ASSESSING THE ROLE OF DONOR FUNDED PROJECTS IN ENHANCING COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GHANAIAN PERSPECTIVE BY MERCY KWAYIE (10803550) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON JANUARY 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I hereby state that this dissertation is the outcome of an original research conducted by me under the supervision of Dr. Daniel Darmani Kipo-Sunyehzi, and that no part of it has been duplicated from other sources without proper academic acknowledgement. Additionally, this dissertation has not been submitted either in part or whole for the award of any other degree. ……………………………………. ………………………………………… MERCY KWAYIE DR. DANIEL D. KIPO-SUNYEHZI (STUDENT) (SUPERVISOR) DATE: DATE: 9th January, 2022 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicated the successful completion of this dissertation to the Almighty God and my family University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS “It is impossible to develop a master’s dissertation without the assistance and encouragement of concerned folks. Candidly speaking, the one under scrutiny, certainly cannot be taken out of the context”. The writing of this dissertation has been one of the most daunting and arduous academic odysseys I have ever had to face. Without the motivation, resilience and guidance of the following personalities, this study would have been a mirage. It is to them that I owe the most vivid felicitation. First, my profound thanks go to my Supervisor, Dr Daniel Darmani Kipo Sunyehzi, for his patience, constructive criticisms, great suggestions and amazing encouragement leading to the completion of this dissertation. Also, I remain grateful to Prof. Emmanuel Debrah, the Director of LECIAD, for his motivation and encouragement. I am ineffably grateful to and deem it necessary to extend my gratitude to the Registrar of the Institute and the office staff particularly, Dr. Juliana Appiah and the rest of the Lecturers especially Dr. Kennedy Emmanuel Ahorsu and my fellow MA in International Affairs colleagues who helped me learn in diverse ways throughout my training at this reputable tertiary institution. Special mention is made of comrades: Miss Naa Dedei Attoh Okine and Miss Abena Asante whose assistance and companionship have made my time at LECIAD more worthwhile and exhilarating. Finally, this dissertation would not have been successful without the immense prayers, encouragement as well as financial support from my family members. Indeed, I am grateful for the kind gesture, habitual cooperation and amiable collaboration I received from all my familial relations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ADB/AfDB African Development Bank CBOs Community-Based Organizations CSFs Critical Success Factors DFPs Donor-Funded Projects DFWPs Donor-Funded Water Projects FBOs Faith-Based Organizations FIMAC 1 Investment Fund for Communal and Agricultural Micro- Projects GHA Ghana Highway Authority GNA Ghana News Agency GPOLIPs Ghana highway Authority, Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects IADU Internal Audit Divisional Unit ICT Information Communication Technology IMF International Monetary Fund JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KM Knowledge Management MDGs Millennium Development Goals NGOs Non-Governmental Organizations ODA Official Development Assistance OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development RII Relative Importance Index TRIP Tema Roundabout Interchange Project UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization US United States University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION.................................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION....................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................................ iii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................................... v LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES ................................................................................................. viii ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background to the Research Problem .......................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem .............................................................................................. 4 1.3 Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 7 1.4 Objectives of the Study ................................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Scope of the Study ........................................................................................................................... 8 1.6 Rationale for the Study ................................................................................................................... 8 1.7 Hypothesis ........................................................................................................................................ 9 1.8 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................................. 9 1.8.1 Development Diplomacy Theory .................................................................................................... 9 1.9 Literature Review ......................................................................................................................... 12 1.10 Methodology ................................................................................................................................ 17 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters .......................................................................................................... 23 Endnotes .............................................................................................................................................. 23 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................................ 28 OVERVIEW OF DONOR-FUNDED PROJECTS (DFPs) AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT ............................................................................................................................... 28 2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 28 2.1 Donor-Funded Projects ................................................................................................................ 28 2.1.1 Concept of Donor-Funded Projects ............................................................................................. 28 2.2 Concept of Community Development ......................................................................................... 29 2.3 Role of Donor-Funded Projects that Enhance Community Development across the Globe .. 29 2.4 Factors Influencing Successful Donor Funded Projects’ Implementation .............................. 31 2.4.1 Effective Knowledge Management Regimes ................................................................................ 31 2.4.2 Level of Funding .......................................................................................................................... 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 2.4.3 Effective Monitoring and Evaluation Management Systems........................................................ 32 2.4.4 Effective Stakeholder Involvement Regimes................................................................................. 32 2.4.5 Absolute Reliance on Rationality ................................................................................................. 33 2.4.6 Efficient Risk Management Regimes ............................................................................................ 34 2.5 Barriers to the Effective Functioning and Implementation of Donor Funded Projects across the Globe .............................................................................................................................................. 34 2.5.1 Ineffective Project Planning Management Systems ..................................................................... 34 2.5.2 Abysmal Communication Systems ................................................................................................ 35 2.5.3 Incessant and Rampant Scope Changes ....................................................................................... 36 2.5.4 Less Attention Given to Socio – Cultural Factors ....................................................................... 36 2.5.5 Absence of Sufficient Resources Management Systems ............................................................... 37 2.5.6 Miscellaneous Barriers ................................................................................................................ 37 2.6 Corporate and Brief Information on Selected Corporate Entity and Interchange Projects . 38 2.6.1 Ghana Highway Authority ........................................................................................................... 38 2.6.2 Pokuase Interchange Project ....................................................................................................... 40 2.6.3 Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Project ........................................................................................ 40 2.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 41 Endnotes .............................................................................................................................................. 41 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................................ 47 ANALYSIS OF FINDINGS ............................................................................................................... 47 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 47 3.2 GPOLIP Respondent’s Demographic Profile ............................................................................. 48 3.3 Analysis of Research Questions ................................................................................................... 50 3.4 Detailed Discussion of Research Question One Results ............................................................. 54 3.4.1 Other (Improved Health, Nutrition and Infrastructural Development) ....................................... 54 3.4.2 Poverty Reduction ........................................................................................................................ 55 3.4.3 Employment Creation and Increased Income Levels ................................................................... 56 3.4.4 Improvement of Community Welfare and Rights’ Awareness ...................................................... 56 3.4.5 Enhanced Accessibility and Improvement in Education .............................................................. 57 3.4.6 Improved Food Security ............................................................................................................... 57 3.5 Detailed Discussion of Research Question Two’s Results ......................................................... 58 3.5.1 Level of Funding .......................................................................................................................... 58 3.5.2 Effective Risk Management Systems ............................................................................................ 58 3.5.3 Efficient Monitoring and Evaluation Management Systems ........................................................ 59 3.5.4 Strict Adherence to Stakeholder Involvement .............................................................................. 59 3.5.5 Absolute Reliance on Rationality ................................................................................................. 