Childhood poverty is a worldwide menace that has attracted the attention of governments, policymakers, and other stakeholders (NDPC, 2019). Globally, one in five children lives in poverty (Children's Defense Funds, 2015). These children are usually deprived of their daily survival needs. These deprivations have a severe negative impact on the growth of the child. Child poverty leads to food insecurity, inadequate accessible health care and creates unavoidable stress on the child (Blank et al. 2016; Children's Defense Funds, 2015). Long-term stress obstructs the brain functioning of the child, hence preventing normative cognitive development (Children's Defense Funds, 2015; Nandy & Minujin, 2012). Awatey (2014) added that extreme deprivation and social segregation created an opportunity for youngsters to engage in crime. In Ghana, children below eighteen years make up about 45 percent (11.4 million) of the total population (NDPC, 2019). They are thus approximately twice likely to be poor than adults (Nandy & Minujin, 2012). Ghana is no exception to childhood poverty as three out of four children (73.4 percent) face at least three deprivations at the same time (NDPC, 2019). Liu, Yu and Wang (2015) intimated that children's experiences of poverty have largely been overlooked. The implication of this oversight is that child poverty may affect the individual, the family, and the nation as a whole (Liu, Yu & Wang, 2015). Situations, whereby children are unable to reach their full potential and thus become successful individuals within society may largely be attributed to consistent exposure to poverty (Nandy & Minujin, 2012). Poverty may inhibit the occurrence of the diverse innovations and novelties a child may discover within their lifetime (Policy Brief, 2017), impeding the overall development of the nation. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 18 Poverty also creates feelings of social exclusion leading to low self-esteem, poor self-regulation, and low levels of self-efficacy (Blank et al. 2016). "Double jeopardy" is the term Oberklaid (2007) ascribed to situations of children living in poor urban contexts. This is a result of their vulnerable nature combined with their parents or guardians' inability to compensate for these vulnerabilities due to poverty (Blank et al. 2016; Short, 2016). Given the adverse effects of poverty, the Government of Ghana in combination with the UN Sustainable Development Goals hopes to eradicate poverty by the year 2030. In addition, children's huge contribution to the economic growth of the country cannot be over- emphasized. Thus, deprivation in their health and other spheres of their lives may be costly to the nation as a whole (Touray, 2016; NDPC, 2019). Even though the Government of Ghana and other corporate bodies have put in place measures to curb poverty, many children to date remain deprived of their fundamental rights and needs (NDPC, 2019; Nyamah, 2019). Also, with only ten years left to the end of the SDGs, Ghana must prioritize the reduction and the total elimination of child poverty. To enable the government to achieve this aim, there is a need for continuous studies on the phenomenon to inform interventions and policies aimed at eradicating poverty and alleviating its harmful impact on the well-being of Ghanaians. Moreover, children are disproportionately poor compared to adults (US Census Bureau 2014), and the fact that child poverty varies from culture to culture calls for an in-depth understanding of its mechanism within Ghanaian society (Roelen, 2015). In addition, studies that focus on the psychological implications of poverty on the child within Ghana are limited (Devereux et al. 2018; Nyamah, 2011). The contextual literature gap prevents the holistic understanding of childhood poverty in the Ghanaian context and how empirical evidence gleaned through research that can help to tackle the problem from the Ghanaian context also missing. This in turn forces University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 19 government, policymakers, and stakeholders to fall on Western policies which might not necessarily be a true reflection of the Ghanaian child as a result of different governmental policies, socioeconomic status of the country, systems at work, intervention resources available among others, therefore causing the perpetuation of the problem or the slow results of implementing western policies. Therefore, this study hopes to understand how poverty is experienced from children's perspective with a specific focus on children's perception of poverty, the benefits and challenges they experience, the impact of such experiences on their well-being and future aspirations, how they cope with such challenges and the nature of interventions available to such children to inform policymakers and stakeholders working with children within the Ghanaian society. 1.4 Aims and objectives The study aimed to explore how poverty is experienced from children’s perspectives. Specific objectives include to explore: 1. Children’s perception of poverty. 2. Children’s lived experiences (both positive and challenges) of being a child in a poor urban context. 3. How perceptions about poverty affect children’s wellbeing and their aspirations. 4. How children cope with challenges associated with poverty. 5. Explore existing interventions available to children in poor urban contexts. 1.5 Relevance of the study This study seeks to unveil the experiences of children in poor urban contexts and how it affects their psychological well-being. Findings from the study will contribute to the limited literature University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 20 regarding the concept of child poverty in Ghana and its implications on the child, the family, and the nation at large. The study will also provide insight into the consequences of poverty on the well-being of the child and its perceived impact. Masten and Barnes (2018) found that an individual can develop resilience with the right training and interaction with their environment. Hence, every child has protective factors that serve as a buffer against the negative consequences of child poverty. Thus, identifying children's coping mechanisms in dealing with poverty provides policymakers and the community as a whole with the right amount of information to direct intervention programs toward the needs of the child. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 21 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter presents the theoretical framework guiding the study as well as literature reviews that are relevant to the present study. Additionally, this chapter presents the rationale, the research questions and some operationalized definitions of certain terminologies. 2.1 Theoretical framework 2.1.1 The Family Stress Model (Conger, Elder & Lorenzo, 1994). The Family Stress Model centers on the economic aspect of socioeconomic status, that is lower levels of income create developmental challenges for children (Conger, Elder & Lorenzo, 1994). This model denotes that hardship destabilizes proper family functioning, which subsequently affects the lives of parents and their children negatively (Conger, Conger & Martin, 2010). It proposes that economic lack leads to an economic burden within the family (Conger, Conger & Martin, 2010). Some markers of hardship may include work instability, income loss, increased economic demands, etc. (Conger, Conger & Martin, 2010). Conger, Elder and Lorenzo (1994) mentioned that these markers affect family functioning and adjustments as a result of the economic burdens they create. The Family Stress Model suggests that unmet needs such as food, shelter, and inability to pay bills or even make ends meet create some economic pressure on parents. These pressures give psychological interpretations to economic difficulties (Conger, Schofield, Conger & Neppl, 2010). Increased economic burden increases parents' risk of emotional stress and behavioral difficulties such as anger, depression, alienation, antisocial behaviors, substance abuse, etc. (Conger et al. 2010). Personal and/or marital stress tend to distract parents and their parenting University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 22 styles, making them channel less affection and attention to their children (Conger, Conger & Martin, 