Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 TH PROCEEDINGS OF THE 8 SEMINAR OF THE COMMITTEE OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIANS AND THEIR DEPUTIES (CULD) 2012 THEME THE ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH ST LIBRARIAN IN THE 21 CENTURY UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST, GHANA 1 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 TH PROCEEDINGS OF THE 8 SEMINAR OF THE COMMITTEE OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIANS AND THEIR DEPUTIES (CULD) 2012 HELD AT UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST, GHANA TH 12 – 13TH JULY, 2012 THEME ST ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH LIBRARIAN IN THE 21 CENTURY. EDITED BY PROF. A. A. ALEMNA, PhD, FGLA, FGA ALHAJI I. K. ANTWI, MGIM, FGLA MR. C. ENTSUA-MENSAH, FGLA 2 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 2012 COMMITTEE OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIANS AND THEIR DEPUTIES © Committee of University Librarians and their Deputies (CULD) 2012 Some Rights Reserved Parts of this publication may be however reproduced for educational purposes ISBN: 978-9988-1-4124-0 ISSN: 0855-6016 Published by CULD 2013 3 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 HOST CHAIR MR. CLEMENT ENTSUA-MENSAH PLANNING COMMITTEE MR. YAW CHRISTIAN KOFI (CHAIR) MRS. JULIANA AMAVI OPARE-ADZOBU MS. PAULINA AFFUL-YEBOAH MS. PAULINA NANA YAA KWAFOA MR. KWAME AKONNOH BOOHENE MR. WILFRED KOBINA BINEY (SECRETARY) MS. KORKLU A. LARYEA MR CHRISTOPHER KWAME FILSON RAPPORTEURS MS. KORKLU A. LARYEA MR. CHRISTOPHER K. FILSON MC MR. KWAME AKONNOH BOOHENE 4 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents Page Editorial 8 Clement Entsua-Mensah, FGLA, University Librarian, UCC Introduction to the Seminar 11 Prof. Lawrence Owusu Ansah, Dean, School of Graduate Studies and Research, UCC. Welcome Address 13 Prof. A. A. Alemna, PhD, FGLA, FGA, Department of Information Studies UG, Legon Keynote Address 15 Oscar Zando Leadership and management: team building, mentoring, succession planning and conflict management. 20 Efua Mansa Ayiah, Cynthia Henewaa Kumah & Evelyn Adomah Benneh. Effective library leadership and management: issues for managers and subordinates in Academic and Research Libraries. 43 Thompson, E. S. & Franklina Adwoa Yebowaah Perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana on the role of mentoring in knowledge transfer for career development. 57 5 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Pwadura, Joana & Baidoo, Ransford Maximizing resources to meet user expectations: the case of Navrongo campus library in promoting teaching, learning and research activities. 76 Yaw Christian Kofi & Juliana Amavi Opare-Adzobu Performance appraisal for senior staff at the University of Cape Coast Library 92 Kodjo Asafo-Adjei Antwi, Akua Asantewaa Aforo & Emelia Agyei An evaluation of performance appraisal systems in Ghanaian academic libraries: a case study of KNUST and GIMPA libraries. 109 Richard Lamptey and Kweku Agyen-Gyasi Performance appraisal as an effective management tool in the state owned university libraries in Ghana. 131 Yaw Christian Kofi Library financial management: a case study of three university libraries in Ghana. 154 Victoria Dodoo, Peter Anafo & Christopher Kwame Filson Management of digital collections in academic libraries in Ghana: a case of the University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa and the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast. 171 6 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Lydia Nyantakyi-Baah & Ernest Afachao Academic library users‘ expectation: a case study of the Ghana Institute of Journalism users. 192 Korklu A. Laryea & Christopher Kwame Filson Rapporteurs‘ Report 208 Resolutions 216 List of Participants 217 7 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 EDITORIAL The papers in this volume were all presented at the Seminar of the Committee of University th th Librarians and their Deputies (CULD) held at the University of Cape Coast from 12 - 13 July, st 2013. The theme for the seminar was ―The Academic and Research Librarian in the 21 Century‖. The keynote address was presented by Professor A. A. Alemna, former University Librarian, Balme Library, University of Ghana, Legon and currently a lecturer at the Department of Information Studies at the same University. In all, eleven papers were presented including the keynote address. The first paper was presented by Oscar Zando titled ―Leadership and management style: - a case study of university libraries in Ghana‖. This is a study on the leadership and management style of University Libraries in Ghana. It looks at the conflict situation in these libraries and how to manage them through succession planning. Closely related to the first paper was the joint presentation by Efua Mansa Ayiah, Cynthia Henewaa Kumah and Evelyn Adomah Benneh on ―Effective library leadership and management: issues for managers and subordinates in academic and research libraries‖. The paper discusses the library as a business entity, its structure and mode of operations and the role of leadership and management style in modern library system. The third presentation was made by Thompson, E. S. and Franklina Adwoa Yebowaah on ―Perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana on the role of mentoring in knowledge transfer for career development‖. This study attempts to investigate the perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana‘s universities about mentoring; and also to investigate the perceptions of academic librarians on knowledge transfer through mentoring for skill development. The next paper was presented by Pwadura, Joana & Baidoo, Ransford on ―Maximizing resources to meet user expectations: the case of Navrongo campus library in promoting teaching, learning and research activities‖. This paper examines the trend in disciplinary differences in the use of the UDS Navrongo Library by academic staff and students, and assesses whether the library services need to differentiate between staff and students when planning support services. 8 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The next three papers were on performance appraisal in the various university libraries. The first in the series was written and presented by Yaw Christian Kofi and Juliana A. Opare-Adzobu on Performance appraisal for senior staff at the University of Cape Coast Library. The authors present the report of a study results carried out at the University of Cape Coast (UCC) Library. The fundamental objective of the study is to enhance the quality of service and thereby promote the continuing professional development of librarians through regular and systematic assessment of individual staff performance. The second presentation under the concept of performance appraisal was by Kodjo Asafo-Adjei Antwi, Akua Asantewaa Aforo and Emelia Agyei titled ―An evaluation of performance appraisal systems in Ghanaian academic libraries: a case study of KNUST and GIMPA libraries. This paper examines existing performance appraisal systems in two Ghanaian academic libraries. The third and final paper under this concept was submitted by Richard Bruce Lamptey and Kwaku Agyen-Gyasi on ―Performance appraisal as an effective management tool in the state- owned university libraries in Ghana‖. This study discusses the impact of performance appraisal on librarians in six state-owned university libraries in Ghana. The only presentation on ―Library financial management: a case study of three university libraries in Ghana was by Christian Kofi. The author investigates library financial management in three university libraries in Ghana. Recent developments show that university libraries are facing a dramatic changing environment and in an era of increased concern about accountability in higher education, it is critical for the university librarian to be able to demonstrate the library's value to the parent organization. Based on the results of the study, the author, among others, makes a strong case for university libraries to have separate accounts so that they can operate realistic budgets. Subsequent to the paper on library financial management was a presentation on ―Management of digital collections in academic libraries in Ghana: a case study of the University of Mines and Technology,Tarkwa and the University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast‖ by Victoria Dodoo, Peter Anafo and Christopher Kwame Filson. The purpose of the study was to find out the extent of 9 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 accessibility of digital collections as well as the skills of staff taking care of digital collections in two Ghanaian universities namely, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa (UMaT) and University of Cape Coast (UCC). The final paper was written and presented by Lydia Nyantakyi-Baah and Ernest Afachao on the topic ―Reality versus desire: the case of GIJ library users‘ expectations‖ of how service delivery is currently experienced by users. The paper looks at users‘ expectations and their view of library services at the Ghana Institute of Journalism library. The study identifies the GIJ library users‘ expectations by adopting the LibQUAL model propositions to collect data from 20% of the degree students. While wishing every reader interesting reading of this work, the editors would also wish to state that the views and opinions expressed in any of the papers are those of the individual authors. They therefore do not represent the views or opinions of CULD or the editors. 10 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Introduction to the Seminar Clement Entsua-Mensah, FGLA Chairman, CULD University Librarian, University of Cape Coast, Cape coast, Ghana E-mail: centsua-mensah@ucc.edu.gh; paakwesi71@yahoo.co.uk Mr. Chairman, Prof. Lawrence Owusu Ansah, Guest speaker, Prof. Alemna, Registrar, University Librarians, Deans, Directors, Heads of Department, Chairman and Members of the Library Board, Colleague Librarians, Members of the Press, Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen, it is my singular honour and duty as the Librarian of the host institution to formally th introduce the 8 CULD Seminar. The idea of instituting a biennial seminar series was mooted by the Librarian of University for th Development Studies (UDS) at the 10 Meeting of the Committee of University Librarians and st Deputies (CULD) held on 1 September 1995. The idea was wholly accepted and UDS was mandated to organize the first one on the theme ―Academic Library Management‘ in 1996. Since then, seven more have been organized under various themes including the current one. The University of Education, Winneba has hosted it twice in 1998 and 2008; University of Ghana once in 2004; Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology once in 2002; University of Cape Coast once in 2000 and the current one after University for Development Studies had hosted the last one in 2010. Mr Chairman, on behalf of the Management of the University I wish to thank members of CULD for the confidence they reposed in the University of Cape Coast, which is currently celebrating th its Golden Jubilee, by asking us to host the 8 seminar on the theme ―The Academic and st Research Librarian in the 21 Century‖. The theme has been sub-divided into eight sub-themes which cover:  Leadership and management with emphasis on team building, mentoring and succession planning; 11 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012  Performance Appraisal;  Financial Management;  Human Resource Management;  Project Management;  Managing Web Resources and Diverse Users; and  User Expectations of Academic and Research Libraries. The seminar is being patronized by librarians from the tertiary and research institutions all over the country, and we have twelve accepted papers which will be presented and discussed over the two days duration. Members of the Local Organizing Committee are very hopeful that colleagues present will actively participate in the deliberations so that at the end of it all, we will be in a position to make appropriate recommendations to the Vice-Chancellors Ghana (VCG), to enable us all to put in place measures that will help build the capacity of the academic and research librarians on st sustainable basis for the 21 Century. The LOC further wants to place on record the immense support and words of encouragement that they received from the Vice-Chancellor and her team of Management personnel, especially the Director and staff of the Centre for Continuing Education. We are also grateful to the few personalities and companies that responded to our appeal for sponsorship namely: Finally, to all those who worked behind the scenes to get us where we are today, the LOC says ayeekooo!!!!, especially, the Directorate of Public Relations and the Manager and staff of ATL FM for publicizing the seminar. 12 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 WELCOME ADDRESS Prof. Lawerence Owusu Ansah Dean, School of Graduate Studies and Research, University of Cape Coast. Guest Speaker, University Librarians, Deans of Faculties/Schools, Directors, Heads of Department, Distinguished invited Guests, Ladies and Gentlemen, Members of the Press, it is indeed my privilege and singular honour to be here this morning to formally welcome you to the University of Cape Coast. On behalf of the University Council, the Vice-Chancellor (currently out of the country), the Management and staff of the University, and on my own behalf, I wish to warmly, welcome you to the University of th Cape Coast to participate in the 8 Biennial Seminar of the Committee of University Librarians and Deputies (CULD). rd Over a decade ago, precisely in the year 2000, the University had the chance to host the 3 Seminar, and th th that was towards the end of the 20 Century. Today, the University is privileged to be hosting the 8 in st the series with the theme ―The Academic and Research Librarian in the 21 Century‖. Throughout the ages, Libraries have been a critical part of any higher educational and research institution since they provide vital resources, facilities and services to students, for the exploration of new ideas and thoughts, and the academic staff and researchers in the systematic investigation and furthering of knowledge. As knowledge-based organisations, the universities and research institutions will continue to depend on efficient and effective information infrastructure, and this is where the relevance of the library comes into play. Especially, with rapid advances in technology, particularly, in the way information is stored, accessed and disseminated electronically, libraries and librarians would now be expected to play st more critical roles in the educational and research institutions of the 21 Century by developing new approaches and services to meet the growing needs and expectation of these complex clientele. Certainly, how the libraries are managed and led as well as how they interface with other areas of the institutions concerned will depend on the creativity and leadership of the librarians who manage them. On our part, I wish to assure you that the management of these institutions will continue to sustain the investments that they are making in building the information infrastructure with a view to facilitating access to the global knowledge base to support teaching, learning, research and development activities to generate new knowledge. 13 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Given the expanded role and functions of the library in your institutions, it would be advisable to have all stake holders at the table when new facilities, renovations, or expansions are on the horizon to ensure that all the users‘ needs are met in the design, equipping, and staffing of the facility. st Some of the issues that you the professional librarians should contend with in the 21 Century include the:  plethora of information that needs to be managed,  lack of quality assurance of the information content on the web and  heterogeneity of technical standards. Without doubt, the most important factor that will determine whether libraries will be able to meet the challenges they face are the skills and expertise of the staff, and developing these must therefore clearly be a priority. With increased and growing competition from the social media, I will urge you as academic and research librarians to sit up and demonstrate the value additions that need to be made as far as your services are concerned, and to justify the outcome of the investments that the institutions continue to make in the libraries. The transformational changes taking place in the information environment is such that there is the need to adopt the services to meet the new demands. To be able to do that you will be required to acquire new skills while at the same time you channel your existing expertise into innovative ways of working to meet the needs of your clients. Once again, I welcome you to the University of Cape Coast and I hope you will enjoy your stay. For the short period that you will be here, the Librarian and his team will put our modest facilities at your disposal and so make good use of them. For those of you visiting Cape Coast for the first time, I hope you make time to visit some of the historical sites. th It is an honour and joy to chair the opening ceremony of the 8 edition of the CULD Seminar. Thank you. 14 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 ST ACADEMIC LIBRARIAN OF THE 21 CENTURY ANABA A. ALEMNA, PhD; FGA; FGLA. Abstract This paper is of the view that with the accelerated development in st information and communication technology, the 21 century is an exciting time for academic librarians. However, this can only be achieved under certain conditions such as: the need to embrace change; the ability to keep up with ICT; marketing of library services; project management, among others. Library and information schools must also play new roles. Otherwise, academic libraries may become marginalized and redundant. Introduction th During the last half of the 20 century, many researchers and practitioners have claimed that academic libraries must make dramatic changes or face the possibility of being marginalized. In a study of innovation in academic libraries, Clayton (1997) stated that ―innovation is no longer an option but a necessity‖. Thompson (1982) pointed out that the pressure for change comes ―not just from the potentiality of the new technology, but from the professional paralysis which has now made most of our major libraries largely unusable‖. Evident within these commentaries are forces acting upon the library and the professional librarian, forces which the profession must confront and address in order for the institution and profession to keep pace with the needs of a modern information society (Jantz, 2012). st 21 Century Requirements st So, how do we ensure that we are not overtaken by events of the 21 Century? This paper intends to make a few proposals on this. Although this is not exhaustive, it should serve as a good beginning for the profession. st First of all, permit me to suggest that as academic librarians of the 21 century, we must have the ability to embrace change. Our patrons or clients are gradually changing – new courses, 15 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 examination reforms, I.T. based education, new programmes, distance education, multi-campus systems, age levels, etc. We need to look at how we can change our strategies in our service provision to meet these needs. While on the issue of change, we should also move away from our reactive way of information st provision, to a more proactive way. The academic librarian of the 21 Century must emphasise more on customer needs and services. This leads us to another important aspect of our job, which is the marketing of our services (Alemna, 2001; Entsua-Mensah, n.d.). Unfortunately, although we appear to be doing this in our day-to-day functions, we need a new and enhanced approach to this. Keep in mind when you are marketing your services that you have to focus on the benefits the customer wants as a result of your service. As we market our services, there is also the need to market ourselves. Our customers must know who we are and what we can do to help them. st As academic librarians of the 21 Century, networking becomes very important for us. We need to stay in touch with our colleagues, our clients, our potential clients and our champions. To do this effectively, we need to be active in professional associations, meeting, conferences, workshops, consortia, etc. This will ensure that we stay up to date in our profession and our institutions. This also leads to the need to enhance our professional knowledge through reading and continuing education. st The academic librarian of the 21 century must also have the ability to easily learn new technologies. This skill is very necessary when we consider that today, with the Internet, the librarian‘s job of sorting and providing access has become even greater. The digital revolution has led to such explosive growth in information that information professionals must not only catch up with this, but also learn to speak the technical jargon such as ―Boolean search‖, ―keywords in context‖ (KWIC), and ―metadata‖. st The general environment of the library also must change in the 21 century, if we want to be an integral part of our institutions. Library opening and closing hours, facilities, rules and regulations, seating arrangements and staff attitudes must be adjusted to meet present exigencies. 16 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 st In fact, the whole planning and architecture of the 21 Century academic library needs an overhaul. There must also be a renewed commitment and trust in Librarian-Faculty relationships. Academic librarians must be interested in seeking to develop and strengthening this relationship, as it can become a vehicle for marketing library services and teaching students information literacy skills (Phelps, S.F. and Campbell, N., 2012). In this area, the importance of Faculty Liaison Officers becomes very relevant (Alemna, A. and Arkoful, M., 2008). There is now an emerging trend in librarians having to write project proposals and also managing projects. Working on a project requires different skills. A project requires effort and resources: people, tools, money, machines, time and equipment. There is also the ability to work with different people from different areas (I.T., Finance, Faculty, etc.). This requires some effort on the part of the librarian to be cooperative, be able to lobby and also able to ensure the sustainability of the project after donor funding has ceased. With the huge wealth of information available, the librarian‘s ―teaching‖ role will no doubt grow st in the 21 century. For instance, as well as providing guides and information, the academic library must organise personalised training sessions and regular demonstrations for its clients. Libraries with large numbers of clients must provide Information Literacy courses and also create online tutorials on their website. The progress of open-access periodical article publishing and institutional repositories versus the traditional models will have budgetary implications for all libraries. Printed materials will continue to play an important role for researchers and library users (OECD, 2005). Some academic institutions have already set up formal institutional repositories and are offering free on-line access to peer-reviewed articles which previously would have been published in a commercial journal. It is expected that the other institutions would emulate this example. st In all these activities, communication is the key. The academic librarian of the 21 Century must define who should be targeted with different communication media. Communication should be open and clear about activities and services of the library. 17 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 It is interesting to note that modernization of academic libraries initiated from the promulgation of Ranganathan‘s Five Laws of Library Science, in 1931 reached a stage well described by New Five Laws of Library Science formulated by Michael Gorman, the past President of ALA, along with Walt Crawford in 1995, which have given new meanings to Ranganathan‘s Five Laws in the changing situations. They are: 1. Libraries serve humanity; 2. Respect all forms by which knowledge is communicated; 3. Use technology intelligently to enhance service; 4. Protect free access to knowledge; and 5. Honour the past and create the future (Gorman, 2000). st The march of academic libraries and librarianship towards 21 century is well reflected in these. Role of Library and Information Schools Library schools could help by teaching students how to develop a strategy for continuing their education once they are out of library school, how to develop skills for learning new technologies and how to develop a strategy for troubleshooting technologies. No library school student should be allowed to graduate without basic Internet skills and search skills. Students must also be taught how to sell library services and new ideas to different stakeholders. Classes on how to evaluate software and project management among other, should also be encouraged. The role of the Library Association and the Committee of University Librarians and their Deputies (CULD) must also be acknowledged. They must provide library professionals with Continuing Professional Education (CPE) through refresher courses, seminars and workshops. Conclusion st It should be clear from this presentation, that the 21 century is a very exciting time for the academic librarian. We need to take advantage of the accelerating rate of information technology to assert ourselves as true professionals. If this is not done, we may be deemed 18 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 redundant. We must respond to these changes appropriately so that we can be seen as relevant to the institutions that we serve. References Alemna, A. A. (2001). ―The need for marketing and Total Quality Management Strategies in Ghana‖. INSPEL, 35(4): 265-269. Alemna, A. A. & Arkoful, M. (2008). ―Access to information in University Libraries in Ghana: the role of the Faculty Liaison Librarian‖. Proceedings of CULD Seminar, Winneba, pp. 119-123. Clayton, P. (1997). Implementation of organisational innovation: studies of Academic and Research Libraries. – San Diego : Academic Press, p. 29. Entsua-Mensah, C. (n.d.). Marketing as a significant factor in information delivery Services (Unpublished). st Gorman, M. (2000). Our enduring values: librarianship in the 21 Century. Chicago: ALA, p. 97. Jantz, R. C. (2012). ―Innovation in academic libraries: an analysis of University Librarians‘ perspectives‖. Library and Information Science Research, (34): 3-12. OECD (2005). Digital Broadband Content: Scientific Publishing. (Available at: www.oecd.org/dataoecd/42/12/35393145.pdf). Phelps, S. F. & Campbell, N. (2012). Commitment and trust in Librarian-Faculty Relationship: a systematic review of the literature. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 38(1): 13- 19. Thompson, J. (1982). The end of libraries. London : Clive Bingley, p.118. 19 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT STYLE: A CASE STUDY OF UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES IN GHANA Oscar Zando Assistant Librarian, University for Development Studies, Tamale Abstract This is a study on the leadership and management style of University Libraries in Ghana. It looks at the conflict situation in these libraries and how to manage them through succession planning. When vacancies for the post of Head Librarian occurred, persons appointed to act were never confirmed in preference to ―outsiders‖ resulting in disagreements, and loss of some experienced professionals. University Libraries, therefore, need a succession plan, and a conflict resolution mechanism to select qualified candidates and deal with conflict situations in the libraries. The social survey method and purposeful sampling were used for the study. Opinions were gathered through a structured, open-ended questionnaire distributed to 160 senior members and senior staff of four public university libraries in Ghana. After analyzing the data gathered from respondents, and related literature, it was found out that, a healthy competition based on qualification, competence and cooperation amongst core staff, could produce an acceptable and capable candidate to lead and manage the libraries. It is, therefore, recommended that, University Libraries must develop a well-crafted and tested succession planning programme to select and groom potential staff to fill existing vacancies to implement the agenda of the library. Key words: Leadership, Management, Succession planning, Conflict management Introduction There have been instances of simmering conflict situations in some university libraries due to either leadership failure, or the absence of a substantive Head Librarian or the non-acceptance of the appointment of the Head Librarian by some Senior Staff of the Library. This situation could have been avoided if university libraries had succession plans and select their librarians through a rigorous implementation of their succession plans and mentoring. 20 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Whilst some conflict situations are unavoidable, they can be managed effectively or contained if there is an effective conflict management mechanism in the university libraries system. Also, the leadership style of the substantive or acting University Librarian would determine the level of conflicts and how effectively they can be handled. It has therefore been advocated that university libraries need succession plans and good leadership to train eligible, potential candidates to fill existing vacancies for senior positions in order to minimize the conflict situations in their libraries. To a large extent, most staff may not doubt the academic and professional qualifications and competence of a Head Librarian; some may have issues with the choice and leadership skills of the person appointed to be the University Librarian. When there are misgivings about the choice of the librarian, confusion, inertia and mistrust could occur and affect the smooth management of the library. Invariably, some competent, seasoned staff exit the library for losing out or they exit to avoid personal animosity, vendetta and internal bickering. The current practice of appointing a University Librarian is credible, but a succession plan would ensure transparency in the appointment of substantive University Librarians, reinforce acceptance and elicit greater support and cooperation for whoever emerges as the Head Librarian. The implementation of a well-defined succession plan would create the opportunity for nurturing potential candidates in leadership and managerial skills. The succession plan must be made known to all staff and the criteria for the choice of potential candidates specified in an unambiguous and comprehensible language. Notwithstanding the vital role planning plays in the success of organizations, some of the public University Libraries in Ghana do not have a strategic plan. For example, the Balme Library which is the oldest university library does not have its own strategic plan (Dadzie, 2003). However, universities such as KNUST and UDS have strategic plans. Badu (1997; 2001) in his studies of the African corporate culture and also the strategy for information provision in Ghanaian universities respectively, outlines the following factors hindering effective strategic planning in Ghanaian universities: socio-cultural, technological and financial. But without a strategic plan and a succession plan, it would be extremely difficult to carry out change management effectively. 21 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Every change often comes in its wake with some undertones of conflict which must be taken care of. Therefore, in order to mitigate any emerging conflict situations, planned change which is an essential managerial function, must be pursued by university libraries. In fact, university libraries as a matter of necessity, must embark upon succession planning in order to minimize conflict situations or reduce conflict ramifications and the ripple effects especially whenever there is a change in the headship. Succession planning backed by good leadership styles and relevant training will produce a suitable candidate. In an earlier study on Ghanaian traditional leadership and succession planning, Hayford (as cited by Arthur and Nsiah, 2010), explains that, succession planning is being practiced in Ghanaian traditional societies and that a person could assume the mantle of leadership only through laid down, elaborate criteria coupled with certain sterling leadership qualities. There are, according to Hayford, (as cited by Arthur and Nsiah, 2010) clearly defined rules of succession and titles for their officeholders. The procedures include: ascription to lineage relationship, sacredness of the office and religion – secular nature of the office bearer; age of the leader regarded as being linked to the level of accumulated wisdom; social acceptability of the candidate and his/her capability of attracting goodwill and ensuring social cohesion. From the foregoing considerations for the appointment of a leader, one cannot, therefore, rule out the fact that socio-cultural factors weigh heavily in the appointment of leaders to head institutions not excluding university libraries. Consensus in the choice of a leader, an individual candidate‘s personal qualities and attributes and his/her level of knowledge and wisdom, are critical factors in the selection of a leader. Hence, succession planning is a sine qua non. Dr. Myles Munroe, a motivational speaker and business development consultant, strongly advocates for succession planning to ensure that the right leadership choices are made and to minimize conflicts and execute change management effectively. Speaking in an interview (Good Evening Ghana – Metro TV Show 22/03/2012), on leadership, Dr. Munroe aptly asserted that, leadership change should not bring about conflicts, and that leadership is measured by who you produce but not what you built. Dr. Munroe summarizes the importance of succession planning by saying that, a ―successful successor is a success‖. It, therefore, means that, effective planned 22 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 change management and succession planning would result in the appointment of good leaders; good leadership would in turn manage change effectively without breeding conflicts. Taking a cue from Munroe‘s injunction, university libraries must introduce succession planning and practice participative management in order to reduce conflict situations especially in the event of the appointment of a new Head Librarian. Objectives of the Study This paper focuses on management and leadership styles in university libraries in Ghana. The main objectives are to: 1. find out whether the selection of a university librarian brings about conflict situations in university libraries; 2. find out whether succession planning is practiced in Ghanaian university libraries, and 3. make recommendations for good leadership and management practices in university libraries in Ghana. The Significance of the Study This paper will serve as a guide to succession planning in university libraries. Examining the views of senior members and senior staff of university libraries will provide them with the opportunity to contribute to the discussion on succession management in libraries. It will equip the appointing authorities with the essential information to choose a successor when the incumbent librarian retires or resigns. The study can also stimulate research in good management practices in the area of succession planning in university libraries. Research Gap Libraries in the United Kingdom, Canada and Australia have seriously discussed succession plans, however, a review of the literature turned up only one article about succession planning in university libraries in the United States ―Your library‘s future‖ a 2004 article published in Library Journal (Singer, 2004). There is however nothing in the literature on succession 23 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 planning in university libraries in Ghana. This paper will therefore add to the literature available on succession planning. Leadership Metz (2001) discussing the leadership role in academic libraries notes that today effective library leadership requires an extraordinary ability to maintain a delicate and constantly shifting balance in the management of technical, financial, and human resources to serve the academic mission of our colleges and universities. Leaders must make judicious decisions that blend the strengths of the past, the demands of the present, and the uncertainty of the future, and they must do so continually–often within an organizational environment designed to support the past. Clearly, successful library leaders will need to demonstrate a blend of bold leadership, informed risk- taking, widespread consultation, and consensus building. Metz (2001) proceeded to posit that leaders need keen analytical powers, abundant common sense, vibrant creativity, reasoned judgment, and a passionate commitment to the mission and goals of higher education. He then concludes that to develop this new leader is an enormous challenge Leadership, Management and Mentoring Experts in leadership studies still do not agree on exactly what leadership is (Swansburg, 2002). However, leadership is defined as the process of influencing others towards a goal (Samson, 2009). In other words, leadership is organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal. A leader is an influential person who has the ability to lead a group or department with or without formal appointment. A leader is one, others follow willingly and voluntarily. According to Cronin (1995), leaders are individuals who can help create options and opportunities; clarify problems and choices; build morale and coalition; inspire others and provide a vision of the possibilities and promise of a better community. He asserts that the most significant breakthroughs are made by leaders who anticipate complexities but refuse to be overwhelmed and paralyzed by doubt. 24 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Management Every organization, regardless of its size, has developed and implemented management concepts in order for it to run smoothly and accomplish the vision, goals and objectives it has set forth. As such the basic functions of management, broken down into four different areas allow for it to handle the strategic, tactical, and operational decisions for the organization (Rane, 2007) According to Wikipedia (2012), management is the act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources effectively and efficiently. Management comprises planning, organizing, staffing, leading or directing, and controlling an organization (a group of people or entities) or effort for the purpose of accomplishing a goal. Management is defined as the process of influencing others with specific intentions of getting them perform effectively and contributing to meet organizational needs (Samson, 2002). Samson (2002) asserts that throughout management literature the original functions of planning, organizing, directing, and controlling as defined by Fayol, Urwick and others have been accepted as the principal functions of a manager. He further stressed that managers must ensure that the available resources are well organized and applied to produce the best results. In the resource constrained and difficult environments of many low – to middle-income countries, a manager must also be a leader to achieve optimum results. The manager‘s job is to plan, organize and coordinate. The leader‘s job is to inspire and motivate. Therefore, managers should be leaders. Germill and Oakley (1992) argue that, in this era of high technological innovation, a successful library leader must exercise creative leadership and management of the library‘s programs, services and resources. Murray (2010) therefore postulates that leadership and management must go hand in hand, though not the same thing, he thinks they are necessarily linked, and complementary. Leadership and management are subjects that have attracted considerable interest in the library field. Succession planning Management is responsible for ensuring that the organization continually has high-quality operation and employees. One of the most important practices to meet this responsibility is to conduct succession planning. In fact, succession planning should be a part of every company's 25 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 strategic plan. But very often people think of succession planning as having application only in family owned companies or in large conglomerates. The reasons for succession planning processes in organizations are to develop and nurture its human capital, to ensure a continuing sequence of qualified people to move up and take over when the current generation of managers and key people retire or move on, and to plan for the future of the company in order for key posts to be filled. (Baldwin,2011). Charan, Drotter, Noel, (2001) also defined succession planning broadly as a process of identifying and developing potential future leaders or senior managers, as well as individuals to fill other business-critical positions, either in the short- or the long-term. In addition to training and development activities, succession planning programmes typically include the provision of practical, tailored work experience that will be relevant for future senior or key roles Succession planning is the preemptive process of identifying significant leadership positions that could put the organization at risk if left unfulfilled, and targeting current employees that could move into such roles and grooming them for succession. Therefore, organizations that fail to plan for the timely and effective filling of such leadership roles can be caught off guard, with its ramifications. Managing leadership succession effectively requires a structured approach that is agreed, understood and followed by everyone involved in the planning process. To develop the employees you need for your succession plan, practices such as lateral moves assignment to special projects, team leadership roles, and both internal and external training and development opportunities are used. The succession planning process, affords the retention of superior employees because they appreciate the time, attention, and development that the organizations are investing in them. Employees are motivated and engaged when they can see a career path for their continued growth and development. To effectively do succession planning in an organization, superior staff must be hired and the organization‘s long term goals identified You need to identify and understand the developmental needs of your employees. You must ensure that all key employees understand their career paths and the roles they are being developed to fill. You need to focus resources on key employee retention. You need to be aware of employment trends in your area to know the roles you will have difficulty in filling externally. 26 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Fundamental to the succession-management process is an underlying philosophy that argues that top talent in the corporation must be managed for the greater good of the enterprise. Merck and other companies argue that a "talent mindset" must be part of the leadership culture for these practices to be effective. According to Rothwell (2005), organizations such as Dow Chemical, Eli Lilly, Sonoco, and Dell Computers when anticipating changes in leadership, assess the skills and knowledge of their employees, identify those that possess the potential to be effective leaders, and provide training, mentoring, and experience so that when the moment happens the plan is in place. Succession planning thus becomes workplace planning. Baldwin (2011) states that succession must be planned years in advance of expected needs and to properly train a successor, the firm needs sufficient time to expose the people to the full spectrum of opportunities within the firm, as well as any desired or required outside education/experience expected. For example, if someone is expected to be a general manager, the number of departments; the types and ranges of technologies and processes, and the level of knowledge about the company‘s procedures and policies, markets and customers, suppliers, employees, contractors, etc., will determine the time and depth of involvement. He adds that additional factors, such as past experience and current knowledge that the individual brings to the process, will also affect the succession time frame. He concludes that when succession planning is skillfully done, it will bring the peace of mind that senior management should have, based on the understanding and expectations of its future leadership. Nixon (2008) asserts that succession planning, as a strategy for developing leaders from within the company or organization, is a technique that could be useful to libraries. In the opinion of Singer (2010) succession planning is a systematic effort by the library to ensure continuity in key positions to retain and develop intellectual and knowledge capital for the future, and encourage individual advancement. It is designed to be ongoing, owned by leadership and encourages a focus on aligning staff and leadership with the library‘s strategic goals and objectives. She states that succession planning will lead to the right people in the right place at the right time to do the right things. 