60 3.5.6 Effective Knowledge Management Systems ................................................................................. 60 3.6 Detailed Discussion of Research Question Three Results ......................................................... 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.6.1 Inadequate Project Planning Regimes ......................................................................................... 61 3.6.2 Rampant Scope Changes .............................................................................................................. 62 3.6.3 Other (Abysmal Stakeholder Relationship, Irregular Flow of Funding and High Transaction Costs) .................................................................................................................................................... 62 3.6.4 Ineffective Communication Systems ............................................................................................. 63 3.6.5 Non-Existence of Sufficient Resources ......................................................................................... 63 3.6.6 Minimal Precedence Accorded to Socio-Cultural Factors .......................................................... 64 3.7 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 64 Endnotes .............................................................................................................................................. 65 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 69 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................ 69 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................................... 69 4.2 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................................ 69 4.2.1 Summary of Findings Based on Research Question 1 ................................................................. 69 4.2.2 Summary of Findings Based on Research Question 2 ................................................................. 69 4.2.3 Summary of Findings Based on Research Question 3 ................................................................. 70 4.2 Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 70 4.2 Recommendations ......................................................................................................................... 72 4.4 Suggested Areas for Further Research ....................................................................................... 74 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 75 APPENDICES ..................................................................................................................................... 87 APPENDIX 1 – TABLES ................................................................................................................... 87 APPENDIX 2 – QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................. 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES TABLES Table 3.1 Management of Questionnaire Data ................................................................................. 47 Table 3.2 GPOLIP’s Respondents Socio-Demographic Characteristics........................................ 48 Table 3.3 View of GPOLIP Respondents on Potential Role of Donor-Funded Projects that Enhance Community Development, Mean Value, RII Scoring & Ranking .................................. 50 Table 3.4 View of GPOLIP Respondents on Key Factors Influencing Successful Donor-Funded Project Implementation, Mean Values, RII Scoring & Ranking .................................................... 51 Table 3.5 View of GPOLIP Respondents on Critical Barriers to the Effective Functioning and Implementation of Donor-Funded Projects, Mean Values, RII Scoring & Ranking.................... 53 FIGURES Figure 3.1 DFPDECD Potential Role ................................................................................................ 51 Figure 3.2 ISDFPI Key Factors ......................................................................................................... 53 Figure 3.3 EFIDFP Critical Barriers ................................................................................................ 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix ABSTRACT Donor funded project (DFP) debacles in many developing economies is extremely high as compared to its developed counterparts. In their pursuit for sustainable community development, developing economies like Ghana partake in projects like the construction of infrastructural facilities among others. Such projects, normally financed by donor agencies do face myriads of shortcomings like abandonment, cost deviation, schedule deviation, scope deviation, and stakeholders’ dissatisfaction among others. The academic work set out to appraise the role of donor funded projects in enhancing community development from the Ghanaian perspective, with a specific focus on Ghana Highway Authority, Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects (GPOLIPs) as cases. In consonance with the research objectives, the study identified the potential role of donor funded projects that enhances community development, examined the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation, as well as investigated the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective. In conducting study, the researcher employed quantitative research approach and simple random sampling technique to choose GPOLIPs respondents for their predilections relating to the study. A questionnaire was considered as the main survey instrument whiles Relative Importance Index (RII), Microsoft Excel and Descriptive Statistics (mean scores, etc.) were relied upon as far as the analysis of data is concerned. Main findings of the study as suggested by GPOLIP respondents, in relation to the potential role of donor funded projects that enhance community development from the Ghanaian perspective were as follows: poverty reduction, employment creation and increased income levels, improvement of community welfare and rights’ awareness, enhanced accessibility and improvement in education, including improved food security. In allusion to the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation from the Ghanaian perspective, 6 notable constructs were identified, namely: level of funding, effective risk management systems, efficient monitoring and evaluation management systems, in addition to strict adherence to stakeholder involvement just to mention a few. Additionally, in conjunction with critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective, 6 notable determinants were realized, specifically: inadequate project planning regimes, rampant scope changes, abysmal stakeholder relationship, irregular flow of funding and high transaction costs, ineffective communication systems, as well as the non-existence of sufficient resources among others. Having realized the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective, it is recommended that the government of Ghana and donor agencies would spring up with accountability and transparency policies to fraud-proof and misappropriation of resources. Besides, officers charged with project implementation should be made to sign performance contracts to effectuate themselves to enhance the accountability of the budgeted project funds to name but a few. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background to the Research Problem According to Kiprop et al.,1 and the World Bank report2, donor aid symbolizes the allocation of direct or indirect finance for goods or services at reasonable costs as compared to what would have been levied in the normal open market, and allotted by an external donor. The successfulness of donor aid stands out as an integral for the international development community3. In conjunction with the argument of Acharya et al.,4, regardless, addressing the global millennium development goals (MDGs) or working collectively on sustainable community poverty mitigation strategic projects in most economies, donor agencies must beef up their efficiency in order to achieve precise development outcomes and absolutely get rid of poverty. It is worth mentioning that developing economies have turned out to be the main recepients of donor-funded projects in excess of five centuries. Similar projects have come to be relevant to areas such as public health, agriculture, education, social and sustainable community development and infrastructural development5. From the generalistic sense, donor-funded projects are the bedrock of major catalogued progress in boosting many developing economies out of appalling social and developmental stagnation6 & 7. Irrespective of the relevance associated with donor-funded projects, Azhar et al., 8 contend that their returns in terms of quality, cost, time and stakeholder fulfilment continues to be the subject of offense and debate in myriads of developing economies within Sub Sahara African terrain. Unscientific evidence asserts that project organizations within most growing economies are mirrored by unforseeable and spasmodic personal interactions and animosity with organizational procedure which marrows the prevalence of discharge of donor funded projects’ shortcomings 9 & 10, hence undesirable outcomes abound. Pertaining to the Ghanaian outlook, many donor-funded projects University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 such as Tema Motorway, Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchanges that have been implemented in some municipalities like Tema, Ga-West and Osu Klottey respectively, show signs of impraticality and insufficient risk assessment and management techniques as submitted by Amponsah11 and Damoah12. Since its completion, the Tema roundabout interchange project (TRIP) has improved the amplitude of the roundabout and its interconnecting roads, safety and efficiency of transport in the Greater Accra region not to mention provision of a continuous traffic flow to expedite trade and transit in the West African Sub-region that has enhanced renumerative growth13. That notwithstanding, it has come under heavy and intense backlash over its inability to put strategies in place to curtail glaring inadequacies that militate against the effective functioning and implementation of donor-funded community developmental projects being undertaken within the locality as trumpeted by Bempong14. Likewise, according to Ghana Web’s General News of Thursday15, construction workers on the Pokuase interchange project been funded by the African Development Bank and the Ghanaian Government picketed over what they described as ill treatment from their seniors. These artisans told Ghana Web they are not happy with the GH¢20 they receive as their daily wages and GH¢1 ration they receive for scaffolding. They also bemoaned the lack of health insurance cover on them notwithstanding how iffy their job specification entail. Undoubtedly, such shortcomings, if left unattended to by the Pokuase interchange project’s management team and the Ghanaian Government do trigger the triple project constraints (cost, time and scope), causes cost and time overruns, which subsequently militate against the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects in most developing economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, including Ghana16. Kiprop et al., 17 observe that because of the broken natural feedback loop in donor aid, injecting a clear-cut assessment objectives in such arrangements is crucial to annihilate performance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 difficulties. If the assessments are well carried out, to the level that there is no technique in place to act on these assessment, specifically, no technique to get the assessment results out in the community, the