2010). The Family Stress Model points out that parental involvement and nurturance lead to increased cognitive, emotional, physical, and behavioral well-being of children (Conger & Elder, 1994). Thus, children indirectly suffer the negative outcomes of the economic hardship of parents (Conger, Schofield, Conger & Neppl, 2010) and later develop mental health problems (Lai, 2014). Osei-Owusu, Ampofo, Akyina and Amponsah (2018) mentioned that parents' coping mechanisms with stressful events, such as poverty and illness affect children's experience and interpretation of a stressful environment. For instance, stressed parents are less likely to address issues in an optimum way and thus use harsh and coercive disciplinary measures (Nachinaab, Nelly, Kumah & Yirenkyi, 2019). Poverty may lead to a deterioration of marriages which in turn disrupts parenting practices, which is the major cause of adolescent maladjustment (Nachinaab et al. 2019). Such parents are usually uninvolving and exhibit lower levels of nurturing behaviors, hence disrupting developmental results for children (Crowder, 2013). Poor parenting efficacy is correlated with maladaptive behaviors among children (Crowder, 2013). This theory highlights the impact of stress on the family and how it can subsequently affect the overall development of children. Stressors such as inappropriate shelter, food insecurity, emotional imbalance, and many others may increase the risk of psychological problems for parents, leading to poor parenting styles (Lai, 2014). The presence of non-monetary stressors informs the multidimensional nature of child poverty. Non-monetary stressors negatively affect how children perceive and experience poverty, affecting the realization of their full potential. Moreover, the vulnerable nature of children combined with the presence of any form of stress University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 23 may severely affect the perceptions and experiences of children in poor contexts and subsequently their future aspirations (Nachinaab et al. 2019). 2.1.2 Family Investment Model –FIM (Conger & Donnellan, 2007). The Family Investment Model is based on the economic ideology that higher socio-economic status parents have access to human (e.g. education), financial (e.g. income), and social (e.g. occupation) capital (Conger & Donnellan, 2007). Thus, higher SES parents invest more in their children leading to the successful development of the child (Conger, Conger & Martin, 2010). Kalil and Ryan (2020) asserted that families with higher economic resources usually make substantial investments in the growth of their children, while those from disadvantaged homes predominantly concentrate on the immediate needs of the family. Some parental investment includes the provision of adequate food, clothing, medical care, learning materials and/or extra tuition, unconditional love, and residing in an environment that promotes the development of the child's competence. Conger, Conger and Martin (2010) extended the traditional investment model by proposing that parents' occupational positions and educational achievements correlate with investments in their children. Parents and caregivers with higher education are likely to place more priority on goods, services, and activities that foster the psychological, social, and academic competence of their wards, promoting their human development (Wakiuru, 2016). Wakiuru (2016) added that the occupational positions of parents and caregivers direct the priorities and values they place on the developmental course of their children. The Family Investment Model also proposes that parents and caregivers use their resources as the "central organizing principle" to positively affect the lives of their children and their future University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 24 (Lai, 2014, p.16). Kalil and Ryan (2020) support the FIM by indicating that parents' and caregivers' educational level is linked to supportive childrearing. This is subsequently related to the child's academic accomplishment along with positive mental health (Wakiuru, 2016). Lai (2014) argued that when parents invest their time and resources in the development of their children, they are more likely to achieve optimum growth. This is because the physical and emotional affection directed toward children goes a long way in affecting their mental health. In a study by Wickham, Anwar, Barr, Law and Taylor-Robinson (2016), children who are both socially and materially deprived are more vulnerable in terms of their mental health. They usually find it difficult to concentrate in school and also sustain a lasting relationship with their peers (Becerra & Evans, 2016). In another study, children irrespective of their upbringing deprived materially and emotionally, were more exposed to emotional, physical, and sexual health risks (Akansale, 2018). This Family Investment Theory proposes that parental investments in terms of meeting their children's basic needs such as appropriate shelter, balanced diets, quality education, psycho- social support, and many more influence children's perceptions and experiences of poverty. Children whose parents provide the needed environment for their development are more likely to perceive and experience poverty differently and hence able to cope well with poverty. 2.2 Review of related studies In addition to the above-mentioned theories, this section focuses on other related studies that highlight the experiences of children in poor urban contexts. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 25 2.2.1 The concept of childhood poverty in Ghana For ages past, the monetary approach has been used to explain the concept of childhood poverty with Ghana being no exception (Newhouse, Suarez-Becerra & Evans, 2016). Evans, Nogales and Robson (2020) cited that using the monetary approach is justified as it is considered the most influential and traditional approach within the sphere of poverty research. Watts (1993) added that the monetary approach provides a more standardized measure of childhood poverty as it allows for easy comparison among nations (Short, 2016). Nonetheless, the monetary approach provides a limited understanding of the concept of childhood poverty as poverty goes beyond the absence of money-oriented assets (Sen, 1999). Hence, UNICEF describes childhood poverty as the absence of physical, emotional, and spiritual resources critical for the welfare of children (UNICEF, 2005). Benedetti, Betti and Crescenzi (2020) asserted that household income levels were inadequate in measuring child poverty. This measure is heavily criticized as it assumes that the income- expenditure of children is equally shared among family members (Agyire-Tettey, Asuman, Ackah & Tsiboe-Darko, 2021), thereby hiding the real conditions of children (Benedetti, Betti & Crescenzi, 2020). Newhouse, Suarez-Becerra and Evans (2016) found that a greater number of children tend to experience deprivation compared to income poverty. This involved the lack and/or denial of rights, goods, services, or resources, preventing a child's full participation in socio-economic, political, or cultural activities (Biggeri & Ferrone, 2021). Benedetti, Betti and Crescenzi (2020) found a strong relationship between the levels of social deprivation and income poverty, indicating that increase in one led to an increase in the other. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 26 Gender is considered a moderating factor in childhood poverty (Frearson, 2019). Child poverty is unevenly distributed among males and females, as both parties experience poverty differently (Jones & Summer, 2011). Globally, more females live in poor and unhealthy conditions in both developed and developing countries (UNICEF, 2012). More than half of children who die from preventable diseases due to poverty are females (Jones & Summer, 2011). In 2004, the UNDP mentioned that today's girls and boys represent tomorrow's adults. Thus, poor, uneducated, and even malnourished children are likely to become poor, uneducated, and malnourished adults. These poor, uneducated, and malnourished adults subsequently raise their children in poverty, creating the generational cycle of poverty (UNICEF, 2012). 