27 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Conflicts and Conflict Management While no single definition of conflict exists, most definitions seem to involve the following factors, that there are at least two independent groups, the groups perceive some incompatibility between themselves and the group interact with each other in some way ( Putnam and Poole, 1987). According to Wall and Callister, (1995), a conflict is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party. Rahim (1992) defines conflict as an interactive process manifested in incompatibility, disagreement, or dissonance within or between social entities. In the context of this paper, conflict situations may be defined as the non acceptance, disagreement or disputes over the appointment and leadership of a university librarian amongst the library staff for various personal or group reasons and interests which create an un-conducive work environment, and does not lend support to the appointee. Identifying the cause or source of the conflict is a major measure to conflict management. Usually, conflict situations arise because the disputing factions suspect or perceive discrimination, cheating or unfairness against either of them. When one party feels threatened, or its rights are being violated, there could be conflicts. Each one of the conflicting parties believes strongly that it is being cheated, threatened or deserves better treatment or should be recognized as the rightful owner of a property or the rightful occupant of a position and hence, the struggle or ―fight ―to claim that which ―rightlfully‖ belongs to it. The conflict could be about or over sharing of scarce resources, ownership of property, status or leadership position. Conflict situations arise as a result of economic, cultural, tribal, political, personal, and religious or some other differences. According to Machlowitz (1995), today‘s successful leader must be a mediator, and conciliator, bringing together disparate viewpoints to move the organization forward because conflicts can destroy a good working relationship as issues give way to personalities, parties become polarized, and problems get hazy. Awedoba (2009), in an ethnographic study of the Northern Ghanaian conflict succinctly explains conflict and its sources as follows: ―Conflict arguably stems from competition for scarce but valued resources…‖ He describes conflict as a relationship between two or more parties that centers on differences, disagreement on some issue of common interest or concern, divergence, 28 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 incompatibilities, clash of wills and the like; it may involve antagonism and opposition. The parties to a conflict may be individuals or groups or collective entities that may be in contact physically or notionally or that may share space. Conflicts do not happen without cause. The sources are myriad, some remote, some immediate. In some cases the causes can be said to be scripted into the social arrangements. There are political, social, economic, ethnic, religious, and ideological conflicts. Envy and jealousy may also be the sources of conflict too, where it implies invidious comparison between competitors, and egos can be wounded or deflated. He observed that conflicts occur when people (or parties) perceive that, as a consequence of a disagreement, there is a threat to their needs, prospects, interests or concerns. Thus, the solution to a specific conflict would depend on the nature of that conflict, the parties involved, what those parties seek to gain by the conflict, and also the situation and context. Rahim (2000) notes also that when conflicts happen, they must be managed for industrial peace and harmony. Conflict management therefore should aim at minimizing conflicts at all levels, attain and maintain a moderate amount of substantive conflict, and use the appropriate conflict management strategies to effectively bring about serenity, and also to match the status and concerns of the two parties in conflict. He asserts that conflict management involves implementing strategies to limit the negative aspects of conflict and increase the positive aspects at a level equal to or higher than where the conflict is taking place. Furthermore, the aim of conflict management is to enhance learning and group outcomes. It is not concerned with eliminating all conflict or avoiding conflict because they can be valuable to groups and organizations. It has been shown to increase group outcomes when managed properly, ( Alper, Tjosvold, & Law, 2000; Bodtker & Jameson, 2001; Khun & Poole, 2000; DeChurch & Marks, 2001). Methodology The study adopted the social survey method. 29 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Population The population for the study was the six (6) public universities‘ libraries which are strategically located in the northern savanna zone, the middle forest zone, the eastern, southern and western coastal belts respectively. Indeed, these six (6) public universities‘ scope of coverage is in all the ten regions of Ghana. The study covers the libraries of the following public universities: University for Development Studies (UDS) which has campuses in all the three Northern Regions of Ghana (i.e. Northern Region, Upper West Region and Upper East Region); Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) in Kumasi, University of Education Winneba (UEW) with Campuses in the Central and Ashanti Regions; University of Cape Coast (UCC) in the Central Region, University of Mines and Technology (UMaT), Tarkwa in the Western Region, and the University of Ghana (UG) Legon in the Greater Accra Region. Sampling A mix of stratified, cluster sampling was used to select the libraries for the study. Out of these six public universities‘ libraries, four (i.e. UDS, KNUST, UCC, and UG constituted the sample population. These four universities are not only found in strategic geographical locations in Ghana covering the northern zone, middle belt and coastal zones respectively, but are also older and well established public universities‘ libraries. Apart from the strategic location of the four (4) public universities, they also have seasoned and knowledgeable library staff hence their selection for the study. Also, they constitute over 50% of the existing public universities‘ libraries in Ghana and this makes the sample quite representative (Opoku, 2005; Tagoe, 2009). Purposive sampling was used to select the respondents (ie the senior staff and senior members of the libraries).The senior members and senior staff of the selected public universities libraries were chosen as respondents because they, invariably, are the potential Heads of Department of their respective libraries. Furthermore, the senior members qualify to be Head Librarians and or are in management positions carrying out management functions. They are the leaders and decision makers can therefore, influence policies and affect the management, leadership and succession in their respective libraries. The total population for the study was 534 senior staff and senior members of the four (4) public university libraries in Ghana. A sample size of 160 respondents was chosen from the 534 using 30 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 purposive sampling method. To solicit information from the respondents, a total of 160 well- designed, printed structured, open-ended questionnaires were given to the respondents. The questionnaires comprised 43 questions under the following major thematic areas; leadership and management, conflicts and conflict management, and succession planning. Out of the 160 questionnaires distributed, 100 were duly completed and returned thus recording a response- rate of 62.5%. The researcher gathered the opinion of respondents on the topic being researched into. The consensus of the respondents provided the basis for proffering possible solutions to the management and leadership challenges in areas of succession planning and conflict management in university libraries in Ghana. Relevant documents and literature were examined and information extracted for the study. For purposes of confidentiality and anonymity, the alphabetical letters A, B, C, D are used to represent each of the four public universities libraries in the data gathering, analysis and presentation. The questionnaire was administered in February 2011. The data gathered was analyzed, and form the basis for the conclusion and recommendations Findings Leadership and Management With regards to the headship of academic libraries, 97% of respondents said their university libraries had a substantive librarian, two percent said they did not know whether their library had a substantive librarian whilst one respondent claimed there was no librarian. Also, 73% respondents were satisfied with the choice and appointment of the University Librarian, 16% refused to answer the question, 6% said, ―no comment‖ and 5% responded in the negative on the choice and/or appointment of the Head Librarian. On the qualification and professional competence of the Librarian, 64% of the respondents said the Librarian was very experienced and highly competent whilst 35% of them said the Librarian was quite experienced and competent and one per cent blank. 31 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 1. Experience and Professional Competence of Head Librarians Rating A B C D TOTAL% Very experienced and highly competent 12 10 23 19 64 Quite experienced and competent 3 9 2 21 35 Inexperienced and incompetent 0 0 0 0 0 Blank 0 1 0 0 1 Total 15 20 25 40 100 Source: Field Survey, 2011 With regards to the Librarian‘s job performance/work output, the ratings out of the 100 respondents were: excellent 25%, very satisfactory 46%, satisfactory 23%, fairly satisfactory 5% and one per cent unsatisfactory On the librarian‘s leadership and managerial skills, 37% of the respondents rated him/her excellent, 27% as very good, 22% good, 10% fair, three per cent as poor and one per cent as very poor. Responding to the leadership style of the librarian, 64% of respondents described it as democratic, 19% said the librarian was dictatorial, 10% claimed he/she was autocratic and 7% indicated that the librarian practiced the laissez-faire style of leadership. Respondents rated the librarian‘s attitude towards staff as follows: very good 33%, good 30%, excellent 19%, fairly good 15% with only two and one respondents rating the librarian‘s human relations and attitude towards staff as poor and very poor respectively. 32 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 2. Leadership Style of the Head Librarian Leadership style A B C D TOTAL % Autocratic 2 1 2 5 10 Dictatorial 3 1 3 12 19 Democratic 9 13 20 22 64 Laissez-faire 1 5 0 1 7 Total 15 20 25 40 100 Source: Field Survey, 2011 Again 12% of respondents rated the librarian‘s knowledge of the job as non-satisfactory, 33% as satisfactory, 30% said it was very satisfactory, and 25% rated it as outstanding. Assessing the librarian‘s capability to manage the affairs of the Library, respondents said he/she was highly capable 48%, capable 50%, while two declined to respond. Conflicts, Communication and Conflict Management Information was solicited from respondents on the acceptance of the Head Librarian, conflicts due to the appointment of the Head Librarian, freedom of expression on the Librarian, effective communication between the Librarian and the staff, and grievance procedures. Responding to the question, ―Would you have preferred someone else to the current university Librarian/Head Librarian? 52% of the respondents answered in the negative and 32% in the affirmative, with 16% saying, ―No comment‖. 33 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 3. Nature of the Conflict Situation in the Library Nature of conflict A B C D Total % Interpersonal/Relationship 12 11 12 16 51 conflicts Task conflicts 3 4 8 7 22 Process conflicts 0 1 1 4 6 Others(state) No conflict 0 0 0 0 0 Blank 0 4 4 13 21 Total 15 20 25 40 100 Source: Field Survey, 2011 Also, out of the 100 respondents, 44% of them said the appointment of the current University Librarian did not create any conflict situations amongst staff, however, 32% said the appointment created a conflict situation amongst staff of the library, whilst 8% said, ―No comment‖, 16% said they did not know whether the appointment created any conflict situations or not. Indeed, in response to the question, ―Is there any conflict situation in the library, 34% answered ―Yes‖, 40% said ―No‖, 20% don‘t know and 6% said, ―No comment‖. Asked to express their opinion on the nature of the conflict situation in the library, 51% said the conflict was interpersonal relationship, 22% described it as task conflicts and 6% ascribing it to process conflicts, and blank 21%. In response to the question, ―Can you openly express your opinion against the leadership style or management of the library?‖, 37% said ‗Yes‘, 29% answered ‗No‘ and 34% said, ―No comment‖. With regards to the availability of grievance procedures in the library to address staff‘s complaints, 56% indicated there is no procedure, 20% said there is a procedure and 24% refused to answer the question. While 80% of respondents refused to give reasons for the resistance against the appointment of the University Librarian, 19% alleged that the Librarian was an unpopular choice and one respondent claimed that the appointing procedure was violated. 34 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Succession planning Whilst 70% of the respondents claimed to know succession planning, 21% had no knowledge of it and 9% would not say whether they knew succession planning or not. In fact 60% of respondents did not know whether their university library had a succession plan. 18% said the library has not got a succession plan, 12% said the library had a succession plan but 10% said, ―No comment‖, to the question, ―Has your library got a succession plan?‖ Meanwhile, 62% of the respondents did not know whether succession planning was being practiced in their library, 25% said it was not being practiced with 13% claiming that succession planning was being practiced in their university libraries. Again, 70% of respondents agreed that succession planning is relevant in the appointment of the university librarian. Only 5% said it was not relevant and 25% did not know whether succession planning was relevant in the appointment of the University Librarian. Table 4. The Relevance of Succession Planning Relevance of succession planning A B C D Total% Prepares the successor for the job 3 10 2 3 52 Can serve as motivation for staff to work hard 3 1 2 2 8 Ensures smooth transition and health cooperation 7 5 7 25 20 No knowledge about succession planning 2 4 14 10 20 Total 15 20 25 40 100 Source: Field Survey, 2011 When asked to give reasons for the relevance of succession planning in the appointment of the University Librarian, 52% said that it prepares the successor for the job and 8% said that it can serve as a motivation for staff to work hard, 20% respondent believe that succession planning ensures smooth transition and healthy cooperation amongst staff of the library and 20% said they do not have any knowledge about succession planning. 35 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Responding to the need to advocate for succession planning, 78% of respondents indicated they would advocate for succession planning in university libraries but 5% were against succession planning in academic libraries, 17% did not know whether succession planning should be advocated in university libraries. Respondents also said that if there is a succession plan the following category of staff should be the target: Senior members, 62%, Senior Staff, two per cent, everybody six per cent and 30% of the respondents refused to indicate which category of staff a succession plan must aim at. Also, 53% said they do not have access to the library‘s succession plan, 37% would not comment on whether or not they have access to the library‘s succession plan and 10% said they have access to the plan. Respondents also indicated that the following category of staff should have access to the succession plan: only senior members 18%, only senior staff 11%, Senior Members and Senior Staff only 15%, only heads of unit/department of the library 11%, all staff 22% and 23% refused to answer the question. Responding to the question, ―Will succession planning avert or minimize conflict situations in academic libraries when a Head/University Librarian is appointed?‖, 67% of the respondents answered ‗Yes‘, 14% said ‗No‘ and 19 % Don‘t know . Table 5. Criteria for the Appointment of Librarian/Head Criteria A B C D Total% Professional qualification and competence 3 13 10 10 45 Long service and professional qualification 2 1 3 4 10 Working experience and competency 0 1 1 2 4 Academic qualification and working experience 1 2 4 8 16 All of the above criteria 9 3 7 16 25 None of these 0 0 0 0 0 Total 15 20 25 40 100 Source: Field Survey, 2011 36 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 In the opinion of respondents, the following should constitute the criteria for the appointment of a Head Librarian: professional qualification and competence, 45%, long service and professional qualification, 10%, working experience and competency, four per cent, academic qualification and working experience, 16%, all of the above cited criteria 25%. As to what should be included in a succession plan, 24% suggested academic writings and publications, 18% competency and academic qualification, 16% said staff should be groomed from within, equal opportunity for all eight per cent; long and dedicated service, eight per cent and 26% did not answer this question. Recommendations include succession planning be introduced in all academic libraries, the current five year tenure of office of the librarian is too long and should be shortened to three years in the first term and two years in case of renewal. It was also recommended that the objectives and the scope of the succession plan as well as the strategy to achieve the stated objectives of the succession plan should be identified, and finally the draft plan should be discussed and adopted by the entire staff of the library and then approved by the Library Board of the University. Discussion The findings of the study revealed that majority of the public universities in Ghana have substantive Librarians with the requisite qualification and competencies. When a librarian is confirmed as the substantive head, he/she is capable and takes bold decisions and high risks, and does widespread consultation. This affirms Metz‘s (2001) belief that, today, effective library leadership requires an extraordinary ability to maintain a delicate and constantly shifting balance in the management of technical, financial, and human resources to serve the academic mission of our colleges and universities. From the findings, it can be deduced that, majority of the respondents stated that democratic rule is the most dominant management style in the surveyed libraries. The findings corroborate Ibrahim‘s (2009) assertion that participatory style management, turns to work out well in academic libraries. He warns that though most libraries practice participatory style of management, decision making does not make for effective leadership because the ultimate 37 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 responsibility for decisions taken rests with the Librarian and so he/she must put his/her managerial abilities and competencies into play. On succession planning, the general consensus is that it is very useful in the selection of the University Librarian. This process brings about transparency and it also grooms and prepares potential candidates to take over the position when it becomes vacant. This corroborates the assertion that succession planning is a good tool for the selection of Librarians to head the University libraries and when skillfully done would bring about the peace of mind that senior management should have, based on the understanding and expectations of its future leadership (Baldwin, 2011). Singer (2010) also notes that when succession planning is introduced into university libraries, the right people will be in the right place at the right time to pursue the objectives and the goals of the library. It is, therefore, imperative that all public university libraries introduce and, or implement succession plans effectively. The study further revealed that conflicts arise as a dispute or disagreement between individual persons or group of people over matters of importance and value or interest; therefore, there would always be conflicts. Brewer et al (2002) explains that conflicts are frequent occurrences in the workplace, and conflict management skills are necessary for individuals to function effectively at each level in the organization. Interpersonal and task conflicts for example, could be dealt with effectively if conflict management processes are put into place. Rahim (2009), further stressed the point that, conflict management could bring about serenity and harmony at the work place. Conflicts that could arise out of a fall out in the appointment of a University Librarian could be avoided if a succession plan is in place. As Baldwin (2011) rightly observed, when succession planning is skillfully done, it brings about peace and cooperation. One would, therefore, hope that, well - designed, acceptable and comprehensive conflict resolution mechanism (other than the existing laws, conditions of service and grievance procedures), would be rigorously executed and sustained. It is uncertain whether public university libraries, can point to such conflict management mechanisms. Conclusion A healthy competition based on qualification and performance amidst understanding and cooperation among core staff could produce an acceptable University Librarian to the majority of 38 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 the staff. A candidate selected by consensus will bring about reduction in conflict situations, promote team-building and receive maximum cooperation and support from the staff. Recommendations 1. University libraries must develop a well-crafted, tested and implementable succession planning and mentoring programme. 2. The universities must make sure that, the selection process for filling vacancies at the top echelon is rigorous and competitive enough to pick the right and qualified people for the job. 3. University libraries must ensure that potential staff are identified, nurtured, trained, motivated and prepared to take up the mantle of leadership when the position is vacant. 4. University libraries must develop a leadership culture that provide opportunities for movement, development and challenging assignments in which individuals could demonstrate high levels of performance and ability. 5. All university libraries must ensure that, there is a well crafted, tested and implementable conflict management mechanism to manage and reduce conflicts in their libraries References Alper, S., Tjosvold, D., & Law, K. S. (2000). Conflict management, efficacy, and performance in organizational teams. Personnel Psychology, Vol.53, pp. 625-642. Arthur, J. L. and Nsiah, M. K. (2010). Contemporary approaches to sustainable development: exploring critical innovations in Traditional leadership in Ghana. In: Proceedings of Sunyani Polytechnic Lecture Series V: Applied Science and Technology for th th Sustainable Development of Ghana, 13 – 16 December, 2009. pp 123-124. Awedoba, A.K. (2009). An ethnographic study of Northern Ghanaian conflicts: towards a sustainable peace - key aspects of past, present and impending conflicts in Northern Ghana and the mechanisms for their address. Accra: Sub-Sub-Saharan Publishers pp. 303. Badu, Edwin Ellis (2001). ‗The African corporate culture: an obstacle to effective strategic planning in Ghanaian university libraries‘. Library Management, Vol. 22 No. 4/5, pp.212 – 220. 39 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Badu, E. E. & Loughridge, B. (1997). ‗Towards an information provision strategy for university libraries in Ghana.‘ Information Research, vol. 3 No. 2. Baldwin, M. D. (2012). The strategy of succession planning. Accessed March 9 2012 from web site: http://www.cssp.com Bodtker, A. M., & Jameson, J. K. (2001). ‗Emotion in conflict formation and its transformation: Application to organizational conflict management.‘ The International Journal of Conflict Management, vol. 3, pp. 259-275. Brewer, N., Mitchell, P., & Weber, N. (2002). Gender role, organizational status, and conflict management styles. The International Journal of Conflict Management, pp.78-94. Charan, R., Drotter, S., And Noel, J. (2001). 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M (2008). ‗Grow your own leaders: succession planning in libraries‘, Journal of business and finance librarian Vol. 13, no. 2, pp.. 249-260 Accessed June 21, 2012 web site: http://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1106&contxt=lib_research Opoku, J.Y. (2005). A short guide to research writing in the social sciences and education Accra: Ghana Universities Press. Putnam, L. L., & Poole, M. S. (1987). ‗Conflict and negotiation‘. In F. M. Jablin (ed.), Handbook of organizational communication, Newbury Park, CA: Sage. pp. 549- 599 Rahim, M. A. (1992). Managing conflict in organizations, Westport, CT: Praeger, 16p Rahim, M. A. (2002). ‗Toward a theory of managing organizational conflict‘. The International Journal of Conflict Management, Vol. 13, pp. 206-235. Rahim, M. A., & Bonoma, T. V. (1979). ‗Managing organizational conflict: A model for diagnosis and intervention‘, Psychological Reports, Vol. 44, pp. 1323-1344. Rahim, M., Antonioni, D., Psenicka, C. (2001). ‗A structural equations model of leader power, subordinate‘ styles of handling conflicts, and job performance‘, International journal of conflict management, Vol. 12, no. 3, pp. 191-197 Rane, S. (2007). The four functions of management: foundations for all management concepts. Accessed, September 25, 2012. Available at: http://voices.yahoo.com/the-four- functions-management-foundation-all-538016.html Rothwell, W. (2005). Effective succession planning: ensuring leadership continuity and building talents from within. New York: AMACOM Singer, P., Goodrich, J, & Goldberg, L. (2004). ‗Your library‘s future‘, Library Journal, Vol. 129, no. 17, pp. 38-40. Singer, P. M. with Griffith, G. (2010). Succession planning in the library: developing leader, managing change. ALA editions. 41 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Smith, R. (1998). Managing conflict: a guide for the individual teachers London: Folens Publishers Limited, 84p. Tagoe, M. (2009). A handbook for writing research proposals. Accra: Ghana Universities Press. 82p . Wall, J. A., Jr., & Callister, R. R. (1995). ‗Conflict and its management‘, Journal of Management, Vol. 21, pp. 517. Wikipedia (2012). Conflict management. Accessed May 29, 2012, web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/conflict_management#mw-head Wikipedia (2012). Succession planning. Accessed June 10, 2012, web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Succession_planning 42 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 EFFECTIVE LIBRARY LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT: ISSUES FOR MANAGERS AND SUBORDINATES IN ACADEMIC AND RESEARCH LIBRARIES. By Efua Mansa Ayiah, Osagyefo Library UEW; Cynthia Henewaa Kumah, Osagyefo Library UEW; Evelyn Adomah Benneh, Sunyani Polytechnic Library Abstract This paper seeks to explore how leadership and management theories and styles can be used as a valuable tool for an effective and efficient library system development and management. With organizations competing at the global level coupled with the technological advancement and the changing trends in customer needs, the diversity approach to managing workplace through effective leadership and management style has been hailed as the answer to satisfy customer‘s needs. The paper discusses the library as a business entity, its structure and mode of operations and the role of leadership and management style in modern library system. The focus is on leadership and management styles as a useful tool for the development of library system. It discusses management and leadership styles in this technological age to meet the ever changing needs of patrons and its ability to steer the affairs of the organization in a direction that is consistent with the goals and purposes of the organization. Examples are given of efforts by some international academic library managers and subordinates collaborating to ensure that the goals and objectives of the libraries are achieved through leadership. It also identifies the basic problems hindering leadership and management with the aim of improving team building, conflict management and succession planning in the management of academic and research libraries. Introduction For any organization to survive and thrive in a dynamic working environment there is the need for management and leadership to adopt strategies that provide workers the opportunity to feel and be part of the organization they work for. However, it should be understood that the attainment of the goals and objectives coupled with the future growth of the organization hinges on leadership and management styles. In this case elements of achievements of organizational 43 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 goals and objectives include productivity through good leadership, effective and efficient management of people and resources inclusive of their commitment to, and involvement in the daily activities of the organization. Mullins (1996) describes management as a cornerstone of organizational effectiveness, and is concerned with arrangements for the carrying out of organizational process and the execution of work. Mintzberg (1975) explains that no job is more vital to our society than that of the manager. He pontificates that it is the manager who determines whether institutions serve us well or whether they destroy our talents and resources. It is these managers who spearhead the goals and objectives of the organization of which the library is no exception. This article is based on the operations of the modern day library, where it is customer driven. To this end, the library is seen as an organization that stresses on the importance of effective and efficient leadership and management styles which includes the ability to involve subordinates in decision making to ensure that employees are in the right position and state of mind to implement policies and programmes that are geared towards the achievement of the set goals and objectives of the modern library system. Leadership Leadership is to direct, inspire, influence and guide. Again, leadership is the process of getting people to give of their best to achieve a desired result, which includes developing and communicating a vision for the future by motivating people and gaining their support. Definitions of Leadership Ivancevich, Konopaske & Matteson (2008) define leadership as ‗the process of influencing people to enable them achievement relevant goals‘. House, Hanges, Javidan, Dorfman, and Gupta (2004) also define leadership as ‗the ability to motivate, influence and enable individuals to contribute to the objectives of organizations of which they are members‘. To adopt an effective and efficient leadership style(s) for an organization there is the need for the leader to exhibit certain qualities which is his/her ability to motivate employees, demonstrate a commitment to what he/she advocates, release the talents and energies of others to strengthen character, yet remain flexible in attitude and willing to learn new techniques and new skills. (McCall and 44 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Lawlor, 2000). Dixon (1994) explains ‗Leadership as no more than exercising such an influence on others that they tend to act in concert towards the achievement of a goal that they might not have achieved so readily had they been left to their own devices‘. In all these, the effect of leadership is best described by a consulting firm Hay McBer, as reported by Goleman (2000), in a study of 3,871 executives selected from a database of more than 20,000 executives worldwide. The study found out that leadership had a direct impact on organizational climate, and that climate in turn accounted for nearly one third of the financial results of organizations. The conclusion from the research conducted by Professor Malcolm Higgs (2006) was that leadership behavior accounts for almost 50% of the difference between change, success and failure. Research by Northouse (2006) into 167 US firms in 13 industries established that over a 20 year period, leadership accounted for more variations in performance than any other variable. Theories of Leadership One cannot talk about leadership without considering the different theories associated with it. Over the years, different people have come up with various theories concerning leadership. Out of the lot, this paper concentrates on three important theories namely contingent leadership, path goal model and leader-member exchange theory. Contingent Leadership Theory This theory which was developed by Fiedler (1967) states that leadership depends entirely on the situation that presents itself that gives the leader the opportunity to exhibit his/her abilities and talents; it can be referred to as situational leadership. Fiedler (1967) further explains that leadership performance depends mostly on the leader‘s attributes and in that sense, the leader‘s ability to handle situations excellently or poorly. In that case the performance of the group is related to both the leadership style and the degree of situation that provides the leader the opportunity to exercise his influence. In supporting his belief, Fiedler referred to the concepts that originated from Halpin and Winer (1957) on the basis of their research on how aircraft captains acted as leaders. Two dimensions of leadership were recognized in that research: 45 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012  Initiating structure, a task-oriented approach that focused on defining the task and how it should be carried out  Considering, a people-oriented approach where the emphasis is on maintaining good relations through behavior indicative of trust, respect and warmth. The research by Fiedler (1967) indicated that an initiation of the structure approach works best for leaders in conditions where a leader has power and formal backing in a relatively well- structured task. A considerate leader does well in an unstructured or ambiguous situations or where his/her power as a leader is restricted. This type of theory cannot apply to the modern library system where there is a structured hierarchy. Again, with this theory the success of the organization is dependent on the leader, so if the leader is not around the organization cannot function as it should. Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX) The leader-member exchange theory was propounded by Grean (1976) which centers on a two- way relationship between leaders and subordinates. This is linked to social exchange theory that explains social change and stability as a process of negotiated exchanges between parties. The low exchange relationship has to deal with little mutual influence between the leader and the subordinate, where the subordinate does not exert much influence in decision making but there is that mutual respect and understanding. Whilst the high-exchange relationship is established amongst a few set of trusted subordinates, with them they engage in mutually influential relations. These subordinates receive interesting assignments and participate in important decision making and also incur more obligations such as more trust, honesty, hard work and are more loyal to the achievements of the goals and objectives of the organization. In both cases the determination of the relationship with subordinates‘ starts soon after an individual joins the team; and it follows these basic stages:  Role-taking means when an individual joins the organization, the leader then evaluates the abilities, capabilities and talents of the individual. Based on the analysis the leader then decides on the opportunities that will be offered the individual to show his/her capabilities. 46 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012  Role-making as the second phase of the stages is where the leader is part of the unstructured and informal negotiation role for the subordinate. This stage requires and depends on trust. Any feelings of betrayal, particularly by the leader may result in the member being demoted and or removed from the group.  Routine at this stage is established; which means that the ongoing social exchange between the leader and the members is established. For this reason, for a member to be successful it usually requires the member to be diligent and hardworking. Path-goal leadership model House (1971) developed this theory which states that leaders are there to define the path to be followed by the team in order to achieve the desired goals and objectives of the organization. This theory assigns to the leader the duty to guide and help team members to select the best paths towards achieving their own goals and those of the group in fulfillment of the overall vision and goals of the organization. However, the behavior of the leader is upheld by the subordinates when it is viewed as a source of satisfaction, motivation, facilitation and reward effective performance. In this case the behavior of the leader is measured by his respect for the views of others and his ability to analyze situations and offer solutions without any acrimony. Again, it is the responsibility of the leader to assist followers in attaining individual set goals by providing the direction and support needed to ensure that these goals are compatible with the organization‘s goals. By so doing, the leader assists his/her followers in ways that are in consonant with the objectives and goals of the organization in attaining such through direction, training and motivation. The theory continues to postulate that it is the leader‘s job to guide and help the team members to select the best out of the rest towards achieving the leader‘s goals as well as the group. House and Mitchell (1974), describe four leadership styles under path- goal theory as supportive, directive, participative and achievement-oriented. 47 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 a) Supportive Leadership style This leadership style considers the needs of subordinates by demonstrating personal concern for their needs, welfare and the general well-being coupled with creating a friendly and conducive working environment for them. This style can be likened to people-oriented leadership. This style increases the subordinate‘s self-esteem and makes the job more interesting and fulfilling. This style can be the best approach towards a stressful, boring and hazardous working environment. b) Directive Leadership The next style is the directive leadership, which provides guidelines for subordinates. The leader lets subordinates know their work schedule and what is expected of them, sets performance targets for them and controls behaviors when performance target are not met. The individual is given schedules of specific work to be executed at specific times. The leader makes astute use of rewards and disciplinary action. This style is the same as task-oriented and may be adopted when the task at hand is unstructured and complex and the people are inexperienced. This helps to improve the individual sense of security. c) Participative Leadership This style believes in group decision-making and shares information with subordinates. The leader consults his/her subordinates on vital decisions arrived at in relation to work, task goals, and paths to resolve goals and objectives. This style is best when the subordinates are experts and their advice is needed to making decisions. d) Achievement-oriented Leadership The leader sets challenging goals both in work and self-improvement and encourages employees to reach their peak in performing their day to day activities. The leader believes and shows confidence in the abilities and capabilities of the employees and is responsible enough to accomplish challenging goals. This style is best suited for a complex task and is the same as 48 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 goal-setting theory. According to this theory, these leadership styles are not mutually restricted and leaders have the freedom of selecting more than one style best suited for a particular situation. However, as discussed above, these different styles of leadership do not work in isolation but combination of these styles help in leading and managing an organization. Management To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, and to conduct. In the light of this, Armstrong (2012) defines management as the process of deciding what to do and then getting it done through the effective use of resources. It can also be said that it depends on the abilities of these managers to make these achievements happen. In all these, they indentify the goals, determine the resources the people may need, project and make available funds, work systems and technology required to achieve the goals, allocate these resources appropriately to opportunities and planned activities that ensures that these activities take place as planned in order to achieve predetermined objectives. The sum of all these activities ensures effective management. Drucker (2005) defines management as an organization that coordinates the activities of an enterprise in accordance with certain policies and in achievement of clearly defined objectives. He further asserts that management is in two fold that is marketing and innovations. Wikipedia (2012) defines management as an act of getting people together to accomplish desired goals and objectives using available resources efficiently and effectively. This understanding presupposes that no individual manager can achieve his/her goals without the help of others in an organization or institution. Again, management connotes collective responsibility, in the sense that the manager is the figure head supervising others to get the work done. Apart from supervising he must ensure that the resources required by the workforce to use in place to achieve the desired goal or objective. This presupposes that an individual in a management position is offered the opportunity to deal with and control resources in the organization with the aim of using these in achieving the goals and objectives. Deducing from the definitions of management, a manager is an individual who 49 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 has been given the mandate to use and provide resources needed in order to achieve set goals but in doing so, he/she is required to follow these four basic principles of planning, organizing, influencing and controlling. As established by Mintzberg (1973), a manager is responsible for interpersonal, informational and decisional roles. These functions are very rampant in the corporate institutions, however things are a little different in the management of the library. The traditional management of the library is taking instructions from the leader and going by the leader‘s way. Over the years, the management of libraries has changed due to technological advancement and user change. As a result the library should be treated as a business and corporate entity that should follow the modern trends in managing an institution. In that case, library managers have to be responsible for teamwork, interpersonal relationships making sure there is a cordial relationship between the leader and the staff members, be in a position to give information about the job, that is what specific things the individuals have to embark on, training staff members on issues pertaining to their work and identify new trends. Lastly, the manager should be in a position to make decisions that will conform to the vision, mission and the objectives of the organization. For instance, the University Librarian is the leader and manager of the whole library but he/she cannot succeed if he/she does not delegate powers to the departmental heads. The departmental head then becomes the leader and manager of that department. At this point, the head of department is expected to lead and manage the department so as to achieve the desired goals and objections of the organization. On the other hand, the head of department sets the agenda for the department by formulating policies, establishing interpersonal relations with the staff. Being informed about the activities and core job schedules of the department gives the head an edge over the other staff members. A leader who is not well-informed about the activities of the department tends to make mistakes and most unfortunately loses the confidence the subordinates have in him/her. The manager needs to read to be abreast with time and emerging trends in the area of specialization. This is important because in this era of technological advancement, for any organization to thrive, there is the need for managers to adapt to the changing needs of the clientele. A well-informed head of department who is abreast with global trends should not only be in a position to organize in-service training for the immediate staff members, but also be in a 50 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 position to advise the University Librarian on new global trends. If the manager is informed, he can take informed decisions about the department and improve on the activities and service delivery. However, the ability of library managers to exhibit these qualities will put premium on the work and will significantly impact positively on the activities and service delivery of the library. The leadership and management style adopted by any leader defines the organization, and the quality of leadership is one characteristic that distinguishes a successful organization from others (Kakabadse, A., Ludlow, R., & Vinnicombe, S. 1988). Selection of any