donor agency’s behaviour would probably not be damaged. An autonomous foreign aid assessment agency could be a way around these difficulties. To buttress this point, even if donors adapt official assessment as a vital part in donor funded projects, there would still be problems in employing outside control without sabotaging inside accountability liaison and public development18. public development includes altering the liaisons between common people and people in positions of authority, so that everybody can participate in the issues that influence their lives19 & 20. It commences from the theory that inside any society, there exists great deal of knowledge and expertise which, if used in prolific ways, can be transmitted into collaborative action to attain the communal projects’ intended objectives in a sustained fashion21 & 22. Furthermore, irrespective of the huge donor funds made available to African economies to foster sustainable community developmental projects relating to health, good governance, agriculture among others, most of them really do not channel the funds towards that course which invariably put them in a sorry state and appear to be in a stifled growth and development. To buttress this point, Tony Blair once trumpeted that Africa is a disfigurement on the moral sense of the world, an outlook buttressed by Moyo23, who has provided the ultimate thrust for giving donor aid to Sub Sahara African economies. Oblivious of the nexus existing between foreign aid and reliance, Africa has thus, so far received US$1 trillion in growth-related aid for over five decades. Interestingly, rather than taking Africa out of hardship, Moyo24 laments the aftermath reliance and suppressed development that has branded growth in Africa. Furthermore, Abuzeid25 contends that the influx of huge quantum of donor aid earmarked for developmental projects have aggravating consequences on the states of the receiving economies, and can aggravate the situations in most instances. It is so glaring that Abuzeid26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 does not have diffidence in foreign aid in view of the fact that, more often than not, donor funded projects fail to live up to their billing. In view of this, arguments that tout donor funded projects as a panacea for African development, specifically in sustainable community developmental projects therefore warrant scrutiny and tentative diagnosis. The inconceivable question therefore is “whether these donor-funded projects do play an indispensable role in enhancing community development from the Ghanaian perspective”. Consequently, the study seeks to identify the potential roles of donor funded projects that enhances sustainable community development, examine the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation, in addition to investigate the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective, with a specific lens on Ghana Highway Authority, Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects (GPOLIPs) as cases. 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem Donor funded project debacles in most developing economies is extremely high as compared to its developed counterparts27 & 28. In their journey for sustainable community growth, growing economies like Ghana take on projects like the construction of infrastructural facilities among others. These projects, which are normally financed by donor agencies such as African Development Bank (ADB) and Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA), etc. do face myriads of shortcomings such as abandonment, cost deviation, schedule deviation, scope deviation, and stakeholders’ dissatisfaction just to mention a few. From the Ghanaian perspective, donor funded project non-fulfilment rate is high and the amount related with such cannot be overemphasized 29 & 30. Myriads of donor funded project failures have been observed by World Bank31, and GNA32 among others, which endeavour to augment the lives of the Ghanaian masses and foster sustainable community developmental regimes. Amponsah33 argue University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 that at least one out of every three infrastructural development projects mostly funded by donor agencies in Ghana either goes wrong or is impugned, hence, trying to prevent the triple constraints of project from occurring becomes a fiasco. In view of this, donor agencies become hesitant to grant aid for infrastructure projects due to the unfulfilling results associated with project outcomes34 & 35. In allusion to the World Bank36 report, retrogressive tendencies exhibited by most Sub Sahara African economies have culminated into donor apathy towards such community developmental projects including Ghana. As trumpeted by GNA37, Ghanaian government donor funded projects have experienced extremely optimal failure rate and can under no circumstance be relegated to the background. Over the past few years, colossal amounts of money have been solicited from the International Monetary Fund (IMF), World Bank and other donor agencies by the Ghanaian government to embark on projects that attempt to enhance socio-economic development such as the US$547 million under the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA) solicited in 2006. Likewise, in line with the United Nations Development Programme’s (UNDP’s) Human Development Report38, Official Development Assistance (ODA) has experienced an upsurge by 35% since 2004. As at 2011, yearly ODA figure stood at US$100 billion. Irrespective of this colossal quantum of development aid that has found its way to the shores of Sub Sahara African economies including Ghana, the literature on donor funded development projects and programs keep up to cite incessant bottlenecks intimidating the attainment of projected goals39 & 40. Also, most of these donor-funded projects have not lived up to their billing and anticipated objectives41 & 42. This incessant donor funded project failures have cost the country significant amounts of money to go down the drain and cannot be underestimated43. This has titivated donor agencies and economies to express misgivings about the phenomenon, and the earlier University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 Ghana as a developing economy devises strategic interventions to curtail these myriads of crippling tendencies, the better it will be for its populace as far as cutting-edge advancement and development in this 21st century is concerned. Extant scholarly works that take cognizance of “Donor Funded Projects”, and “Community Development” from the African perspective, specifically using Ghana Highway Authority, Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects (GPOLIPs) appear to be inexistent, untapped and under-studied. Technically speaking, studies that pursue to recognize the potential roles of donor funded projects that enhances sustainable community development, examine the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation, and also investigate the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective, come across as a mirage and unrealistic. Furthermore, from a ultra-critical evaluation of related literature suggests quite a substantial plethora of extensive research projects embarked upon that relates to “Donor Funded Projects”, and “Community Development” covering the globe44, 45, 46 & 47, but certainly not the topic under examination. However, the researcher’s chosen topic is yet to be widely exposed to any detailed pragmatic evaluation especially in many emerging countries including Ghana (a research gap that needs to be given the requisite attention). The researcher’s interaction with one of the Resident Engineers associated with the Pokuase Interchange Project pointed to inconsistent flow of finance, scope creep and curtailments on time line up of project completion, etc. as some of the notable barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor-funded developmental projects in Ghana and beyond48. This study therefore seeks to constrict this research void by recognizing the potential roles of donor funded projects that enhances sustainable community development, examine the key University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation, as well as the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective. 1.3 Research Questions Arising from the problem statement, the study seeks to answer the following research questions: 1. What is the potential role of donor funded projects that enhances community development from the Ghanaian perspective? 2. What are the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation from the Ghanaian perspective? 3. What are the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective? 1.4 Objectives of the Study The main aim of this study is to assess the role of donor funded projects in enhancing community development from the Ghanaian perspective through a survey. The specific objectives are: 1. To identify the potential role of donor funded projects that enhances community development from the Ghanaian perspective. 2. To examine the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation from the Ghanaian perspective. 3. To investigate the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.5 Scope of the Study The scope of the study is limited to assessing donor-funded projects for sustainable community development from the Ghanaian perspective, with a focal point on “GPOLIPs”. Geographically, the study was limited to collecting responses from Ghana Highway Authority employees in charge of Urban and Feeder Road projects, project stakeholders and beneficiaries associated with Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects, in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. With respect to the current study’s duration, it spanned between 1st September 2020 to 28th February 2021. Conceptually, the study focused on examining the key factors influencing successful donor funded project implementation, as well as investigating the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the Ghanaian perspective. 1.6 Rationale for the Study This research study may not only assist GPOLIP, but also other corporate entities, districts and municipalities in all the 16 newly created regions in Ghana to unearth critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective, and how best to devise strategies to manage them to the smallest amount. The current study could also be of enormous relevance to researchers as it will inadvertently produce the foundation upon which further studies could be executed, in collaboration with donor funded projects and community development from the Ghanaian outlook and beyond; as well as Additionally, the current study is justified on the grounds that the information garnered could be of immense relevance to governments and other stakeholders in municipal and district policy University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 formulations, in addition to the development of appropriate approaches for future growth and researches in Africa and beyond. 1.7 Hypothesis Despite the religious and cultural diversity discrepancies prevalent in Ghana, donor-funded projects have contributed immensely to community developments in Ghana. 1.8 Theoretical Framework The study’s theoretical framework takes cognizance of the development diplomacy theory. It is worth mentioning that myriads of development-inclined academicians and advocates have attempted to provide an answer to the intriguing question as to whether donor-funded projects do enhance community developmental projects worldwide. These conclusive incursions trigger the underpinning arguments that pertains to the development diplomacy theory. 