2.2.2 Children’s perception of poverty Another area of concern is children's perception of poverty. Children make up about half of Ghana's population, however, their views are least considered in conceptualizing poverty for governmental policies and interventions (Central Intelligence Agency, 2020). Children's views about poverty are usually similar across diverse groups (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021). Understanding children's perception of poverty requires acknowledgment of their various stages of cognitive development (Hakovirta & Kallio, 2015). According to Piaget's cognitive stages of development, children from the formal operational stage (12 years and above) are mature enough to think abstractly and thus provide insightful views about poverty. Usually, children from poor households are described with negative and derogatory terms (Hakovirta & Kallio, 2015). In a study by Ozoemenam, Ekanem and Delamonica (2021), children referred to emotional, personal, family, and spiritual factors when they were asked about their perceptions of child poverty. Respondents mentioned that children from poor backgrounds University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 27 are usually submissive to individuals with more money, never happy as they are always worried, wandering around with nothing to do, with mental problems, etc. Others added that poor children have low self-esteem, play in soils as there is nowhere to play, regret why they were born, and also have a lower inferiority complex (Biggeri & Ferrone, 2021; Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021). In addition, environmental factors such as children living in areas susceptible to drought and floods; areas without clean water and/or latrine, and war-affected areas are also perceived notions about children living in poverty (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021). The unavailability of these facilities makes life very unbearable for these children contributing to their vulnerabilities (Hakovirta & Kallio, 2015). Similarly, in a study by UNICEF (2007), children mentioned that hard child labor, working as prostitutes, not having much to eat, stealing to survive, eating from dustbins, wearing tattered and dirty clothes, and even children who purchase second-hand clothes, etc. are all perceived characteristics of children from poor backgrounds. Children also perceive poverty as a phenomenon that shapes an individual's thought patterns and behaviors (Hakovirta & Kallio, 2015). They attribute poverty to physical and intellectual factors. A child with a disability combined with the inability to do anything by themselves, those with a swollen stomach, one who cannot think combined with poor judgment, one who is always sick, a child with AIDS and/or has a big head compared to the rest of the body are some perceived characteristics of children from poor contexts (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021; UNICEF, 2007). Such children are not fed the right amount of nutrition that their body requires for optimum growth and mental development (Hakovirta & Kallio, 2015). As a result of their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 28 inability to access quality education combined with a conducive environment, their academic performance and thought patterns may not be at par with that of their age mates (Ratcliffe, 2015). Some researchers also mentioned that child poverty among girls meant being seen as women and thus given out into marriage, as they are seen unworthy of education (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021). As young as they are, these girls are subjected to responsibilities that are expected to be performed by older adults (Hardgrove, Enenajor & Lee, 2011). These young brides are given out to bring bride prices to the family (Baba, Salifu Yendork & Atindanbila, 2020). Such girls are forced to assume adults' responsibilities and thus denied their childhood experiences (UNFPA, 2012). Edmeades and Hayes (2014) found that these girls suffer from isolation as they are separated from their parents and siblings. These deprivations and many others affect the subjective well-being of children from poor contexts. 2.2.3 Lived experiences of poor children What exactly do poor children experiences? Using UNICEF's definition of child poverty, a greater number of children fall victim to poverty and its implications. This is evident in the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development's (2017) study which revealed the rate of childhood poverty as of 2014 to be 13. 5%. In a study among children in Hong Kong, it was found that children living in poor contexts experienced poor psychological consequences such as reduced levels of life satisfaction, low self-esteem, and increased levels of hopelessness and stress (SOCO & HKCCR, 2011). These children mentioned that poverty affected their self- efficacy levels compared with non-poor children. Cai and Smeeding (2018) found that children raised in poverty were 10 to 20 percent more likely to exhibit psychological stress and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 29 difficulties than non-disadvantaged children. These stressors tend to damage their emotional regulation abilities when they become chronic (Kim et al. 2013). Jones and Summer (2011) revealed that childhood poverty was massively felt in children's interaction with others, especially with their peers at school. During interactions with their peers, children tend to sense differences among their peers. In a study by Salva (2016), it was revealed that the concept of inequality and subsequent feelings of shame was considered a characteristic of children from poor contexts. Children from poor environments believed the stigma and shame attached to poverty is more of a problem compared to the deprivation of material needs (Hakovirta & Hallio 2015). Kim et al. (2013) emphasized that childhood experiences of poverty were correlated to maladaptive behaviors such as depression, panic attacks, anxiety, etc. affecting the individual's interpersonal relationships. Childhood poverty in Ghana and other countries is not exclusive to rural communities (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021; Rutstein, Staveteig, Winter & Yourkavitch, 2016). In a Situation Analysis report (2011), increased levels of rural-urban migration have generated rising slum communities within towns and cities. The report revealed that a significant number of children within the country faced severe deprivations such as the civil right to develop, survive, be protected, and even fully participate in communal or national activities that they were entitled to as Ghanaians (Situation Analysis Report, 2011). As a result, children may be compelled to migrate to other locations, increasing their exposure to chronic poverty, trafficking, and exploitation (Akansale, 2018; De La O Campos, Villani, Davis & Takagi, 2018). Poor diets have also been found to be associated with poverty. Children from poor households are usually disadvantaged in terms of their food (Akansale, 2018). For instance, inadequate iron is associated with poverty (Hartline-Grafton, 2017). Such children suffer from over-consumption of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 30 carbohydrate foods (UNICEF, 2007). Usually, children from poor contexts lack a well-balanced diet as they are forced to consume what they have instead of what they choose to enjoy and what is relevant to their well-being (Hartline-Grafton, 2017). Poverty also leaves children worried about the physical and psychological well-being of their parents. In a study by Quint et al. (2018), children reported that they preferred not to stress or worry their parents when they knew their parents could not afford certain things. In severe instances, feelings of worthlessness and low self-esteem led to self-harm among children from poor contexts (Doi, Fujiwara, Isumi & Ochi, 2018; Poorgholami et al. 2015). The anxiety and depression associated with asking parents things they could not afford created insecurities among children who hold their parents in high esteem (Manani & Sharma, 2016). Many studies have focused on the negative experiences of poverty in children (Hardgrove, Enenajor & Lee, 2011; Treanor, 2012), with only a few focusing on the positive experiences of children from poor urban contexts. In a study by Quint, Griffin, Kaufman, Landers and Utterback (2018), children living in poor households mentioned that they appreciated the sense of cohesion and solidarity that existed in their neighborhood. Individuals mentioned that though they lived in a poor environment, their sense of belonging to a family and a community was an experience some children from rich homes never had (Agbenyo, Galaa & Abiiro, 2017; Quint et al. 2018). Also, emotional support and care received from people within the family and society were some positive experiences respondents raised. These support systems came from parents, teachers, community members, and peers. Machell, Disabato and Kashdan (2016) argued that feelings of love and acceptance compensate for the presence of poverty. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 31 2.2.4 How perceptions of child poverty affect well-being Child poverty has implications for the child's well-being. Poverty affects the sense of belonging of the child as they are usually stigmatized and badly labeled (Jones & Summer, 2011). the adverse influence of poverty affects the esteem levels of children destroying their present and future goals (Addaney, 2016; Jakovljevic et al. 2016). Jones and Summer (2011) and Ratcliffe (2015) revealed that living in low-income households affected children's plans for the future. Such children find it difficult to hold onto their dreams and aspirations as poverty may affect their prospects for the future (Addaney, 2016). For instance, in a study by UNICEF (2007), children from poor contexts regardless of gender and age reported lower levels of life satisfaction and happiness. The fewer ones who stayed in school were usually driven by optimism toward their future. Ratcliffe (2015) noted that upon sensing massive differences between themselves and their peers, children feel intimidated and thus lose their levels of assertiveness. Poverty is the largest determining factor in children's physical and psychological health (WHO, 2016). It is one of the risk factors of mental illness that affects early cognitive development (Jakovljevic, Miller & Fitzgerald, 2016). Poverty is usually associated with impaired cognitive development and poor academic attainment (Kayode, 2019). Experiences such as trauma, child abuse, and stress may negatively impact the child's behavior and development (Jakovljevic et al. 2016). Kayode (2019) mentioned that children from poor families are three times more likely to suffer psychiatric disorders, which include externalizing conditions such as conduct disorder, ADHD, oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and internalizing conditions such as poor coping skills, anxiety, depression, etc. These psychiatric conditions may extend into their adulthood (Jakovljevic et al. 2016). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 32 Poverty has been found to also affect the brain development of children (Kolb & Gibb, 2015). In a study by Hair, Hanson, Wolfe and Pollak (2015), children living in poverty exhibited deficits in their language abilities, working memory, and also difficulties with cognitive flexibility. These deficits are ascribed to the underdevelopment of the hippocampus and both the temporal and frontal lobes, as it accounts for 15 to 20 percent of achievement deficits (Kindg, 2016; Luby, 2015). Persistent exposure to poverty leads to the development of depressive symptoms and the damage of hippocampal neurons (Duncan, Kalil & Ziol-Guest, 2013; Kolb & Gibb, 2015). Anasuri (2017) revealed that both working memory and language abilities are the most delicate neuro-cognitive systems in connection with early childhood deprivation. This makes poverty biologically rooted as it leads to structural and functional changes within the evolving brain (Kolb & Gibb, 2015). De La O Campos, Villani, Davis and Takagi (2018) cited that the longer children lived in poverty, the higher the chance of performing poorly academically and thus reduced occupational attainment. Poverty also has a tripling effect on the child's future. In a study by Lynam, Caspi, Moffitt, Loeber and Stouthamer-Loeber, (2012), it was revealed that poor mental health in the course of adolescence leads to a greater probability of psychopathology during adulthood. Experiences at such a tender stage of development are known to be unique and thus difficult to forget (Hardgrove, Enenajor & Lee, 2011). Child poverty tends to lower the self-esteem of the child, leading to a carry-over effect into adulthood (Doi, Fujiwara, Isumi & Ochi, 2018). Furthermore, the stigma associated with childhood poverty creates feelings of inferiority complex and subsequently the development of psychopathological symptoms (Ratcliffe, 2015). Children from poor contexts are usually branded as criminals, gangsters, teenage parents, and drug abusers University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 33 (Ratcliffe, 2015). This negative labeling affects the confidence levels of the child, leading to poor psychological health of the child (Lai, 2014). Poverty has also been found to be associated with adolescent risk-taking and violent behaviors (Jakovljevic et al. 2016). The adolescence period is characterized by activities and experiments that are dangerous. Adolescents' exuberance combined with poverty perpetuates risky and violent behaviors among adolescents as they are compelled to exercise their autonomy (Jakovljevic et al. 2016). They may engage in socially unacceptable behaviors such as substance abuse, tobacco smoking, unsafe sexual behaviors, alcohol consumption, etc. In another study by Main (2019), children reported that deprivation such as decision-making involvement was associated with lower levels of subjective well-being. 2.2.5 Coping strategies adopted by children in poor contexts This sub-section reviews studies on the coping mechanisms that children in poor contexts adopt in dealing with poverty. In coping with child poverty, children are not passive in the process. In a study by Stubbs, Ledic, Rubil and Zrinscak (2017), it was discovered that children can develop solutions to their problems. Individual differences may however exist in the various coping mechanisms that children living in poverty adapt, as they are not affected by poverty in the same manner (Stubbs, Ledic, Rubil & Zrinscak, 2017). Thus, considering all poor children as a homogenous group may be detrimental (Arye, 2016). Most children relied on the support of their families as a coping mechanism against childhood poverty (Akansale, 2018). As the child's first primary social group, the child relies greatly on the family for all of his/her needs. Having a family creates a sense of belongingness and also increases one's quality of life (UNICEF Montenegro, 2021). Even with lower economic status, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 34 children can appropriately adapt and thrive when they have the support of their families (Usrey, 2021). Lack of a support system may lead to isolation which can negatively affect the mental health of the child. Individuals experiencing isolation are at a greater risk of alcohol or drug misuse, stress, self-harm, and suicide (UNICEF Montenegro, 2021). Children also run errands to cope with poverty. According to Afriyie, Bashiru and Abubari (2019), children make up about 32% of the workforce in Africa. In Ghana, about 13.7 million children are engaged in the workforce (Afriyie, Bashiru & Abubari 2019; Samantha et al. 2020). In a study by Ozoemenam, Ekanem and Delamonica (2021), children from Nigeria mentioned that they would rather run errands and often spent the monies on food, and water. Most children who engage in work-related activities, do so to support their families while combining it with their school (Bukari, 2022). For other children, working helps them gain an identity, and vocational skills and also improves their self-esteem (Bukari, 2022; Jijon, 2020), as it complements what they learn in school. Religious coping, particularly reliance on God is another coping mechanism children adopt in poor contexts (Bryan, et al. 2016). Religious coping has been found to decrease negative feelings associated with poverty. According to Okoro (2017), religious coping strategies minimize socially deviant means of solving social problems, such as prostitution, gambling, drinking, etc., and subsequently alleviate the negative