management style leads members of the organization to behave and build a particular attitude towards their job schedule and in their service delivery to clients. It also affects the image of the organization within and out of the institution or organization. Distinction between leadership and management There is a thin line between leadership and management. Leadership is setting a new direction or vision for a group to follow, i.e. a leader is to spearhead the direction of the company whilst management controls or directs people/resources in a group in accordance with principles and values established with the aim of gearing towards the attainment of the set goals. The difference between leadership and management can be illustrated by considering what happens when you have one without the other. Leadership without management is like setting a direction or vision that others should follow, without considering too much of how the new direction is going to be achieved. On the other hand, management without leadership controls resources to maintain the status quo or ensure things happen according to the already established plans and set goals and objectives. The combination of these two styles is to bring out the best in individuals in the organization and also affect society positively. Leadership comes with qualities such as being visionary projecting into the future, giving appropriate directions, planning; that is taken into consideration the ability and capacity of employees to maintain personal and team momentum on the journey towards securing the desired objective. A leader must also show rich human qualities such as an allegiance to a mission, curiosity, daring, and a sense of adventure and strong interpersonal skills, including 51 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 being fair and sensitive to management and subordinates who work with him/her. A leader must be able to motivate workers and others, to demonstrate a commitment to advocate, release the talents and energies of others to strengthen a character, yet remain flexible in attitude and be willing to learn new techniques and new skills. (McCall & Lawlor 2000). Effective leadership and management style on library management Considering the theories and styles discussed above, one can deduce that the combination of path-goal and leader-member theories can be best suited for the management of the library. This is so because these theories incorporate different styles that encourage teamwork, trust, cooperation etc. In these theories the nature and structure of a team varies according to the type of style, context and terms of reference for the team. Team in general is understood to be a group of people organized to work together to achieve a common goal. Katzenbach and Smith (1993) suggest that a team is a small number of people with complementary skills which are committed to a common purpose, approach and performance goals for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. Read and Rees (2003) suggest that in order to operate successfully as a team, a group of individuals strive proactively toward positive ways of working together, and value individual contributions. They cite Handy (1990) who defines a team as a ―collection of individuals gathered together because their talents are needed to perform a task or solve a problem. If the team wins, all those in it win. If the team loses they all lose‖. As a result a team is built based on the skills and qualities of individuals in the team and not necessarily on the size, and they are mutually accountable for the success or failure of the team. In practice, it is necessary and mandatory that each member of the team should be in the position to contribute to the achievement of the team. Working in a team does not necessarily mean you should agree to all the decisions taken. We agree to disagree and the leader‘s role is to create and maintain team spirit in which the needs and aspirations of the team have priority over each individual‘s. Rodd (2006) describes teamwork as a process ‗in which individual interests are subordinated in order to engage in joint, coordinated activity to achieve the common goals and purposes of a united group‘. Consequently, the challenge for the team leader is to promote a corporate feeling of unity of purpose where individual interests are subordinate to the needs of the team, while at the same time, still valuing individual needs, opinions, aspirations and contributions. In taking 52 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 responsibility for the team, a leader will play a key part in ensuring good relationships and creating climate in which staff feel valued and strive to keep learning and developing. Team leadership is about relationships with others and interpersonal skills. Effective team leaders display genuine empathy and understand the concerns of those in the team. They listen and try to understand how staff perceive things; they give genuine praise for achievements and support staff when needed. They support staff development through on-the-job training and mentoring, develop potential and delegate responsibilities. They have strong and clear personal values and are able to communicate a clear vision. Team leaders should be willing to admit mistakes and modify their ideas after listening to others. They need to empower staff by trusting them to take decisions or use their own initiative and discretion (DfES 2002). As a team leader, you may also be responsible for identifying and keeping central a set of core values or a vision for the setting as well as monitoring and developing the quality of provision. In recent years, technological advancement has paved the way for change in service delivery for clients; the same also applies to the library system where service delivery has become an important role that needs to be addressed. Again, in managing the library, for instance in the academic institution, there is the University Librarian, then heads of department (cataloguing, acquisitions, reader services, electronics etc.) All departmental heads including the University Librarian are referred to as the management team. The management team of the library is headed by the University Librarian, who sets the agenda for the team to work with. As discussed earlier, for a team to be effective, it is incumbent on all members to contribute to the realization of the set goals and objectives. Most times, projects and department management are not well catered for; some are not well abreast with the new products being developed by other countries about their department, because they do not know and they find it difficult running in-service training programmes for their staff members. The effects of this behaviour and attitude go a long way to affect the image of libraries in this part of our world. The way forward Libraries should be treated as business entities where productivity, creativity and innovations are used to measure the success of the organization. Business entities thrive on teamwork and team members have their specific duties and responsibilities all geared towards achieving the ultimate 53 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 goal of the organization. In the same way that corporate organizations have different departments manned by various heads by qualification so do libraries. For instance, as head of the cataloguing department, the individual who is part of the whole management team, has the responsibility for educating himself/herself with new technologies evolving in cataloguing materials for the library. After learning these technologies, the head then organizes in-service training for the staff at the department. This will then give the staff confidence to compete with any cataloguer in the world. He/she should not be afraid of change and incorporate such in the day-to-day running of the department. Recommendations Library managers should  delegate powers to subordinates and demand results.  embrace and incorporate technology into their service delivery.  improve customer service. Conclusion From the above discussion, one can safely conclude that it is best when managers of libraries delegate powers to subordinates so that they work as a team. References DfES (Department for Education and Skills) (2002). Developing management skills. Nottingham: DfES. Dixon, N. F. (1994). On the psychology of military incompetence. London: Pimlico. Drucker, P. (1967). The effective executive. London: Heinemann. Fiedler, F. E. (1967). A theory of leadership effectiveness. New York: McGraw-Hill. Goleman, D. (2000). ―Leadership that gets results‖. Harvard Business Review. March–April, pp. 78–90. 54 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Graen, G. (1976). ―Role-making processes within complex organizations‖ In Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, M. D. Dunnette, (ed) pp 1201–45, , Chicago, IL. :Rand McNally. Handy, C. (1990). Inside organisations. London: BBC Books. Halpin, A W & Winer, B J (1957). A factorial study of the leader behaviour descriptions. Ohio: Ohio State University Press. Higgs, M. (2006). ―Change and its leadership, Rowland, Fisher, Lennox Consulting [Online] www.rflc.co.uk House, R. J. (1971). ―A path-goal theory of leader effectiveness‖, Administrative Science Quarterly, 16, pp. 321–38. House R. , Hanges P. J., Javidan M. , Dorfman P. W., & Gupta Vv. (2004) Culture, leadership and organization: the GLOBE study of 62 societies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. House, Robert. J., & Mitchell, T. R. (1974). ―Path-goal theory of leadership‖. Journal of Contemporary Business, 3, 81–97. Ivancevich, J. M. , Konopaske, R & Matteson, M. T. (2008). Organizational behavior and th management, 8 ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin. Kakabadse, A., Ludlow, R., & Vinnicombe, S. (1988).Working in organisations: Penguin Business Management. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Katzenbach, J. & Smith, D. (1993). The wisdom of teams: creating the high-performance organization. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Press. McCall, C. & Lawlor, H. (2000). School leadership: leadership examined. London: 55 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The Stationery Office. Mintzberg, H. (1973). The nature of managerial work. New York: Harper & Row. Mintzberg, H. (2004). ―Enough leadership‖. Harvard Business Review, November, p. 22. Northouse, P G (2006). Leadership: theory and practice. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Read, M. & Rees, M. (2003). ―Working in teams in early years settings‖, In J. Devereux and L. Miller (eds.) Working with Children in the Early Years. London: David Fulton. Rodd, J. (2006). Leadership in early childhood. 3rd ed. Maidenhead: Open University Press. 56 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 PERCEPTIONS OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIANS IN GHANA ON THE ROLE OF MENTORING IN KNOWLEDGE TRANSFER FOR CAREER DEVELOPMENT By Edwin S. Thompson & Franklina Adjoa Yebowaah Abstract Mentoring, besides being said to have a positive effect on one‘s career has been proven to have enormous benefits not only to individuals but to organizations as well. It has made enormous contributions to retention and recruitment of talent, to succession planning, knowledge management and transfer, stress reduction, and eventually to increased production. This study attempts to investigate the perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana‘s universities about mentoring; and also to investigate the perceptions of academic librarians on knowledge transfer through mentoring for skill development. The survey design made use of a questionnaire to collect data from librarians in state-owned academic libraries in Ghana. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was used for the analyses of the results. Findings from the study indicate that mentoring was perceived by respondents as capable of fostering and aiding the acquisition of diverse professional skills and thus capable of ultimately having a positive impact on the career development of academic librarians in Ghana. Introduction The word ‗mentor‘ was made popular in Ghana by a weekly entertainment TV series titled Mentor. As a result, mentor in Ghana is highly associated with the entertainment and sporting industries. Mentorship, as we may all be aware has existed for ages. It traces its origins to ancient Greek mythology, in Homer‘s epic poem The Odyssey and it has been practiced in Europe for many years especially in business and education. It was during the 1970s that it found its way into the business world of the USA. Since then, it has caught on so fast that it has been described as ‗an innovation in American Management‘ (Shaw, 2012). However, mentoring is said to have gained momentum for information professionals only within the mid-nineties. Although there seems to be a general consensus on what mentoring is, yet there is no concise definition as a result of which it has been variously defined. Mentoring can, however, be said to 57 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 have taken place if an older, more experienced and/or more knowledgeable person exerts his way of life (of doing things) on a younger, less experienced and less knowledgeable person in a way that leads to a transformation in the younger person‘s life (Dittoh, 2011). Mentoring traditionally may involve activities conducted by a person (the mentor) for another person (the mentee) in order to help that other person acquire the needed expertise and to do a job more effectively and/or progress in his or her career. Ptolemey (2008) posits that mentoring basically involves a passing on of skills from a mentor to a mentee and goes on to see it as a guidance process which also has an element of building a relationship. Mentoring is also said to be a powerful personal development and empowerment tool. It is thought of as one of the most effective ways of helping people to progress in their careers. It is indeed becoming increasingly popular as its potential is being more realised. It is usually said to be a partnership between two people (mentor and mentee) normally working in a similar field or sharing similar experiences and it is based on mutual trust and respect (Parsloe, 2008). Although Freedman (2009) indicates that there are some clearly recognized benefits to mentoring, it is still a rather mysterious concept for most people. This, Moore (2008) suggests is because the idea of mentoring is still an evolving concept. Mentoring may be formal or informal but to make the process work, there has to be a deliberate effort to mould and shape the individual. In the view of Dittoh (2011), mentoring is consciously done to achieve certain positive changes with regard to knowledge, attitudes, skills and ways of doing things. There are basically two types of mentoring and these are the mentoring of a new employee or the mentoring of a staff considered to have a high potential for achieving in a particular profession. The latter is by far what pertains in many institutions and that is often what many people and organizations consider to be mentoring (Shaw, 2012). Mentoring is becoming increasingly popular because as Bello (2011) indicates, the mentoring process has such enormous and inexhaustible advantages or benefits that it can be explored in a variety of ways by many organizations. For libraries as institutions, mentoring is equally significant because it facilitates knowledge transfer and skill acquisition, especially the skills that cannot be learned from textbooks or in a formal structured class lecture. 58 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Various studies indicate that mentoring‘s positive effect on one's career cannot be overemphasised. One study by Roche (1979) found that of the 63.5 percent of the 1,250 respondents who had a mentor (defined as ―a person who took a personal interest in your career and who guided or sponsored you‖) were on the average better paid, reached their positions faster, and were more satisfied with their work and careers than their non-mentor counterparts. Munde (2002) buttresses this point further when he states from the results of his study ‗Beyond mentoring:…‘ that for at least 15 years, career success in private enterprise in the USA has depended on the person having had a mentor. Mentoring has been acknowledged to have numerous and enormous benefits for all involved – the mentor, the mentee or protégé as well as for the organization. Bello (2011) quoting (Ragins & Cotton, 1999) indicates that for mentees, the benefits may include increased professional opportunities and networks, access to power bases, growth of professional knowledge and skill development, career advancement and more effective, happier performers. Benefits for mentors may also include personal and professional satisfaction, enhancement of professional reputation, extension of networks and influence and rejuvenated careers by assisting in the personal and professional development of mentees (Ehrich, L.S., Hansford, B. & Tennent, L. , 2004). Research has also shown benefits of mentoring for organisations such as improved productivity and job satisfaction, development of organizational culture and commitment, and enhanced communication and relationships across different levels of the organization (Long, 1997). It is in recognition of the numerous benefits of mentoring in facilitating professional development and growth of staff that the University for Development Studies‘ Centre for Continuing Education and Interdisciplinary Research developed a mentoring policy for the University. In the preamble to that policy, it is stated that there is the need for ‗a clear-cut policy on mentoring so as to ensure the professional development of staff‘ (UDS, CCEIR, 2012). With all these touted benefits of mentoring, the question one needs to ask is why have librarians and information professionals in Ghana not embraced it in these times of turbulent challenges in the profession as a result of dwindling finances and technological advances which are impacting heavily on the information landscape. In her ―Fostering Librarian Leadership through Mentoring‖ Golian-Lui (2003) concludes that mentoring provides opportunities for significant 59 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 personal, professional and leadership development. It is therefore prudent that in these times of rapid change for the library and information science world due to the impact of technological innovation, mentoring will be adopted and it will definitely play a sizable role as a guiding light. Freedman (2009) affirms this by stating that effective mentoring is essential to the growth and success of librarianship in all types of libraries. Objectives of the Study The study attempts to investigate the perceptions of academic librarians about mentoring, as well as their perceptions about mentoring for skill development through knowledge transfer in academic libraries of Ghanaian universities. A summary of the objectives of the study are to investigate the:  current state of mentoring in academic libraries of Ghanaian universities;  perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana‘s universities about mentoring; and  perceptions of academic librarians on knowledge transfer through mentoring for skill development. Significance of the Study Studies in mentoring have mainly been conducted in the western nations. In Ghana, no notable study on mentoring of librarians has as yet been sighted. As a result, some of the findings and recommendations of the studies from western nations may not be applicable to a developing country such as Ghana. This study therefore attempts to fill a gap in the published literature on mentoring in Ghanaian university libraries. Of particular significance is its practical relevance to practising university librarians. It is also hoped that the findings will be of benefit to library management in considering mentoring programmes as a tool for staff development as well as extending the frontiers of knowledge on the use of mentoring for knowledge transfer for eventual career development. Methodology The survey design making use of a questionnaire was adopted for this study. The questionnaire which was based on a similar one used by Bello (2011) in his doctoral thesis on the use of 60 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 mentoring for knowledge transfer, skills development and career development of cataloguers in Nigerian University Libraries was divided into four sections. This was modified to suit this present study. The first section of the questionnaire dealt with the demography, the second concentrated on mentoring programmes in the library, the third section dwelt on how mentoring could aid knowledge transfer, and the final section dealt with the role of mentoring in the acquisition of managerial and research/publication skills. Initially, professional librarians in all the six state owned university libraries were identified for this study. Since the number was small, the researchers decided to use the total population for the study. However as a result of noncooperation from professional librarians from the Balme Library of the University of Ghana, Legon, the researchers decided to exclude them and use the remaining five for the study. The five university libraries thus used were the University of Cape Coast (UCC) Library, where nine professional librarians were identified; the University of Education, Winneba (UEW) Library where 10 professionals were identified; the University of Mines and Technology (UMaT) Library which had three professionals; the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technolgy (KNUST) Library which had 17 professionals at the time of the study and finally the University for Development Studies (UDS) Library which had nine professionals but only seven of who were sampled because the other two were to undertake this study. The total number of subjects in the population for this study amounted to 46. In March 2012, 46 copies of the questionnaire were given to key persons who had been identified on each of the state-owned universities‘ libraries under study. In April and early May, 2012, 34 copies of the questionnaires were returned and they were found to be usable for analysis. A response rate of 73.9% was thus achieved and this in the view of Babbie (2010) is very good for analysis and reporting. Results and Discussion Data for this study was collected mainly from completed copies of the questionnaire distributed to professional librarians at five of the six state owned university libraries in Ghana. From the study, it was realized that though 20 (58.8%) of the respondents obtained their library professional degree only in the 2000s, yet 27 (79.4%) had worked in the library for between 6 - 61 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 30 years. What was even more remarkable was that 50% of all respondents had worked for between 11 – 20 years in the library. Obviously, many of the respondents were very experienced and this showed in their ages as 22 (66.7%) were between 36-55 years old with an additional seven (20.58%) between 56-60 years. It was thus evident that over 70% of respondents were in the middle or twilight of their careers, thus it was expected they would have been mentored or they were mentoring younger people in the profession. Figure 1 below depicts the library working experience of respondents. Source: Field Study, 2012 The notion that librarianship is a female dominated profession does not appear to be so in Ghana since data collected from the completed questionnaires showed that, 22 respondents constituting 64.7% of subjects under study were male whilst only 12 (35.3) were female. This, according to Bello (2011) confirms the literature that in advanced countries, females dominate the library 62 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 profession but this trend is reversed in developing countries where males dominate the profession. It also needs to be mentioned that this male dominance could be attributable to the fact that one needs a post- graduate academic qualification to qualify as a professional librarian and since the incidence of female drop-out rate in education is much higher than that of males in Ghana, very few females manage to pursue graduate programmes. Mentoring Programmes in the Library The researchers sought to find out if new staff were taken through any form of mentorship and how often this was done. This was because according to Hicks (2011) mentorship is often considered as one of the best ways to develop leadership potential in new library and information professionals. Respondents were therefore asked to indicate whether or not their university library engages its staff in any mentoring activity. Twenty four (70.6%) of them indicated that their libraries engaged staff in mentoring activities, seven constituting 20.6% said no with three respondents stating they were not aware of any such activities in their library. It is indeed intriguing to realize that in all the institutions under study, there were respondents who indicated yes and no across all the libraries. This was buttressed by a few respondents who were not aware. The question that readily comes to mind is, is it that there are mentoring activities in the respective libraries which some of the staff do not know about? Whatever it is, it gives an indication that if there are any mentoring activities, they could be informal or they could be highly selective. It is deemed essential to mentor new employees into the library environment and this is reemphasized by Kram (1986) with his discovery that mentoring facilitates the socialization of new employees into the organization, as well as enhances the transfer of knowledge and values. It was gathered from the data that new staff were often engaged in mentoring. Seventeen (17) respondents constituting 50% indicated that new staff were engaged daily in mentoring. Another seven (20.6%) stated that new staff were engaged monthly in mentoring, while five (14.7) respondents indicated this was a yearly affair, a further 5 (14.7%) stated that new staff were never mentored. Is this then an indication that not enough effort is being put into garnering the leadership potential of new employees? 63 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Respondents, however, indicated that other types of professional development programmes were available to staff. All respondents indicated more than one type, the most used by itself as well as in combination with others such as staff rotation was staff orientation. Twenty eight (82.4%) respondents indicated staff orientation as the main type of professional development programme which was used in combination with others. Job rotation was also significant as 19 (55.9%) of respondents also stated it was one of the professional development programmes which was used in combination with others. Other professional development programmes which were mentioned and stated as being used in combination with others were ‗attached to others‘ which was stated by 12 (35.2%) respondents, ‗manual for self study‘ by nine (26.47%) respondents and finally ‗short time coaching‘ which was stated by seven (20.58%) respondents. It was therefore realized that deliberate effort is being put into staff development at all the institutions under study. This is commendable and should be sustained since staff development ultimately enhances optimal performance. Respondents were then requested to assess the effectiveness of the staff mentoring programmes at their respective institutions since the benefits of mentorship can be made more manifest when the mentoring programme is effective. Very few respondents thought that mentoring programmes at their institutions were not effective. For 18 (52.9%) of the respondents, the mentoring programme in their institutions were either ‗very effective‘ or ‗effective‘, nine (26.5%) also thought that it was moderate, four (11.8%) did not know whether the programmes were effective or not. However, three (8.8%) respondents were categorical that the mentoring programmes were not effective at all. Interestingly, while two of the libraries had no respondents indicating that it was not effective, another two had respondents stating that it was not effective with no respondent describing their mentoring programme as being ‗very effective‘. The fifth library however had respondents stating both extremes. In a bid to find out the adequacy and importance of the mentoring activities in the libraries, respondents were asked to indicate this. All respondents with the exception of three (8.8%) thought that the mentoring activities in their libraries were important or very important. The three who did not think so were of the opinion that it was just moderately important. With regards to its adequacy, 16 (47%) respondents indicated that it was adequate, 11(32.4%) thought it was moderate with four (11.8%) indicating it was inadequate. Three (8.8%) however were 64 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 unsure as to its adequacy or inadequacy. It was realized from the study that the time frame for the mentoring activities were as varied as the definitions of mentoring. Some respondents who had stated their libraries undertook mentoring activities were unsure as to the number of years the activities took. Interestingly, many of the respondents were also unaware as to when the mentoring activities started in their libraries. All these answers attest to the fact that none of the libraries under study had a formal mentoring programme in place. With regards to mentoring being in agreement with the library‘s structures and values, 26 (76.47%) of the respondents agreed with four (11.76%) disagreeing. A further four (11.76%) refused to state whether they agreed or disagreed. From the data, it was realized that majority of respondents had ever mentored a staff with some having mentored over 10 staff. Twenty four (70.6%) respondents indicated they had ever mentored a staff with seven (20.6%) stating they had never mentored any one. Three (8.8%) respondents did not answer this question. It is worth noting that it was only at one library that besides one respondent who did not answer the question, all other respondents from that library had never mentored any one. Respondents who indicated they had mentored more than 10 people were nine (26.5%). Majority of respondents had mentored between1-10. Significantly, another nine (26.5%) respondents had never mentored anybody. Figure 2 below depicts this. Source: Field Study, 2012 65 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 It is again worth noting that besides one respondent, all the other respondents who had ever mentored someone indicated they had had some mentoring training as well as having had mentors themselves. This then could explain how some of them had mentored up to ten people in spite of the fact that there were no formal mentoring programmes at their institutions. Perceptions of Mentoring On a five-point Likert scale with 1 standing for ‗Strongly disagree‘ (SA), 2 being ‗Disagree‘, 3 being ‗Inclined to Agree‘, 4 being ‗Agree‘ and 5 being ‗Strongly Agree‘, the researchers posed 14 questions to find out the perceptions of academic librarians in Ghana on the role of mentoring in knowledge transfer for staff development. From the responses, it was evident that most respondents had the perception that mentoring was positive and necessary for staff in the academic library, especially its ability to train new and inexperienced staff as well as its ability to enhance staff development in the library profession. Nineteen (55.9%) respondents strongly agreed that mentoring enhances a staff‘s abilities for development in the library profession with an additional 12 (35.3%) agreeing to this. Table 1 below depicts the findings vividly. Table 1: Perceptions on role of Mentoring in Knowledge Transfer Frequency Percent Valid SD 1 2.9 IA 1 2.9 A 12 35.3 SA 19 55.9 Total 33 97.1 Missing System 1 2.9 Total 34 100 Source: Field Study, 2012 66 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 From the study, it can be gathered that 31 (91.2%) respondents agreed to this statement. With this recognition, it is a bit intriguing why academic libraries in Ghana have not wholeheartedly accepted mentoring so staff development can be greatly enhanced. In conformity with the literature, 30 respondents indicated that they agreed or strongly agreed with mentoring‘s ability to teach or train new and inexperienced staff in the acquisition of skills for library work. It was only two (5.8%) respondents who disagreed with this assertion. Again, 29 (85.29%) respondents indicated that mentoring grooms new staff faster for the profession while two (5.8%) respondents disagreed. Even more (32 constituting 94.2%) of those who agreed to this were also of the view that mentoring by way of guidance could help develop talented staff who could confidently solve problems. However, those who believed mentoring could inspire staff on the job constituted the majority but they were not so many, as only 24 (70.58%) agreed with as many as seven (20.6%) disagreeing. Respondents were also of the view that the application of mentoring activities could even facilitate the future success of the Library. Twenty nine (85.3%) respondents agreed to this with only one (2.94%) disagreeing. Comparatively, many more respondents disagreed with the notion that mentoring could help in retaining staff of the library. Twenty five (73.5%) agreed that mentoring could assist in retaining staff but 7 (20.58%) disagreed. Whereas 23 (67.64%) respondents agreed that mentoring instills discipline in staff, nine (26.5%) disagreed. Mentorship has been touted as having immense benefits as a result of which it is applied very much in management, sports and in education. In view of this, the researchers sought to find out respondents‘ perception of mentoring‘s ability in improving managerial skills. Whereas three (8.8%) disagreed to this assertion, 26 (82.4%) agreed. Table 2 below depicts the responses. 67 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 2: Mentoring role in improving Managerial Skills Frequency Percent Valid DA 4 11.8 IA 3 8.8 A 21 61.8 SA 6 17.6 Total 34 100 Source: Field Study, 2012 Academic librarians in other parts of the world are expected to publish extensively in both local and international journals to merit promotion (Odusanya & Amusa, 2006). Mentoring, as Yusif (2011) states is perceived by librarians in Nigeria as having a positive impact on their research output. Bello (2011) confirms this when he states that mentoring is capable of enhancing research and publication requirements. Taking cognisance of this, the researchers attempted to find out the perceptions of academic librarians on the role of mentoring in enhancing publication output. Whereas 27 (79.4%) respondents agreed that mentoring, by way of consultation, could help develop research and publication skills, only two (5.9%) disagreed. Again, five (14.7%) respondents disagreed with the statement that mentoring training deals with publication constraints and requirements for promotion with 21 (61.74%) agreeing to this. Apart from two (5.9%) respondents who disagreed with the assertion that mentoring provides an opportunity to learn and acquire leadership skills, all other respondents agreed. Mentoring and Knowledge Transfer Knowledge transfer, Bello (2011) states is the means by which an experienced librarian directly transmits his/her experience, skills, expertise to a less experienced librarian through the systematic process of mentoring in a bid to develop and attain proficiency and expertise in librarianship. This is affirmed by Fleig Palmer (2009) when he quotes Grover and Davenport, (2001) who define knowledge transfer as an exchange of organizational knowledge between a 68 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 source and a recipient (Grover and Davenport, 2001) in which the exchange consists of information and advice about resources and relationships (Szulanski, 1996). The researchers thus sought to find out respondents perceptions about knowledge transfer and how it leads to the acquisition of competence or skill development and eventually career enhancement. Again, a five-point Likert scale consisting of ten statements was used to assess the perceptions of respondents. Respondents were affirmative that knowledge transfer by way of mentoring develops verbal, written and interpersonal communication skills. Apart from one (2.9%) respondent who disagreed that verbal and written communication skills could be developed through knowledge transfer, all other respondents (33 constituting 94.1%) either agreed or were inclined to agree. There was one non respondent. Interestingly, no respondent disagreed with the statement that interpersonal communication skills could be developed by means of knowledge transfer. All respondents, except two (5.9%) who did not respond, were unanimous in agreeing that leadership skills could be promoted by means of knowledge transfer through mentoring. Table three below depicts this. Table 3: Knowledge transfer through mentoring promotes leadership skills Frequency Percent Valid IA 2 5.9 A 23 67.6 SA 7 20.6 Total 32 94.1 Missing System 2 5.9 Total 34 100 Source: Field Study, 2012 69 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The need for managerial and supervisory skills is a pre-requisite in academic librarianship since every professional librarian in a Ghanaian academic library has subordinate staff. The researchers therefore sought to find out from respondents whether knowledge transfer through mentoring could develop managerial and or supervisory skills. Whilst all respondents (100%) indicated that supervisory skills could be developed through knowledge transfer, two (5.8%) disagreed that managerial skills could equally be developed through knowledge transfer by means of mentoring. It can be gleaned from the responses that respondents generally felt knowledge transfer by way of mentoring could enhance the leadership skills of librarians by inculcating in them strong supervisory and managerial skills. Respondents were then requested to indicate whether certain specified library skills could be developed by knowledge transfer. All respondents (100%) agreed that planning skills, organizing skills and strategic skills, all for library activities, network and networking strategic skills as well as guidance on skills needed to lead the way in researching new library techniques and challenges could be developed by means of knowledge transfer through mentoring. However it was only 30 (88.2%) who agreed that both effective working skills and cordial team working skills could be so developed, 28 (82.4%) agreed that knowledge transfer through mentoring could promote stress management skills as well as staff‘s ability to interpret library policies/procedures with 26 (76.5%) agreeing that time management could be promoted in a similar manner. The need to develop professional skills of academic librarians is not in doubt. Curry and Smithee (2007) believe that libraries have been unable to provide adequate opportunity for the next generation of leaders although there is competition for the few skilled library staff. Why are libraries then not using mentoring as a means of equipping staff with needed library skills? With such positive attitudes towards knowledge transfer by means of mentoring, it is surprising that these academic libraries have as yet not formalized their mentoring programmes. Managerial Skills Academic librarians need managerial skills as they progress up the career ladder, unfortunately, as Saye (2002) indicates they are deficient in managerial, leadership and technological skills. Since mentoring has been touted as improving leadership and managerial skills, the researchers 70 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 sought to find out respondents‘ perceptions about the enhancement of managerial skills of academic librarians through mentoring. Again, a five-point Likert scale consisting of four questions was used. All respondents (100%) unanimously agreed that mentoring in knowledge transfer provides staff the opportunity to attempt new professional and tactical approaches to challenges without anxiety; guidance on staff work flow; exposure to a variety of library duties and responsibilities as well as exposing staff to direct library administrative and managerial skills and it also motivates staff to improve in task performance. Thirty one (91.2%) respondents however agreed that mentoring through knowledge transfer provides an opportunity for staff to develop leadership skill; 30 (88.2%) agreed that it teaches staff resources planning skills and also it positively affects staff‘s rate of promotion. Mentoring‘s ability to provide staff the prospect of taking part in Library and University Committee meetings were the most disagreed to by respondents. Respondents generally perceived mentoring as being capable of enhancing their managerial skills. Research and Publication Skills Research and publications are deemed an essential component to the development of all academics worldwide. Academic librarians are therefore not exempted from publishing since scholarship is one of the criteria used for promoting them and for them to be at par with the academics in the faculties, they must have articles published in reputable journals (Yusif, 2011). Verzosa (2007) affirms this when she states that it is very important for librarians to engage in research, as this will add value to librarianship. The study therefore sought to find out from respondents their perceptions of mentoring on publishing output among Ghanaian academic librarians. All the respondents agreed that knowledge transfer through mentoring enhances seminar presentation activities of staff; 30 (88.2%) respondents agreed that it provides staff guidance on professional conference attendance, familiarises staff with professional literature and also provides staff guidance on research writing and publication skills; 29 (85.3%) respondents were also of the opinion that knowledge transfer through mentoring familiarises staff with literature 71 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 search skills, rate of research activities as well as enhancing research skills; another 28 (82.4%) respondents also agreed that it enhances publishing skills and publication output, research presentation skills and it inspires librarians for continuing education/training requirements. The statement that knowledge transfer through mentoring has an effect on rate of staff publications had the least number of respondents (23 constituting 67.6%) agreeing to it. Respondents on the whole perceived mentoring as having a positive impact on research and publication output. This conforms to a study conducted by Yusif (2011) on academic librarians in Nigeria that indicated that mentoring was perceived by the librarians to have a positive impact on their research and publication output, and ultimately their career development as academics. Conclusion This study which concentrated basically on academic librarians in Ghana sought to find out the perceptions of academic librarians about mentoring, as well as their perceptions about mentoring for skills development through knowledge transfer in academic libraries of Ghanaian universities. Findings from the study indicate that there are a lot of mentoring activities in all the libraries under the study. However, all of them were informal. Mentoring was perceived by respondents as capable of fostering and aiding in the acquisition of diverse professional skills, and thus capable of ultimately having a positive impact on the career development of academic librarians in Ghana. Mentoring, it was also perceived facilitates the transfer of knowledge which eventually benefits all parties. Recommendations There is the need to adopt and formalize mentoring activities in all academic libraries in Ghana. In this regard, mentoring policies should be formulated to guide these activities. Also, the Ghana Library Association should undertake mentoring training programmes for all librarians, especially at the regional level. 72 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 References Babbie, E. (2010). The practice of social research. Belmont, Calif: Wadsworth Cengage. Bello, M. A. (2011). Perceived role of mentoring in knowledge transfer, skills development and career development among cataloguers in Nigerian University Libraries. Thesis presented to International Islamic University of Malaysia for the award of a PhD degree in Library and Information Science. Bello, M.A. & Mansor Y. (2011). Cataloger mentoring: a survey of catalogers‘ perception on mentoring for skills development in academic libraries in Nigeria: an exploratory study. The International Information & LibraryReview. 43. Curry, E. A., & Smithee, J. (2007). Developing leadership in a multitype library consortium: Ten years of SEFLIN sun seekers. Resource Sharing and Information Network, 20. Dittoh, S. (2011). ―Mentoring in tertiary institutions: the UDS experience‖. CCIER Seminar on nd Mentoring at Navrongo Campus, Navrongo, 22 September 2011. Ehrich, L.S., Hansford, B. & Tennent, L. (2004). Formal mentoring programs in education and other professions: A review of the literature. Educational Administration Quarterly, 40(4), 518-540. Freedman, S. (2009). ―Effective mentoring‖. IFLA Journal, 35 (2) Fleig-Palmer, M. M. (2000). ―The impact of mentoring on retention through knowledge transfer, affective commitment, and trust‖. A dissertation presented to the Faculty of the Graduate College at the University of Nebraska (Unpublished) Golian-lui, L. M. (2003). ―Fostering librarian leadership through mentoring‖. Adult Learning, 14 (1), 46. Hicks, D (2011). The practice of mentoring: reflecting on the critical aspects for leadership development. Australian Library Journal, Feb 2011, Vol. 60, Issue 1, p. 66-74. Kram, K. E. (1986). ―Mentoring in the workplace‖. In Hall, D. T. and associates (eds.), Career Development in Organizations (pp. 160-201). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass (1988). 73 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Long, J. (2010). ―The fatal attraction of mentoring: mentoring for retention of beginning teachers‖. The International Journal of Interdisciplinary Social Sciences, Vol. 5, Number 2, 2010, Moore, A. A., Michael J. M., Veronda J. Pitchford, Ling Hwey Jeng, (2008) "Mentoring in the millennium: new views, climate and actions", New Library World, Vol. 109 Iss: 1/2, pp.75 - 86 Munde, G. (2002). Beyond mentoring: towards the rejuvenation of academic libraries. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, Odusanya, O.K. & Amusa, O.I. (2006). ―Mentoring and getting published‖. Library and Information Science, 3(1/2) 10. Parsloe, E. ( 2008). What is mentoring? Oxford: The Oxford School of Coaching & Mentoring. Ptolomey, J. (2008). ―Mentoring: supporting the library and information professional?‖ Health Information & Libraries Journal 25(4), p 309–312. Ragins, B. R., & Cotton, J. L. (1999). ―Mentor functions and outcomes: a comparison of men and women in formal and informal mentoring relationships‖. Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 529–550. Roche, G. , (1979). ―Much ado about mentors‖. Harvard Business Review, January/February 1979, 14-28. Saye, J. D. (2002). Where are we and how do we get here? Or the changing place of cataloging in library and information curriculum: causes and consequences. Cataloging and Classification Quarterly, 34(1/2) Shaw, J. (2012). Mentoring: Ripe for Training. Retrieved June 4, 2012 from http://managementhelp.org/leadingpeople/mentoring.htm#ripe 74 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Stephenson, K. (1998). ―What knowledge tears apart, networks make whole‖. Internal Communication Focus, 36. Retrieved December 3, 2008 from http://www.netform.com/html/icf.pdf management: fostering a research agenda. Journal of Management Information Systems, 18(1), 5-21. Szulanski, G., Cappetta, R., & Jensen, R. J. (2004). ―When and how trustworthiness matters: knowledge transfer and the moderating effect of casual ambiguity‖. Organization Science, 15 (5), 600-613. University for Development Studies. Centre for Continuing Education and Interdisciplinary Research (2012). Mentoring Policy (Unpublished). Verzosa, F.A. (2007). ―Research in librarianship: challenges, competencies and strategies‖. Retrieved November 13, 2010 from http://eprints.relis.org/archive. Yusuf, F. (2011). ―Mentoring and its impact on the publication output of librarians in selected academic libraries in South-West Nigeria‖. African Journal Librarianship & Information Science 21 (2), 113-120. 75 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 MAXIMIZING RESOURCES TO MEET USER EXPECTATIONS: THE CASE OF NAVRONGO CAMPUS LIBRARY IN PROMOTING TEACHING, LEARNING AND RESEARCH ACTIVITIES By Joana A. Pwadura and Ransford S.Baidoo University for Development Studies P.O. Box 24 Navrongo jopwadura@yahoo.co.uk, ransfordbaidoo@hotmail.com Abstract This paper examines the trend in disciplinary differences in the use of the Navrongo Library by academic staff and students, and assesses whether the library services need to differentiate between staff and students when planning support services. The research methodology tools used include an in-depth questionnaire which examines patterns in academic staff patronage of the library and its services, including a cross-sectional, random personal interview with students, particularly, final years and postgraduate students at all levels. Questionnaires were distributed to 75 academic staff (in-depth study) and 150 students (random cross sectional survey). Results indicate that most academic staff incorporate digital sources (Internet, e-journals, CD-ROMs etc) and personal materials into their working patterns in different ways. The study also indicates similar patterns for students. The paper then recommends the implementation and development of support services such as institutional repositories, electronic support services, virtual learning environments, etc) which can be explored to meet user expectations of the Navrongo Campus Library. Keywords: academic staff, digital sources, support services, institutional repositories, user expectations. INTRODUCTION The traditional role of the university library is to develop a well organised collection to support teaching, learning and research but this is being challenged today with the advent of ICT. The challenge for academic libraries is even greater as they deal with a more sophisticated clientele in an ever changing environment. Users have many resources available to them on the Internet and other electronic resources that provide faster and easier ways of searching for, and use of information. Academic libraries therefore need to rise up to this challenge if they have to remain 76 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 relevant to the vision and mission of their mother institutions. Whiles one school of thought thinks that libraries need to modernize and make resources easier to find and use if they expect to keep up with other information agencies and resources, the other assumes that the efficient use of a library‘s personnel resources results in maximizing of library usage (Alemna 1999). The types of resources available in a library are very essential for the effective achievement of its set objectives. In Ghana, academic libraries such as the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Universities of Cape Coast, and Mines and Technology have transformed their collections from print only to include electronic resources. Through government funding, consortia building or donor funds, Cyber infrastructure have been implemented to aid digital information seeking by their users via tools such as direct access from the online Public Access Catalogue (OCLC). They have also employed various evaluative approaches as in Ahenkorah-Marfo and Teye (2009), Badu (2009) and Buer (2009) to promote, improve and deliver quality services to their numerous clienteles. The Navrongo Campus Library (NCL) is one of the four multi-campus libraries of the University th for Development Studies (UDS) which was established in Northern Ghana on 15 May, 1992 by then PNDC government (Bening, 2005). It is located in the Kasena Nankana Municipality of the Upper East Region of Ghana and serves two main faculties – the Faculty of Applied Sciences (FAS) and the Faculty of Mathematical Sciences (FMS) in support of teaching, learning research and knowledge dissemination. The library stocks books and other materials to cover the various disciplines such as; Applied biology, Chemistry, Physics, Mathematics, Statistics and Earth and Environmental Sciences. 77 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Since 2004, electronic resources such as CD-ROMs and online databases were introduced to improve the collection. Again, in 2011 the library was automated through TALIF funding to further improve on services and resources. How effectively these resources are utilized by both faculty and students, whether the acquisition or improvement of resources meet the expectations of users is not known. In order that the reasons for which these resources were acquired by the University Library are justified, the expectations of members of the faculties and students (who are the ultimate beneficiaries in their teaching, research and knowledge dissemination activities) must be met. Therefore, this study seeks to add to knowledge by the investigation of how resources are acquired and utilized in the Navrongo Campus Library, and to open up areas for further investigations. AIM OF THE RESEARCH The aim of this paper is to highlight the types of resources and support services available in the NCL and how these are utilized and also to ascertain whether there is the need to differentiate between staff and students when planning support services. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY To highlight the type of support offered by the NCL to its clientele; evaluate clientele expectations in terms of service delivery; elicit the extent to which disciplinary difference is reflected in the use of resources; identify areas that can be explored to meet user expectations and to maximize the use of its resources; identify challenges with service delivery and make recommendations for effective use of the library. 78 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Expectations are anticipated satisfaction based on the standards that the performance of a product or service is judged by its users (Ijirigho, 2009). Library users have their expectations of the service rendered from the library especially in the changing information paradigm where information resources are relatively abundant and user expectations regarding search and access to information have changed (Dempsey, 2006). The appearance of the Internet and large consolidated resources in the form of search engines provides users with options, choices and alternatives of accessing information. Challenges of Academic Libraries Academic libraries provide resources to cover various disciplines. Academic library users also have varying needs and expectations. To what extent then are user needs met? Echezona and Ugwuanyi (2010) put it succinctly that university libraries in many African countries have faced a difficult decade, with rapid erosion of funding for books and journals, staffing difficulties and perhaps a loss of the perception of the library as the centre of academic scholarship. The Association of African Universities (AAU, 2005) adds that access to excellent Internet connectivity and adequate Internet bandwidth presents a great challenge for university management. Whereas Agyen-Gyasi, Lamptey & Frempong (2011) assert that these challenges have stimulated academic libraries in Ghana new thinking and approaches to maximize the use of available resources under difficult conditions. 79 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The expansion of the world wide web, widespread ownership of personal computers On one hand and the rising computer literacy on the other, have created an era of tremendous challenges to libraries as information providers (Calhoun, 2006). Consequently, Academic libraries as information providers and intermediaries in the teaching, learning and research activities of their parent institutions are facing two major threats: a global digital environment and increasing competition. They must improve the quality of their services in order to survive (Cullen, 2001). Agyen-Gyasi et al (2011) emphasized that the challenges facing academic libraries in Ghana result from both dynamic changes in the higher education sector and the nature of students all of which put together have exerted pressure upon the traditional role of the academic library today to change from print only to include electronic resources. RESOURCES OF THE NCL The library as the nerve center of educational institutions is entrusted with the acquisition, organisation, preservation, storage, retrieval and dissemination of information in whatever format it might appear. In addition to books, print journals and other materials it also has an Electronic Support Unit (ESU) responsible for extending the basic services of the Library into digital formats. Its integrated automated system is envisaged to make services such as cataloguing and circulation of materials fast and easy. The protection of library materials is ensured with the adoption of a security system that detects attempted theft. In 2004 the library, being a member of the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries (CALIGH), benefited from subscription to a number of electronic information resources (online databases)) which is a comprehensive tool designed to support academic and faculty research. The library serves students, academic and administrative staff of the University. 80 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Challenges of the Navrongo Campus Library (NCL) Despite the progressive strides made the NCL has challenges hindering smooth service delivery: Funding, Internet inaccessibility as well as frequent power outages are some of the challenges confronting it. Funding Literature abounds with ―Library Funding Issues‖ but Alemna (1994) has indicated that it is incontrovertible that every good collection is an expression of adequate and sound financial backing, and no collection development can achieve this objective if it is financially handicapped. The cost of materials and equipment along with increased demands for library services puts a severe strain on library budgets. The Librarians job of choosing the best available materials and the most useful services for a library thus becomes difficult. In the case of UDS ten percent of the Academic Facility User Fee (AFUF) is made available to the library as funding. As a multi-campus university, this amount is centrally disbursed by the Main Library which tries to meet the needs of the satellite libraries. This trickling down of resources is not adequate and needs to be: a) adjusted upward to allow the constant upgrading of facilities and resources and b) campus libraries need financial resourcing for the day to day management of the libraries. As Moore and Shander (1993) have observed, library funding will probably be the issue which consumes the energy of library managers to the end of this century and the next. Internet Connectivity, Power and Bandwidth Issues The Internet is the largest repository of knowledge and its use for information is hampered by erratic power supply, inadequate Internet connectivity or low bandwidth allocation in the 81 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Navrongo Campus Library.( Wikis, 2012) defines bandwidth as the rate of data transfer, which is the capacity of the Internet connection being used to access information. The University library subscribes to online and electronic journals which undoubtedly require sufficient bandwidth to practically and usefully retrieve information for its users. Without access to Internet the use of such extensive collections of online content becomes virtually absent in the library. Supply of electricity power is an extraneous factor that challenges the work of the library. Constant electricity is needed day and night to provide the above services but in the NCL the erratic nature of power supply hampers service delivery. Capacity building The NCL has a blend of skills; professional and non professional. Practically, services are rendered by a few skilled staff. With faculty and student numbers growing the human resource base and capacities of staff have to be constantly improved ( Nwosu 2000). Also with the recent advances in technologies and mechanisms with which service delivery is implemented, Olalude (2007) reaffirms that for African information professionals to remain relevant and meet the needs of their patrons, they must possess adequate knowledge and mastery of Internet facilities as tools for accessing current information. Methodology Copies of a Semi-structured questionnaire were administered to 75 academic staff and 150 students by the researchers. However, 55 out of 75 academic staff returned completed questionnaires whiles 120 out of 150 were completed by the student respondents thereby giving 175 total valid samples. An in-depth face to face interview with lecturers and students that th th spanned a period of ten days from 6 – 16 November 2011 was also employed together with 82 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 observations on their use of the library. Thus, the research sought to elicit views of regular, occasional and intermediate users of the library on its resources and services offered to support academic and research work. OBSERVATION AND DISCUSSION Availability of resources and user expectations During the interview sessions with lecturers and students, it came to light that both groups use the library‘s books and print journals for information. Lecturers also access electronic and online resources provided by the library from their PCs. Also, many students by observation make use of the library materials and complement their readings with lecture notes or handouts prepared for them by their lecturers. Other students use the library more during examination periods for study. Lecturers and students from the Physics Department also bemoan inadequacies in the collections. Mindful of this, the library augments the print collections with a wide range of online databases which can be accessed anytime anywhere. Users have noted with appreciation the work of the Electronic Support Unit (ESU) and the recently incorporation of an automated Library Integrated Software (LIS) into its operations to improve services and resources of the library however, the general view is that internet accessibility is a major threat to the use of electronic resources of the library. The Table below shows the current book collection in the various disciplines. 83 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 1: distribution of books by subject DEPARTMENT NUMBER OF BOOKS Applied Biology 716 Applied Chemistry 1300 Applied Physics 250 Mathematics and Statistics 2105 Earth and Environmental Sciences 519 Technology/Medicine 230 Others 880 Source: Field Survey, 2011 As a large department with huge student size, the Department of Mathematics and Computer Science staff and students are high volume users of library materials. Therefore, strategic access to a wide range of valid and real world result should concern them. Other departments such as the Applied Biology, Applied Chemistry and the Earth and Environmental Sciences, are also significantly large, requiring critical consideration since they also greatly contribute to effective and routine library material consultation. 84 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Knowledge/ awareness and expectations Respondents were asked about their knowledge of the library and its resources. Results suggest that 18 out of 55 representing 32.5% of academic staff and 81 out of 120 representing 67.5% of the students have general knowledge about the library services and regulations. These include key issues such as working hours of the library, availability of digital media (such as compact disk read-only memory – CDROM) and the use of the electronic resources and online databases in the library. This indicates that a considerable number of users are aware of the library and the types of resources and services available to them. User Education and Expectation In collaboration with the two faculties, the Navrongo Campus Library organises Orientation for fresh men and women every year to introduce them to the libraries resources. Results suggest degrees of helpfulness. While 23 representing 19% of student respondents indicated that the LOP is very helpful, 46 (38%) said helpful and a majority of 51 being 42.5% said not helpful. Even though 57.5% respondents commended the library‘s user education efforts majority of respondents 105 representing 87.5% have suggested intensified user education efforts such as; a compulsory ‗Library Instructional Course‘ for all categories of students on the Navrongo Campus and ―faculty only‖ and ―students only‖ training workshops on the use of online database as well as information searching techniques. Norlin (2004) made a tacit observation that, unless librarians consciously view the faculty and students as the primary target for their activities, they would become irrelevant to students, faculty, administrators and institutions. 85 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Library patronage The University library is accessible to all its users. However, usage of the library varies according to availability of resources and user needs. For purposes of this study users were identified as Active, Intermediate and Passive respondents. Table 2: Respondents‘ patronage of the Library Academic category Respondents AS % ST % Total % Active Library users 15 - 27% 59 - 49% 74 - 42.3% Intermediate Library users 33 - 60% 43 - 36% 76 - 43.4% Passive Library users 7 - 12% 18 - 15% 25 - 14.3% Subtotal 55 120 175 - 100% Key: AS = Academic Staff ST = Student Results indicate that 74 out of 175 total respondents (academic staff and students) representing 42% are ―Active Library Users‖ (ALU) against 76 (43%) ―Intermediate Library Users‖ (ILUs). The latter group uses the library occasionally for one need or the other while the former use it regularly to access various resources for information and study. Again, most academic staff 33(60%) who are ILUs access the library once or twice in an academic year to borrow books and other materials to prepare their lecture notes. Indeed unlike students, academic staffs do not use the library for study purposes which is the case for the 43 or 36% student respondents who find the library‘s environment conducive for study during examinations. Twenty five (25) ―Passive Library Users‖ (PLUs) representing 14% are those who once in a while come in the library and 86 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 may find something motivating. Forty-three (43) representing 60% of intermediate users of academic staff claim that the library often fails to buy recommended books/titles for research and academic purposes. They indicated that they explore alternative avenues such as the Internet (for journals, articles, etc) and the repositories of other tertiary institutions. In some circumstances, they buy books and other materials that they need. However, a cursory look at the Library‘s collection reveals the complementary role it plays in the provision of relevant books and other resources for consultation in accordance with the Acquisitions Policy of the University. However, going by the results it can be deduced that the NCL enjoys good patronage. Nevertheless, concerns of students and faculty need to be carefully attuned to. User satisfaction Hernon and Altman (1998) emphasised in their study that quality service is a competitive necessity for businesses and service organisations, and therefore, assessing service quality is the first step in retaining customers in today‘s competitive environment. Respondents find the operating hours of the library (8.30am to 10.00pm week days and 9.am-5pm on Saturdays) not in their favour especially, during examination periods, where most of them rely heavily on the Library for quiet time to study. Also, 64 being 37% users were not satisfied with the limited access to electronic information resources making them heavily reliant on printed resources, which they perceive as being difficult to browse. Understandably, accessibility to electronic resources is dependent on other factors such as dedicated Internet connectivity and power supplies which are challenges confronting not only the library but the entire university community. The results indicate that 87 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 users are getting sophisticated because they are open to a variety of alternative channels of information delivery, many of which are more convenient and can compete on cost. So they can easily be dissatisfied with services that do not meet their needs. It is not surprising therefore that the combined groups of ―very satisfied‖ and ―satisfied‖ represent only 30%. The need to prioritize its services to meet user needs and expectations to the highest degree has always been the library‘s main agenda. Therefore, the above concerns when addressed, will eventually not only improve the quality of services and resources of the Library but also raise the satisfaction levels of users thereby enhancing user perception of the library as the engine for knowledge acquisition and expansion. Figure 1 below is a summary of user satisfaction of the NCLs resources and services. Figure 1: Summary of library user satisfaction indicator Source: Field Survey, 2011 N Source: Field Survey, 2011 88 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 CONCLUSION It is unquestionable that the role of the NCL as information intermediary would never change. The study has given valuable information about the NCL and its resources and the challenges facing it. Faculty and students overall perception and knowledge about library and regulations are encouraging. Patronage and satisfaction levels are good. However, results indicate that users (academic staff and students) incorporate digital resources such as Internet, e-journals, CD- ROMs and personal materials into their working patterns. The study also showed that user education programs are needed more by student users. RECOMMENDATIONS The fact that both faculty and students use the library for their information needs is an indication that they understand the pivotal role the library plays in furthering the mission and vision of the University. Recommendations were therefore made as follows: acquisition of relevant books which both faculty and students would use; the NCL should be empowered logistically, financially and technically to subscribe to more e-journals and other web resources, for easy access by both academic staff and students to facilitate academic work; the library to incorporate ―Library instruction courses‖ to be taught in class in collaboration with the various departments; workshops and seminars on information retrieval and internet searches be organised for both students and faculty as well as implement and develop support services such as institutional repositories, virtual learning environments to enhance resources and services of the NCL in meeting user expectations. 89 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 REFERENCES AAU (2005). ―IDRC: A decade of ICT for development investment in Africa‖. AAU Newsletter , Vol. 11, Issue 3, pp. 13-14. Agyen-Gyasi, K., Lamptey, R. & Frempong, A. (2011). Academic librarians’ role in maximizing library use in Ghana. University Library, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. Kumasi, Ghana. pp. 2- 4. Ahenkorah-Marfo, M and Teye, V. (2009). ―From user education to information literacy: the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science Technology Library‘s experience‖. Ghana Library Journal, Vol.21. Nos.1&2. pp.102-119. Alemna A. A. (1994). Libraries and information provision in Ghana. Accra. Type Co. Ltd. p.81. Alemna (1999). ―Library evaluation: some options for academic libraries‖. Aslib Proceedings, Vol. 51 Iss.7 pp. 243-246. Badu, E. E. (2009). ―Performance measurement in academic libraries in Ghana‖. Ghana Library Journal, Vol. 21. Nos.1&2. pp. 40-57. Bening, R. B. (2005). ―University for Development Studies in the history of higher education in Ghana‖. Accra, Ghana. Centre for Savana Art and Civilisation. p.51. Buer, V. B. (2009). ―Awareness and use of electronic resources at a university in Ghana‖. Ghana Library Journal, Vol.21. Nos.1&2. pp.120-135. Calhoun, K. (2006). ―The changing nature of the catalog and its integration with other discovery tools‖. Prepared for the Library of Congress. Available from: (Accessed May 22, 2010; 10:27am) Cullen, R (2001). ―Perspectives on user satisfaction surveys‖. Library Trends, Vol. 49, No. 4, Spring 2001, p. 662. 90 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Dempsey, L. (2006). ―The library catalogue in the new discovery environment: some thoughts‖. Ariadne, 48. Available from: (Accessed May 21, 2012; 10:50am) Hernon. P., & Altman, E (1998). ―Assessing service quality: satisfying the expectations of library customers‖. Chicago. American library Association. p. 51. Ijirigho, M. A (2009). ―Faculty expectations of libraries: a comparative study of Covenant University and University of Lagos Library: Library Philosophy and Practice‖. Available: http://www.webpages.uidaho.edu/~mbolin/pp.htm. (Accessed May 21, 2012; 7.50pm) Moore, D. & Shander, D. E. (1993). ―Towards 2001: an examination of the present and future roles of libraries in relation to economic and social trend‖. Journal of Library Administration. Vol. 19, No. 2, p. 19. Norlin, D. A. (2004). ―ATLA staff news: serving ATLA members and customers‖. American Theological Library Association Newsletter, No. 51, Vol. 3, pp. 55-56. Nwosu, C. (2000). A textbook in use of the library for higher education. Owerri : Springfield Publishers. p 103. Olalude, F.O. (2007). ―Utilization of Internet sources for research by information professionals in sub-Saharan Africa‖. African Journal of Library, Archive, and Information Science, Vol.17, No. 1, pp. 53-58. Echezona, R. I and Ugwuanyi, C. F. (2010). ―African University Libraries and Internet connectivity: challenges and the way forward‖. Library Philosophy and practice (e- journal). Paper 421/http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/libphilprac/421. Wikis (2012) (http://www.wikis.com, accessed on Tues. 27/03/2012, 8.23pm) 91 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL FOR SENIOR STAFF AT THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST LIBRARY By Yaw Christian Kofi & Juliana A. Opare-Adzobu University of Cape Coast Abstract The authors present the report of a study results carried out at the University of Cape Coast (UCC) Library. They reviewed the concept of performance appraisal in general and examined what pertains at the University of Cape Coast with specific reference to Senior Staff in the Library. Performance appraisal seeks to develop staff capable of rendering library services of the highest quality to users. The fundamental objective of the study is to enhance the quality of service and thereby promote the continuing professional development of librarians through regular and systematic assessment of individual staff performance. It is also a program of evaluating a librarian‘s strengths and weaknesses periodically. The research design was the descriptive case study of twenty-five (25) Senior Library Staff who have served for three years and above. The study found out some weaknesses in the current appraisal system and made recommendations based on findings. Keywords: Performance appraisal, Performance management, University libraries, Senior Library Staff. Introduction In today‘s world, productive feedback is essential to an institution‘s success. Successful staff and teams require constructive assessment of their performance and impact if they are to achieve their full potential, but often receive inadequate appraisals. It is mainly for this reason that the University of Cape Coast designed a performance appraisal for senior and junior staff to be assessed by their heads of departments annually. It is important to note that like in some other professions, some librarians are better than others at specific jobs. Indeed, while some take initiatives and carry out assignments with little or no supervision, others may not be reliable and 92 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 in some cases, they must always be monitored to ensure the successful completion of tasks. It is purely for this and other reasons that when decisions related to pay increase and promotions are to be made that supervisors must have criteria to distinguish between excellence and mediocrity. Rather than rely on subjective idiosyncrasies of library supervisors, a fairer, sounder and systematic written out performance appraisal is required. Objectives of the Study  To determine the perceptions of Senior Library Staff (SLS) on performance appraisal (PA) procedures used in the Library  To determine whether SLS received feedback after assessment  To identify problems associated with the PA  To make recommendations for improvement of the PA. The Concept of Performance Appraisal Human beings have an inherent tendency to assess those they work with. No wonder therefore that superiors, subordinates, client and even peers tend to appraise activities of others especially during working lives. According Latham and Wexley (1994) formal performance appraisal systems are therefore a formalizing and systemizing of that process of appraisal. To appraise is to give worth and value, to determine the quality and usefulness of the staff working within the organization (Analoui, 2002; Sayers, 2005; Torrington, Hall, & Taylor 2002). The concept is variously referred to as performance review, annual appraisal, performance evaluation, employee evaluation and merit evaluation. It involves the collection of data and analysis of it on the overall capabilities and potentials of the staff in an attempt to make a decision in tune with a purpose (Bratton and Gold, 1999). In other words, it is an observation and measurement of employee performance against predetermined job-related standards, for purposes delineated by the organization (Schrick, 1992). Performance appraisal is the systematic evaluation of an employee‗s job-related strengths and weaknesses (Stueart & Moran, 1998). Learning theory suggests that immediate feedback aids learners to increase their performance. In fact, all library staff need feedback more than once a year and good heads of section must 93 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 provide it. Usually, the frequent one is done in a spontaneous manner, while the annual assessment is done in a more formal, structured way. Essentially, the authors think performance appraisal is about measuring, monitoring and enhancing the performance of a staff as a contributor to the overall organizational performance and effectiveness. It is instructive to note that it is not a stand alone process but an approach to creating a shared vision of the purposes of, and aims of the organization. In fact, it is not all management experts who advocate for performance appraisal. For example, Deming (1982) claims that performance appraisal is one of the seven deadly diseases afflicting Western management. He states that what is wrong is that the performance appraisal or merit rating focuses on the end product... not on leadership to help people. Merit rating rewards people that do well in the system. It does not reward attempts to improve the system. Moreover, a merit system is meaningless as a predictor of performance. Traditional appraisal systems increase the variability of performance. The trouble lies in the implied preciseness of rating systems. One of the main effects of evaluation of performance is nourishment of short-term thinking and short- term performance. However, Deming is in the minority in his view. Most managers, although they realize that performance appraisals are not perfect tools, are advocates of their value (Aluri & Reichel, 1994). Functions of Performance Appraisal Performance appraisals serve important functions. They can serve as a basis for decisions relating to promotion, demotion and termination of appointment. They also serve as a basis for dealing with wage and salary issues. In fact, if properly carried out, one gets a better and clearer understanding of a staff‘s potential and weaknesses. Indeed, the performance appraisal process can also facilitate an understanding between superiors and subordinates. It is important to note that the performance appraisal process should help the staff to establish personal goals that will enable them to grow and develop. Above all, performance appraisal can also serve as information gathering tools that provide data to be used in determining both organizational and individual training needs. It is, however, important to note that the best staff cannot excel if there is a challenge in getting materials for his/her work. An appraiser should therefore exercise caution so that organizational deficiencies are not shifted to staff during assessment. According 94 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 to McDonagh (1995) one of the problems attributed to appraisal is that it can inappropriately attribute variation in performance to the individual employee rather to problems at the higher organizational level. The effect of this is to shift the blame for problems onto individuals rather to examine and act upon what is wrong with the organization. Consequently, badly conducted appraisal can jeopardize morale, adversely affect teamwork, and leave an individual feeling unfairly criticized. Performance Appraisal Methods There are no standard methods of performance appraisal and there is no one method that works best in all settings. There are however a number of effective ones that can be used and according to Stueart and Moran (1998), a combination of methods can be agreed upon and used by the institution. The method used can be that of the parent institution as in the case of university libraries. Indeed, it is also not out of place for a library to select its own method. The performance appraisal methods commonly used are self-evaluation, multi-rater, simple ranking scale, forced distribution, essays, graphic ratings scales and the behaviourally anchored rating scale (Stueart & Moran, 1998). The University of Cape Coast Library The University of Cape Coast (UCC) is one of the largest academic libraries in Ghana. The collection is housed in a magnificent five-storey library complex and has the capacity for holding 750,000 volumes excluding pamphlets and journals. Besides the Main Library, there are faculty, school, departmental and hall libraries which together constitute the University of Cape Coast Library System. It is a hybrid library with approximately 300,000 hard copies and a substantial number of e-books and databases that can be accessed via Internet. The UCC Library has a total number of two hundred and four employees: nine senior members, 36 senior staff and a large army of one hundred and fifty nine junior staff. Methodology The research design is the descriptive case study and this entails the systematic collection and presentation of data relating to the objectives so as to present a detailed and accurate picture on the perception of performance appraisal of senior library staff at the University of Cape Coast 95 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Library. According to Gray (1992), descriptive research determines and reveals the way things are. The population comprised thirty-six (36) senior staff of the University of Cape Coast Library The senior staff hold First Degree in an academic discipline and Diplomas in the Librarianship and Information Science and constitute the middle level manpower. Unlike the senior members who are assessed only when they are about to renew their contracts or apply for promotion, the senior staff are assessed every year and therefore, the authors decided to investigate how fair or unfair the performance appraisal system of the University has been to them among other issues. The junior staff, on the other hand, who are mostly senior high school graduates do not normally stay on the job for long since at this particular point in their lives their focus is to enter a university and only use their short period of stay as a stepping stone. In addition, their interest may not be to pursue librarianship as a career. They were thus not covered by the study. The questionnaire was developed by the authors and covered the status of the respondents, sex and whether the institution/library has a performance appraisal policy and how often it is applied in the Library. The others are: who the evaluator is, method(s) used, whether the current system is fair and whether staff get feedback from the evaluation. The rest are staff satisfaction with assessment, problems with rating, whether staff made any input in the appraisal and recommendations for improvement. All the senior library staff constituted the population for the study. However, the authors excluded the staff that had not been confirmed or worked for less than two years because they would not have been assessed. The authors identified one of the staff in this category and asked him to administer and collect the questionnaires back. A total of twenty-eight questionnaire were distributed and twenty-five were retrieved. Simple frequency and percentages were used in data analysis. 96 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Data Analysis Table 1: Status of Senior Library Staff Status in Library No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Chief Library Assistant 01 04 Principal Library Assistant 06 24 Senior Library Assistant 14 56 Library Assistant 04 16 Total 25 100 Table 1 above shows the status of senior staff who responded to the questionnaire. In all, a total of twenty five (25) participated in the study. The Senior Library Staff constituted the majority (56%) while the Chief Library Assistant (4%) and Library Assistant (4%) were in the minority. Table 2: Sex of Respondent Sex No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Male 18 72 Female 07 28 Total 25 100 Table 2 shows the sex distribution of respondents. A total of 18 (72%) represent the males while 7 (28%) are females. 97 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 3: Performance Appraisal Policy Performance Appraisal Policy No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 24 96 No - - Don‘t Know 01 04 Total 25 100 On performance appraisal policy, 24 (96%) representing an overwhelming majority stated that their institution has one, while only 1 (4%) respondent indicated a lack of knowledge. Table 4: Frequency of Application Frequency of Application No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Annually 25 100 Six Months - - Three Months - - Total 25 100 On the frequency of application of the appraisal system, all the respondents stated it is carried out annually. 98 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 5: Evaluation Evaluation No. of Respondents Percentage (%) University Librarian 03 12 Deputy Librarian 13 52 Departmental Head 09 36 Total 25 100 Opinions on the officer who evaluates the performance of respondents were divided. The majority, 13 (52%) said they are assessed by the Deputy Librarian while 9 (36%) stated they are assessed by Departmental Heads. Only 3 (12%) reported that they are assessed by the University Librarian. Table 6: Methods of Appraisal Methods of Appraisal No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Self-evaluation 06 24 Multi-rater 02 08 Simple Ranking Scale 14 56 Graphic Rating Scale 01 04 Don‘t Know 02 08 Total 25 100 99 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The authors also sought to find out methods that are used in the evaluation. Opinions this issue were also divided. Majority, 14 (56%) of the respondents mentioned the simple ranking scale as the method employed in their evaluation. The rest 11 (44%) cited various methods. Table 7: Fairness of the Method of Evaluation Preferred Method No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 23 92 No 02 08 Don‘t Know -- -- Total 25 100 When the respondents were asked to state the fairness of the methods that are used to evaluate their performance, majority of them 23 (92%) responded in the affirmative while only 2 (08%) answered in the negative. Table 8: Feedback Feedback No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 20 80 No 04 16 Don‘t Know 01 04 Total 25 100 Providing feedback in a learning encounter or process is very important and so the authors found out from respondents if they received it after they had been appraised. Twenty (20) respondents 100 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 representing 80% indicated that they do receive. Four (4) of them said they did not receive any feedback while only one (1) expressed lack of knowledge. Table 9: Prejudices Prejudices No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 09 36 No 16 64 Don‘t Know 00 00 Total 25 100 On whether the respondents read prejudices in their evaluation, 16 (64%) of them representing majority said they do not while 9 (36%) said they do. Table 10: Satisfaction Satisfaction No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 23 92 No 02 08 Don‘t Know 00 00 Total 25 100 The authors further asked to know if respondents were satisfied with the evaluation. A total number of 23 (92%) respondents answered in the affirmative while only 2 (08%) responded in the negative. Respondents who said they were not satisfied with the evaluation could, however, not provide any reason for their dissatisfaction. 101 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Rating Problems On problems associated with their rating, while some respondents did not see anything wrong with the rating others made the following submissions that:  the employees are not involved when being appraised.  an appraiser may not be fair in his/her judgement depending on the relationship.  it does not truly reflect the performance of staff. Table 11: Staff Input Staff Input No. of Respondents Percentage (%) Yes 06 24 No 18 72 Don‘t Know 01 04 Total 25 100 The respondents were asked to indicate whether they make any input into their performance appraisal. Majority of the respondents (72%) said they do not while 6 (24%) said they do. Suggestions for Improvement On suggestions for improvement on the appraisal process, the following submissions run through:  There should be an interaction between the appraiser and appraisee on his/her strengths and shortcomings.  That staff should be educated on the performance appraisal policy 102 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Findings  Males respondents (72%) were more their female counterparts (28%).  The study revealed that the library has a PA policy and staff are assessed annually.  Majority of SLS (52%) indicated that the Deputy Librarian does the assessment.  Majority of SLS (56%) said the Simple Ranking Scale is the method used in the evaluation.  Majority of SLS (92%) indicated that there is fairness in the method of evaluation.  80% of SLS noted that they receive feedback after evaluation.  64% of SLS again indicated they did not read any prejudices in the method of evaluation.  An overwhelming 92% of SLS stated that they were satisfied with evaluation method.  