1.8.1 Development Diplomacy Theory Development diplomacy theory argues that the process of building an affirmative perception in foreign lands, two-sided affiliations and all-embracing function and stance based on aid transfers mainly throw light on the promotion of development and well-being of developing economies.49; 50 It is worth mentioning that in order for development diplomacy to function in practice as a part of state-of-the-art public diplomacy, it needs to be preferably supported by other non-private diplomacy apparatuses. In allusion to beneficiary economies, conventional information movements can be of immense assistance. That notwithstanding, they have to be executed with optimum carefulness, so as to fend-off indoctrination and to foster trustworthiness, as compared to the perceptual underestimation of a “jaded” donor. In conjunction with the argument credited to Stevenson51, the terminology “diplomacy” takes cognizance of the creativity and usual procedure of carrying out negotiations between University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 sovereignty members. Likewise, more often than not, diplomacy encompasses the administration of intercontinental connections through the mediation of professional diplomats in relation to a complete dimension of nominal shortcomings. Diplomacy per se relates to titivating the decisions and behaviour of alienated sovereignties and officials through repartee, bargaining, including other orderly and courteous channels. Strictly, diplomacy entails the integral apparatus that pertains to alienated framework, which constitutes broad spectrum objectives and techniques that safeguards a sovereignty’s interplays with other economies across the globe. Intercontinental accords, concurrences, friendly associations, two-sided commerce connections, including indications of alienated framework are routinely bargained by diplomats preceding backing by civil politicians, which coherently buttresses the argument credited to Corgan52. “State-of-the-art communal diplomacy” apparatuses like social diplomacy, which centres on not-for-profit corporate entities or scholars’ and experts’ dialogues, might be relied upon, as a fragment of, or apart from advancement agendas, as a quota for propagating awareness that pertains to a donor economy. Type of aid is also of immense relevance in this perspective, in view of the fact that it gives instruction on contacts between donors and donee’s citizens, if executed efficiently, can be favourable to synergistic education and production of a conclusive perception. Along these lines, types of aid like training, students’ acceptance, study visits, instant consultations or knack transfer, including mini projects well entrenched in indigenous community, seem to be most encouraging in allusion to concurring objectives linked to growth including the ones of public diplomacy (likewise requiring less promotional “assistance” by other public diplomacy standards). The people-centred effect of said undertakings, amid the additional factors, will rely inter alia on the political system (that is existence and excellence of democracy) of the donee state. This culminates into distinct denouement: considering t order University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politician 11 for development diplomacy to operate efficiently, it has to be knowingly interwoven in the two-sided associations with a given beneficiary as trumpeted by Zielinski53. Additionally, outstanding development diplomacy demands an appropriate contemplation on the donor’s squishy potential assets, on how perhaps they might attend to the donees’ necessities and also assist as a retrospective teaser crusade. This appears to be a discernible effort of every donor extending certain development assistance to a particular economy. That notwithstanding, observation from the view point of capacity communal diplomacy perks might trigger cutting edge ideologies. Development diplomacy as a mindful framework further demands accuracy relating its goals. Undoubtedly, with the exception of the development goals, they demand to station themselves inside public diplomacy aims; development diplomacy can promote a depiction of a state as a donor and promote its’ other soft power assets, which synonymously reinforces the argument of Zielinski54. Arising from the foregoing discussion that pertains to development diplomacy theory, donor- funded projects such as the Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchanges among others perfectly fit into the category of non-state actors and are subjects of international relations. In tandem as well as the argument of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)55, development aid symbolizes the financial flows, technical assistance, and commodities that are designed to encourage community growth and well-being of the citizenry of a typified economy and beyond. Owing to the afore-mentioned arguments, the study is heavily dependent on DFPs such as Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey interchanges which have the capacity to trigger optimum community development systems, including the citizenry’s welfare among others. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 It is worth mentioning that the altering features of diplomacy constitute brand new obstacles for diplomatic actors in the 21st century, who have to modify their structures in order to continue being relevant on the international stage. The developing interconnection and complexity of issues requisite a more connected approach to development diplomacy, while states hold on to their prevalence in diplomacy. The major elemental weakness associated with modernistic development diplomacy theory therefore calls for finding an equilibrium linking traditional and new elements as averred by Schmidt56. One indispensable weakness associated with development diplomacy theory is attributable to the fact that larger part of ‘classic texts’ or works vital to the percept of development diplomacy studies are prescriptive. Prescriptive guides to predominance development diplomacy tend to be aligned professionally, not hypothetically. Although they give neophyte a quality perception into the pragmatism and directives of development diplomatic interplay, they do infinitessimal to advance the quest for thesis that reflects modern diplomacy. Rather, such prescriptive approaches towards development diplomacy bolster the turmoil of what diplomacy is and who diplomats are, that is they do not advance the field’s academic meaning of modernized diplomacy, as also trumpeted by Simpson57. Categorically, development diplomacy theory is of immense relevance to the present academic investigation owing to the fact the potential constraints that hamper the successful execution of donor-funded projects implementation and management regimes at GPOLIP from the Ghanaian perspective and beyond will be curtailed to an acceptable threshold (barest minimum). 1.9 Literature Review Review of Article 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Muluh et al., 58 claimed that over the past 50 years, developing economies including Ghana have been the integral beneficiaries of DFPs in diverse areas like agriculture, education, public health, infrastructural development, social and community development. This was in line with their scholarly write-up to examine the challenges and prospects of sustaining DFPs from the Cameroonian rural setting. Regardless of the relevance connected to DFPs, the authors were of the unvarnished opinion that a wide range of methodological and theoretical difficulties had emerged. As an example, Komives et al., 59 also noted that there are noticeable restrictions on the ability of national governments to promote community development, which has always made flaws related to project influence and upkeep captivating. Muluh et al.60 argument for sustainability was supported by Muluh and coauthors, who claimed that project donors' responsibilities included continuing to operate their farms and businesses and finding other sources of income when the financial aid phase of the project was through. According to the authors, a project is tenable if tenability methods from the design phase were included. Muluh et al. 61 continued by emphasising the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)62 claim that project organisation, supervision, and evaluation may have an impact on tenability. The Investment Fund for Communal and Agricultural Micro-Projects (FIMAC I) project donors' income thresholds also appear to have changed significantly, according to Muluh et al. 63 study, but the project's sustainability (as demonstrated by its continuity) depends on a variety of socioeconomic factors, including the size of the beneficiary's family, how long they have lived in the community, their gender, their level of education, and their socioeconomic standing. From a rural Cameroonian perspective, the less transparent loan application process and lack of collateral security were the other notable obstacles faced by project beneficiaries. Review of Article 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 Regarding the research project carried out by Gachui64 to assess the effects of donor funding on the development of communities from a Kenyan perspective, based on donor funded water projects in Embu County, he hinted that the extreme poverty in developing nations has created a situation where community-based projects are donor funded. The claim attributed to Gachui65 states that the aforementioned poverty and the fact that the Kenyan government has not fully upheld its social responsibility have created circumstances where donor aid has been beneficial for community development. As a result, some people now view donations as a permanent solution to the problems with communal welfare. In reference to Gachui 66 submission, the World Bank's poverty reduction strategy paper source book views community development funded by donors as a method for enhancing sustainability, efficiency, and effectiveness, enabling the expansion of poverty reduction efforts, enhancing the scope of development, and empowering the poor. The ultimate goal of community development, according to the author, is to collectively bring about social change and justice through working with communities to identify their needs, opportunities, rights, and responsibilities, take action, and evaluate the effectiveness and effects of the action in an effort to end oppressions and address inequalities. Gachui67 proclaimed that in the past few years, the effects of donor funding on community development have been researched and criticised for the reason that donor funding has not produced the anticipated results, which include empowering communities to overcome obstacles in an effort to improve their standard of living. The author firmly believed that donor funding could contribute to economic and social well-being provided the political and economic context was favourable. On the other hand, if the political and economic conditions have not been ideal, donor financing may not have the desired impact on the communities. Gachui 68 noted that, in agreement with the claim attributed to Kabanda 69, people of a typical economy continue to become poorer with each passing day, especially those coming from University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 economies with a severe scarcity of products and inadequate service supply. He continued by speculating that the interventions by donors are made in an effort to stop the transmission of poverty in communities from one generation to the next and to empower these impoverished groups