emotional consequences of stressful life events. Reliance on God promotes meaning in life, self-development, hope, and personal restraints (Wortmann, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 35 2.2.6 Existing interventions for children in poor contexts. Children within poor contexts see themselves to be excluded from society. In many instances, they are deprived of the necessities needed for survival and optimum growth and development (Agbenyo, Galaa & Aiiro, 2017). This creates marginalization and social exclusion, making them more vulnerable. In 2004, Devereux and Sabates-Wheeler developed a social protection framework to explain the various ways children are disadvantaged within society. They include social assistance (i.e., LEAP etc.); social welfare (i.e., protection against child labor etc.); and social insurance (i.e., NHIS etc.). In the bid to overcome this social exclusion within society, government, and corporate organizations put in place programs and interventions to protect and rescue the vulnerable. These interventions serve as a social network to escape the adverse effects of poverty by way of integrating them back into the functioning areas of the community (Agbenyo, Galaa & Aiiro, 2017). One of the mechanisms put in place by the Government of Ghana is the Livelihood Empowerment Against Poverty (LEAP) launched in 2008 (UNICEF, 2009). The main beneficiaries of the LEAP program are the extremely poor individuals within the society, including children. In Agbenyo, Galaa and Aiiro's (2017) study, beneficiaries of the LEAP programs mentioned that the cash received was used for education, medical care, and feeding. Some respondents opined that the money was however not enough, nonetheless, they could not complain as it was gifted to them (Agbenyo, Galaa & Aiiro, 2017). Even with unintended consequences such as envy, stigma, and poverty labeling, the presence of LEAP made accessing quality healthcare and food possible among beneficiaries (Handa & Park 2012). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 36 Another intervention by the Government of Ghana is the School Feeding Programme (GSFP). This program was introduced in 2004 with assistance from the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) to achieve the Millennium Development Goal regarding poverty reduction. The major goal is to increase school enrolment, including retention by way of providing at least one meal a day to deprived communities (UNICEF, 2007). The Government of Ghana also hopes that GSFP will increase the production of domestic foods. With the presence of GSFP and Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE), children can complete their education without any form of barriers (Adonteng-Kissi, 2018). The National Health Insurance Scheme (NHIS) was also established by the Government of Ghana in 2003 under Act 650. The scheme was introduced to provide basic healthcare services to individuals within the country (UNICEF, 2007). The NHIS was established to replace the previous cash-and-carry system that made people pay money in cash whenever they needed to visit the hospital. To benefit from the scheme, beneficiaries needed to get a card to enable them to go to the hospital without payment (UNICEF, 2007). The hospital sends the bill to the scheme provider who in turn pays for the services delivered. The NHIS creates an all-inclusive environment for easier accessibility and financial coverage of basic healthcare and a pathway to achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC) (Adonteng-Kissi, 2018). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 37 The above and many others established by the Government of Ghana have helped minimize the rate of childhood poverty. However, more is yet to be done in its implementation. Also, the psychological implications of childhood poverty within the Ghanaian community and their coping mechanisms are limited (Lai, 2014). Thus, this study hopes to unravel the positive experiences of poor children in urban contexts if some exist. In addition, this study hopes to find out the interventions available to children from poor contexts from the views of social workers in Ghana. 2.3 Rationale The distinction between child and adult poverty is usually ignored and thus many overlook some salient implications of poverty on the child (Arye, 2016; Elliott, 2016). The prevalence of child poverty is significantly higher than adults (Stubbs, Ledic, Rubil & Zrinscak, 2017). In 2019, an estimated 386 million children lived in poverty (United Nations, 2020). The presence of COVID- 19 has been found to add an estimated number of 42-66 million children to the already huge crisis (United Nations, 2020). Devereux et al. (2018) added that the rate of poverty among children in Ghana is 37 percent higher than that of adults. Nonetheless, studies that focus on child poverty, usually fail to focus on the subjective experiences of such children. Also, the costs of living in urban sectors are much higher than in rural sectors and thus children from such households may not be able to afford basic utilities and services for their survival as compared to free or cheaper services within the rural areas. Moreover, exposure to persistent poverty exacerbates the already vulnerable nature of children (Arye, 2016). Such children are likely to be depressed compared to their age mates. Gentilini (2015) revealed that children from poor contexts are 22 percent likely to be pessimistic about their future as they see themselves as useless. In addition, 1 out of 40 children between the ages University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 38 of 5–10 years from lower socio-economic backgrounds engages in suicidal ideations and self- harm, compared to about 1 in 100 children from high socio-economic backgrounds (Arye, 2016). Also, there exist limited studies that focus on the protective factors both within and outside adolescents that enable them to surmount the adverse effects of poverty. Therefore, this study seeks to gain an insight into what poverty means to children, and the nature of their experiences and uncover information about their coping mechanisms and their aspirations for the future. Additionally, the study will explore interventions available to poor children in urban poor contexts in Ghana. Focusing on the lived experiences of children from poor contexts promotes children's voices and visibility through empirical and theoretical lenses. It also gives a better understanding of how such children cope or deal with poverty, as the way children deal with poverty influences the way it is experienced (Stubbs, Ledic, Rubil & Zrinscak, 2017). In addition, assessing child poverty and their experiences at the individual level may reveal significant findings (Ozoemenam, Ekanem & Delamonica, 2021). Also, a significant number of interventions have been laid down by the Government of Ghana. Some include NHIS, Free Universal Basic Education, free SHS, and many others to aid children in poverty. Nonetheless, children in Ghana continue to suffer in the cruel hands of poverty. The study sought to explore the various interventions that are available to poor children and the effectiveness of these interventions in improving the lives of every child. 2.4 Research questions The study seeks to explore the following: 1. What are the perceptions of children about poverty? 2. What are the positive and negative experiences of being a child from a poor urban setting? University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 39 3. In what way do children’s perceptions of poverty affect their psychological well-being and their aspirations? 4. How do they cope regardless of these challenges? 5. What are some existing interventions for these children? 2.5 Operational definition of terms This study conceptualizes the following terms: Child: A child within this study is defined as both males and females from 12 to 17 years old. Poverty: According to the Ghana Statistical Service (2018), poverty is defined as the state whereby one’s standard of living is inadequate to meet their basic needs and survival. Childhood poverty: Childhood poverty as defined by National Development Planning Commission (2020), refers to both monetary and material deprivations (including the living conditions) necessary for the development of the child. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 40 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter presents the various methods and procedures that were used in this study. The research design adopted and its appropriateness are discussed. Also, the setting within which data was collected, in addition to the reasons for selecting the setting are discussed. Detailed demographic information regarding the participants (sample) and the population are discussed. Furthermore, the sampling techniques and the reasons for using such techniques are discussed. Finally, ethical issues that were observed during the research and how data were analyzed are discussed. 3.2 Design Singh and Chaudhary (1986) defined research design as a plan that ensures a systematic organization of data collection. Thus, to gain first-hand information about the experiences of children from poor urban contexts, the appropriate research design for this study is qualitative, specifically the phenomenological approach. The qualitative research design provides a detailed explanation and understanding of individuals' subjective experiences (Creswell, 2014). Rahman (2017) mentioned that qualitative studies provide a comprehensive understanding of a phenomenon experienced by individuals being studied and hence may not necessarily aim to generalize results to other populations. Eyisi (2016) also mentioned that the qualitative research design is used to research people's feelings; behaviors and emotions, and lived experiences. Also, with the phenomenological approach, data is gathered from the individual experiencing the phenomenon under study, usually with the help of an interview guide (Qutoshi, 2018). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 41 3.3 Population/sample/ sampling techniques This study included twenty adolescents from James Town between the ages of twelve and seventeen. Most of these adolescents were selected while they were in their various schools, with two adolescents selected while at home (particularly after school hours). They were interviewed using convenience and purposive sampling techniques. Convenience sampling because respondents were chosen based on their readiness and accessibility. On the other hand, the choice of purposive sampling was because children from poor urban contexts were purposively selected. As a result of urbanization and the cosmopolitan nature of James Town, participation in the study was not restricted to only individuals from the Ga ethnic group. With social workers, ten participants (seven males and three females) were sampled using snowball sampling and purposive sampling techniques. The purposive sampling technique was used because the study targeted social workers working with children. With the snowball sampling technique, some existing participants provided referrals for recruiting other participants. All but one participant were government officials. This participant is a private practitioner working with a private Non-Governmental Organization in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. 3.4 Inclusion criteria This study included children between the ages of 12 and 17 years who resided in James town. For social workers, participants who worked with issues related to children were included in the study. 3.5 Exclusion criteria Individuals below twelve years and those above seventeen years old were exempted from the study. Regarding social workers, service personnel and students were also exempted from the study as these individuals had limited experiences and were not fully employed. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 42 3.6 Research settings James Town, a constituent of "Ga- Mashie" is located on the Atlantic Coast of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. This area is also called Old Accra as the original Gas initially settled there. Ga-Mashie, the oldest community in Accra covers an area of about 100 hectares along the southwestern part of Accra (Armah, 2014). According to Mahama et al. (2011), Europeans from Britain, Denmark and the Netherlands were permitted to build trading lodges in the seventeenth century within these areas. As such, during the 20th century, James Town became a densely populated town for both commercial and residential use. James Town was chosen due to proximity reasons as compared to other urban towns in Ghana. Located in the heart of Accra, James Town is characterized by insecurity, a poor housing system, inadequate basic amenities, poor health outcomes, and unstable incomes (Armah, 2014). James Town is a big town with other suburbs. It is dominated by the Ga ethnic group, with Ga as the dominant language. Nonetheless, as a result of urbanization, the town currently inhabits other people from other towns with diverse languages such as Ewe, Hausa, and Twi. In terms of occupation, most of the inhabitants are fishermen and traders (Kushitor et al. 2018). De-Graft et al. (2018) revealed that James Town is characterized by underemployment and unemployment, with lower educational achievement. Other studies have revealed that James Town is characterized by poor sanitary and environmental conditions, combined with high population growth rates (Department of Social Welfare, 2011; GNA, 2013). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 43 3.7 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents The adolescent sample was made up of twenty respondents sampled for individual interviews living within James Town and its suburbs. The adoption of this sample size was due to the realization of the same themes running throughout participants' responses (homogeneity of participants' responses). According to Boddy (2016), to justify sample size, the researcher must take into consideration the scope and nature of the study, the contact time to be spent on each participant, and the homogeneity of the population under study. Ten of them were males, with the remaining being females. Participants were between the ages of 12 and 17 years old. A majority (N=7) of participants were 15 years old. Individuals who were 14 and 17 years old were both four in number. Participants who were 16 years old were three in number; while those who were the ages 12 and 13 years, were one each. Sixteen (16) respondents were in Junior High School three (JHS 3), one in JHS 2, two in JHS 1, and one person in Grade six. Eighteen (18) participants mentioned that their school was a government school, while the remaining two mentioned their school is a private school. Out of the respondents who mentioned that their school was a government one, nine revealed that their school was a poor one; seven mentioned their school was an average school; one participant said her school was a rich one; while the last participant did not respond. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 44 TABLE 1. DEMOGRAPHIC TABLE OF ADOLESCENT SAMPLE ID gender age residence Type of school Status of school class Caregivers Caregivers’ socio- economic status 1 Female 13 Abola government Poor school six grandmother poor 2 male 17 Atupaim government Poor school Form 3 grandparents average 3 female 14 Alata government Poor school Form one parents average 4 female 12 James Town Government school Poor school Form one mother rich 5 female 15 Arena Poor school Form 3 parents poor 6 male 15 Sempe Government school Poor school Form 3 parents average 7 male 14 Palladium Government school Average school Form 3 mother poor 8 male 15 James Town Government school Average school Form 3 parents rich 9 Male 14 Akwetey- lante Government school Average school Form 3 parents poor 10 male 15 Adedekpo Government school Poor school Form 3 mother poor University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 45 11 male 15 Bukom Government school Average school Form 3 grandmother poor 12 female 17 Swalaba Government school Average school Form 3 parents average 13 female 15 Korle- worko Government school Average school Form 3 siblings poor 14 male 17 James Town Government school Average school Form 3 parents poor 15 Female 17 Cow lane Government school Poor school Form 3 grandmother rich 16 Male 16 Palladium Private school Rich school Form 3 mother poor 17 male 16 James Town Private school Rich school Form 3 mother poor 18 female 15 Akotey- lante Government school Form 2 mother average 19 female 14 Zongo- lane