Majority (72%) of SLS reported that they do not make any input while 24% said they do. Discussion From the findings it can be seen that male respondents (72%) were more than the females (28%).This means that the male category of Senior Library Assistants are more than females. in the Library. All the SLS in the study were aware that the Library has a PA policy and were assessed annually. The Library uses the performance appraisal method designed by the parent institution. Majority (52%) of them indicated that the Deputy Librarian does the assessment while 36% reported that their sectional heads are responsible. The practice however is that the sectional heads first do the assessment and then it is ratified by the Deputy Librarian. The library uses the University‘s appraisal scheme which is directly related to a reward structure. Annual increment in salaries and promotion are based on the annual PA of staff. Majority (88%) of the respondents do not know the method of appraisal used in the Library. It is interesting to note that 92% of the SLS in the study felt there is fairness in the method of evaluation. Only 8% considered their assessments unfair showing that there is some dissatisfaction with assessments in the library. Dissatisfaction however limited, can create 103 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 problems for the organization. Perhaps the only way assessments can be considered fair is for the employees to understand and accept the basis of the assessments (Martey, 2002) and because appraisals are carried out by human beings, they are subject to a number of weaknesses such as prejudices and partiality, leniency or strictness among others. On traces of prejudices in their assessment, majority (64%) of the respondents said they do not read any prejudices in the method of evaluation but 36% of them said they do. When further asked to indicate the nature of prejudices, they were unable to substantiate their perception. This however, shows that some respondents think there are challenges associated with the evaluation. Many authors have asserted that appraisal reactions play a key role in the development of favorable job and organizational attitudes and enhance motivation to increase performance (Lawlen, 1994, Taylor et al, 1984). According to Lai Wan (2007), satisfaction of staff is an important goal for organizations to realize, as it has been shown that profitability, productivity, employee retention and customer satisfaction are linked to employee‘s satisfaction. The study revealed that majority (92%) of respondents indicated that they were satisfied with the method of evaluation. An important element of satisfaction is that of appraisal feedback. Feedback is critical because of its potential influence on people‘s response to ratings (Kluger and DeNisi, 1996). It is argued that performance increases job satisfaction and motivation and many decision making and career development models include a feedback loop emphasizing that, individuals learn on the basis of receiving feedback on their performance (Palaiologos, A., Papazekos, P. and Panayotopoulou, L. 2011). In the study, 80% of SLS indicated that they receive feedback after evaluation. This is encouraging but there is room for improvement. The remaining 16% however, reported that they do not. In practice however, completed assessment forms are given to them to append their signatures and if they had any reservations, they so expressed them. An obvious weakness of the PA procedure in the library is the absence of formal or informal discussions after completion of the form by the appraiser. As high as 72% of respondents stated that the appraisers did not discuss their performance with them and this can lead to feelings of unfairness and dissatisfaction. 104 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Recommendations The following recommendations are submitted based on the findings of the study: Role of Deputy Librarian/Sectional Heads It is recommended that one person should be responsible for evaluation, for example the Sectional Head (SH). This is because he/she knows the subordinate very well. It important to add however that, familiarity with the staff can also lead to biased assessment. The SH is supposed to know most about the job and the subordinate being evaluated and must have proof of their performance especially the non-performers. The SH must consider the employee‘s work from the last period of rating to the current time; evaluation should not be based solely on what happened recently. The SH must not be afraid to give a negative rating. If the employee‘s performance is bad, say so, but have the evidence to show. Prejudices It also suggested that prejudices should not influence assessment. Sometimes the assessor is consciously or unconsciously prejudiced against an employee. Prejudice arises not only from race or creed, but also from color of hair, personality, sexual preference, physical characteristics, or other factors. In order to minimize prejudice or bias influences on evaluation, the rating should be reviewed by the supervisor‘s supervisor that is, the Deputy Librarian, the next person in the hierarchy. Together the SH and his or her supervisor should review the performance evaluation and come to a consensus on the accuracy of the evaluation. Providing Feedback Another recommendation is that after the evaluation form is completed, the SH must share the results with the employee. This information is usually provided in a performance appraisal interview. Conducting the performance appraisal interview is probably the most difficult part of the process-at least, it is the part most dreaded by employees and supervisors. To prepare the employee, the SH should make an appointment with the employee and make the purpose of the appointment clear. It is important to give the employee the completed performance appraisal form at least 24 hours to review the evaluation of his or her work and to consider its fairness and 105 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 appropriateness before the scheduled meeting. In addition, the SH must prepare for the meeting taking into account the previous performance appraisals to review the employee‘s progress. This will eliminate two of the most prevalent errors in performance appraisal interviews; first, the employee has time to study the appraisal, instead of being suddenly handed an appraisal without time to think about it and consequently, the supervisor plans the meeting, instead of calling it on impulse in an attempt to get it out of the way. Informal Atmosphere It is further suggested that due to the sensitive nature of this interview, the SH must establish an informal atmosphere. Ideally, the SH should move away from his desk to an area with more informal furniture, because the supervisor‘s desk, which is a symbol of authority, functions as a barrier and a psychological obstacle to many workers. The SH should ask questions and make comments that encourage the employee to express himself/herself. If the employee is encouraged to express himself/herself, the discussion will naturally centre on the performance appraisal and there will be digression whatsoever. The employee will have the opportunity to express concern or approval of the appraisal and the SH can explain why certain elements were rated the way they were. Identifying Job-related Challenges It is recommended that the interview, the objective of the SH should be to identify problems the employee has in performing any assigned tasks and to plan methods or procedures by which these problems might be resolved. In addition, the SH should determine the employee‘s general level of satisfaction with the job, the institution, and the working environment; and to help the employee plan personal programs and activities that will make him/her more effective in the job. Both the SH and the employee are establishing current and long-range goals for the employee. After mutual agreement, the goals are recorded on the performance evaluation form and at the next evaluation interview progress toward the goals is measured. Education and Training Above all, it is important for newly recruited staff to be educated on the performance appraisal process early in their organizational life. This education should be initiated by the Deputy 106 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Librarian and staff from the Division of Human Resource of the University brought in to do the education. This will help them to be better prepared for their evaluation, in terms of procedures followed in the evaluation process. The SH should also be given adequate training to enable them to make fair and objective assessments and also carry out effective appraisal interviews. Conclusion The study is about the perceptions of Senior Library Staff of the University of Cape Coast Library on their performance appraisal process. Significant findings were the absence of feedback review and the need for education and training for both the appraiser and appraisee. The concept of performance appraisal is a necessary management tool because it enriches attitudes, experiences and skills that improve the effectiveness of employees if it is conducted properly. References Aluri, R. & Reichel, M. (1994). ―Performance evaluation as a deadly disease.‖ The Journal of Academic Librarianship 19 (July): pp 145-55. Analoui, F. & Fell, P. (2002). ―Have you ever been appraised? A survey of university administrative staff.‖ The International Journal of Educational Management. 16 (6), 279-287. Bratton, J. & Gold, J. (2007). ―Human resource management: theory and practice.‖ Basingstoke: Palgrave, Macmillan. Deming, W.E. (1982) ―Out of the crisis‖ Cambridge, MA: MIT Centre for Advanced Engineering Study. pp. 101-2. Gray, L. R. (1992). Research methods for business and management New York: Macmillan. Lai Wan, H. (2007), ―Human capital development policies: enhancing employees‘ satisfaction‖, Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 31 No. 4, pp. 297 – 322. Latham, G. & Wexley, K. (1994). Increasing productivity through performance appraisal. nd 2 ed. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. 107 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Lawler, E.E., (1994), Motivation in work organizations. New York: Jossey –Bass. Kluger, A. N. & DeNisi, A. (1996).‖The effects of feedback interventions on performance: a historical review, meta-analysis and a preliminary feedback intervention theory‖. Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 119, no. 2. pp. 254-284. Martey, A.K. (2002) ―Appraising the performance of library staff in a Ghanaian academic library.‖ Library Management. Vol. 23, No. 8/9, p. 406. McDonagh, B. (1995). ―Appraising appraisals.‖ The Law Librarian, 26 (3) pp 423-425. Palaiologos, A., Papazekos P. and Panayotopoulou, L. (2011) ―Organizational justice and employee satisfaction in performance appraisal,‖ Journal of European Industrial Training, Vol. 35 No. 8, p. 830. Sayers, R. (2005) "Performance management and appraisal: a wow-to-do-it manual for librarians", Library Management, Vol. 26 Iss: 8/9, pp.546 – 547. Schrick, S. K. (1992). ―A competency assessment of HRD practitioners and implications for their professional development‖. (Doctoral dissertation, Kansas State University, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 53-05A, p. 1368. th Stueart, R. D. & Moran, B. B. (1998). Library and information centre management. 5 ed. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Taylor, S.M., Fisher C.D. & Ilgen, D. R. (1984) ―Individuals‘ reactions to performance feedback in organizations: a control theory perspective‖, In Rowland, K.M. and Ferris, G.R. (Eds) Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management. Greenwich, CT. : JAI Press. th Torrington, D. , Hall, L. & Taylor, S. (2002). Human resource management. (5 ed.) New York: Financial Times. 108 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 AN EVALUATION OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL SYSTEMS IN GHANAIAN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES: A CASE STUDY OF KNUST AND GIMPA LIBRARIES By Kodjo Asafo-Adjei Antwi1, Akua Asantewaa Aforo2 and Emelia Agyei3 1 Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA), Accra. 2 Faculty of Law, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, (KNUST) Kumasi. 3 University of Ghana, Legon, Accra. Abstract This paper examines existing performance appraisal systems in two Ghanaian academic libraries. Questionnaires comprising mainly closed ended questions on the subject were randomly administered to 46 members of staff with various ranks. The paper concludes that the existing performance appraisals are major tools for staff motivation and promotion. A major flaw of the appraisal system in both libraries is irregular feedback on appraisal outcome. Recommendations are made to improve on the performance evaluation process. Key words: Performance Appraisal; Appraisal Review; Performance Evaluation. Introduction Human resources are arguably the most valuable assets of any organization and obviously constitute the largest corporate investment. Employees‘ skills and competencies have significant bearing on organization‘s productivity, profitability and continued survival. Therefore, in order to achieve corporate goals and remain in business, there is the need to assess employees‘ job performance and device strategies to manage them in an effective manner. The issue of employees‘ performance in relation to achieving organizational goals has occupied every management‘s attention. Differences in levels of employees‘ performance are attributed to differences in skill and ability in one part, and different levels of motivation in another. Inadequate skills and abilities are usually rectified through training and development, while 109 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 differences in motivation are corrected through the appropriate motivational strategies and policies. Therefore, for well-functioning organizations, the use of performance appraisal cannot be overemphasized. However, the extent to which, appraisals play valuable role in the organization depend on how they are conducted. What is Performance Appraisal? Performance Appraisal is an important aspect of contemporary human resource management, where each individual institution/organization sets out uniform criteria and processes, and procedures for assessing output of staff in terms of quality, quantity, cost, and time over a period, usually during the preceding year. The Performance Appraisal process according to Beach (1980), Najafi, et.al. (2000), and Mondy (2008) entails an evaluation of job performance of personnel and their potential for development with a view to achieving positive organizational goal. Most organizations traditionally use performance appraisal as a tool, not only to identify hard working employees, but also to motivate staff. Dessler (2000) in Yee and Chen (2009 ) says that performance appraisal evaluates employees‘ present and previous output within the laid down standards, but it also provides feedback on employees‘ performance in order to motivate them to improve on their job performance or at least encourage them to reduce inefficiencies in their work. In other words, from management‘s point of view, performance appraisal provides the basis for taking decisions on employees‘ development, discipline, rewards, motivation, retention or separation, and/or back-up for legal action for or against an organization. Generally, performance appraisal performs three functions:  to provide adequate feedback to support employees‘ development;  to serve as a basis for modifying or changing behaviour to produce more effectively for organization; and  to provide useful information to supervisors. (Law, 2007; Coens and Jenkins, 2002; Erdogan, 2002). 110 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 An effective performance appraisal system should help an organization achieve its goals and objectives if it is properly implemented. According to Tami (2000), a well-designed appraisal system can help organization separate outstanding performers from those who are below average. Organizations that identify hard working and productive employees and reward them accordingly create conducive atmosphere for individual and organizations‘ growth. But a poorly designed appraisal system can create anxiety and sometimes lower the morale of employees (Chen and Mia, 2004; Mulvaney, McKinney and Grodsky, 2008). A body of literature indicates that quite substantial depth of research has been done on this topic, but these studies have focused largely on industrial production plants and clerical as well as administrative work. In library literature, studies on the local scene have mostly been done on staff motivation and job performance. In this paper, the authors report the findings of a comparative evaluation of performance appraisal systems in academic libraries of two public tertiary institutions in Ghana, namely the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi; and the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA). For purposes of convenience, acronyms of the two institutions are used. The current research focus leads to distinctive yet complementary contribution to library literature by establishing the transparency of existing performance appraisal processes in KNUST and GIMPA Libraries. Research Objectives The objective of this study is to examine the effectiveness of the appraisal system on staff motivation and promotion and the transparency of appraisal process. Specific objectives are to find out:  Staff perception about performance appraisal in general, and specific appraisal procedures as applied in KNUST and GIMPA libraries.  Whether staff promotion is based on existing performance appraisal systems.  If evaluators and staff engage in some form of discussions during appraisal and after completion of the appraisal form. 111 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012  Staff views on their job performance being assessed by another person.  The measurable factors used for the assessment and how these criteria affect consistency in rating.  The performance objective to be achieved.  Whether existing appraisal systems in KNUST and GIMPA libraries provide accurate information on staff job proficiency; and  To suggest ways to improve performance appraisal system for KNUST and GIMPA libraries. Theoretical Underpinnings of Traditional Performance Appraisal The development of performance appraisal system has been linked to McGregor‘s Theory X and Glasser‘s concept of Boss-Manager style which identify the predominant assumptions about human nature as being naturally uninspired, intrinsically unmotivated and given the freedom employees would avoid work or shed their responsibilities (Law, 2007; McGregor, 1960). According to McGregor‘s Theory X assumptions, majority of employees naturally dislike work and would avoid it if possible. The response to this natural behaviour is to employ some coercive strategies to control, threaten and punish staff in order to derive reasonable effort to work harder (Glasser, 1994; Law, 2007, p. 19). This paper argues that given the right motivation and incentives employees will always seek to carry out extra work to maximize their output because contrary to the above theories, human nature is imbued with the desire to work to achieve individual as well as institutional and societal goals. This argument is in line with McGregor‘s Theory Y and Glasser‘s Lead-Management approach which assume that human nature have intrinsic desire to work, do not like to be controlled or directed, and that given the right conditions and liberty employees will take up their responsibilities (McGregor, 1960, pp. 33-49; Glasser, 1994, p. 13-14; Law, 2007). In spite of all the condemnations given to performance appraisal systems, it is still key, and indeed widely practiced element of contemporary human resource management. 112 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Perspectives on Performance Appraisal Systems Although the practice of performance appraisal is still prevalent in many organizations, literature search revealed that it has been largely criticized. It is often perceived by many employees as unjust, biased, and lacks transparency. Even for evaluators, appraising subordinate job performance can be very discomforting exercise. Hooten (1997) reports that when they are confronted with the exercise, evaluators can suddenly develop adverse emotional and physiological conditions such as ―anxiety, increased heart beat, worrisome thinking, and fidgeting‖. Appraisal systems are considered disincentive to productivity. It is reported that traditional performance appraisal systems have failed to achieve their set objectives largely due to lack of commitment to the appraisal process and this has mostly occurred in public institutions or state owned organizations that are characterized by nepotism, cronyism, sycophancy, apathy and lackluster performance (Mirsepassi, 1998; Hamidi, Y., Najafi, L., Vatankhah, S. & Purnajaf, A. 2010). Deming (2000) describes performance appraisal as one of the ―seven deadly diseases‖ that are ―destructive to organizations‖. In a thorough description of how appalling performance appraisal systems are, Deming states: ―In practice, annual ratings are a disease, annihilating long term planning, demobilizing teamwork, nourishing rivalry and politics, leaving people bitter, crushed, bruised, battered, desolate, despondent, unfit for work for weeks after receipt of rating, unable to comprehend why they are inferior. It is unfair as it ascribes to the people in a group differences that may be caused totally by the system that they work in‖.(Law, 2007). According to Lee (2006), performance appraisal raises suspicion and instigates bitterness among employees. Generally appraisal systems are coercive mechanisms for eliciting productivity from employees in an organization. Cook (1995) has also raised criticisms of performance appraisal, stating that the process may be bias and that raters may be, and indeed are influenced by other factors other than written or acceptable rating criteria. He, however, acknowledges that performance rating is an important part of the appraisal process. 113 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Martey (2002), reports of performance appraisal being viewed positively as key element in management process. He re-echoes specific performance appraisal objectives outlined by Spinks, N., Well, B., & Meche, M. (1999) that are vital for the achievement of organizational goals. These include:  improving on staff job performance,  building on employee capacity,  assessing retrospective performance of staff and plan for future work and goals,  strengthening management control,  enhancing vertical and horizontal communication channels in an organization  designing a performance appraisal system in a manner that evaluators and raters will perceive performance appraisal process as a tool for problem-solving and not ―fault finding one‖.  designing a performance appraisal system in a manner that evaluators or raters will perceive performance appraisal process as a tool for problem-solving and not ―fault finding one‖. Performance Management System: An alternative to traditional performance appraisal system? The basic factors that characterize traditional performance appraisal system used to measure employees‘ work output are arguably harmful to morale of personnel as clearly described above by Deming. To bring trust, fairness and transparency in employees‘ job appraisal, Heathfield (2007), proposes a performance management which is a ―process of creating a work environment in which people are enabled to perform to the best of their abilities‖. Unlike other traditional appraisal systems, performance management system allows space for regular feedback to peers, direct reporting staff, colleagues or customers. This approach brings about understanding of an 114 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 individual‘s contribution and developmental needs. The feedback is often a discussion of both the process and personnel and business goals. In this process, both manager and staff have equal opportunity to contribute to the discussion. In such a system, individual‘s performance objectives are evaluated based on prioritized goals that are in concurrence with the overall goals of the organization. Performance management system eliminates traditional appraisal elements like numeric ratings, forced ranking of employees across the organization, managers in judge role, the annual meeting, and bonding performance appraisal to employees pay rise. Instead, performance management system suggests that employees job schedule be regularly updated and managers should meet with employees quarterly to review work plan; make the development planning meeting interactive; negotiate and agree upon goals for both business development and employees development; keep any assignment or discussion of employee‘s compensation completely separate from the performance development planning meeting which focuses on employees development and business development goals. (Heathfield, 2007) Performance Appraisal Method and Procedures There are various traditional appraisal techniques presently used by different organizations according to their objectives. Anderson (1993) and Vicky (2002 ) cited in Yee and Chen (2009 ) identified different techniques of performance appraisal, including: alphabetical/numerical rating, forced choice, graphic rating scale, ranking; forced distribution, personality trait scale; critical incident; narrative; and criteria based. Terrence and Joyce (2004) also identified other methods of measuring staff job performance including management by objective (MBO); work planning and review; 360 degree appraisal; and peer review. Some organizations would choose the multi-factorial approach, that is to ―mix and match‖ or combine different techniques for their own performance appraisal that would meet their organizational needs. Key elements in appraisal procedure are well structured appraisal form consisting of relevant measurable performance rating factors that form the basis for conducting appraisal interview, and training based on trust and frankness. All available methods have their advantages and disadvantages. Employees’ motivation in performance appraisal Proper study of performance appraisal cannot be done without discussing staff motivation and its effect on productivity. The issue of motivation is complex as different factors motivate different 115 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 people. According to Abifarin (1997) ―what motivates one person will not automatically motivate another‖. Incentive for motivation may be tangible or intangible. For example, Pay incentives like bonuses, overtime allowance are key motivational factors that urge employees to put in extra efforts. Other motivating factors include conducive work environment, participative management, effective communication, discipline, and cordial relation between colleagues or attitudes of colleagues and supervisors (Senyah, 2003). Motivation is crucial personnel management process, as it goes a long way to determine the performance of employees in an organization. Literature search indicate that well motivated employees are psychologically energized to increase their productivity rate. This statement is corroborated in a related study by Owusu-Acheaw (2003) who concludes that motivation has direct ―link with productivity‖. Therefore, the more employees are motivated ―the more a worker is able to give of his best to achieve higher productivity‖. So it is important that any effective performance appraisal system acknowledges the effect of staff motivation on their job performance and productivity, because motivation is a key component performance appraisal process. The outcome of appraisal process is usually rewards and incentives, tangible or intangible as in salary increment, annual bonuses; as well as training and development, adequate equipment to work, cooperation from members of staff including manager, etc. (Mullin, 1999) in Owusu-Acheaw (2003). METHODOLOGY Study Area KNUST was established to provide an environment for teaching, research and entrepreneurship training in Science and Technology for the industrial and socio-economic development of Ghana, Africa and other nations. The institution also offers services to community, is open to all the people of Ghana and positioned to attract scholars, industrialists and entrepreneurs from Africa and other international communities. KNUST has a library of excellence that provides information in electronic and print formats to staff and students mainly to support teaching, learning and research in science and technology for national development. The University Library System, which is made up of the Main University Library and the six college libraries 116 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 (within which are faculty libraries) has all materials published in Ghana and also for international institutions and organizations like the World Bank and other United Nations Agencies. It is therefore a research library for the general public and a library of last resort for the public in Ashanti and other neighbouring regions in Ghana. GIMPA, on the other hand, was established in 1961 as Institute of Public Administration (IPA) to ―promote the social, economic, and political progress of the people of Ghana and other African nations …. by provision of courses of training in Public Administration‖(NLCD 381, 1969; GIMPA Act 676, 2004). The institute was renamed Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) in 1969. GIMPA now operates as a full-fledged university with academic, administrative and financial autonomy as provided for in the GIMPA Law 2004 (Act 676). The new and expanded responsibility is to train public servants of the country and to provide education, training, and services in the fields of leadership, management, and public administration as well as in information and communication technologies for public sector, private sector, and non-governmental organizations (GIMPA Annual Report, 2003/2004- 2004/2005; Act 676, 2004; Graduation Brochure, 2009). GIMPA library started as a ―special library providing materials (mainly serial publications) on specific subject areas to a group of readers with a common subject interest and who worked towards a common purpose‖ (Osei-Bonsu, 1984). Over the years, the library has transformed from a special library, in size and in content into a university library, reflecting the course profile of the institute and responding to changing needs of the library‘s clientele. Currently, the library has a stock comprising both print and electronic sources of about 30,000 volumes of books and over 5,000 online journals. Total number of library staff is 23 including 1 national service personnel and 3 casual staff. Data Collection and Analysis Questionnaires were used to collect the data that formed the basis for this study. The research explored the two institutions under study and critically examined the effectiveness of their appraisal systems in respect to promotion and motivation of employees. The study population was drawn from the various staff categories in each academic library under study. A sample size of 64(KNUST, 49 and GIMPA, 15) of the total study population of 128 (KNUST, 105 and 117 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 GIMPA, 23) was selected. 46 (KNUST, 33 and GIMPA, 13)(72%) questionnaires were returned. This represents 71.9% response rate. Data that were collected were analyzed using SPSS version 17. Presentation was made using frequency tables and graphs in testing the research questions. RESULTS Demographic Details Distribution of Age, Rank and Work Experience The respondents comprised 22 (47.8 %) males and 24 (52.2 %) females. This confirms the library profession being dominated by female. Although their age range was between 20-60 years, the modal age was 31-40 (37 %) (Table1). In terms of staff numbers, the study revealed that Junior Library Assistant (28; 60.9%) were of the majority; and Assistant Librarian (1; 2.2%) were the least (Table 2). The majority (25; 54.3%) of the respondents were SSSCE, O‘LEVEL, and/or A‘ LEVEL holders while the rest either have Diploma, First Degree, or Master‘s Degree. In related studies, Antwi and Bello (1993) and Senyah (2003) found that most library assistants in African libraries have lower grades and therefore are not qualified even as para-professionals. The implication is that this category of staff are often not emotionally attached, and professionally committed to the library work. Consequently, this category of staff may experience high turnover. They may leave at the least opportunity. Staff in this rank mostly use the library as stop gap while waiting for opportunity to go to university (Senyah, 2003), or wait for greener pastures. It is important therefore to educate all categories of staff in academic libraries so that the Head Librarian to the last grade of library assistants would understand the needs of patrons and serve them well. Seventeen (37%) library staff have worked for between 6-10 years followed closely by fifteen (32.6 %) who have been working for 0-5 years, and 10 (21.7%) who have worked for between 11-15 years (Table 3). The findings indicate that staff in both libraries have relatively low experience or have worked for a relatively low number of years in their respective libraries. Comparatively, respondents from GIMPA Library have the least years of experience. This situation was partly due to high turnover of staff. 118 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 1: The age distribution of respondents in the study Age Frequency Percent <20 2 4.3 21-30 20 43.5 31-40 17 37.0 41-50 5 10.9 51-60 2 4.3 Total 46 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2012 Table 2: The current ranks of respondents Rank Frequency Percent Assistant Librarian 1 2.2 Chief Library Assistant 2 4.3 Senior Library Assistant 6 13.0 Library Assistant 9 19.6 Junior Library Assistant 28 60.9 Total 46 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2012 Table 3: How long respondents have been working in the library Duration Frequency Percent 0 - 5 yrs 15 32.6 6 - 10yrs 17 37.0 11 - 15yrs 10 21.7 21 - 25yrs 2 4.3 26 - 30yrs 1 2.2 Over 30yrs 1 2.2 Total 46 100.0 Source: Field Survey 2012 119 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Awareness of Existing Appraisal System in Their Libraries Twenty three (50%) of the respondents knew that libraries operate formal performance appraisal system while 14 (30.4 %) did not know. Nine persons (19.6%) were not sure. Twenty eight (60.8 %) respondents understood the general objective of the performance appraisal system while the rest either had a vague idea or have no idea of the performance appraisal system at all. To a question on whether respondents have access to manuals or any document containing the objectives and procedures of existing appraisal system, sixteen (34.8 %) answered in the affirmative. Twenty-eight (60.9%) respondents have no documentation on the subject at all. Thirty one (67.4 %) of respondents received formal job descriptions while 15 (32.6 %) did not. Thirty six (78.3 %) of these individuals agree on goal setting, however 10 (21.7%) said they do not agree on goal settings. On review of goals, majority of the supervisors reviewed goals quarterly. All respondents from GIMPA library indicated their awareness of performance appraisal in the library. This is most likely because GIMPA has a written formal appraisal system that has been rigorously practiced for nearly a decade. On the other hand, KNUST library has no written appraisal document that guides the appraisal process. The findings revealed an apparent lack of regular performance appraisal system in KNUST. This observation was also made by Martey (2002) in his study on ―appraising the performance of staff in Ghanaian academic libraries‖. He cited lack of comprehensive and regular appraisal system in KNUST library as a major reason for restricting his study to the Balme Library. Senyah (2003) corroborates that regular performance appraisal did not exist in KNUST library. He reports that staff members were assessed only when they apply for promotion or study leave. Performance Assessment Criteria With the exception of planned objectives which were chosen by a few people as an area covered by performance appraisal, technical knowledge and skill, quality of work, level of commitment, training and development needs, planned objectives, and achievement of set targets were specific measuring factors that were indicated in performance appraisals (Table 4). These applied to all categories of staff in GIMPA library. But in addition to these specific factors, three major assessment criteria were used at the senior staff category. These are teaching, scholarly 120 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 publishing, and service to community. All of these were captured in GIMPA library‘s appraisal form. These measureable factors were found to be common in the appraisal system of GIMPA and KNUST. Supervisory role in the appraisal system In both libraries studied, performance evaluation is done by supervisors who are mostly heads of department or unit. At KNUST library assessment of subordinates is done by Head of Department, while in GIMPA library, Heads of Unit evaluate their staff. The study revealed that the supervisors or raters are in the grade of Assistant Librarian and above. The study found that none of the supervisors or raters has any form of training in appraisal. They are supervisors and evaluators by virtue of their position and rank in the library. Therefore, their assessment is often guided by laid down criteria and procedures as provided for in the appraisal system. Respondents were asked if there were formal meetings with supervisors, 12 (38.7 %) indicated that they met once in every appraisal period, and 13 (41.9 %) noted they met twice within the period while only 6 (19.4 %) stated they had meetings quarterly. Fifteen (32.6 %) had no formal meetings. Formal meetings between supervisors and subordinates are vital as it affords both parties the chance to review set goals and objectives. Heathfield (2007) proposes regular meetings between managers and subordinates to review work plan. The above statistics reveals an interesting picture. This is interesting because if respondents from the same institution provide various answers to the same question, then it shows some level of inconsistency in performing a particular action. In this case, KNUST library appraisal process lacks consistency with regards to performance review meetings between supervisors and subordinates. The question was asked whether staff had anytime during appraisal process to challenge ratings by their supervisors. Four (8.7 %) respondents indicated that they had never challenged performance appraisal results from their supervisors. The supervisors were also asked the same question and the response was that their rating had never been challenged. 97.3% of respondents pointed out that they had never challenged their appraisal results. On the question of whether staff had sought second opinion about their appraisal ratings from 121 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 another supervisor, none of the respondents indicated having ever sent their appraisal form to a second supervisor to be done again after it has been completed by a first supervisor. This may imply that staff are satisfied with their supervisors‘ ratings, and by extension the appraisal process. Forty two (91.3 %) did not find being evaluated a threat with only 4 (8.7 %) thinking otherwise. This implies that respondents from KNUST and GIMPA libraries find performance appraisal useful and also shows they are committed to the achievement of organizational goals and objectives. Below are a couple of comments from respondents: ―Appraising staff job performance is a useful exercise for achieving organizational and personal goals. Once there are standard criteria for ratings, I am really not perturbed about being assessed once I am doing my work‖ ―Staff appraisal has positive effect on achievement of the library goals as well as individual goals. Especially that staff development and promotion are key outcomes of appraisal‖ Feedback on evaluation Respondents were asked whether they were satisfied with feedback they get on their appraisal results. Twenty-one (45.7 %) respondents said the feedback was not regular, while 11 (23.9 %) said it was regular. However, 14 (30.4 %) reported that they had never had any feedback on evaluation. On the whole, only 19 (41.3 %) think the performance appraisal system they have currently is trustworthy while the remainder 27 (58.7 %) think it is not. Thirty one (67.4 %) suggest an alternative method of assessing employees‘ job performance to the current appraisal while 15 (32.6 %) think the current system is alright. 122 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 4: where the appraisal covers Response Frequency Technical knowledge and skill 22 Quality of work 28 Quantity of work 18 Level of commitment 21 Training and development needs 19 Planned objectives 9 Achievement of set targets 20 Working relationships 27 Professional conduct 23 Source: Field Survey 2012 Table 5: Means of motivation (tick as many as applicable) Response Frequency To be promoted 40 To be granted study leave with pay 39 To attend local and international conferences and seminars 29 To be given salary increment 29 To be given cash prize 19 To be given citation 16 To be commended by supervisor 30 To be commended by users of the library 22 To be commended by users of the library 21 Source: Field Survey 2012 Motivation and performance appraisal The top three ways by which respondents would like to be motivated if performance was considered positive were; to be promoted, to be granted study leave with pay, or to be commended by supervisors. Other options such as being given salary increments, cash prizes, 123 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 and citations were the least preferred (Table 5). Interview with supervisors The current study also sought to find out from supervisors the objectives of practising performance appraisal in KNUST and GIMPA libraries. The following objectives were given as GIMPA‘s performance appraisal objectives: i. To gain management control ii. Identify areas of staff work deficiencies and improve on their performance efficiencies iii. Identify specific staff training needs and build their capacities iv. For staff promotion v. Identify excellent employees and motivate them vi. Assess past performance and plan future work The above objectives coincide with general appraisal objectives outlined by Spink (1999) and Martey (2002). DISCUSSION The study highlighted the predominance of performance appraisals in contemporary human resource management. Ongoing debate regarding the pros and cons of formal performance appraisal systems was also high. The major concerns surrounding performance appraisal are the issues of injustice, unfairness and the potential to cause damage to the morale and motivation of employees (Deming, 2000; Law, 2007; Lee, 2006). The study revealed that 58.7% of subordinate staff do not find their appraisal systems trustworthy. This gives some credence to the claims made by Deming (2000) and Law (2007). In contrast, 41.3% of subordinates said their appraisal systems are trustworthy. Seventy percent (70%) of supervisors think their performance appraisal systems are trustworthy, while 30% disagree. What this particular result shows is that there is considerable difference in the way subordinate staff and supervisors perceive their appraisal systems. Even though from the findings, some respondents said that appraisal systems in KNUST and GIMPA libraries are not trustworthy, a critical examination of responses does not clearly prove that the existing appraisal system is not trustworthy. The result therefore does not 124 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 provide enough grounds to conclude that the appraisal systems used in GIMPA and KNUST libraries are not trustworthy. A key objective of the current study was to examine the transparency of the performance appraisal process. The requirement for a transparent system is that everyone must understand and appreciate the system and all must be involved. It requires that equal opportunity be given to all and rules and sanctions must also be applied equally and appropriately. Unfortunately, employees in most organizations – from HR administrators to the subordinate staff – ―typically are dissatisfied with their organization‘s performance appraisal systems (Smith, et. al, 1996; Jun and Xiao-Long, 2008). The current study revealed a positive view about the fairness and transparency of the appraisal processes in KNUST and GIMPA libraries. Contrary to views of critiques in literature that appraisal process could be marred by negative attributes like ―nepotism, cronyism, favoritism, sycophancy, and lackadaisical attitudes‖ (Mirsepassi, 1998; Hamidi, Y., Najafi, L., Vatankhah, S. & Purnajaf, A. 2010), the present research showed that supervisors were guided by operative appraisal criteria and procedures in their evaluation. Emotional and personal biases did not feature significantly in the rating process, thus ensuring objectivity and fairness in GIMPA and KNUST performance appraisal processes. Feedback is a crucial element in any type of performance appraisal system. Feedback provides support for employees‘ development (Coens & Jenkins, 2002; Law, 2007) and work improvement. The study revealed that feedback was the major setback in the existing appraisal systems in both GIMPA and KNUST libraries. After the assessment has been done, either the feedback is not received regularly (45.7%) or there is total absence (30.4%) of it. This according to the findings, causes some dissatisfaction among employees and consequently results in lowering staff confidence in the appraisal process. However, this does not provide enough ground to even suggest that the existing appraisal systems in KNUST and GIMPA libraries have failed. Staff motivation also features significantly in any effective appraisal process as it is ―directly linked to productivity‖ (Owusu-Acheaw, 2003). The issue of motivation is complex as different factors motivate different people. According to Abifarin (1997) ―what motivates one person will not automatically motivate another‖. In this study, it was revealed that library staff in academic 125 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 libraries are motivated by different factors ranging from tangible factors like salary rise to intangible factors like promotion and study leave with pay (Senyah, 2003). Among the list of factors that motivate employees, the findings showed that staff in GIMPA and KNUST libraries were highly motivated when they were promoted. Martey‘s (2002) report confirms the use of performance appraisal as the basis for staff promotion in Balme Library. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION Although performance appraisal systems in GIMPA and KNUST libraries exist and are satisfactory, there are some flaws which could be improved or modified. Appraisal processes are important tools for staff promotion and motivation. Significantly, even though KNUST library operates some form of performance appraisal system it is ―unwritten‖ and the knowledge of its existence is not well established. Appraisal in GIMPA library is a rigorous annual process. KNUST ibrary, on the other hand, does not have such rigorous annual performance appraisal. Staff in KNUST library are appraised only when they want promotion or study leave. But when they are due for promotion, they are assessed by the same criteria as those of GIMPA library. The study established positive perception of performance appraisal against criticisms that it is ―destructive to organization‖ (Deming, 2000). While not exhaustive, the issues summarized here should provide readers with a sense of the most pressing issues on both sides of the argument. Regardless of the beliefs held about the true effectiveness of formal performance appraisal, organizations will continue to use the tool for a long time to come. RECOMMENDATIONS Per the findings of the study, the following recommendations can be made to improve upon the performance appraisal systems in the two academic libraries: 1. Staff without formal professional training should be given requisite training in the course of their work. 2. Job description and/or working manual should be given on appointment to serve as a guide to performance of duties. 3. Some form of motivation should be given for outstanding performance. 4. Regular formal meetings should be held and feedback on performance given regularly. 126 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 5. It is important to have a rigorous appraisal system in place so that employees will be more responsible and accountable in the pursuit of organizational as well as personal goals. References Abifarin, A. (1997). ―Motivating staff in Nigerian universities libraries‖. Library Management. Vol. 18, issue 3, pp. 124-128. Antwi, I. K. and Bello, M. 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(2009). ―Measurement and assessment issues in performance appraisal‖. Canadian Psychology. Vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 161-171. Kroll, H. R. (1983). ―Beyond evaluation: performance appraisal as a planning and motivational tools in libraries‖. Journal of Academic Librarianship. pp. 27-32. Latham, G. P. (2007). Work motivation: history, theory and practice. Beverly Hills: Sage. Latham, G. P., Budworth, M., Yanar, B. & Whyte, G. (2008). ―The influence of a manager‘s own performance appraisal on the evaluation of others‖. International Journal of Selection and Assessment. Vol. 16, no. 3, pp. 220-228. Law, D. R. (2007). ―Appraising performance appraisals: a critical look at external control techniques‖. International Journal of Reality Therapy. Vol. 16, no. 2 pp. 18-25. Lee, C. D. (2006). Performance conversation. Tucson AZ: Fenestra Books. Martey, A. K. (2002). ―Appraising the performance of library staff in Ghanaian academic libraries‖. Library Management. Vol. 23, issue 8, pp. 403-416. 128 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 McGregor, D. (1960). The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. Mirsepassi, N. (1999). Strategic management of human resource and labour communication. Tehran: Mir Publication. th Mondy, R. (2008). Human resource management. 10 ed., New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Moon, Tea Won & Hur, Won-Moo (2011). ―Emotional intelligence, emotional exhaustion & job performance". Social Behaviour & Personality. 39(8), pp. 1087-1096. Mulvaney, M. A., McKinney, W. R. & Grodsky, R. (2008). ―The development of a pay-for- performance appraisal system for public park and recreation agencies: a case study‖. Journal of Park and Recreation Administration. Vol. 26, no. 4, pp. 126-156. Najafi, L. … etal (2010). ―Performance appraisal and its effect on employees‘ motivation and job promotion‖. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences. 4(12), pp. 6052- 6056. Nickols, F. (1997). ―Don‘t redesign your company‘s performance appraisal system, scrap it!‖ Corporate University Review. 5(3), pp. 54-59. Nikols, F. (2007). ―Performance appraisals: weighed and found wanting in the balance‖. Journal for Quality & Participation. pp. 13-16 Osei-Bonsu, M. (1984). ‗Serials management in a Ghanaian special library: a case study of Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA) Library‖. Nigerian Libraries, Vol. 20, 3-4. pp. 107-116 Owusu-Acheaw (2003). ―Staff motivation in special libraries in Ghana‖. Ghana Library Journal. Vol. 15. Senyah, Y. (2003). ―Motivation and productivity in academic libraries: a case study of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology Library, Kumasi. Journal of Science and Technology. Vol. 23, no. 2. pp. 80 – 89. Shreader, Mike; Becton, J. Bret & Portis, Ron (2007). ―Examination of performance appraisals: organization‘s friend of foe?‖ Journal for Quality & Participation. pp. 20-25. 129 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Smith, B. N., Hornsby, J. S. & Shirmeyer, R. (1996). ―Current trends in performance appraisals: an examination of managerial practice‖. SAM Advance Management Journal. 1, 2. Spinks, N., Well, B., & Meche, M. (1999) Appraising appraisals: computerized performance appraisal systems‖. Career Development Journal. Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 94-100. Terrence, H. M., & Joyce, M. (2004). Performance appraisals: ABA labour and employment law Section. Equal Opportunity Committee. Vasset, Froydis, et. al. (2010). ―Employee‘ perception of justice in performance appraisals‖. Nursing Management. Vol. 17, no. 2. Vicky, G. (2002) Performance Appraisals. Loss Control Services. Texas: Association of Counties. Whiting, Hal J. & Kline, T. J. B. (2007). ―Testing a model of performance appraisal fit on attitudinal outcomes‖. The Psychologist-Manager Journal. 10(2), pp. 127-148. Yee, C. C. & Chen, Y. Y. (2009). ―Performance appraisal system using multi-factorial evaluation model‖. PWASET. Vol. 41, pp. 231-235. 130 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL AS AN EFFECTIVE MANAGEMENT TOOL IN THE STATE OWNED UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES IN GHANA By *Richard Bruce Lamptey and **Kwaku Agyen-Gyasi University Library, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana Email: *phanerosis75@yahoo.com and **kagyasi@yahoo.com Abstract Performance appraisal is viewed as a distinct and formal management procedure used in the evaluation of employees‘ work performance. There has been considerable growth and interest in the process in recent years as a result of the fact that it is considered as one of the most important requirements for a successful business and human resource development. Productivity is very important in every organization. This is because it is only with high level of productivity that an organization‘s strategic goals can be achieved. Organizational productivity depends largely on the interplay of certain factors namely, capital, technology and human resource. This study discusses the impact of performance appraisal on librarians in six state owned university libraries in Ghana. In particular, it explains the concept of performance appraisal, methods used in appraising employees and how far it is being implemented in the state owned university libraries in the country. The challenges facing these institutions in implementing effective performance appraisal strategy are highlighted. Appropriate recommendations and solutions to the problems identified are suggested to ensuring quality service delivery. Keywords: Job evaluation, performance appraisal, work ethics, human resource development, performance indicators, performance interview, academic libraries, Ghana Introduction Traditionally, academic institutions only collected and reported data about their academic library‘s operating expenditures, staffing levels, and holdings for accreditation purposes and annual reports, without linking those data to usage or outcomes and performance of staff (Wolff, 131 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 1994). According to Pritchard (1996), ‗‗the main objective for academic libraries, especially in an environment of increasing economic pressure . . . must be to align themselves with the structures of higher education and the criteria by which those institutions are judged‘‘. The library and information science profession should therefore, move beyond inputs and instead focus on the performance measures associated with the academic library resources and services to ensure quality service delivery. Although according to DeNisi and Pritchard (2006), performance appraisal in academic libraries has been a subject of research dating back as far as the early 1920s, most of the studies have focused on developed countries compared to the developing countries particularly Africa south of the Sahara. Moreover, a number of these studies have concentrated on the rating system rather than its effectiveness as a management tool and also in other disciplines such as business and psychology rather than in the library and information profession. Even in the university setting, emphasis has been limited to the human resource department of the parent institution rather than the library. The objective of this study therefore, is to fill this research gap of the concept of performance appraisal in relation to university libraries in Ghana. Performance appraisal has a number of important uses. It is frequently used in organizations as a basis for administrative and corporate decisions such as employee promotion, dismissal, transfer, and allocation of financial rewards, employee development (including identification of training needs and performance feedback) and personnel research. It provides an excellent opportunity for employee and supervisor to communicate on a one-to-one basis about their goals and general direction to their staff. Performance appraisal can also help librarians to observe their subordinates more effectively, to do a better job of coaching, developing and to motivate them. It again encourages high levels of employee motivation and performance. Through an appraisal system, good performers know that their efforts are valued and appraised while poor performers also know that their lackluster performance needs improvement. In addition, it provides an avenue for both good and poor performers to know their strengths and weaknesses and ways in which they can improve their performance in the future. Another reason for conducting performance appraisal in academic libraries is to ensure that staff training takes place on a regular basis. 132 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The performance appraisal process has come under intense criticisms because of the growing influence of the principles of total quality tools and practices used by globally competitive corporations and other organisations including academic and research libraries. Among the criticisms include the seemingly impossible task of obtaining accurate appraisal of employee job behaviour, a difficulty most often attributed to faults in the rating format used, deficiencies in appraisal content, rater resistance to judging others, and the implications of the specific purpose of appraisal for the rater and the ratee. In addition, supervisors are often reluctant to conduct performance appraisals because of the feelings of retribution, alienation, and personal failure. Appraisal reliability and validity still remain a major problem in most appraisal systems, and new (and presumably improved) appraisal systems are often met with substantial resistance. In essence, effective performance appraisal in organizations continues to be a compelling but unrealized goal. Performance appraisal can be structured or unstructured and are of different types namely trait, behaviour or results which can be carried out by manager/superior appraisal, self-appraisal, team appraisal, peer appraisal, subordinate appraisal and customer/user appraisal. Whether librarians or managers appraise performance in terms of traits, behaviour and results, the information they assess is either objective or subjective. Objective appraisals are based on facts while subjective appraisals are based on managers‘ perception. Librarians and managers often use objective appraisals where results are being approved because results tend to be easier to quantify and are accurate, compared to subjective appraisals where the results are likely to be inaccurate because they are based on the managers‘ perceptions. Academic libraries‘ services worldwide have changed very fast in recent times owing to the changes in society and the education system as well as advent of information technology that has led to changes on the information landscape. In the view of Payne (2005), academic libraries ―must be able to demonstrate the value of what they are doing and provide evidence of the impact that they are making‖. They must therefore manage staff, and other information resources effectively to provide quality services to satisfy the user‘s expectations. In particular, academic and research libraries should consider it as an important tool of appraising their staff because of 133 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 the unique position they occupy in the colleges, universities as well as the institutions in which they serve. This paper therefore looks at performance appraisal as an effective management tool in state owned academic and research libraries in Ghana. It defines the concept performance appraisal, discusses the types of appraisal systems, who appraises performance, the benefits associated with performance appraisals, methodology used for the study, the findings and discussions based on the data analyzed as well as the challenges confronting librarians in carrying out performance appraisal in their libraries. Definition of Performance Appraisal The term ―performance appraisal‖ refers to the process by which an individual‘s work performance is assessed. In other words it is the formal process of observing and evaluating an employee‘s performance. The Online Dictionary of Library and Information Science, (2012) defines performance appraisal as ―a structured formal interaction between a subordinate and a supervisor that usually takes the form of a periodic interview, in which the work performance of the subordinate is examined and discussed with a view to identify weakness, strength and opportunities for improvement and skills development‖. It is also defined as ―a systematic and periodic process that assesses an individual employee‘s job performance and productivity in relation to certain pre-established criteria and organizational objectives‖ (Wikipedia, 2012). Lansbury (1988) defined performance appraisal as ―the process of identifying, evaluating and developing the work performance of the employee in the organization, so that organizational goals and objectives are effectively achieved while, at the same time, benefiting employees in terms of recognition, receiving feedback, and offering career guidance‖. Performance appraisal involves the process of evaluating the performance and the behaviour of individuals in the context of their specific positions of employment (Painter, 1994). It could be concluded from the above definitions, that performance appraisal is the formal assessment and rating of individuals by their managers, usually on an annual basis with the 134 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 primary objective of improving the performance of the individuals and the institutions, thereby creating a more positive working environment for all concerned. Types of Performance Appraisal Basically, there are three main types of performance appraisal, namely traits, behaviour and results performance appraisals. Trait Appraisals Trait appraisals are used when managers assess subordinates on personal characteristics that are relevant to job performance such as skills, abilities or personality. For example, a social worker may be appraised based on his empathy and communication skills. Among the disadvantages of trait appraisals are: Firstly, possessing certain personal characteristics does not ensure that the personal characteristics will actually be used on the job and result in high performance. For example, a social worker may possess empathy and communication skills but be a poor performer due to low motivation. Moreover, traits do not always show a direct association with performance; workers and courts of law may view them as unfair and potentially discriminatory. Also, they do not enable managers to provide employees with feedback that they can use to improve performance (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Behaviour Appraisals Through behaviour appraisals, managers assess how workers perform their jobs – the actual actions and behaviours that workers exhibit on the job. Whereas trait appraisals assess what workers are like, behaviour appraisals assess what workers do. For example, with a behaviour appraisal a manager might evaluate a social worker on the extent to which he looks at clients when talking with them, expresses sympathy when they are upset, and refers them to community counselling and support groups geared toward the specific problem they are encountering. Behaviour appraisals are especially useful in determining ‗how workers perform their jobs‘. In academic and research libraries, how they organise their resources is important. Also important is how the users are taught to effectively access these resources to ensure that learning takes place. Behaviour appraisals have the advantage of providing employees with clear information about what they are doing right and wrong and how they can improve their performance. It is 135 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 also much easier for employees to change than the traits performance appraisals (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Result Appraisal With result appraisal, managers appraise performance by the results or the actual outcomes of work behaviours. For some jobs, how people perform the job is not as important as what they accomplish or the results or the actual outcomes of work behaviours (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Who Appraises Performance? Often times it is assumed that managers or supervisors of employees are the only people who evaluate performance. This is indeed a reasonable assumption because supervisors are the most common appraisers of performance. However, appraisals by managers can be usefully augmented by appraisal from other sources such as individual employees, managers/supervisors, subordinates, peers, team, and customers. Self-Appraisal Self-appraisal is used when managers supplement their evaluation with an employee‘s assessment of his/her own performance. A self-appraisal system requires an employee to complete the appraisal form prior to the performance interview. This system of assessment allows the employees to think about their strengths and weaknesses which may consequently lead to discussion on barriers to effective performance. Sometimes it would be beneficial if employees are asked to evaluate themselves on a self-appraisal form. Critics of self-appraisal, however, argue that self-raters are more lenient than managers in their assessment and tend to present themselves in a highly favourable light (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Manager / Superior Appraisal This system of performance appraisal is done by an employee‘s manager and is often reviewed by a manager one level higher. The Manager or Superior appraisal has been the traditional approach to evaluating an employee‘s performance. This is because, in most instances the supervisors are in the best position to perform this function, although it may not always be possible for them to do so. Managers who might not have the requisite time to fully observe the 136 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 performance of employees often delegate such functions to their Line Managers/Heads of Department. Such managers then rely on performance records to evaluate an employee‘s performance. If reliable and valid measures are not available, the appraisal may be less than accurate (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Subordinate Appraisal Performance appraisal of a superior by an employee, is more appropriate for developmental than for administrative purposes. Subordinate appraisal is used by both large an d sm al l o r gan iz a t io ns to give managers feedback on how their subordinates view them. Subordinates are in a good position to evaluate their managers since they are in frequent contact with their superiors and occupy a unique position from which to observe much performance-related behaviour. In the university setting, the assessment of lecturers by students could be described as subordinate appraisal system. The major setback of this system is those managers who are appraised by their subordinates may fail to take needed but unpopular actions out of fear that their subordinates will appraise them negatively (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Peer Appraisal This system of appraisal is provided by an employee‘s co-workers especially when subordinates work in groups or teams. Here, individuals of equal rank who work together could be asked to evaluate each other. The feedback from peer appraisals can motivate team members while providing managers with important information for decision making. A peer appraisal provides information that differs to some degree from ratings by a superior, since peers often see different dimensions of performance. Peers can readily identify leadership and interpersonal skills along with other strengths and weaknesses of their co-workers. A major advantage of peer appraisals is the belief that they furnish more accurate and valid information than appraisals by superiors because the supervisors often see employees putting their best foot forward, while those who work with their fellow employees on a regular basis may see a more realistic picture. Among the shortcomings of peer appraisals are that peer ratings are simply a popularity contest; managers are reluctant to give up control over the appraisal 137 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 process and those receiving low ratings might retaliate against their peers (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Team Appraisal Performance appraisals based on total quality management (TQM) concepts recognize team accomplishment rather than individual performance. An extension of the peer appraisal is the team appraisal. While peers are on equal standing with one another, they may not work closely together. In a team setting, it may be nearly impossible to isolate an individual‘s contribution. Advocates of team appraisal argue that, in such cases, individual appraisal can be dysfunctional since it detracts from the critical issues of the team. A company‘s interest in team appraisals is frequently driven by its commitment to TQM principles and practices. At its root, TQM is a control system that involves settings standards (based on customer requirements), m eas u r in g p e r fo rm an ce aga in s t t ho se standards and identifying opportunities for continuous improvement (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Customer Appraisal Sometimes customers or clients provide assessments of employee performance in terms of responsiveness to customers and quality of service. Under this system, managers establish customer service measure (CSMs) and set goals for employees which are linked to employee pay through incentive programmes. T h i s w i l l e n a b l e managers produce more objective evaluations, more effective employees, more satisfied customers, and better business performance (Middlesex Community College 2009). LITERATURE REVIEW Evaluating employee performance in academic libraries is not a new phenomenon in the library and information profession. However, not much emphasis has been given to this subject by library administrators particularly in Africa south of the Sahara. A survey of library literature revealed that most academic libraries have implemented some type of performance appraisal although some disparities have existed regarding the process and the goals sought to achieve them. According to Arnold (2005), university libraries perform staff evaluation in line with 138 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 the rules and procedures set out by their parent insti tutions which in most cases are conducted based on the guidelines set forth by the Human Resource Department (HRD) of these institutions. In his view, such centrally devised appraisal systems have failed to address the differences in activities from one department to the other. Evans (2005) conducted a study and concluded that 90.6% out of the total of 407 librarians interviewed agreed that performance appraisal is necessary for good supervision. According to him, a further question posed to these interviewees on whether they feel comfortable in conducting performance appraisal in their libraries revealed that 83.3% of them answered in the negative, while 16.7% answered in the affirmative. This shows how librarians have down played performance appraisal as an effective tool in managing their libraries. Aluri and Reichel (1994), on their part stated that although many librarians favoured the performance appraisal process as a viable organizational tool, a noticeable attitude of skepticism pervade the literature regarding the effectiveness of such evaluation tools, especially as they relate to achieving the institutional goals and objectives of the library. Kaehr (1990) opined that majority of the studies carried out on performance appraisals seemed to indicate its acceptance as an ingredient of the management process, although most treatises did not see appraisal as the perfect panacea many assume it to be. A few studies have expressed their reservations about the suitability of the appraisal system particularly in academic libraries. Evans and Rugaas (1982) stated that performance appraisals in most cases have focused on the process of conducting it at the expense of any distinct conclusions or objectives. According to Edwards and Williams (1998), many library administrators rarely took performance appraisals seriously, and failed to understand the vital link that connected their personal goals with the organizational behaviour. They claim that, academic librarians were reluctant to pursue a more objective approach to the evaluation process because very little opportunity existed for them to provide inputs concerning the overall process. In the view of Stueart and Moran (2002), instead of making performance appraisal decisions on the basis of supervisors‘ subjective decisions, a well documented assessment can help management make reasonable and sound personnel related decisions such as wage and salary treatment. Cohen (1989) suggested that the methods used for implementing the performance 139 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 appraisal process were approached from a very superficial perspective and therefore the use of a reliable and constructive data on job performance were oftentimes ignored in favour of personal and subjective information. He argued that instead of academic librarians stating specifically what to measure, what components to control, and why one application variable leads to another, they concentrate only on appraisal schemes that only touched the tip of the subject. Hansen (1995) also conducted an in-depth study of staff appraisal schemes in three British university libraries in 1993 and concluded that the library using its own appraisal scheme devoted more time and attention to it as against those which applied general appraisal schemes. The study also revealed that when recommended follow-up actions such as enabling attendance at training courses were followed up, staff showed more interest in appraisals. George (1995) opined that academic librarians disliked the performance appraisal system because they were not involved in developing the appraisal instrument although studies abound on the use of performance appraisal tools in libraries by these librarians. According to Jenkins (1990), workshops focusing on the new and emerging technologies, cataloguing, and the Internet are given more prominence in most academic libraries than seminars and instructional sessions on human resource issues such as performance appraisal. In her view, this attitude has remained consistent for quite a long time and needs to be addressed. 140 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Perspectives on Africa have been carried out by Onuoha (2009) whose study sought to identify the perception of library staff on the effect of performance appraisal on productivity and career growth as a way of enhancing the provision of information services through effective performance appraisals. He concluded that majority of the respondents felt that performance appraisal has a positive influence on job performance and enhances career growth. He further concluded that performance appraisal can only be meaningful if employees‘ job descriptions were reviewed to include job performance and recommended that academic librarians should conduct their own appraisals separate from the university-wide appraisal system using the guidelines set by the H.R.D. for the sole purpose of correcting the deviations and weaknesses that would be identified for their improvement. Based on the above studies, it could be summed up that academic library administrators implement staff performance appraisal in their libraries, some disparities however exist regarding the process used and the goals they seek to achieve. This problem has arisen because of the attention that these libraries have paid to performance appraisal systems compared to other issues and concerns in the modern academic library. If academic libraries must survive in the changing information age then, their approach to the performance appraisal system must be carefully looked at since they are implemented to provide specific documentation regarding current and future personnel actions such as promotions, salary increases, staff development opportunities, and disciplinary action that may be required to correct problematic situations. METHODOLOGY The study used a qualitative method in examining the Performance Appraisal Systems in the six public university libraries in Ghana to identify and analyze the similarities and differences between them with regard to the variables selected for this research. The main instrument for data collection was the use of interviews. The interview schedule was made up of open ended and close ended questions which sought to find out: 1. Personal information on the interviewee, including gender, age, status, number of years spent in their current grade, level of education etc., and 2. The study factors including whether these institutions have a formalized system of performance appraisal, purpose and ways of conducting it and the respondents‘ opinions about 141 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 performance appraisal. In addition, secondary sources of information such as books, journals and the Internet resources were used. The population was made up of the University Librarians or their Deputies of the six public university libraries in Ghana namely: the University of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, University of Cape Coast, University of Education, Winneba, University for Development Studies and University of Mines and Technology. All the six libraries were therefore covered giving a 100% response rate. Qualitative methods such as the thematic analysis were used to summarize and analyze the data. For purposes of anonymity, the university libraries were categorized as UL A, UL B, UL C, UL D, UL E and UL F respectively. This was to enable the interviewees give accurate responses to the question without any fear of victimization. ANALYSIS OF DATA Gender Characteristics of Interviewees The sex characteristics of the interviewees showed that there were predominantly more males compared to females as far as the interviewees are concerned. Out of the six Librarians interviewed, only two were females, while the remaining interviewees were males. Status of Interviewees An assessment of the status of the interviewees reveals that there were two substantive University Librarians and four Deputy Librarians who responded for their superiors. Of the four Deputy Librarians, two were in substantive position while the remaining two were Senior Assistant Librarian and Assistant Librarian respectively and in an acting position. Number of Years served on Current Position To ensure that the true picture of performance appraisals in these libraries is uncovered, the interviewees were asked to state the number of years that they have served in their current position. Four out of the six answered that they have been in their current position for over 11 years. These included UL A, UL B, UL D and UL E. Only two interviewees namely UL C and 142 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 UL F declared that they have served their current position for between 1 and 3 years. It could therefore be concluded that majority of the interviewees have served in their current position for more than 11years and therefore were more conversant with the appraisal system in their various university libraries. Performance Appraisal as a tool for Promotion Performance appraisals are implemented to provide specific documentation regarding current and future personnel actions such as promotions, salary increases, staff development opportunities, and disciplinary action that may be required to correct problematic situations. It is evident from the responses provided by the interviewees that although the appraisal system is used as a tool for promotion, such elevation is determined by the number of years of satisfactory service, the number of one‘s publications in the case of Senior Members and other variables like extension service and performance. When asked to rank these variables as tools for appraising performance, all the six interviewees were unanimous that in the case of the Senior Members, the number of one‘s publications is the major determining factor that qualifies an individual for promotion. This is because research is the core function of academic members of the university community including the Librarians. It should be noted however, that apart from the number of publications some of the interviewees mentioned other variables like performance, number of years of service and extension service and this refers to the services rendered to the nation, university and the international community. However, in the case of the Senior and the Junior staff, apart from the number of years of satisfactory service, their promotion is based on performance put up over a defined period of time. Should a performance appraisal system be adopted and formalized in Academic Libraries? When asked to indicate whether or not performance appraisal is needed in the academic libraries, all the interviewees answered in the affirmative. A further question posed to find out whether they agree that there should be a formalised performance appraisal system in their libraries, they again answered in the affirmative. It could be inferred from the responses given by these 143 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 interviewees that performance appraisal is an important management tool in the academic library just as it is in the corporate setting. Are you satisfied with the existing performance appraisal system in your library? Another important question to find out the interviewees impressions about the existing performance appraisal system in the academic libraries in Ghana gave varied responses. Two out of the six interviewees stated that they were satisfied with the current system while the remaining four expressed their disapproval about the appraisal system currently being used. The wide gap between the responses given by the interviewees thus indicates that these Librarians are not satisfied with the appraisal system as it pertains in their libraries. Benefits / Importance of Performance Appraisal The study sought to find out from these interviewees their opinions with regards to the importance/benefits of performance appraisal in the University Libraries. Almost all of them gave not less than four benefits from the appraisal systems which have been summarized as follows: promotes co-operation and team work, increases employee motivation, helps in reducing grievances among the employees, helps the management to provide employee counselling, helps to identify the strength and weaknesses of employees. Also, transfers, demotions, suspensions and dismissals are based on performance appraisal. Performance Appraisal as a Tool for Training Needs of Staff One of the objectives of performance appraisal is to identify the training needs of individual employees. The responses given by these librarians showed that majority of them strongly agree with the view that performance appraisal helps to identify the training needs of the staff in the various libraries. Five out of the six interviewees agreed with the assertion that performance appraisal is used as a major tool to assess the training needs of the staff in an organization including academic libraries. Challenges Associated with Performance Appraisal in Academic Libraries Among the challenges interviewees identified with the current system as expressed in their responses included: ―The areas indicated on the form are too general so one cannot appraise 144 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 specifically‖, ―Done on annual basis which is not good enough. Could be done every semester‖, ―the university has a unified format for all employees. This should be department specific‖ and ―The University plans reviewing its current appraisal criteria and it is hoped that when it is revised, it would make it easier for management to undertake the appraisal process. Currently we don‘t have a clear cut criterion for appraising staff which is a challenge‖. Suggestions for improving Performance Appraisal in the State owned University Libraries On what should be done to improve performance appraisals in these libraries, all the interviewees were unanimous that a separate Committee be set up to review performance appraisal results. Other varied responses from these Librarians include: ―the library‘s appraisal should be periodic at least biannually and also staff should be educated on the importance of appraisals‖, ―the performance appraisal should be done on a semester basis and not on an annual basis‖, Library HOD‘s should appraise their staff annually and the reports sent to the University Librarian for review and evaluation‖, mentoring should be practiced in order to address all gaps‖. Findings  It is clear from the interviews conducted that all the university libraries in Ghana do have some form of performance appraisal system in existence and it is done on an annual basis and this is not good enough.  All the interviewees recognize the importance that performance appraisal plays in their libraries. These include an aid in reducing grievances among employees, helpful for management to provide employee counseling, identifying the strengths and weaknesses of employees and also as a basis for transfers, demotions, suspensions and dismissals.  Performance appraisal is also used to identify the training needs of the staff in the academic libraries in Ghana. The systematic procedure of performance appraisal helps the supervisors to frame training policies and programs which is vital for the success of these libraries.  The Universities have a unified performance appraisal format that is used for appraising all their employees including the library staff. Academic librarians do not have any opportunity of appraising their own staff on periodic basis except when they are applying for promotion. 145 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012  The appraisal system in the university libraries is not participatory enough. Although the Heads of Department are expected to show and discuss their reports (section completed on their subordinate) before forwarding to the various University Registrars most of them fail do so. It is therefore turns out to be one sided. Benefits of Performance Appraisals There are a number of potential benefits to libraries if they conduct formal performance appraisals (PAs). These include: Performance Feedback Most employees are very interested in knowing how well they are doing at present and how they can do better in the future. They want this information to improve their performance in order to get promotions and merit pay. Proper performance feedback can improve the employee's future performance. It also gives him satisfaction and motivation (Wikipedia, 2012). Employee Training and Development Decisions Performance appraisal information is used to find out whether an employee requires additional training and development. Deficiencies in performance may be due to inadequate knowledge or skills. Performance appraisal therefore helps a manager to find out whether an employee needs additional training for improving his current job performance or can perform well in a higher position, then he/she is given training for the higher level position. Validation of Selection Process Performance appraisal is a means of validating both internal (promotions and transfers) and external (hiring new employees from outside) sources. Organizations spend a lot of time and money for recruiting and selecting employees. Proper performance appraisal finds out the validity of the various selection tools and so the company can follow suitable steps for selecting employees in future. 146 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Promotions Performance appraisal is a way of finding out which employee should be given promotion. Past appraisals, together with other background data, will enable management to select proper persons for promotion. In this regard, inefficient workers can be dismissed or demoted after carrying out performance appraisals. Transfers and Dismissals Performance appraisal is also used to take decisions regarding transfers and dismissals. Transfers often involve changes in job responsibilities, and it is important to find out the employees who can take these responsibilities. Through performance appraisal, such employees can be easily identified and transferred to strengthen units that may need their services. In the same way, non- performing staff can easily be identified through an appraisal system and laid off. Compensation Decisions Performance appraisal can be used to compensate the employees by increasing their pay and other incentives. This is truer in the case of managerial jobs and also in the case of employees in non-unionized organizations. Compensation packages which include bonuses, high salary rates, extra benefits and allowances are dependent on performance appraisal (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Human Resource Planning (HRP) The appraisal process helps in human resource planning (HRP). Accurate and current appraisal data regarding certain employees helps the management in taking decisions for future employment. Without the knowledge of who is capable of being promoted, demoted, transferred, laid off or terminated, management cannot make employment plans for the future (Wikipedia, 2012). Challenges in implementing performance appraisal in Academic libraries In spite of all the potential advantages of formal performance appraisals (PAs), there are challenges. 147 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Determination of the Mode of Performance Appraisal Determining the relationship between individual job performance and organizational performance could be a difficult task which could lead to complications in the organization. It has been discredited because too often it has been operated as a top-down and largely bureaucratic system usually carried out by top management personnel (Head of Department) rather than by line managers. Performance appraisal has been perceived by many scholars as a means of exercising managerial control. It has been perceived as backward looking, concentrating on what has gone wrong, rather than looking forward for future development needs. Moreover individuals, particularly the subordinate staff, quite often have negative perceptions about performance appraisal because it creates room for ―tension between supervisors and subordinates‖. This is because in most cases subordinates who receive poor appraisal perceive their supervisors to hate them (Middlesex Community College, 2009). Identification of the evaluation criteria Identifying the appraisal criteria is a major challenge faced by top management. The performance data to be considered for evaluation should be carefully selected. For the purpose of evaluation, the criteria selected should be in quantifiable or measurable terms. Resistance The appraisal process may face resistance from the employees and the trade unions for fear of negative ratings. The employees therefore, should be informed and clearly explained the purpose as well as the process of appraisal. The standards should be clearly communicated and every employee should be made aware of what exactly is expected from him/her. Detrimental to quality improvement It has been proposed that the use of PA systems in organizations adversely affect organizations‘ pursuit of total quality performance. Some scholars and practitioners of quality management believe that the use of PAs is unnecessary, if there is a total quality management practice in place. 