to deal with their condition on the basis of their own free will. Gachui70's study endeavour was supported by three noteworthy theories, namely the (a) Theory of Poverty; (b) Agency Theory; and (c) Big Push Theory. According to Gachui 71, the modernization theorists agree with the theory of poverty in that they contend that poverty is innately formed in developing countries and may be eradicated through the successful application of intrinsic policies and adherence to the practises of developed nations. Similar to the dependency theorists, those who believe that poverty is unintentionally caused and that it can only be eliminated if rich nations change their disadvantageous trading relations with poor nations. The author claimed that the agency theory was based on the idea that because donors (dominants) are disengaged and follow their own interests, they lack a foundation for trusting in the agents and look to implement strategies to control their interests and the agents' interests in order to reduce scheming behaviours. According to the big push theory, Gachui 72, who also cogently agrees with Abuzeid 73, reported that underdeveloped nations would require enormous amounts of investments to get back on the economic development train. He also suggests that investment programmes carried out gradually will not activate growth and that these meagre investments will completely open on to wastage. Parallel to this, Abuzeid74 emphasised that expanding economies with significant inflows of donor aid in social and productive areas will lead to development in all spheres of the community, better the economy's position, and afterwards support the economy's ongoing growth. Review of Article 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 The author made the argument that the effectiveness of donor aid is conceived by its ability to impact on the community development through the undertaken projects in accordance with the research endeavour carried out by Mayeka75 to evaluate the consequence of culture on sustainability of donor funded water projects (DFWPs) implemented by the World Vision Tanzania in Ngerengere Division, in the five selected villages. The core of DFPs, according to Mayeka76 and Lelegwe77, was inspired by the necessity for developing nations to reduce poverty by providing basic social services to their citizens. Mayeka78 emphasised that due to budgetary constraints, a sizable portion of the poverty alleviation initiatives used in emerging nations, particularly those located in the southern region of Sub-Saharan Africa, are donor dependent. The promotion of aid packages by economies and multinational corporations with a focus on development has increased activity among a wide range of stakeholders who have partnered with local governments from an African perspective. According to Mayeka79, from the perspective of Tanzania, a large number of non-governmental organisations (NGOs) have benefited from funding to encourage localised development. According to him, some of the players that have played crucial roles in the funding of community initiatives from a Tanzanian perspective include World Vision Tanzania, Plan International, Save the Children, and Telecommunication corporate entities. Mayeka80 claims that Tanzania is fortunate to have a variety of domestic and international NGOs, Community Based Organisations (CBOs), and Faith Based Organisations (FBOs), to name a few. According to the author, these organisations step in to fund various community- based projects, particularly in areas where the government has either fallen short of providing social services to its citizens or has not yet paid their needs enough attention. The Global Taskforce of Local and Regional Government meeting, according to the submission of Mayeka81, recognises that culture is a critical component of success in the paradigm of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 sustainable development as a driver and enabler of development in community-centered projects that foster creativity, heritage, knowledge, and diversity into account. Mayeka82 went on to say that poverty should not just be understood as being caused by a lack of resources and income in and of itself, but should also take into account the absence of opportunities and capacities with regard to the incorporation of cultural goods into societal advancement. The author continued by defining sustainability of donor-funded community projects as the continuation of the project (along with its intended benefits) for at least ten years after the donors have left and turned the project over to the community, which has played a direct role in maintaining it for their own gain. According to Mayeka83, money typically flows as donations from the corporate headquarters to the local branches of various groups. According to the author, DFPs often have a plan for conducting financial and economic analyses of initiatives in order to assess their viability and potential impact on community development. In addition, Mayeka 84 pointed out that donors have started to take the requirement for community involvement and ownership of the project into consideration in relation to the concept of inclusive development. The sense of shared accountability between the donor and the project's community recipient creates the ownership quality. Accordingly, community ownership of the DFPs is considered to be the ideal level of community involvement for all donor-funded community-based projects, as also suggested by Lelegwe 85. 1.10 Methodology Research Approach: Research approach can be clear-cut into quantitative and qualitative research. 86 From the generalistic sense, quantitative research carries out a deductive approach to the relationship between theory and research which anchor on testing of theory.87 Conversely, qualitative research brings to the fore words rather than quantification along with data. It chooses to conduct an inductive approach to the relationship between theory and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 research which targets on the generation of theories. The mixed research method or approach is the one that blends the two main research approaches.88 Quantitative research approach was used for the study owing to the fact that it merges practices and standard of the natural scientific model in positivism position and incorporates a view of social reality as an external and objective reality as also opined by Bell et al., 89. Research Design: The research technique that the research utilized was the descriptive method. Descriptive research was employed for the study in view of the fact that it brought to the fore reality encompassing the magnitude and position of a scenario, in existence at the exact time the study was undertaken, which also reinforces the postulate of Creswell 90. This research was cross-sectional on account of time constraint. That being the case, this research was a survey of a definite event at a specified time frame as also postulated by Saunders et al.,91 Accordingly, cross-sectional studies often engage the survey strategy, and they may be prescribing to depict the event of an episode. Fundamentally, the study depended on primary data. The primary research supplied the raw data to satisfy the objectives set for the current study. The primary data, composed of raw type was put together directly from the individuals associated with GPOLIPs. It ought to be accentuated that primary data was composed of figures, views, facts, opinions and personal experiences of the respondents belonging to GPOLIPs. Study Population and Sample Size: Research population in a statistical study is a whole lot of individuals around which a researcher wants data whiles a sample indicates the part of the population from which we in actual fact collect information and subsequently employ it to produce conclusions among others. 92; 93 The targeted population for the study was 105 individuals belonging to GPOLIP. Inaddition, a sample size of 83 was used for the study made University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 up of employees associated directly linked to GPOLIPs with some distinctive characteristics silmultanoeusly. The determination of the sample size was made attainable through the application of Yamane (1967) Equation94 illustrated as below: Sample Size = N 1 + N(e)2 Where; N= Finite Population (105), e=alpha value or margin of error. In this instan, the alpha value is 5% (0.05), whereas the Confidence Interval (CI) is 95% (0.95): Sample Size = 105 1 + 105(0.05)2 Sample Size = 83.17 Hence, the sample size for the study = 83.00 Sampling Technique: Sampling, according to Shahrokh et al., 95 imply the classifying of a subset of individuals from within a statistical population in furtherance to evaluate its infallible features. In conjunction with the submission of Thomas96, a simple random sampling technique encompasses a randomly selected subset of a population. Pertaining to this sampling method however, every member of the population has precisely an equal chance of being chosen. Conjointly, Hayes97 argues that a simple random sample connotes a subset of a statistical population in which each member of the subset has an equal probability of being chosen. A simple random sample is usually an unbiased representation of a group. Categorically, a simple random sampling mechanism was utilized for the research in view of the fact that it is undeniably the most candid of all the probability sampling methods, because it only includes a single random collection and demands hardly any advance knowledge about the population. Additionally, this technique was contemplated for the study with the reason being that individuals who account for the subset of the larger group are selected at random, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_%28statistics%29 https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/population-vs-sample/ https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/sampling-methods/#probability-sampling 20 every individual in the large population set has equal probability of being chosen. Also, this brings about, in majority of cases, an equalized subset that gives the considerable potential for denoting the bigger group as a whole, not marred by any bias, as also trumpeted by Hayes98. Data Collection Instrument: Questionnaires denote one of the most popular data gathering mechanism utilized in survey research. Put simply, the questionnaire that was conclusively utilized consisted of both open and closed-ended feedbacks. Babbie 99 debates that surveys, questionnaires, tests of personality, and standardized research instruments are indubitably hypothetical circumstances of tools effectually applied within the quantitative methodology perspective. Responses was then penned and efficiently put together in place to map out strategic interventions to buckle down the issues cited earlier as concerns the exact aims in conformity with the research questions. Five-Point Likert’s scale was engaged to begin the questionnaire in order to permit respondents to bring out the discrepancies in the responses, as well as certifying they had a numerous of options. The Likert scale was preferred since it had been efficaciously applied in similar studies over the past couple of years. 