Government school Poor school Form 3 parents poor 20 Female 16 Ashaibu Government school Rich school Form 3 parents rich University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 46 TABLE 2. DEMOGRAPHIC TABLE OF PROFESSIONAL SAMPLE ID GENDER YEARS OF SERVICE CURRENT POSITION 1 Female 13 Principal Program Officer 2 Male 24 Head of the research unit 3 Male 39 Retired Deputy Director 4 Male 6 Senior social worker officer 5 Female 19 Program Head 6 Male 12 Development Officer 7 Male 33 Deputy Director 8 Male 8 Senior program officer 9 Male 4 Head of Department 10 Female 35 Deputy Director A majority (N=11) of the respondents were in the same school: X JHS; five were from Y Basic School; two from Z Academy; one from T Academy; and the last participant from M Basic School. Overall, a majority (N=9) of the twenty respondents revealed that their school was poor. In terms of persons these adolescents were living with, nine adolescents lived with both parents; six with their mothers; three with their grandmothers; and one each with their siblings and both grandparents. Exploring further about the socio-economic status of their caregivers, eleven (11) adolescents revealed that their caregivers were poor, five of them said the socio-economic status of their caregivers was average, with the remaining four adolescents describing the socio- economic status of their caregivers as rich. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 47 Regarding social workers, seven respondents were males, while three were females. The years of service ranged from four (4) to thirty-nine (39) years. Among the ten participants, six were from the Department of Social Welfare, three from the Department of Children, and one was a private practitioner. In terms of current positions, four out of the ten respondents were Program Officers, three of them were Heads of units and the remaining three were deputy directors (including a retiree). 3.8 Data collection materials To investigate the experiences of children from poor contexts and the interventions available to these children, a semi-structured interview guide that was developed by the researcher was used. Interviews were conducted face-to-face with all thirty participants in their various preferred settings, to allow them the chance to express themselves without restraint. Each interview was done with a recorder after sorting the permission of the interviewees. All participants agreed for them to be recorded. 3.9 Trustworthiness of the results According to Polit and Beck (2014), trustworthiness is the measure of confidence in data, methods, and interpretation used to ensure the quality of any study. It is often described as the most important criterion (Polit & Beck, 2014). Shenton (2004) highlighted four criteria that can guide researchers in qualitative studies. They include a) credibility. The credibility of the study is referred to as internal validity; b) transferability is usually referred to as external validity or generalizability; c) dependability is ascribed to the reliability of the study, and d) confirmability pertains to how objective the study is. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 48 In promoting the credibility of the study, participants were debriefed on the right to decline or withdraw from the study to ensure that participants' participation in the study was voluntary (Shenton, 2004). There were regular debriefing sessions between the researcher and the supervisors of the study by way of checking the researcher's biases. The researcher ensured that developed codes, themes, and subthemes were examined by her supervisors and peer-checked by colleagues to ensure conclusions were participants-based accounts (Erlandson et al. 1993). In addition, the researcher has provided some narratives in the result section of the study to ensure credibility. To promote transferability, the researcher ensured the collection of substantial data from participants, hence documenting comprehensive information about the study procedures, including information regarding the number of participants, the number of data collected, the study area, and the duration of the interview. True transferability may be difficult to achieve, nonetheless, studies that provide a thorough description of the study, including observations and data interpretations, affords other researchers to replicate the study (Gertz, 1993). To ensure dependability, the researcher ensured that the research processes were reported as they occurred (Shenton, 2004). Finally, to promote confirmability, the researcher recorded the responses of participants with a phone recorder. Collected data was later manually transcribed by the researcher. 3.10 Data collection procedure To commence the study, the researcher obtained clearance and introductory letters from the University of Ghana's Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH 098/20-21) and the Department of Psychology respectively, introducing the researcher as a student from the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 49 University of Ghana to be presented to heads of study sites. In consultation with supervisors, a semi-structured interview guide was developed. To aid the collection of data, the researcher trained a research assistant especially in communicating in the local dialect of participants (Ga). Also, to familiarize and create a rapport with the society, the researcher's first point of contact was the Heads of schools (eleven from X JHS; five were from Y Basic School; two from Z Academy; one from T Academy; and the last participant from M Basic school). For adolescents interviewed outside schools, consent was sought from their parents, and assent was obtained from adolescents. Adolescents were interviewed individually in languages fluent to them (English, Twi, and Ga). For participants who were fluent in Ga, the research assistant assisted in translating oral consent and assent, and items on the interview schedule into Ga. Adolescents who preferred Twi and English were interviewed directly by the researcher. Gatekeepers such as teachers and religious leaders also aided in explaining the purpose of the study to these adolescents and parents respectively before obtaining their accents and consent. With their full permission, participants' responses were audio-recorded and each interview lasted between fifteen to thirty minutes. Data collection lasted for two months i.e., from April to July 2021. Regarding social workers on the interventions available to children from poor urban contexts, an introductory letter from the Department of Psychology was submitted to the Ministry of Gender, Children, and Social Protection. The researcher was given an approval letter with the approval number MOGCSP/FA.1/16/10/V.2 and was directed to the Department of Children. Three officials within the department participated in the study, including the Head of the Department. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 50 Another introductory letter was taken to the National office of the Department of Social Welfare. At the department, the researcher met and interviewed the National Director, who later introduced the researcher to another colleague. Also, the researcher was directed to the regional office of the Department of Social Welfare in Accra. Presenting an introductory letter to them, the researcher was privileged to interview two social workers. At the Ledzokuku District Assembly, two staff were also interviewed at the Department of Social Welfare. In addition, the final social worker was interviewed online through telephone calls as a result of proximity. In all, respondents' permission was sought before being recorded. Collected data were transcribed and later analyzed with Braun and Clark's (2006) six stages of thematic analysis. 