148 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Negative perceptions Quite often, individuals, particularly, the subordinate staff, have negative perceptions about PAs. Most of them believe that such appraisals could adversely affect them especially in organizations that practice the vertical form of performance evaluation. Receiving and/or the anticipation of receiving a PA could be uncomfortable and distressful and potentially cause ―tension between supervisors and subordinates‖ (Wikipedia, 2012). Legal issues When performance appraisals (PAs) are not carried out appropriately, legal issues could result that would place the libraries at risk. PAs are used in organizations as disciplinary measures and also for promotional decisions within the organization. The improper application and utilization of PAs can affect employees negatively and lead to legal action against the organization. Conclusions Employee performance appraisal system is an essential tool for management in every organisation including academic libraries as it is used for many different purposes such as pay increases, improvement and training, transfers, compensations, counselling, promotion, employee recognition, and termination. The appraisees discover what is expected of them, are able to set goals, gain better understanding of their faults and strengths and can adjust behaviour accordingly. Appraisers on their part benefit from appraisals by effectively identifying and measuring trends in the performance of their employees, and to compare subordinates more accurately. They also get a better understanding of their workers' needs and expectations and are able to use the information to assist their subordinates in planning long-term and short-term goals and career objectives as well as tailor their job responsibilities to make fuller use of their skills. Academic and research libraries benefit from the performance appraisal process through improved communication, which results in more cooperation and better decision making; greater staff motivation; and a more informed and productive workforce, which leads to a greater organizational focus on comprehensive goals. In particular, the performance appraisal process allows these libraries to achieve a more productive division of labour, develop training and education programs, eliminate bias and irrelevant data from evaluations and decisions, and design effective compensation and reward systems. 149 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 It is expected that the personnel decisions based upon the results of the appraisal exercise would be much better and also well informed, which would in turn lead to greater organizational goal achievement. To have an effective appraisal system, it should be closely monitored and feedback should be obtained on continuous basis. Recommendations Academic and Research Libraries should conduct research to find out how to design and implement performance appraisal systems that would help their organizations improve upon individual‘s performance internally. There is the need for an effective appraisal system that emphasizes continuous professional development since such professional development enhances a firm‘s overall performance. Performance evaluation process should be ongoing throughout the year. Even if a formal evaluation is given only once a year, an employee should be made aware of his or her performance periodically throughout the year. Staff in academic libraries should be educated on the essence of performance appraisal so that they would give their maximum cooperation when it is being conducted. Furthermore, it must be remembered that the evaluation is not solely based on the employee‘s performance in the two to three week period before the evaluation, but it is based on the employee‘s work during the appraisal period, whether it is three, six, or twelve months. 150 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 References Aluri, R. & Reichel, M. (1994). ―Performance evaluation: a deadly disease?‖ Journal of Academic Librarianship, Vol. 20, No. 3, pp. 145-55. Cohen, L.R. (1989), ―Conducting performance evaluations‖, Library Trends, Vol. 38 No. 1, pp. 40-52. DeNisi, A. S. & Kluger, A. N. (2000). ―Feedback effectiveness: can 360-degreee appraisals be improved?‖ Academy of Management Executive, Vol.14, pp. 129–139. DeNisi, A. S. & Pritchard, R. D. (2006) Performance appraisal, performance management and improving individual performance- a motivational framework‖. Management and Organization Review, Vol. 2, No.2 pp. 253–277, Edward, R.G and Williams, C. J. (1998) ―Performance appraisal in academic libraries: minor th changes or major renovation?‖ Library Review, Vol. 47, No.1, pp. 14–19 Retrieved 20 September, 2012, from web site: http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/00242539810368982 Evans, E. G. (2005). ―Another look at performance appraisal in libraries‖. Accessed June 8, 2012 from web site: www.unesco.org/webworld/ramp/html? George, V. E. (1995), ―Performance appraisal in an academic library: a case study in total quality management in academic libraries: initial implementation efforts‖. In st Proceedings from the 1 International Conference on TQM and Academic Libraries. Washington, D. C.: Association of Research Libraries held April 20 -22, 1994 pp. 141 -156. Hansen E. (1995). ―Staff appraisal in university libraries: three case studies‖. Personnel Education and Training, Vol.11 Nos. 1/2, 1995, p.3-5. In Total quality management in st academic libraries: initial implementation efforts. Proceedings from the 1 International Conference on TQM and Academic Libraries held on April 20 -22, 1994. Washington, D. C.: Association of Research Libraries, pp 141 -156. Accessed June 8, 2012 from website www.aslib.co.uk/caa/abstracts/open/95-1002.html 151 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Horn, J. (1986). ―Peer review for librarians and its application in ARL libraries‖. In Lindsey, J.A. (Ed.), Performance Evaluation: A Management Basic for Librarians, Phoenix, AZ: Oryx, pp. 73-84. Jenkins, B.W. (1990), Performance appraisal in academic libraries. Chicago, IL: Association of College and Research Libraries. Jones, N. & Jordan, P. (1987). Staff management in library and information work. Gower: Aldershot, 400 p. Kaehr, R.E. (1990), ―Personnel appraisal, who needs it?‖ Journal of Academic Librarianship, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 35-6. Lansbury, R. (1988). ―Performance management: a process approach‖. Human Resource Management, Australia, pp. 46-55. McGregor, D. (1960), The human side of enterprise. New York: McGraw-Hill. 256 p. Middlesex Community College (2009), Principles of management. New York: McGraw- Hill, 739p. Onuoha, U. D. (2009) Perception of Performance Appraisal as a Tool for Enhanced Productivity and Career Advancement in Three University Libraries in Ogun State in Nigeria, Retrieved June 8, 2012 from the website: http://www.scribd.com/doc/17608244/perception-of- performance-appraisal-as-a-tool-for-enhanced-productivity-and-career-advancement-in- three-university-libraries-in-Ogun-State-Nigeria Painter, C.N. (1994). ―Ten steps for improved appraisals‖. Supervision, Vol. 55 No. 10, pp. 3-5 Payne, P., Conyers, A. (2005). ―Measuring the impact of higher education libraries: the LIRG/SCONUL impact implementation initiative‖. Library and Information Research, Vol. 29, No. 91. Accessed October 29,2007from: http://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/148/1/Payne1.pdf 152 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Pritchard, R.D., Jones, S. D. Roth, P. L., Stuebing, K. K. and Ekeberg, S. E. (1989). ―The evaluation of an integrated approach to measuring organizational productivity‖. Personnel Psychology, Vol. 42, No.1, pp. 69-115. Pritchard, S. M. (1996). ―Determining quality in academic libraries‖. Library Trends, Vol. 44, pp. 572–594. Powell, R. R. (1992). ―Impact assessment of university libraries: a consideration of issues and research methodologies‖. Library and Information Science Research, Vol.14, pp. 245– 257. Wikipedia (2010). What is performance appraisal? Retrieved June 8, 2012 from web site: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_appraisal Wolff, R. A. (1994). ―Rethinking library self-studies and accreditation visits‖. In E. D. Garten (Ed.), The Challenge and Practice of Academic Accreditation: A sourcebook for Library Administrators, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, pp. 125–138. 153 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 LIBRARY FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF THREE UNIVERSITY LIBRARIES IN GHANA By Yaw Christian Kofi cykofi@gmail.com University of Cape Coast Abstract The author investigates library financial management in three university libraries in Ghana. Recent developments show that university libraries are facing a dramatic changing environment. In an era of increased concern about accountability in higher education, it is critical for the university librarian to be able to demonstrate the library's value to the parent organization. The rising costs of information infrastructure as well as books and journals have necessitated the need for librarians to acquire the skills of financial management including budgeting. It provides an overview of library financial management, its relation to overall management and the role of financial accountability. Both financial management and managerial accountability are discussed. The concept of budgeting is also explored. The sources of revenue and expenditures in these libraries as well as revenue forecasting are discussed. Structured interview is used to collect data for the study. Three University Librarians are purposively sampled from the target group of six for the study. Based on the results of the study, the author, among others, makes a strong case for university libraries to have separate accounts so that they can operate realistic budgets. Keywords: Financial Management, Managerial Accountability, Financial Responsibility, Budgeting, Capital Improvement Planning, Revenue forecasting, University Libraries, Ghana 154 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Introduction Academic libraries are struggling to maintain their role and function while experiencing extreme financial pressures. There is a need to analyze and understand the costs of operation in libraries. There exists a paucity of detailed, analytical information that can guide this type of analytical effort. If libraries are to address these problems with the purpose of planning and implementing changes in library services to better fulfill the mission, librarians need to understand just what the current costs are. The Library is the heart of academic work in the university and must be well resourced in order to be able to support the core activities of teaching, learning and research. Recent developments show that university libraries are facing a dramatic changing environment. The rising costs of information infrastructure as well as books and journals have necessitated the need for librarians to acquire the skills of financial management. The leaders and managers of non-profit organizations including university librarians have to acquire basic skills in financial management and to expect others in the library to manage finances is clearly asking for trouble. Basic skills in financial management start in the critical areas of cash management and bookkeeping, which should be done according to certain financial controls to ensure integrity in the bookkeeping process. University librarians should soon go on to learn how to generate financial statements and analyze the statements to really understand the financial state of their libraries. Financial analysis shows the "reality" of the situation of a library and financial management is one of the most important practices in management. Financial management is defined as the planning, directing and monitoring of income and expenditure to achieve service goals. It also means the reporting and evaluation of the outcomes and results. There is a close relationship between financial management and overall management. This is so because in management, one is expected to plan, organize, staff and direct. The rest are to co-ordinate, report and budget. In non-profit organizations, the funds being spent are held in trust on behalf of the community being served. The funds are not the personal possession of the individual staff members. They have to account for how funds, are used to benefit the community. But in a profit-making organization, it is easy to hold management 155 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 accountable. The question is simply as: was profit made? In a non-profit making organization we ask: did they use the money to benefit the community in the best possible way? Financial accountability can be broken down into two components namely financial accountability and financial responsibility. Being able to account for the way the money is spent to donors, boards and committees members, and the people whom the money is meant to benefit is known as financial accountability. Financial responsibility on the other hand, means not undertaking obligations the organization cannot meet, paying staff and making other payments on time, keeping proper records of the money that comes into and goes out of the organization. In performing these management duties, it is important to observe professional standards and so the librarian must be disciplined and guard against his/her reputation. It is also important for librarians to be mindful of the legal issues of audits and laws which reflect what actually happens and how things are done. Above all, due diligence should be paid to ethical, personal and cultural issues as these border on corruption. These issues are very important because the librarian‘s financial and managerial performance have to be evaluated by the Internal Audit Division of the University. Statement of the Problem One of the elements in the hierarchy of library objectives is the prudent management of financial resources for user satisfaction. The overall responsibility of the library rests on the University Librarian and so to ensure financial prudence he/she must be conversant with budgeting and its processes. One great challenge in budgeting is the issue of disguised needs. Experience has shown that librarians are often accused of asking for much more than they actually need. They often base current budget justifications and projections on previous ones. For example, if a library spent about ¢200,000.00 last year on procuring equipment, that amount is deemed as the current year‘s floor, notwithstanding the fact that the same kind of equipment may not be required in the current year. Even though this approach is sometimes encouraged, this kind of incremental thinking can prompt automatic reductions in library budgets by those who hold the purse (Stueart & Moran, 1998). 156 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Shrinking monetary allocations have altered the economic picture for non-profit organizations in recent times. This has focused greater attention on library budget and the determination and justification of budget allocation has taken on new meaning and urgency. With time, as a result of greater financial constraints, librarians are finding themselves embroiled in budget review, analysis and presentation. With rising costs, librarians are compelled to prepare comprehensive reports on the library financial status in order that, effective allocation and accurate projections for future funding can be made. Financial challenges are exacerbated by inflation phenomenon, reduced budgets and information explosion; hence libraries are compelled to look for alternative sources of funding. To be able to do this successfully, libraries will have to assume a new political role with wide public relations gambit. Objectives of the Study The objectives of the study are to:  Give an overview of the role of university librarians in controlling financial resources,  Identify the main elements of financial management,  Examine the financial management of three public university libraries in Ghana,  Recommend the financial management policies and procedures required in university libraries. Significance of the Study The study will be of immense significance to researchers, policy makers and practitioners. The study fills a gap in the published literature on library financial management in Ghanaian university libraries. Indeed, until the time of writing this paper, the author has not cited any literature on the subject. Yet library financial management is a critical factor in the overall management of university libraries. Since the subject is a controversial one with a lot of vested interests, it is the hope of the author that the initial study will serve as a springboard for other researchers to conduct further and rigorous studies on the subject for the benefit of all. The study will also benefit policy makers because it will make available relevant data that would enhance policy guidelines when the subject comes under discussion. Of significant interest will be its 157 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 practical relevance to practising university librarians. They will recognize that it is part of their responsibility and therefore, acquaint themselves on the subject and not relinquish it to the domain of only accountants. Differences Between Accounting and Budgeting The terms accounting and budgeting overlap to some degree because they both usually deal with money. Accounting is accountability and is used to track spending and income. Budgeting is planning and it encompasses what you need to do (mission) what you hope to do (goal), measuring what has been done (objectives), how well it has been done and what will be done next. Since these terms are related, they are sometimes used interchangeably when referring to budgeting or planning, because accounting and budgeting are a subset of financial management and without accounting you cannot budget. Once you have done the accounting you can budget for spending and once you have budgeted, it means you have funds in a budget. In general terms, accounting is the process of tracking your finances. Finances are any monetary transaction; a sale, a purchase, a return or exchange. A budget is a guideline for money you expect to spend or receive as the result of a set of transactions in a given period of time. It can be defined as a financial plan drawn up for the purpose of managing financial resources properly. (http://www.investorwords.com/16516/line_item_budget.html#ixzz1uxhjNnyJ) The budget must cover all the expected expenditure in the form of capital costs and running costs. Capital costs include the cost of the actual building, equipment and furniture, cars etc. These are usually onetime costs. There should be budget for the replacement of items such as cars over a number of years. When working out a budget, there is the need to work out what new capital items to be purchased and which will continue to be paid off. Running costs include all the costs of keeping an organization running on a day to day basis. Examples include rent, electricity, stationery, maintenance, petrol and service costs for cars, etc. Salaries and allowances are part of running costs. Running costs are recurring expenses that recur every month or once a year, for example, television license and car license while fixed costs are items that have the same cost every month. They do not depend on how much work is performed and examples are: 158 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 rent of premises, insurance, salaries among others. Variable costs, on the other hand, change depending on the amount of work done, for example, electricity, stationery, etc. Types of Budgets The traditional budgeting discussed here includes Line-Item (incremental), Lump-Sum, Formula and Program. The other types are Performance, The Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) and Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBS) are budgeting approaches that look at programs, objectives and benchmark costs respectively. In fact, the merits of a different approach must first be considered before one decides to switch from one to the other. Line-Item Budgeting It is probably the most common type of budget that assigns expenditures for broad categories, such as salaries, material and supplies, capital expenditures, among others. There can also be further subdivisions within these categories. Its main advantage is that items within these categories are designated so that it becomes very difficult to shift them. It is sometimes called incremental budgeting because the objective is usually to add on to existing figures. Line-item budgeting requires no evaluation and no projection of future accomplishments. The advantages are that it is easy to prepare, understand and justify since it can be shown that the allocated funds were spent in the specified areas. The greatest disadvantage however, is that, there is almost no relationship between the budget request and the objectives of the institution. Lump-Sum Budgeting In this type of budgeting, a certain amount of money is allocated to the library so that it becomes the duty of the library management to decide how that sum of money can be broken down into the various categories. Indeed, the lump-sum budget does also not relate to the objectives for services and so librarians using this technique are compelled to develop programs within the allocated sum instead of vice versa. Since the lump sum method lacks specific ties to corporate goals and objectives, many librarians prefer other types of budgets. However, lump-sum budgets can be perceived as representing a high-level of flexibility and control within the library itself. 159 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Once the lump-sum is allocated to the library, management proceeds with lower-level allocations among library programs and services. Formula Budgeting As a result of the shortcomings of these earlier budgets, development of newer ones focused on output. Formula budgeting uses predetermined standards for allocation of monetary resources. According to Stueart and Moran (1998) large libraries especially academic librarians have adopted this approach because after the criteria for budget requests have been established, they can be applied across board to all units within the library. According to Allen (1972), the popularity of the formula budget is based on the fact that fewer budgeting and planning skills are required to prepare and administer it. Another advantage of formula budget is that it provides a systematic, objective allocation technique and connotes mathematical infallibility (Gary, 1984). A disadvantage of this budget approach is that it assumes a relationship between quantity being expressed and the quality of service. When a university library is funded through the formula budget, the budget allocation is typically tied to a numeric value such as full-time-equivalencies (FTEs), i.e., number of FTEs registered students multiplied by a fixed dollar amount yields the budget for the library (Warner, 1972). This method is fraught with weaknesses; primarily, the budget total is calculated at a late point in time and intrudes on advance planning – especially for purchases and staffing increases – within the library. Another weakness from the formula budget is the lack of identification with the parent organization‘s goals and objectives. Another weakness emanates from the unpredictable nature of the budget since the formula is based on variables outside the influence or control of the university library. Program Budgeting Program budget is a relatively new concept in budgeting for librarians. The process is concerned with the institution‘s activities, as opposed to individual items or expenditures which are the concern of the line-item and formula based approaches. Its approach states that it is possible to relate the programs to accomplishment of time/action objectives or activities that are stated in output terms in the strategic planning process. According to Association of College & Research 160 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Libraries and Research Libraries Task Force (2004) it is the most effective method of explaining needs to funding bodies. The focus here is on program inputs. By its nature, a program budget focuses on the services the library provides to its clients. Therefore, the program budget more readily relates to overall organizational goals and objectives. Its attractiveness is further enhanced by its usefulness when establishing priority for library programs relative to the parent organization. Performance (Function) Budgeting Performance budget bases expenditures on the performance activities and emphasizes efficiency of operations. It is also referred to as function budgeting because costs are presented in terms of work to be accomplished. A handy example is the processing of library materials that is from the submission of an order to the time that the items are put on the shelves. The various processes can also be analyzed. Performance budgets share characteristics with program budgets, but performance budgets focus primarily on what library staff members do or what functions they perform in the library‘s service complement. Tasks rather than programs are highlighted. Among the functions displayed within a performance budget are technical services (i.e., cataloging, materials processing); planning (budgeting, automation, employee selection, interviewing, development; patron contact (circulation desk, email & telephone contacts), with respect to average time and average cost per item. Here, the focus is on outputs. Warner (1972) identifies the performance budget‘s strength as providing an instrument for monitoring staff members and for developing unit costs. The primary disadvantage associated with performance budgets is the emphasis on quantity, not quality, of the activity being monitored. Planning Programming Budgeting System (PPBS) The PPBS combines program and performance budgeting and here the emphasis is on planning. It starts with the establishment of goals and objectives but the controlling part is measurement. 161 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 This approach compels one to view the budget as a tool to allocate resources rather than controlling operations. The essential steps are identifying objectives, presenting different ways to realize the objectives, activities required for each program and evaluating results for remedial action, if any. Zero-Based Budgeting (ZBB) It is used primarily in industry, government and also in different types of libraries. The conventional budgets use the previous year‘s budget as a baseline which is then adjusted to reflect current situation. But with ZBB, each item in the budget must be justified and placed in an order of importance. The ZBB approach is not a procedure but an approach that requires institutions to review and evaluate each of the service programs and activities on the basis of both output and cost. The essential steps required are identifying decision packages or units, ranking them and preparing operating budgets to reflect those units. A unit can be described along functional lines, that is, cataloguing and by smaller units in large libraries, that is, descriptive cataloguing. Zero-Based Budgeting shifts the emphasis from comparing present performance and/or programs to the past or to the current activity. Rather, Zero-Based Budgeting requires that a ―clean slate‖ be the starting point for budget development. Therefore, the emphasis is on what will happen in the future that corresponds to the goals and objectives of the parent organization. This ―from scratch‖ approach is viewed as an appropriate instrument to rank library programs by cost/importance to organizational goals and to identify and eliminate programs that provide minimal value-added. Advantages associated with Zero-Based Budgeting include its focus on identifying programs that will further the company‘s goals for the future and reliance on ―the way we‘ve always done things‖ violate the basic premise of ZBB. Most ZBB advocates maintain that the method promotes innovation, effectiveness and efficiency. The downside of ZBB relates to its time- consuming nature. Starting at ―zero‖ implies that all aspects of the library‘s operation will undergo examination and justification. 162 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The Capital Improvement Planning and Budget The Capital Improvement Plan (CIP) assesses the capital facility needs in an organization against its overall goals and objectives using a multi-year planning horizon; and then evaluates and prioritizes specific capital projects that are to be funded. In many jurisdictions, the CIP is a separate document from the operating budget. It contains projects for the construction of new facilities, as well as major rehabilitation or replacement of existing facilities. As noted previously, the CIP should be based on a capital needs study that identifies long term needs on a system by system basis, and a strategic plan for the organization which identifies timely capital investments based on fiscal realities and the vision embodied in the long-term comprehensive plan Methodology The design for the study was descriptive case study and this entailed the collection and presentation of data relating to the objectives. According to Gray (1992), descriptive research determines and reveals the way things are. The population is made up of six (6) public university libraries in Ghana. For purposes of this study, the author used the lottery method to select three (3) out of the six (6) libraries. The names of the libraries were written on a piece of paper folded and put in a container. The author picked the contents one after the other until the three libraries were selected. The small nature of the sample size and the long distance between libraries necessitated a structured interview to collect data from the respective university librarians who are responsible for financial management of their libraries. The questions were largely on the budget process that is preparation, implementation and evaluation as well as sources of income. A total of twenty -six items constituted the instrument. The presentation of results was in qualitative analysis and for the sake of anonymity, the three libraries were named A, B and C. 163 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Presentation of Results Financial Accountability and Responsibility In all three cases, the respondents stated that they are responsible for financial accountability in their libraries. It is only Library C that has its own separate accounts. When further asked if they preferred a consolidated or separate account, Library A and B replied in the negative with the simple reason that when they exhaust their accounts, they would not know where to turn to. Library C, however, responded in the affirmative with the argument that it will allow for better planning. The respondents were also unanimous that they budget for library items that are purchased. The author also found from them whether they are able to control what they are responsible for and in all three cases, their responses were in the affirmative. Type of Library Budget Prepared Information elicited from the respondents revealed that these libraries operate performance (function) budget. Budget Preparation The respondents stated that budget preparation is a joint effort of librarians, sectional heads and accountants. This is presented by the university librarians to the Finance Committee of the Council. Study results also indicated that both budgets of Library B and C are reviewed by the Finance Committee while that of Library A is reviewed by the University Librarian. Method of Presentation There were divergent responses on the method of presentation. Library C stated that both hard and soft copies are presented while Library B submitted that the presentation is done at a round table meeting with the Finance Committee. Yet Library A noted that presentation is by PowerPoint. Budget Implementation Responses from the libraries differ on budget implementation. In Library A, field results indicated that the Librarian and the sectional heads are responsible for budget implementation. In 164 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Library B, it was reported that the Finance Officer is, while in Library C, it is the Librarian because according to him since he is the spending officer, he is responsible for the implementation. Life Cycle of Library Budget On the life cycle of a typical library budget, Library A, B and C stated that it is one (1) year. Budget Indicator(s) When asked what these annual budget were meant to achieve, Library A and C noted that they were meant ensure both fiscal and performance management, while Library B indicated only fiscal prudence. Percentage of Total University Budget to the Library On their knowledge of the percentage of total university budget to the library, Library A and B responded in the affirmative while Library C indicated lack of knowledge. When questioned further about the exact percentage, Library A, indicated ten percent (10%) while Library B stated three percent (3%). Even though Library C indicated lack of knowledge, the Librarian reported that besides Library User Fees (LUF) which the students pay, the Library receives ten percent (10%) of the Academic Facility User Fees (AFUF). Capital Projects On capital projects that the libraries have undertaken within the past three years, Library A and B reported of extension to the original library buildings while in Library C, it is reported that a lot interior partitioning had been done. In all three cases, various library automation projects were also undertaken Sources of Revenue for the Library Library A and B indicated that their sources of revenue are the respective annual university budget allocations while Library C noted that students contributions (LUF) and AFUF account for its revenue. On other revenue sources that fund their libraries, all three cases reported about commercial activities such as payment for photocopies and fines, among others. Library B, 165 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 however, placed payment of Students‘ Library Fee under other sources of revenue. Library C also noted that proposal writing has also accounted for other sources of revenue that fund major projects. On knowledge about these sources, Library C stated that at the local level, it is through personal contacts, while foreign sources are normally advertised. On factors that affect these sources of revenue, Library B indicated competition with other departments of the university while Library C noted that it depended on the availability of funds. Library A did not indicate any factor(s). Evaluation of Financial Management Performance The author also asked to know who evaluates the financial management performance of university librarians and in all three cases; they reported that it is the Directorate of Internal Audit. On what happened when they were held culpable, again all three indicated that it had never occurred since there was always a pre-and–post audit conference. Recommendations The following recommendations are submitted based on the findings in the study. The Need for a Separate Account The study results revealed that only one university library has a separate account. It is therefore recommended that all university libraries should have separate accounts. Both the University Librarian and the Director of Finance should be signatories to the account. A separate account for the university library means that Librarians are able to control what they are responsible for. It also became evident from the study that opinions on what percentage of the total university budget goes to the libraries‘ votes are divergent. But with a separate account, one is able to tell about the percentage since a formula would be used to calculate the amount of money due the library. The lack of a separate account means that university management would be evasive anytime the following questions are posed  What is the total budget of the library?  What is the total budget of the organization?  What percent of the organization‘s total budget goes to the library? 166 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 In fact, the advantages of having a separate account far outweigh those of a consolidated one. A separate account means that monies allocated to the libraries are not easily diverted to other competing departments influenced by some other powerful personalities or by the whims and caprices of the Director of Finance. With a separate account, a Librarian knows what is coming into the account and can therefore budget properly. What is more, the Librarian can also decide to invest the money especially when he/she is contemplating embarking on a capital project. Experience has also demonstrated that proposal grants and contract funds paid into the consolidated accounts are not easily accessible. One has to go through a lot of frustrations in order to access such funds; it will be quite easier with a separate account. The Need to Acquire Budgeting Skills The study also established that university libraries prepare annual budget for programs and services to be undertaken and that the function budget type is usually adopted. While the author does not intend to suggest one particular type of budget for university libraries, it is important to go in for those that can measure return on investment. As a result of greater financial constraints, librarians are finding themselves embroiled in budget review, analysis and presentation and with rising costs, are being compelled to prepare comprehensive reports on the library‘s financial status in order that, effective allocation and accurate projections for future funding can made. The budget is an instrument that should be used to communicate at opportune times with upper levels of management and with the library staff. It is a cyclical activity and processes vary but ensure two critical issues of fiscal management and performance measurement. The university librarian should realize that the budget is an ongoing element of overall financial management responsibility. Since budgets represent a common feature of all functions within the parent organization and typically have high profile status, each university librarian prudently anticipates all aspects of budget development, presentation and analysis. Warner‘s (1992) advice to ―Own Your Numbers‖ means a librarian‘s thorough knowledge and understanding of the critical nature of the budget process. 167 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The Need to Explore Other Sources of Funding One of the findings of the study is that university libraries rely heavily on the traditional sources of income namely Academic Facility User Fees (AFUF) and Library User Fees (LUF), the other sources of income should also be fully exploited. These should include fundraising, grants and contracts. With fund raising, one can request funds for a proposed project to be undertaken and with contracts, a request for funds is made to do a project proposed by the funding organization. It is important to note that with grants and contracts the requirements of the funding agency must be taken into account if the grant or contract is to be awarded. This should take into account request for proposal (RFP), letter of transmittal, problem statement and program objectives. The others are program activities and personnel, timetable, evaluation plan and budget. The rest are ability to sustain the program and dissemination of results. It is also financially prudent to make some investments in endowments and gifts. Library Expenditures In all three cases, the study revealed that the respective expenditures cover both capital and running costs. It is therefore recommended that to further enhance control over library financial resources, the university librarian must be embedded in the planning and implementation process especially with capital projects. Evaluation of Budgeted Programs and Services The study again revealed that in all three cases, an audit exit conference is conducted to assess the performance and fiscal prudence of the budget and to advice on areas of improvement. Software Applications Many academic libraries now use computers in preparing budgets. There are several financial modeling, budget, financial planning and data manipulation software packages that are applicable to library budgeting. These are available for direct purchase or license. Budgeting makes use of software called an electronic spreadsheet including Lotus 1-2-3, Oracle, VisiCalc, SPSS for Windows among others. It is recommended that university libraries in Ghana 168 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 experience a demonstration of these budgeting software packages and eventually acquire them. It is, however, to be stressed that, thought and imagination are also required in budgeting. Revenue Forecasting It is also recommended that librarians endeavour to acquire the skills of revenue forecasting. Revenue forecasting is a procedure that allows public officials to estimate revenue mobilization or tax collections over a period of time. Revenue forecasting is important because it allows public officials to adjust an organization‘s annual budget based on fiscal income estimates and avoid large budget deficits. Revenue forecast is an estimate of expected revenues in a future period derived by applying rates either currently in effect or proposed (www.bpa.gov/corporate/pubs). Conclusion Library financial management should engage the attention of all university librarians. The need for university librarians to be financially literate has become very imperative. This calls for very sound knowledge in budgeting and budgeting preparation. The budgeting process is a continuous one that involves many persons at different levels in the library. It is, however, the University Librarian who has the ultimate responsibility for budget estimates for consideration by the parent institution. By studying the different types of budgets, a University Librarian would be able to learn about their strengths and weaknesses and therefore make a choice as to the one to adopt. It also requires knowledge of funding sources and how to secure them. The paper makes a strong case for separate accounts for university libraries in Ghana because that is the only way librarians will get to know how much funds they have and therefore prepare realistic budgets for their libraries. 169 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 References Allen, K. R. (1972) Current and emerging budget techniques in academic libraries, ED 071 726 Washington, DC: Office of Education, Department of Health, Education and Welfare. Vol. 18. Association of College & Research Libraries College and Research Libraries Task Force (2004). ―Standards for Libraries in Higher Education.‖ C&RL News 65: pp. 534–43. Budgets http://www.investorwords.com/16516/line_item_budget.html#ixzz1uxhjNnyJ (Accessed, April, 14, 2012). Gary, M. S. (1984) ―Allocation formulas for budgeting library materials: science or procedure? ― Collection management 6, no.3-4 (Fall-Winter), pp37-38. Gray, L. R. (1992). Research methods for business and management New York: Macmillan. Perfomance budget http://www.investopedia.com/terms/p/performance- budget.asp#ixzz1uxb1g8E8 (Accessed April, 23, 2012). Revenue Forecasting | eHow.com http://www.ehow.com/facts_6941692_revenue- forecasting_.html#ixzz20KTw2MLg (Accessed April 24, 2012). th Stueart, R. D. & Moran, B. B. (1998). Library and information centre management. 5 ed. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited, Inc. Warner, A. S. (1992). Owning your numbers: an introduction to budgeting for special libraries. Mitchigan: Special Libraries Association. 