100; 101 & 102 Data Analysis: This study banked on Relative Importance Index (RII) method developed by Johnson et al.,103 to determine the relative importance of the crucial factors influencing successful donor funded projects’ implementation, including the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective. The 5-Point Likert Scale ranging from 1(Completely irrelevant) to 5 (Highly relevant) was effectively utilized and upgraded into the Relative Importance Indices (RII) for each of the factors as: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 RII = ∑ 𝐏𝐢 ×𝐔𝐢 𝐍 ×𝐧 Where RII = Relative importance index; Pi = Respondent rating of severity of the key factors influencing successful donor funded projects’ implementation, including the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective. Ui = Respondent’s placing identical weighting or rating; N= Sample size; n =the highest attainable score (The greater the RII score, the highly relevant the key factors influencing successful donor funded projects’ implementation, including the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective. It is worth accentuating that RII values ranges between 0 and 1). The estimated RII values was used to rate the key factors influencing successful donor funded projects’ implementation, including the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective. The classification/rating was employed for evaluation purposes as concerns the relative bearing of the parameters as insinuated by the participants. The respective predictor of RII intuited by all participants was utilized to appraise the unequivocal ratings so as to give a general picture of the crucial factors influencing successful donor funded projects’ implementation, including the critical barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor funded projects from the African perspective. Additionally, statistical tools like Microsoft Excel and Descriptive Statistics (mean scores, etc.) were successfully employed in the data analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Reliability and Validity of the Research Instruments: In allusion to the submission of Krippendorff 104, reliability encompasses the magnitude to which a test or any assessing technique produces the same results on recurrent trials. Reliability, according to Babbie105 is a worry every single time a lone observer is the basis of data, since we have no definite guard beside the influence of that observer’s subjectivity. In tandem with the observation of Dudovsky106, reliability problems are most of the time narrowly linked with subjectivity and as soon as a researcher implements a subjective style towards the study then the degree of reliability of the work is going to be jeopardized. Validity on the other entails the study’s feat at computing or probing what the researcher sets out to compute or probe and the degree to which the research outcomes can be functional to new context.107 Bryman108 cogitates validity to be a necessary condition for all types of studies. There are different methods of research validity and main ones are specified by Fan109 as content validity, criterion-related validity, construct validity, internal validity, external validity, concurrent validity and face validity. Strategic actions were put in place to guarantee that the data collecting instruments employed were reliable and valid. The foremost strategic action was to employ numerous data collection instruments to collect data for the current study. The outcomes from these different data collection tools were subsequently calculated or differentiated in order to authenticate if they churned out similar findings. Ethical Issues: Pertaining to the execution of contemporary research endeavour, it is always imperative and auspicious to ensure that individuals are not damaged physically or emotionally and that is what ethical concerns embodies. Per the argument of O’ Leary110, the researcher has an obligation to make sure that research participants are secured as far as contemporary researches is concerned. Prospective respondents to the questionnaires were given reassurance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 that the data collected would be used for the specified reason and in no way made out the provider of such data. Also, respondents were educated to be unprejudiced since the researcher was under no circumstance searching for accurate or erroneous feedbacks. Other ethical issues like informed consent were sought for before the administration of the questionnaires. Also, the researcher ensured that respondents’ privacy was respected as well as the strict adherence to the anonymity of respondents. 1.11 Arrangement of Chapters The research was partitioned into four chapters. Chapter one was made up of the research design, whereas chapter two presented an overview of the concept of donor-funded projects and community development in Ghana and beyond. Chapter three took cognizance of the study’s findings. Chapter four chronicled a summary of the findings, conclusion and recommendations for policy implementation among others. Endnotes 1 Kiprop, D., Nzulwa, J., & Kwena, R. (2017). Challenges facing donor funded projects in Kenya: A case of community empowerment and institutional support project. The Strategic Journal of Business and Change Management, 4(2), 278 – 294. 2 World Bank (2012). Ghana projects & programs. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/projects. (Accessed: 29th October, 2012). 3 Moyo, L., & Mafuso, L.T. (2017). The effectiveness of foreign aid on economic development in developing countries: A case of Zimbabwe (1980-2000). Journal of Social Sciences, 52, 1-3, 173-187, Doi: 10.1080/09718923.2017.1305554 4 Archarya, A., de Lima, A.F., & Moore, M. (2003). The proliferators: Transactions costs and the value of aid. Institute of Development Studies. 5 Wood, T. (2005). Village phone replication manual: creating sustainable access to affordable telecommunications for the rural poor. The United Nations Information and Communication Technologies Task Force, New York. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 6 Mujabi, S., Otengei, S.O., Kasekende, F., Ntayi, J.M. (2015). Determinants of successful implementation of donor-funded projects in Uganda. International Journal of Social Economics, 42(12), 1139-1154, https://doi.org/10.1108/ 7 World Bank (2012). Ghana projects & programs. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/projects. (Accessed: 29th October, 2012). 8 Azhar, N., Farouqi, R.U., & Ahmed, S.M. (2008). Advancing and integrating construction education, research & practice: Cost overrun factors in the construction industry of advancing & integrating construction education, research and practice. First International Conference on Construction in Developing Countries (ICCIDC–I), Karachi, August 4-5. 9 Hofisi, C., & Chizimba, M. (2013). The sustainability of donor funded projects in Malawi. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 4(6). Doi: 10.5901/mjss.2013.v4n6p705 10 Mutonga, B.K. (2015). Factors influencing sustainability of donor funded community water projects: A case of Kitui central constituency, Kitui County, Kenya, University of Nairobi, 1-65. 11 Amponsah, R. (2014). Critical success factors influencing projects in the Ghanaian public sector. The International Journal of Business and Management, 2(5), 120-132. 12 Damoah, I.S. (2015). An investigation into the causes and effects of project failure in government projects in developing countries: Ghana as a case study. PhD Thesis, Liverpool John Moores University, 1-346. 13 Construction Review Online, (2019). Construction of Tema roundabout interchange project in Ghana on track – (https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/ghana/construction-of-tema-roundabout-interchange-project-in- ghana-on-track/). 14 Bempong, K. (2020). A Conversation with Kwabena Bempong, Resident Site Engineer, Associated Consultancy Limited – (www.associatedconsultantsltd.com). 15 Ghanaweb, (2020). Pokuase interchange workers demonstrate over GH¢20 wage per day. General News of Thursday, 22 October 2020 – (https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Pokuase- interchange-workers-demonstrate-over-GH-20-wage-per-day-1090522). 16 Aduboahen, C. (2017). Effective implementation of donor funded projects critical in face of declining economy – (https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2017/04/03/effective-implementation-of-donor-funded-projects-critical- in-face-of-declining-economy-adu-boahene/). 17 Kiprop, D., Nzulwa, J., & Kwena, R. (2017). Challenges facing donor funded projects in Kenya: A case of community empowerment and institutional support project. The Strategic Journal of Business and Change Management, 4(2), 278 – 294. 18 World Bank (2007). Ghana - health sector program support and second health and population projects. Washington D.C. - The World bank. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2007/07/8474696/ghana-healthsector-program-support-second- health-population-projects. (Accessed: 10th February, 2012). 19 Johnston, K. A., Lane, A. B., Devin, B., & Beatson, A. (2018). Episodic and relational community engagement: implications for social impact and social license. In K. A. Johnston & M. Taylor (Eds.), The Handbook of Communication Engagement (pp. 169-185). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 20 UNTERM, (2014). Community development. Community Development Journal. Oxford University Press. Retrieved on 7th July, 2014. 21 Alison, M., & Gord, C. (2010). From clients to citizens: Asset-based community development as a strategy for community-driven development. Development in Practice, 13(5), 474–486. Doi: 10.1080/0961452032000125857. 22 Yen, N. T. K., & Luong, P. V. (2008). Participatory village and commune development planning (VDP/CDP) and its contribution to local community development in Vietnam. Community Development Journal, 43(3), 329– 340. Doi:10.1093/cdj/bsn018 23 Moyo, D. (2009). Dead aid: Why aid is not working and there is a way for Africa. New York: Straus and Giroux. 24 Ibid 25 Abuzeid, F. (2009). Foreign aid and the push theory, lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Stanford Journal of International Relations, 6, 2-11 26 Ibid University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://doi.org/10.1108/ https://www.researchgate.net/deref/http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.5901%2Fmjss.2013.v4n6p705?_sg%5B0%5D=4QD1Pire22VA5LizOweSXpVqnzshPXWiW1ZjqEt98ddTLAZW1PieofbMS6SLlk8w1mosganctIagZ73w7_FCdwmHbA.gQGTAOxWATzCKdyRDLTHKcraweR2a5-Rj8yFdzD-3eoC60dK5-YuQSM60BlEbBwUm9ng9pGLjgSbqh2yeFfuxQ https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/ghana/construction-of-tema-roundabout-interchange-project-in-ghana-on-track/ https://constructionreviewonline.com/news/ghana/construction-of-tema-roundabout-interchange-project-in-ghana-on-track/ http://www.associatedconsultantsltd.com/ https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Pokuase-interchange-workers-demonstrate-over-GH-20-wage-per-day-1090522 https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Pokuase-interchange-workers-demonstrate-over-GH-20-wage-per-day-1090522 https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2017/04/03/effective-implementation-of-donor-funded-projects-critical-in-face-of-declining-economy-adu-boahene/ https://www.ghanabusinessnews.com/2017/04/03/effective-implementation-of-donor-funded-projects-critical-in-face-of-declining-economy-adu-boahene/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier https://doi.org/10.1080%2F0961452032000125857 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcdj%2Fbsn018 25 27 Aziz, R. F. (2013). Factors causing cost variation for constructing wastewater projects in Egypt. Alexandria Engineering Journal, 52(1); 51-66. 28 Damoah, I.S. (2015). An investigation into the causes and effects of project failure in government projects in developing countries: Ghana as a case study. PhD Thesis, Liverpool John Moores University, 1-346. 