3.11 Ethical consideration The researcher sought ethical clearance from the Ethics Committee for Humanities (ECH: Reference Number ECH 098/20-21) of the University of Ghana. Written informed consent was taken from the Heads of schools, however, for adolescents and guardians, oral informed consent was taken after the contents of the informed consent and assent documents were explained to the participants. Oral consent was sought because of their low educational background. Participants were briefed on the purpose of the study and assured of the non-violation of their rights. Respondents were also assured of confidentiality and anonymity with the use of pseudonyms. However, they were informed of the limit to this confidentiality. Also, collected data was made available only to the researcher, research assistant, and supervisors. In addition, participants were made aware of their rights to withdraw from the study, thus, preventing all forms of coercion. Lastly, psychological services were made available should participants need them due to the sensitive nature of the research. However, no participant requested such services. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 51 3.12 Data analysis Collected data was analyzed manually with Braun and Clarke's (2006) six stages of thematic analysis. The stages included familiarizing one's self with the data, generating initial codes, looking for themes, reviewing these themes, defining and naming the themes, and finally producing a report. According to Braun and Clarke (2006), this thematic analysis was chosen because it provided the researcher with the needed flexibility in analyzing data. In addition, Braun and Clarke's (2006) six stages of thematic analysis helped capture responses that were not even anticipated. In familiarizing myself with the data, the researcher transcribed the interviews herself and endeavored to study transcribed data, and listened to the recordings over and over again. Subsequently, the transcribed data was proofread by two different colleagues of the researcher. This was to avoid personal bias and thus promote insight and understanding of responses, and to make sure responses were appropriate to questions. This way, the researcher immersed herself in the data for the next stage of action. The next stage was generating initial codes. In generating codes, words and/or phrases were used to code responses, taking into consideration their meaningfulness and how interesting it was to the present study. The researcher ensured that these codes represented the exact responses of participants, thus their true feelings. Initial codes were however proofread and edited by the supervisors of the researcher. After generating preliminary codes, the next stage was looking for themes. Using the objectives of the study as the major themes, similar codes were grouped which became the sub-themes. The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 52 researcher separated relevant data excerpts according to overarching themes. This aided in reviewing and defining these themes. The researcher then reviewed the themes. In reviewing themes, the researcher had to combine, discard and refine initial themes. This was to ensure that excerpts or quotations within each theme were cohered meaningfully. Reviewing of themes was done in two phases: the first was to check whether the themes cohered meaningfully with the data or quotations and; the second was to check whether the themes cohered meaningfully with the overall dataset. The next stage was to define and name themes. To do this, the researcher provided themes with precise and concise names that captured the relevance of each theme, with the help of her supervisors. In addition, the researcher cleared working definitions to more specific ones to aid in reporting. Finally, the researcher transformed her analysis into writing this report. In addition, the researcher attached vivid quotations that related to the discovered themes and literature reviews that corroborated and disconfirmed some of the findings from this study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 53 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.0 Findings This chapter focuses on the results obtained from the data analysis. The main themes that emerged from the data included: 1. Children's perceptions of poverty; 2. Children's lived experiences (both positive and challenges); 3. How perceptions about poverty affect children's well-being and their aspirations; 4. How children cope with challenges associated with poverty; 5. Interventions that are available to children from poor urban contexts from the perspective of professionals. The emerging themes are discussed below. 4.1 Children’s perceptions of poverty One of the objectives of the study was to investigate the perceptions of children in poor contexts about the concept of poverty. To achieve this, participants of the study were asked to describe a poor person and how they recognized one. Also, they were asked to describe how they saw themselves and the reasons for such descriptions. A majority (N=16) of the participants described a poor person as someone unable to meet his/her basic needs. Participants mentioned that poor children found it difficult to survive in life and hence resorted to begging. They are usually vulnerable, deserted, and left to fend for themselves. This was accounted for in the following narratives: "a [poor] person [is someone] who does not have money to buy food, or dress or water… or a person who does not have somewhere, eerrmm…somewhere to sleep or somewhere to stay in…"(Abena, female, 14yrs) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 54 "They don't get what they need unless [through] begging...And they like begging for food like when you go to the Korle-Bu Junction..." (Araba, female, 16yrs) In addition, another participant added that a poor person can be recognized by his/her parents' type of work. Parent without a well-paid job was perceived to be unable to perform their parental roles for their children. Such parent usually finds it difficult to adequately feed their children with the right amount of nutrition; provide a conducive shelter; and many others. The narrative below throws more light on it: "I can use his parents' work to tell… [whether he's rich or poor]" (Kwame, male, 17yrs) Others also reported that poor children were usually in tattered clothing. According to some of these adolescents, children from poor contexts do not have clothes to put on. As a result of their poor conditions and the need to meet basic needs, these children resort to janitorial services such as sweeping for others, washing for others, and many others for their survival: "…Like the dress they wear… sometimes they wear dirty dress" (Araba, female, 16yrs) "If somebody finish eating, they [poor children] will wash the plates for him... they sweep for other people... They wash people's dress for them, and they pay them twenty Ghana [$1.43]" (Ama, female, 12yrs) Also, some adolescents mentioned that poor individuals are also malnourished. In the words of these adolescents, poor children mostly eat the same kind of food (unwholesome foods). This may lead to underdevelopment, both physically and psychologically on the part of the child. "Every day, they eat one-way food..." (Yaw, male, 15yrs) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh EXPLORATION OF THE EXPERIENCES OF POOR CHILDREN IN JAMES TOWN 55 "[They are] suffering from malnutrition …let's say [they] grow lean." (Asare, male, 17yrs) 4.1.1 Children’s perception of their poverty status and perceived indicators In their self-conceptualization of their poverty status, most (N=10) of the participants indicated that they were poor, with seven (7) respondents mentioning that they were average people. The remaining three participants revealed that they were rich. Most male adolescents described themselves as poor. The reason for such a description was due to the inability of their parents to meet their needs as told by eight of the participants. These adolescents revealed that their money for upkeep was not enough to purchase the things they needed. According to these adolescents, they are thus forced to fend for themselves regardless of their young ages. Their inability to meet their physiological needs made them feel poor. This is highlighted in the excerpt below: "Sometimes … I cannot eat. I don't get food to eat. Sometimes I don't get food to eat. Because at times, I can't ask my mother for money… every day, they [my parents] will be asking me to go and find work to do…" (Kwame, male, 17yrs) "Because it is not always that they [parents] give me money to come to school. And my money is not always enough." (Serwaa, female, 14yrs) On the other hand, others mentioned that their environment was not supportive enough ascribing themselves as poor individuals. One p