29 Fallahnejad, M. H. (2013). Delay causes in Iran gas pipeline projects. International Journal of Project Management, 31, 136-146. 30 Marzouk, M. M., & El-Rasas, T. I. (2014). Analysing delay causes in Egyptian construction projects. Journal of Advanced Research, 5(1), 49-55. 31 World Bank (2007). Ghana - health sector program support and second health and population projects. Washington D.C. - The World bank. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2007/07/8474696/ghana-healthsector-program-support-second- health-population-projects. (Accessed: 10th February, 2012). 32 GNA, (2012). Gas project cost 215m cedis in rituals before commencement- Dr SipaYankey. 28 October, 2012 p.1. 33 Amponsah, R. (2014). Critical success factors influencing projects in the Ghanaian public sector. The International Journal of Business and Management, 2(5), 120-132. 34 Daily Graphic, July, 2007, p.2. 35 Amponsah, R. (2014). Critical success factors influencing projects in the Ghanaian public sector. The International Journal of Business and Management, 2(5), 120-132. 36 World Bank (2007). Ghana - health sector program support and second health and population projects. Washington D.C. - The World bank. Available at: http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/2007/07/8474696/ghana-healthsector-program-support-second- health-population-projects. (Accessed: 10th February, 2012). 37 GNA, (2012). Gas project cost 215m cedis in rituals before commencement- Dr SipaYankey. 28 October, 2012 p.1 38 United Nations Development Programmes (UNDP), (2011). Human development report 2011. New York: UNDP. Retrieved from http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/fastfacts/english/FF- development-finance-aid-effectiveness-2011-EN.pdf. 39 Liu, J. Y., Chen, H., Chen, C. C. & Sheu, T. S. (2011). Relationships among interpersonal conflict, requirements uncertainty, and software project performance. International Journal of Project Management, 29(5), 547-556. 40 Mukuni, J., & Price, B. (2014). Implementation challenges of a donor funded development project: Lessons learned through a deep-end strategy while implementing a development program in Zambia. Journal of African Studies and Development, 6(1), 1-7. Doi: 10.5897/JASD2013.0262. 41 World Bank (2012). Ghana projects & programs. Available at: http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/projects. (Accessed: 29th October, 2012). 42 Amponsah, R. (2014). Critical success factors influencing projects in the Ghanaian public sector. The International Journal of Business and Management, 2(5), 120-132. 43 Damoah, I.S. (2015). An investigation into the causes and effects of project failure in government projects in developing countries: Ghana as a case study. PhD Thesis, Liverpool John Moores University, 1-346. 44 Ibid 45 Hassan, A.I. (2017). Evaluation of the performance of donor funded road construction projects in Kenya. Doctoral Thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, 1-133. 46 Moyo, L., & Mafuso, L.T. (2017). The effectiveness of foreign aid on economic development in developing countries: A case of Zimbabwe (1980-2000). Journal of Social Sciences, 52, 1-3, 173-187, Doi: 10.1080/09718923.2017.1305554 47 Ochieng, B.A. (2018). Determinants of effective baseline survey for donor funded slum upgrading projects in Nakuru County. Master’s Thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, 1-85. 48 Bempong, K. (2020). A Conversation with Kwabena Bempong, Resident Site Engineer, Associated Consultancy Limited – (www.associatedconsultantsltd.com). 49 US State Government, (2017). Diplomatic pouches – (www.state.gov). Retrieved 12 December 2017. 50 Fahim Y. M. (2010). Diplomacy: The only legitimate way of conducting international relations. Lulu. pp. 45- 47. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/fastfacts/english/FF-development-finance-aid-effectiveness-2011-EN.pdf http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/corporate/fastfacts/english/FF-development-finance-aid-effectiveness-2011-EN.pdf http://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/projects http://www.associatedconsultantsltd.com/ http://www.state.gov/ https://books.google.com/?id=Q-wcAgAAQBAJ 26 51 Stevenson, D.S. (2014). The diplomats. In Jay Winter, (Ed.). The Cambridge History of the First World War: Volume II: The State, 2, 68. 52 Corgan, M. (2008). Small state diplomacy. E-International Relations. 53 Zielińska, K. (2016). Development aid as a part of public diplomacy in the pursuit of foreign policy aims: theoretical and practical considerations. Historia I Polityka, 16(23), 1-19. 54 Zielińska, K. (2016). Development aid as a part of public diplomacy in the pursuit of foreign policy aims: theoretical and practical considerations. Historia I Polityka, 16(23), 1-19. 55 OECD, (2012). Development: Aid to developing countries falls because of global recession. Media Division, France. 56 Schmidt, J. (2014). Between irrelevance and integration? New challenges to diplomacy in the 21st century and the role of the EEAS. Department of EU International Relations and Diplomacy Studies, EU Diplomacy Paper, 1- 33. 57 Simpson, S. (1995). Of diplomats, diplomacy and their chroniclers. Virginia Quarterly Review, 71(4), 757. 58 Muluh, G.N., Kimengsi, J.N., & Azibo, N.K. (2019). Challenges and prospects of sustaining donor-funded projects in rural Cameroon. Sustainability, MDPI Article, 1-25. 59 Komives, K., Akanbang, B., Thorsten, R., Tuffuor, B., Wakeman,W., Larbi, E., & Whittington, D. (2008). Post-construction support and the sustainability of rural water projects in Ghana. In Proceedings of the 33rd WEDC International Conference, Accra, Ghana, 7–11 April 2008; pp. 1–294. 60 Muluh, G.N., Kimengsi, J.N., & Azibo, N.K. (2019). Challenges and prospects of sustaining donor-funded projects in rural Cameroon. Sustainability, MDPI Article, 1-25. 61 Ibid 62 OECD, (2012). Development: Aid to developing countries falls because of global recession. Media Division, France. 63 Muluh, G.N., Kimengsi, J.N., & Azibo, N.K. (2019). Challenges and prospects of sustaining donor-funded projects in rural Cameroon. Sustainability, MDPI Article, 1-25. 64 Gachui, S.M. (2017). Effect of donor funding on success of community development projects in Kenya: A case of donor funded water projects in Embu County. Master’s Thesis, KCA University, 1-57. 65 Ibid 66 Ibid 67 Ibid 68 Ibid 69 Kabanda, P. (2011). The role of NGOs in the 3rd world countries. A presentation at the National Development Studies week on behalf of the national coordinator, Uganda. 70 Gachui, S.M. (2017). Effect of donor funding on success of community development projects in Kenya: A case of donor funded water projects in Embu County. Master’s Thesis, KCA University, 1-57. 71 Ibid 72 Ibid 73 Abuzeid, F. (2009). Foreign aid and the push theory, lessons from Sub-Saharan Africa. Stanford Journal of International Relations, 6, 2-11. 74 Ibid 75 Mayeka, S. (2018). The influence of culture on sustainability of donor funded community projects: A case of World Vision Water Projects in Ngerengere Division. Master’s Thesis, Mzumbe University, 1-114. 76 Ibid 77 Lelegwe, L. S. (2015). Influence of community participation on community ownership of donor funded projects: A case of Saidia, Samburu County, Kenya. Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(5), 193-200. 78 Mayeka, S. (2018). The influence of culture on sustainability of donor funded community projects: A case of World Vision Water Projects in Ngerengere Division. Master’s Thesis, Mzumbe University, 1-114. 79 Ibid 80 Ibid 81 Ibid 82 Ibid 83 Ibid University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://www.e-ir.info/?p=549l https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-International_Relations 27 84 Ibid 85 Lelegwe, L. S. (2015). Influence of community participation on community ownership of donor funded projects: A case of Saidia, Samburu County, Kenya. Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(5), 193-200. 86 Creswell, J. W. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 67. 87 Bell, E., & Bryman, A. (2011). Business research methods (3rd Ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 88 Neuman, W. (2013). Social research methods: Qualitative and quantitative approaches (7th Ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. 89 Bell, E., & Bryman, A. (2011). Business research methods (3rd Ed.). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. 90 Creswell, J. W. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed method approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 67. 91 Saunders, M., Lewis, P., & Thornhill, A. (2016). Research methods for business students (47h Ed.), Pearson Education Limited. Edinburgh Gate, England, 586. 92 Moore, D. S. (2009). The practice of business statistics: Using data for decisions, (2nd Ed.), New York: W.H. Freeman and Co. 93 Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2010). Research methods for business: A skill building approach, (5th Ed.). Hoboken, N.J./Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Div. 94 Yamane, T. (1967). Statistics: An introductory analysis, (2nd Ed.), New York: Harper and Row. 95 Shahrokh, E.M., & Dougherty, E. (2014). Effect of separate sampling on classification accuracy. Bioinformatics, 30(2), 242-250. 96 Thomas, L. (2020). An introduction to simple random sampling. Scibbr – (https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/simple-random-sampling/). 97 Hayes, A. (2021). What is a simple random sample? Investopedia – (https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/simple-random-sample.asp). 98 Ibid 99 Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research, (12th Ed.), Cengage Learning, Mason. 100 Hassan, A.I. (2017). Evaluation of the performance of donor funded road construction projects in Kenya. Doctoral Thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, 1-133. 101 Mutonga, B.K. (2015). Factors influencing sustainability of donor funded community water projects: A case of Kitui central constituency, Kitui County, Kenya, University of Nairobi, 1-65. 102 Ochieng, B.A. (2018). Determinants of effective baseline survey for donor funded slum upgrading projects in Nakuru County. Master’s Thesis, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, 1-85. 103 Johnson, J.W., & Lebreton, J.M. (2004). History and use of relative importance indices in organizational research. Organizational Research Methods. Sage Journals. https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104266510 104 Krippendorff, K. (2013). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (3rd Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. 105 Babbie, E. (2015). The practice of social research (14th Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson. 106 Dudovskiy, J. (2018). The ultimate guide to writing a dissertation in business studies: a step-by-step assistance. Business Research Methodology – (https://research-methodology.net/about-us/ebook/). 107 Creswell, J. W., & Plano-Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research. Sage publications. 108 Bryman, A. (2015). Social research methods (5th Ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 109 Fan, X. (2013). “The test is reliable”; “The test is valid: Language use, unconscious assumptions, and education research practice. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 22, 217-218. Doi:10.1007/s40299-012- 0036-y 110 O’Leary, N. (2013). The essential guide to doing your research project (2nd Ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://bioinformatics.oxfordjournals.org/content/30/2/242 https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/simple-random-sampling/ https://www.investopedia.com/terms/s/simple-random-sample.asp https://doi.org/10.1177/1094428104266510 https://research-methodology.net/about-us/ebook/ 28 CHAPTER TWO OVERVIEW OF DONOR-FUNDED PROJECTS (DFPs) AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 2.0 Introduction This chapter accentuates on the overview of the concept, definition and meaning of donor- funded projects in Ghana and beyond. Additionally, it chronicles the role of donor-funded projects that enhance community development, including the factors influencing successful implementation of donor-funded projects worldwide. Moreover, this chapter also takes cognizance of the barriers to the effective functioning and implementation of donor-funded projects across the globe. Likewise, the chapter throws light on the corporate profile of the Ghana Highway Authority, as well as certain vital but concise information on the Pokuase and Obetsebi Lamptey Interchange Projects in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. 2.1 Donor-Funded Projects 2.1.1 Concept of Donor-Funded Projects Donor funded projects encompass aims and outputs with specific tasks at each level. 1 & 2 Planning, managing, implementing, reporting and evaluating, entail crucial characteristics that ought to be taken into account.3 The concept associated with donor funded projects for social development includes a multifaceted network of stakeholders.4 The funding agency, the contractor or implementing unit and the target donee comprise a lot of actors with detailed activities working together for the similar objective.5 & 6 These daunting projects point toward high managerial skills, team work, communication and clarity processes. Majority of donor- funded projects have five phases in the life cycle of project management, mainly identification, preparation, appraisal and approval, implementation, and evaluation.7 & 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 2.2 Concept of Community Development Development basically refers to the actions taken by poor and rich countries, to convey individuals out of poverty and to produce a greater quality of life. With that perspective, the terminology “development” can be synonymous to “progress”.9 The concept of community development on the other hand encompasses a procedure where community members are buttressed by agencies to recognize and take joint action on matters which are essential to them.10 & 11 Community development endows community members and produces sturdier and more linked communities. It is an all-inclusive approach stuck in principles of empowerment, human rights, inclusion, social justice, self-determination and collective action.12 & 13 Community development programs are directed by community members at every stage - from deciding on issues to selecting and implementing actions and evaluation.14 2.3 Role of Donor-Funded Projects that Enhance Community Development across the Globe Mubin et al., 15 executed a research project in Pakistan that pertains to the computing of socio- economic impact of viable livelihoods of Barani areas project by using a wide-ranging impact appraisal methodology and discovered that positive impacts of DFP included enhanced accessibility and improvement in education among others. In conjunction with the assertion credited to Smeaton et al., 16, economic outcomes associated with donor aided projects counted in: increased incomes, creation of employment, increased yields, improved food security, improved sustainability of crops or livestock, improved agricultural methods, better nutrition and more meals eaten. Supplementary results take account of improved awareness of rights, increased attendance at school and better access to health care and medicines. Afande 17 observes that the effectiveness of DFPs is indispensable in view of the fact that donors would want to feel fulfilled with the community project results, and also guarantee that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh http://wikiprogress.org/articles/imported/Progress 30 they have undertaken an essential role in improving the wellbeing of communities in the economies they have extended that helping hand to. In conjunction with the argument credited to Christopher18, DFPs reduce domestic savings and channel it to consumption expenses, but has no relationship with growth and investment in the developing economies. Shettar et al., (2014) executed a research endeavour from the Indian outlook and observed that there has been a significant transformation in the net income of the beneficiaries. Emphatically, the findings depicted that there has been a remarkable augmentation in the income level, assets, status, employment, level of education, number of earning members in the family and the like, which correspondingly sits well with the argument of Christopher 20. Conjointly, Sogge 21 points out three integral objectives that pertains to World Bank and OECD affiliates in relation to aid giving to boost community developmental projects in most developing economies of Sub Saharan African vintage, namely: (a) Reduction of material poverty (specifically through economic growth, and public infrastructure and basic social services provision); (b) Paying homage to superior quality governance, emphatically in effective, candid and constitutionally accountable organizations to run the economy and the legal order, but likewise in promotion of civil and political rights; and (c) Nullifying the adversarial environmental patterns. Synchronously, Asfaw et al.,22 publicised that hunger reduction, poverty reduction, increased household income, increased children right of entry to education, enhanced health and nutrition and increased number of households owning assets such as livestock are some of the key roles associated with DFPs that foster advancement in most developing countries worldwide. Okon23 touts enhanced infrastructural development as one of the notable roles of DFPs that enhances community development in most developing economies in Sub Saharan Africa. Additionally, Simonyan et al.,24 argue that employment creation, enhanced income levels and health care are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 undoubtedly some of the key roles of DFPs that enhance community development of the myriads of developing economies across the globe. 2.4 Factors Influencing Successful Donor Funded Projects’ Implementation This section throws light on notable factors that influence the successful implementation of donor-funded projects worldwide that are of immense applicability to the current study: 2.4.1 Effective Knowledge Management Regimes In order of the postulate of Love et al., 25, effective knowledge management (KM) is undoubtedly one of the essential drivers of successful DFPs across the globe that cannot be overemphasized. According to Besner et al., 26, for a project to be successful, it calls for several CSFs such as effective knowledge management systems among others. Mosse et al.,27 observe the significance of social relationships, in addition to organizational politics associated with information dissemination and its utilization in the context of development projects as being pivotal to project success and continuous improvement (Kaizen continuous improvement philosophy) in project settings just to mention a few, which synonymously reinforces the postulates of Muluh et al., 28 as well as Mayeka 29. 2.4.2 Level of Funding Per the submissions credited to Zerhusen30 and Kuria31, donors’ availability or funding sources has been recognised as one of the external factors that influence sustainability and project success. Inadequate financing is a chief factor in poor maintenance which, in turn, is frequently referred to as a reason for project dereliction. Project will not live up to their billing devoid of suitable resources; fiscal, human, natural, and technical to sustain them. Monetary, in addition to human and technical resources, aids cannot continue post project except resources have been shifted to or can be obtained by the appropriate host country organizations.32 Inadequate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 financing is a crucial parameter associated with abysmal maintenance which, consecutively, is frequently touted as a reason for project failure across the nooks and crannies of the globe.33 2.4.3 Effective Monitoring and Evaluation Management Systems Project monitoring remains pivotal as far as the essential drivers of successful DFPs worldwide is concerned.34 Project evaluation seeks to determine the value or relevance of an intervention, policy or strategy in a systematic and objective fashion. Evaluation discoveries should be creditable, and also able to impact decision-making by programme partners based on lessons learnt. According to Guijti35, in order for the evaluation procedure to be objective, it demands to attain a counterbalanced analysis, identify favouritism and resolve perspectives of diverse stakeholders (including intended beneficiaries) via the use of diverse origins and approaches. In tandem with the argument of UNDP36, Kyalo et al., 37 and Scheirer 38, effective monitoring and evaluation is critical in ensuring the success of DFPs across the globe and cannot be underestimated. Furthermore, Hodgkin39 and Karanja40 aver that effective monitoring and evaluation cannot be underestimated as far as the essential drivers of DFPs’ implementation across the globe is concerned. 2.4.4 Effective Stakeholder Involvement Regimes Gikanga et al., 41 argue that in pursuance to guarantee effective and proper management of resources, good governance is a significant characteristic of every project. The study established that stakeholders play an essential role and interrelate at various levels, from local to global level and their role and interrelation determine the effectiveness of a development intervention. Additionally, Gikanga et al., 42 observe that capacity development and skills training are pivotal determinants of successful donor funded projects. To buttress this point, the likes of Kuria 43, Adhiambo et al., 44, Gibson 45, in addition to the argument of Mmuriungi et al., 46 contend that the total involvement of stakeholders in DFPs go a long way to boost University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 project success immensely across the globe. As intimated by Kuria 47, DFPs more often than not fail to live up to their billing in view of the fact they do not open to stakeholder ownership and commitment. 2.4.5 Absolute Reliance on Rationality In tandem with the assertions of Dissanayake48 and Gross et al., 49, the role of rationality in enhancing project success has not been effectively pried into, specifically in scenarios of optimal uncertainty that pertains to developing economies. In allusion to the observation of Ritzer50, rationality stems from the concepts of structuring organizational functions and chain of command with the rationale of predicting work processes in organizations such as bureaucratization. Ritzer51 delineates organizational rationality and equate it to that of McDonaldization, whilst relying on fast food chain McDonald as a hypothetical case in point. McDonaldization symbolizes that each individual is not privy to the assignment of fishing out for the most feasible panacea, but that the corporate entity lays down codes, benchmarks and methodologies to guarantee the assignment and entity’s decision making are executed in a specialized and reasonable manner. In tandem with the assertion of Andersen et al., 52McDonaldization epitomize a rather unique delineation encompassing rationality, but that the concept is deemed befitting for myriads of corporate entities. Ritzer 53 avers that formal organizational rationality comprise of four doma