170 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 MANAGEMENT OF DIGITAL COLLECTIONS IN ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF THE UNIVERSITY OF MINES AND TECHNOLOGY, TARKWA AND THE UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST, CAPE COAST By *VICTORIA DODOO ** PETER ANAFO ***CHRISTOPHER KWAME FILSON *Librarian, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa **Assistant Librarian, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa *** Assistant Librarian, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, *vicdodoo@yahoo.com **peter.anafo@yahoo.com ***kwafils@gmail.com Abstract Digital collections always attract many readers due to their nature of mobility and dynamic features. The digital section of an academic library can remain in operation by ensuring that these information resources are managed effectively. Management of digital collections can be considered as all the efforts put in by a library, organisation or department to ensure sustainable availability and usage of digital resources. Recent advancements in technology require the keeping of information resources in all formats as well as the formulation of a written collection management policy which will serve as a reference point for staff involved in the management of digital collections in an academic library. The purpose of the study was to find out the extent of accessibility of digital collections as well as the skills of staff taking care of digital collections in two Ghanaian universities namely, University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa (UMaT) and University of Cape Coast (UCC). The population for the study consisted of the library staff of the digital section of these two universities. The managers of the digital collection were interviewed. Also, qualitative inferences were drawn from interviews held with the respondents. The study indicated that: TALIF was the main sponsor of the digital sections of the two libraries; both universities lack enough professional staff at the digital section; and frantic effort is needed to augment the managerial aspect of digital collections in the libraries. Based on the findings and conclusion, the paper recommends what should be done in order to bring about effective management of digital collections in academic libraries. 171 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Keywords: Academic libraries, collection development, digital collections, electronic resources management, research libraries, Introduction According to the American Library Association‘s Glossary of Library and Information Science (1983), ―management may be defined as the process of coordinating the total resources of an organization towards the accomplishment of the desired goals of an organization through the execution of a group of interrelated functions such as planning, organizing, staffing, directing and controlling‖. With this definition, one can consider management of digital collection as processes undertaken by digital managers to ensure sustainable, available and effective utilization of digital collections. Management of electronic resources really requires a great deal of management skills to reinforce and extend the goals and objectives of any institution. It is, therefore prudent for academic libraries, especially in developing countries to integrate digital collection programmes into the traditional collection development strategies. According to Kumar (2007), ―the principle of management is a powerful tool in the hand of an administration or a manager, but this must be used rather carefully after analysis of the problem and its diagnosis‖. He continued by stating that the environmental changes that are taking place are affecting management practices and a manager is expected to use new approaches, techniques and devices to address the problem, hence, the need for total quality management strategies. Advances and transformation in the information landscape as well as the emergence of digital collections in academic and research libraries call for effective ways of selecting, acquiring, processing, organizing and disseminating of the collections in order to ensure sustainable usage of these collections. Darkwa (2011), writing in the Ghanaian Times predicted that by 2020 ninety percent (90%) of everything we read would be in electronic form. He added that ―one prominent service of the Internet is the World Wide Web (WWW), which is a collection of interconnected documents connected by hyperlinks‖. This assertion buttresses the fact that the world is rapidly being transformed by the proliferation of information resources available through new distribution networks which is a challenge to libraries in general (Berry, 1996). 172 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Managers of digital collections in academic libraries, in particular, need to develop customer- oriented programmes that will entice the clientele to use the collections because it is the user who can weigh the value of the services provided by the academic library. Indeed, the growing supply of literature in electronic format, coupled with structural system of facilities, has brought about effective ways of searching for information. But in all cases, staffing, a good software and metadata, among other things, are required in accessing, storing, discovering, preserving and exchange of digital collections. Brief Profile of the Study Areas University of Cape Coast Digital Library The University of Cape Coast Library has been collecting books, journals and other materials since the establishment of the University in 1962. The main mission of the Library is to add value to the University‘s teaching, learning and research activities by providing access to information resources, and working in close partnership with the academic staff and students to produce the requisite human resources for national development (http://www.ucc.edu.gh/library/librarys.digital.initiative, 2012) In line with the University‘s mission, a proposal was submitted to Teaching and Learning Innovation Funds (TALIF) for the establishment of a digital library. The purpose of the initiative was to create an infrastructure (i.e. automated system, staff expertise and service facilities) with the aim to: Digitize the Masters and Doctorial theses as well as other grey literature and make them available to support research activities; reduce the complexity inherent in making digital research materials available; develop the University Library's digital collection and make it easily accessible to staff and students on campus as well as distant learners. The University library has been acquiring digital materials for quite some time now, and the Initiative is to integrate the digital resources into the library's collection (http://www.ucc.edu.gh/library/librarys.digital.initiative, 2012). University of Mines and Technology Digital Library 173 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The University of Mines and Technology Library‘s history is tied to the history of the University. It started as the Tarkwa Technical Institute Library in 1952. In 1961, it became known as Tarkwa School of Mines Library. The School was affiliated to the Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) as a Faculty of the University in 1976. In 2001, the Library became known as Western University College Library of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology. In November 2004, it became the main library of the University of Mines and Technology. Dedicated to excellence in education, the University is enriched with healthy stock of resources and initiated its automation process within a short period after commencement. The library has a scanner which digitizes theses, conference proceedings, abstracts of staff publications, lecture notes and other documents. Pages are also transformed into an Adobe portable which is uploaded into the Institutional Repository Project called UMaTSpace. It is still in its infant stage and would be launched very soon. The library subscribes to e-journals and databases and acts as intermediary and provides hyperlinks to the respective databases in the web server. The UMaT Library subscribes to e-journals from several publishers through the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Ghana (CARLIGH). The Library commenced its automation project in 2005 under the Teaching and Learning Innovation Funds (TALIF). Most of the Library‘s manual operations and services have been automated. Statement of Problem Management is noted to be the process by which knowledge, talent, skills and resources are allocated in order to achieve the set objectives of an institution. However, it can be noted that in library work, librarians are mainly trained in the core library work and little on the managerial aspect. This situation is detrimental to the management of library materials in general and digital collections in particular. It is for this reason that the researchers sought to find out the calibre of staff that manage the digital collections in UMaT, Tarkwa and UCC Libraries. 174 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Objectives 1) To find out the extent of availability of ICT facilities and digital resources of the two university libraries. 2) To explore the calibre of staff in the digital section in relation to how the digital collections are managed. 3) To make recommendations that will augment the status of the digital sections of academic libraries. Literature Review Digital collections Armstrong (2008) traces the evolution of digitization of books to those in archives such as the Gutenberg Text Archive – which were typed manually by volunteers. As technology has moved forward, this approach has almost completely been replaced by digitization or Optical Character Recognition (OCR) to produce a text that can be manipulated and read on screen. Horava (2010) also considers some of the major issues concerning management of digital collections in academic libraries. Some of the issues intended by the author include scholarly communication issues, acquisition activities, access and delivery issues and innovations. In the same vein, Glenn (2008) looks at the trend of collection management of digital journals in academic libraries. He explains how the research library transformed from journal content middleman into the role of publisher. Furthermore, he states that the transition to electronic delivery influences how academic libraries fulfill their mission of delivering scholarly resources and services to their constituting constituents.‖ The emergence of new media supersedes the well – established social network of print and publication (Varalakshmi, 2004). He also states that ―the digital electronic materials offer reduces production costs and more sophisticated method of use‖. In his view, the interest of the university libraries in India is to strike the balance between print and electronic resources. 175 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 The Digital Librarian Chowdhury and Chowdhury (2003) and Tanner (2001) suggest that in addition to the traditional role librarians are expected to play, they are also expected to acquire additional skills and competencies to enable them work in today‘s digital information world. Librarians are thus faced with the challenge of acquiring advanced knowledge and skills to augment what they traditionally learnt, and to do so while at the same time there is a shortage of experienced library staff (Tenant, 2002). Barton (2005) takes a look at the various changes taking place in the information landscape and its impact on librarians. He intimated that librarians in this technological era need to be well equipped to take up these new roles that are emerging, so that they can make significant contribution in their field. He mentioned that librarians need ―specific technical skills in areas such as database management, website design and digitization, as well as an understanding of how these skills should be applied to the best effect within the library service as a whole‖. Methodology The population of the study consisted of library staff of the digital sections of the University of Mines and Technology, Tarkwa and the University of Cape Coast. The managers of the digital collections were interviewed. The first part of the questions dealt with the general information about the digital centre. The second part exposed the nature of the information and communication technology facilities available in the two universities. Part three (3) elicited information on electronic resources and services provided. Part four (4) dealt with the mode of management and the calibre of staff in the digital sections. The last part of the questions sought to find out the achievements and challenges of the digital section. Analysis of Data This presents the analysis of data collected from interviews granted by the heads of the digital selections of UMaT, Tarkwa and UCC, Cape Coast libraries respectively. Aspects of digital collection under which data was collected include; the availability of ICT facilities, E-resources 176 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 and services provided by the digital section, management of digital resources and competence of staff in the digital section. The discussion of findings have also been included in this section Availability of Collection Development Policy This policy provides the guidelines for developing the collection of a library in terms of quality and quantity. All efforts aimed at acquiring and maintaining the right quality and quantity of materials for effective usage by clients are considered in this policy, notably printed materials and E-resources relevant to the vision of the institution. It was found out that both the UMaT and UCC libraries had collection development policies. The result of having their policy was that the E-resources available in the two libraries were relevant to the clients. Availability of ICT facilities For digital sections of university libraries to provide effective and efficient management of digital collections certain facilities must prevail. These include adequate hardware, software and connectivity. This is because usually large numbers of clients are involved in the use of ICT facilities. It was reported by both heads of digital collections from UMaT, Tarkwa and UCC, Cape Coast libraries that, their Internet connectivity used the VSAT and wireless connections and transmission of messages are satisfactory to a large extent. Mode of ICT support The location of ICT support for digital sections of libraries goes a long way to determine the efficient and sustainable use of digital resources namely, proximity of ICT support. UMaT library reported that it indulges in external ICT. This means they solicit support from the central ICT unit of the university. UCC library however, indicated that they rely on in- house ICT support staff as there is an established ICT section in the library manned by technical staff .This means that technical staff are more readily available to rectify problems than in UMaT. 177 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Barriers of ICT use Problems associated with the use of ICT facilities differ from institutions. This was clear in the responses of the respondents of the institution. While some identified problems were common to both libraries others were peculiar to UMAT library. Table 1 below shows the variation in problems facing the use of ICT facilities in both libraries. 178 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 1 ICT Problems BARRIERS UMAT UCC Strongly Agree Disagree agreee disagree agree Stron -gly agree Lack of ICT hardware and   software Inadequate hardware and   software Lack of budget for ICT   Low skill levels of library   users Lack of qualified ICT staff   Difficulty recruiting and retaining qualified staff Staff feeling reluctant to use   ICT Library lacks ICT strategy   Lack of management   commitment Difficulty in training library   staff 179 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Website Management It was made evidently clear that UMaT and UCC libraries have websites at which information about their respective libraries are posted and updated frequently. However, in terms of management of the websites UCC library manages its own websites without resorting to any external body. This is because UCC library has well established E-resources department located within the library. UMaT library however does not manage its own website. It therefore relies on the central ICT unit of the University for the management of its website although all inputs are made available by the library. The absence of an E-resources department manned by technical and competent staff suggests that technical staff are not readily available to rectify problems when they occur. These situations do not augur well for smooth and efficient use of E-resources of the UMaT library. Preservation of Digital Collections Preservation of digital collections involves all processes undertaken by digital libraries to ensure the longevity of digital materials. There are different methods of digital preservation and these include migration, emulation, technological preservation, replication and refreshing. As managers of digital collections, respondents were asked to indicate which method they used to preserve their e- resources. Both libraries indicated that they use migration method. Migration is the transferring of data to newer system environments (Garrett et al., 1996). This may include conversion of resources from one file format to another (e.g., conversion of Microsoft Word to Portable Document File (PDF). So the resource remains fully accessible and functional. E-Resources and services provided Availability of enough funds, to a large extent, determines the sustainability of acquisition of e- resources for libraries. It was reported by the two libraries that funding of e-resources was through yearly subscription to publishers, and funds were always made available for renewal of subscription. It was also reported that to make subscriptions cheaper, many academic libraries in Ghana including UMaT library and UCC library must belong to a consortium to share resources. 180 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 When the respondents were asked to give some of the e-resources provided for their users, they mentioned two services: web pages describing facilities and Online Public Access Catalogue (OPAC). In other words, the libraries have individual websites on which all information about the library is posted for access by clients, and also their collections are digitized into a database, and a client computer installed to access the database. The respondents were asked to point out the kind of e-services they provided to their clients. Their response is shown in the Table 2 below: 181 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 2: Electronic Services Provided for Users Kind of Services UMaT UCC Web-based current awareness   services Web access to in-house   developed library database/OPAC Subscriptions to web based   electronic resources, e-books, e- journals, databases etc Organised access to free subject-   based information gateways/portals on the Internet Access to donor sponsored   digital resources(please, specify) eg AGORA, PERI, HINARI In-house online tutorials on how   to use the information services From Table 2, it is evidently clear that both universities provide the same services. 182 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Staff Training To ensure efficient management of digital collections in a centre, the staff must be skillful and competent in relevant areas enough to deliver efficient managerial skills and services to clients. In this regard, the researchers sought to know if the respondents had training in managing digital collections. UCC library responded in the affirmative whereas UMaT library indicated that they had not received training in managing digital collection. This is because UMaT Library is young and does not have enough professional staff to manage the digital collection. The researchers also asked respondents how often training programmes were organized for them. UCC library respondent did indicate that, the frequency of training was very often. It was further indicated that the training mainly took the form of workshops, conferences and short term training. As already noted, digital collections must be handled or manned by qualified, competent and adequate staff so as to ensure its efficient usage. UCC library revealed that one (1) professional and seven (7) non-professional librarians totaling eight (8) handle the digital section of the library, all of them have their fields of speciality, while UMaT library indicated that the digital resources are handled by one (1) professional and one (1) non-professional librarian totaling two (2). It could therefore be inferred that, relatively, staff handling digital collection at UMaT library is inadequate. However, UMaT library is small when compared to UCC library with its vast resources and therefore might need more hands to manage their digital collections. Again, they all reported that all their staff were full time status members of staff, and that was commendable as staff would almost always be available to ensure efficient and continuous usage of the resources. Just as it was important to know the form of training given to respondents, it was equally important to know the kind of training the non-professional staff had undergone. Their responses are indicated in Table 3 below: 183 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 3: Training for non professional staff Type of Training UMaT UCC ICT related training   Specific software and   databases On the web design  Others  The provision of training fosters an increase in exploitation and management of resources. From Table 3 above, it is clearly observed that individual non-professional staffs of UCC undergo training in their various fields. In the case of UMaT, the only non-professional staff had training in two areas. On the part of professional staff they had undergone training in some areas in Library School as indicated in Table 4 below. 184 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 4. Training for professional staff Areas trained UMaT UCC Metadata   Database development and   DBMS User needs   Digital archiving and   preservation Collection development   Content management systems   It was found from the Table 4 above that, the professional staff of both libraries had had training in similar areas. Both heads declared that metadata are created for all theses and dissertations in order to enable students access the institutional repository effectively. User Education This refers to comprehensive training put in place to educate the users of electronic resources of the respective libraries. In this regard, the respondents were asked to indicate the nature of training offered to their respective users. Their responses are indicated in Table 5 below: 185 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 5: Training offered to users Nature of training UMaT UCC Through the teaching of  information literacy skills Online Search Skills  One-on-one training on   request Library Orientation   The results in Table 5 above show that the nature of training offered by UCC library to users on digital collections is through the teaching of information literacy skills, online search skills, one- on-one training on request and library orientation while in UMaT library it is one-on-one training and library orientation. Usually, the caliber of the trainer determines, to a large extent, the effectiveness of the training to the user. The two libraries indicated that professional librarians and para-professionals handle the training of the users. Achievement of the use of digital resources UCC and UMaT libraries have chalked some successes as far as the use of digital resources is concerned. Table 6 illustrates some of these successes. 186 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 6 Achievements of Provision of Digital Collections Achievements UMaT UCC Provision of e-resources   Raising Internet awareness   and training(teaching) users Library automation (begun)   Training of library staff in   internet and e-resources use (optional) Provision of OPAC and   library website Lobbying for computers and   Connectivity Despite the achievements in the use of digital resources, the system is also plagued with challenges and these are indicated in Table 7 below: 187 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Challenges in the use of digital resources Challenges UMaT UCC Lack of sufficient funds for   purchase and maintenance of hardware and e-resources Lack of retention of trained   library staff Low speed of internet   connectivity Low levels of ICT resource   use among users Frequent power cuts   Inadequate no. of professional   staff responsible for digital resources Inadequate hardware resources   Conclusion Management of any form of library collections entails the need for a lot of resources. The study therefore revealed some inadequacies of these resources and efforts being made by both libraries to make the digital sections more functional. Comparatively, the digital section of UCC library is well established than that of UMaT in terms of facilities and human resources. Hence management of digital collection is better carried out in UCC than UMaT. However, despite the variations, frantic effort is needed to augment the managerial aspect of digital collections in both libraries. 188 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Both libraries had embraced the concept of Open Access (OA) and Institutional Repository (IR). UCC Library has already gone online with its Dspace project while UMaT Library, on the other hand, has advanced in its upload of data into its Dspace project which is awaiting management approval. This is a remarkable achievement for academic libraries in Ghana to open up their research findings and other resources to the wider public. Recommendations Based on the findings above, the following recommendations are submitted: 1. The Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries of Ghana (CARLIGH) should play a major role in ensuring that all digital sections of member libraries are augmented to a reputable standard through training of staff. 3. Academic libraries should impress upon university administrators to sponsor digital library staff to pursue periodic refresher courses in digital library management while efforts are made to retain such staff. If possible, such staff should be bonded. 4. Digitization is one of the best ways to preserve, conserve and facilitate access to information hence academic librarians should allocate much of the library budgets towards the establishment of sound digital sections. 5. The researchers also suggest that Information Literacy skills be taught in all universities, just as it is done in the University of Cape Coast as this situation will entice students to patronize all kinds of library materials. 6. Digital library managers should ensure the integrity of the collection by creating appropriate metadata which will bring about long term management and easy access. 189 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 References ALA Glossary of Library and Information Science (1983). Edited by Heartsills Young et al Chicago: ALA. p. 1. Armstrong, C (2008): Books in a virtual World: the evolution of the e- book and lexicon. Journal of Librarianship and Information Science vol.40 issue 3 p. 197. Barton, J (2005). ―Digital Direction Digital librarians: boundary riders on the storm‖ Retrieved on 13th March, 2012 from http.//www.emeraidinsight.com/0024-2535 htm. Berry, J. W. (1996). ―Digital libraries: new initiatives with worldwide implications‖. Collection Building, 4, (15) 2 Chowdhury, G. G. & Chowdhury, S (2003). Introduction to Digital Libraries. London: Facet Publishing. Darkwa,O.K. (2011, April 4). ―The Internet, web browsers and the emergence of google web application‖. The Ghanaian Times p.8. Garrett, J. D. et al (1996). "Preserving digital information: Report of the task force on archiving of digital information" (PDF). Commission on Preservation and Access and the Research Libraries Group. Retrieved 2012- 06-27. Horava, T. (2010). ―Challenges and possibilities for collection Mmanagement in a Digital Age.‖ Library Resources & Technical Services 54 (3): 142-152. Kumar, K. (2007). Library management in electronic environment. NewDelhi Har-an and Pub.Ltd pp31, 74-80. McGuigan, G. (Fall 2008). Collection management of electronics journal in acadamic libraries: notes on embracing change in an unstable environment. Library and Information Research, Vol., 32 issue 102, p.1. 190 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Tanner, S. (2001). Librarians in the digital age: planning digitization projects. Program: electronic library and information systems, Vol. 35 Issue: 4, pp.327 – 337 Tennant, R. (2002, March 15). ―Digital libraries: the digital librarian shortage‖. Library Journal, incomplete! University of Cape Coast, Library http://www.ucc.edu.gh/library/mission statement (accessed on 28/03/2012) University of Cape Coast, Library http://www.ucc.edu.gh/library/librarys.digital.initiative (Accessed on 28/03/2012) Varalakshmi, R.S.R (2004). Collection management in digital environment: policy statement for university libraries in India. SPEL Journal of Information Management, Vol. 41 Issue 1 p.79. 191 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 REALITY VERSUS DESIRE: THE CASE OF GIJ LIBRARY USERS’ EXPECTATIONS By LYDIA NYANTAKYI-BAAH— ASSISTANT LIBRARIAN lnyantakyibaah@gij.edu.gh & ERNEST AFACHAO— SENIOR LIBRARY ASSISTANT eafachao333@yahoo.com GHANA INSTITUTE OF JOURNALISM Abstract The paper looks at users‘ expectations and their view of library services at the Ghana Institute of Journalism library. The study identifies the GIJ library users‘ expectations by adopting the LibQUAL model propositions to collect data from 20% of the Bachelors degree students. The objective of the paper is to find out how service delivery is currently experienced by users. The paper also offers the evidence to managers of the Institute the need to improve services to meet increasing demands of users‘ expectations. Findings indicate that the dimensions in which users expressed the highest expectations were ‗access to information‘ and ‗affect of services‘: materials that are relevant to their study at GIJ, easy access to electronic information, and staff who are courteous. Findings suggest that the library is well perceived regarding ‗staff services‘: staff who are willing to help users. However, it emerged that the library did not meet the users‘ expectations in some of the propositions in all the three dimensions. Recommendations are made to guide the library strategically and operationally to better meet users‘ expectations. 192 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Introduction To borrow the words of Thakuria (2007), ―libraries have transformed drastically from st storehouses of books and journals to power houses of knowledge‖. In this 21 century, library users too, having become increasingly tech-savvy, have also developed higher expectations for quality services. Users get satisfied when the library is able to rise to their expectations or meet their actual needs. Expectation for quality library services has become so important that, in some instances, it acts as a determinant factor in selecting tertiary institutions. Syed and Simmonds (1998) state that, ―It is quite likely that when selecting a college, some students are influenced particularly by the college‘s academic library and the quality of service the library provides‖. It presupposes that before our users start experiencing the library‘s services, they have their own perception of an acceptable level of service performance that they desire. Hence, the librarian and staff of an academic library need to better understand their users – both students and faculty, taking into consideration their unique characteristics, needs and expectations. Services can no longer be delivered according to what the library staff considers acceptable, but rather services must be geared towards satisfying the expectations of the users, because users are the ultimate judges of quality. Thakuria (2007) mentioned that ―quality service is said to be one which satisfies the users‘ expectations resulting in a good experience‖. However, in today‘s competitive environment, access to electronic information, multimedia products and growing expectation of users and demand for accountability, academic libraries face a difficult task in providing the most satisfying ways of delivering content and service to their patrons. To what extent should libraries recognize users‘ expectations? Is it possible for libraries to fulfill users‘ growing expectations? One way to address this challenge is to first, measure actual library service performance alongside users‘ expectations by adopting a more user-centered approach to improve services. Such an assessment would reveal the strengths and weaknesses of the library so that improvement could be made. According to Asemi, Kazempour and Rizi (2010), historically, the quality of an academic library has been described in terms of its collection, the size of holdings and various counts of its uses. However, it is important to note that measurement of libraries based solely on these input/output 193 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 measures have become obsolete. Librarians must now assess the effectiveness of their services with a new approach that takes into consideration users‘ needs, because the ultimate purpose of the library is to meet users‘ expectations. This paper therefore adopts the LibQUAL model — a user-centered approach to respond to the Ghana Institute of Journalism Library users‘ expectations and also to find out how service delivery is currently experienced by the users. The paper also aims to offer managers of the Institute the evidence for the need to improve library services and to foster a culture of excellence in providing library services. What is LibQUAL? LibQUAL is a web-administered library service quality assessment protocol developed by the Association of Research Libraries (Thompson, Cook & Kyrillidou, 2006). It is a library service measurement tool based on the SERVQUAL models. SERVQUAL is a multi-item scale developed to assess customers‘ perceptions and expectation of service quality (Badri, Abdulla & Al-Madani, 2005). LibQUAL uses 22 questions to measure library users‘ perceptions and expectations about library services under three dimensions:  affect of service  access to information  the library environment as a place of learning Library administrators have successfully used LibQUAL survey data to identify best practices, analyze deficits, and effectively allocate resources. Since LibQUAL was developed, it has been widely used all over the world including the United States, Canada, Australia, the United Kingdom and other European countries such as Switzerland, Germany and Denmark. It has also been used in the United Arab Emirates, Egypt and South Africa. Institutional data and reports generated from LibQUAL surveys enable administrators to assess whether library services are meeting users‘ expectations—and develop services that better meet those expectations. It gives the academic library users the chance to say where services need improvement, so the library can respond to and better manage users‘ expectations. (Association of Research Libraries-Statistics and Assessment Program, 2012). 194 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 User Expectations and Perceptions According to Hernon and Altman (as cited in Arshad & Ameen, 2011), ―Perceptions are the impressions formed when an individual encounters with the library‖. The users‘ perceptions on library services are subject to change depending on users encounter with library personnel, facilities and existing systems. There is a positive experience when services meet users‘ expectation and negative experience when services fall below expectation. A study conducted by Lilley and Usherwood (2000) cited in Halif & Rowley, (2011), revealed that perceptions are formed based on users‘ library experience in addition to internal and external factors ranging from family influence to the media. The Encarta World English Dictionary (1999) defines expectation as ―the mental image of something expected, often compared to the reality‖. Expectations are assumptions about the likelihood of something occurring and they reflect anticipated performance. Users‘ expectations are based on previous encounter with the library services and their personal needs. Users expect quality service provided in a friendly and courteous manner, staff who convey a high degree of trust and confidence based on knowledge and courtesy, demonstrated willingness to help customers and provide prompt service, giving an individual user the attention needed, the appearance of physical facilities that are conducive for learning, and good communication that exists between the service provider and users (Cooper, Dempsey, Menon & Millson-Martula, 1998). Since expectations are the standards against which a service provider's performance is judged (Arshad & Ameen, 2011), libraries must seek to offer services that meet the users‘ expectations. Though satisfying users‘ expectation is difficult or may not even be possible, today, libraries (especially academic libraries) have a keen interest in assessing their users‘ perceptions and expectations in order to better manage their services to measure up to users‘ expectations. Why User Focus in Academic Libraries? According to Carr (2006), until the 1980s, academic library users were not always at the centre of the practitioners‘ professional attention. Until then the emphasis was placed more on collection rather than services to users, on administrative procedures rather than on ease of use, 195 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 and on rules and regulations rather than what users want or expect. The librarian and his staff provide services that to their best ability meet users‘ needs without their involvement of the user. Gradually, things are changing. Calvert (2001) also confirms this by indicating that emphasis on customer care seen in the 1980s and 1990s has also affected university libraries around the world, and as a result, the need to understand what library users expect in terms of service quality is now necessary for good management. Now, strategic planning in academic libraries reflects a more user-focused approach, and the principal assumption behind this is to meet users‘ expectations. The forces that have made the academic library user a force to reckon with in the library services delivery include advancement in technology and competition among libraries (Carr, 2006). With the evolving technological innovations and variety and abundance of information that is becoming available to academic library users, their information-seeking behavior and their expectations have changed. Prakash (2011) states that ―technology has shifted the users‘ expectation from a mere ease of access to information to empowering users to become an integral part of a library design‖. Methodology The study used a structured questionnaire to collect data, specifically adopting 18 of the 22 LibQUAL propositions that suit the library. Though LibQUAL is administered electronically, the researchers printed the propositions and administered them manually. The 18 propositions fall under the following dimensions: 1. Affect of Service—questions that determine how well our staff serve patrons in terms of responsiveness, courtesy and knowledgeability. 2. Access to Information— questions that address accessibility to electronic and print materials and general collections. 3. Library as Place—questions that seek input about the conduciveness of the library for studying. 196 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 1: What Do the Questions Look Like? MINIMUM MAXIMUM PERCEPTION PROPOSITIONS EXPECTATION EXPECTATION LOW HIGH LOW HIGH LOW HIGH Affect of Services - Dimension 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Staff who give users individual attention Staff who are courteous Staff who are ready to respond to users‘ questions Staff who are knowledgeable to answer users‘ questions Staff who understand the needs of the users Staff who are willing to help users Staff who are dependable, e.g. in handling users‘ service problems Access to Information - Dimension Printed library materials I need for my studies (e.g. books) Adequate journals (electronic/print) Easy access to electronic information Materials that are relevant to my study at GIJ Easy access to materials in the library Electronic catalogue that lets me easily locate information on my own Computers that work well Enough time to use the computer Library as Place - Dimension Library space that inspires study and learning Quiet space for individual learning/studying A comfortable and inviting location 197 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 For each proposition, users indicated their minimum expectation of service level, maximum service level, and the perceived service level on a 1-7 point scale with 1 being the lowest and 7 being the highest. Two additional questions were added to enable them furnish the researchers with information that the model questions did not address. Proportional sampling was used to select a sample size of 82 from a population of 402. Twenty percent (20%) was selected from each year group. Table 2: Who Responded to the Questionnaire? Levels Total Sample Size 20% Respondents% Level 100 102 21 100% Level 200 44 9 100% Level 300 162 33 100% Level 400 94 19 100% TOTAL 402 82 Results of Analysis Biographic Information of Respondents More female students were sampled for the study, 60%, female and 40% male. Most of the respondents fell within the ages of 21-30 years. Out of the respondents surveyed, 52% pursued public relations and 48% read journalism program. Frequency of Library Use Many of the students (45%) used the library twice or more in a week and 25% used the library daily. Users‘ Expectations and Perceptions — Affect of Service (Reality versus Desire) There were 7 propositions under the Affect of Service dimension and for each proposition, respondents were to choose a number that reflects their minimum and maximum expectation and perception of staff services. It can be seen from Table 3 that the average of users‘ maximum expectation was 6.26. Interestingly, the average of their minimum expectation (4.46) was equal 198 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 to the average of their perception (4.46). In several propositions, the perception exceeded the minimum expectation: staff who are willing to help users, staff who are knowledgeable to answer users‘ questions, and staff who are ready to respond to users‘ questions. Table 3: Users’ Expectations and Perceptions – Affect of Service (Reality versus Desire) Affect of Service Minimum Maximum Perception Expectation Expectation Averages of Propositions 4.46 6.26 4.46 Propositions Staff who give users individual attention 4.40 6.30 4.43 Staff who are courteous 4.52 6.53 4.09 Staff who are ready to respond to users‘ questions 4.37 6.13 4.51 Staff who are knowledgeable to answer users‘ questions 4.49 6.10 4.68 Staff who understand the needs of the users 4.66 6.34 4.30 Staff who are willing to help users 4.65 6.19 4.78 Staff who are dependable, e.g. in handling users‘ 4.39 6.23 4.42 service problems Users‘ Expectation and Perception – Access to Information (Reality versus Desire) In Table 4 depicting the Access to Information dimension, the average of all the 8 propositions of users‘ minimum expectation was 4.37, and the average of their perception was 3.99. So the library could not meet users‘ minimum expectation. However, propositions like printed library materials I need for my studies (4.57) and easy access to materials in the library (4.56) exceeded the minimum expectation of users. The propositions that were most poorly perceived were adequate journals (electronic/print) (3.10) and enough time to use the computer (2.73). 199 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 4: Users’ Expectation and Perception -Access to Information Access to Information Minimum Maximum Perception Expectation Expectation Averages of Propositions 4.37 6.28 3.99 Propositions Printed library materials I need for my studies (e.g. 46.25 6.25 4.57 books) Adequate journals (electronic/print) 4.55 6.34 3.10 Easy access to electronic information 4.35 6.44 4.30 Materials that are relevant to my study at GIJ 4.41 6.61 4.46 Easy access to materials in the library 4.53 6.22 4.56 Electronic catalogue that lets me easily locate 4.26 6.05 4.23 information on my own Computers that work well 4.34 6.27 4.00 Enough time to use the computer 4.09 6.05 2.73 Users‘ Expectation and Perception – Library as Place (Reality versus Desire) Table 5 shows that in the Library as a Place dimension, the average of all the 3 propositions of users‘ minimum expectation was 4.42, and the average of their perception was 4.01. Overall, the library did not meet users‘ minimum expectation except the proposition Library space that inspires study and learning (4.63) where it barely exceeded the minimum expectation (4.62). 200 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Table 5 Users’ Expectation and Perception –Library as a Place Library as a Place Minimum Maximum Perception Expectation Expectation Averages of Propositions 4.42 6.13 4.01 Propositions Library space that inspires study and learning 4.62 6.20 4.63 Quiet space for individual learning/studying 4.26 6.05 3.95 A comfortable and inviting location 4.42 6.13 4.01 Averages of the Dimensions At the dimension level, ―access to information‖ registered the highest expectation (6.28), ―affect of service‖ and ―library as place‖ dimensions had mean of (6.26) and (6.13) respectively. On perception, ‗affect of service‘ dimension had the highest mean (4.46), followed by library as place dimension (4.0) and ―access to information dimension‖ (3.99), being the lowest mean. (See Figure 1). The poor perception for ―access to information dimension‖ is due to propositions 9 and 15— adequate journals (electronic/print) (3.10) and enough time to use the computer (2.73). (See Table 4). The reason could be that the library discontinued subscribing to the communication journals it used to and the inadequate number of computers for user population. 201 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Figure 1: Averages of the Dimensions What Do Users Desire Most? (Their Highest Expectations) The library is about service and it must be rendered to suit users‘ needs and expectations. From the survey, the areas that users desire most are: Materials that are relevant to their studies at GIJ (6.61) Staff who are courteous (6.53) Easy access to electronic information (6.44) Staff who understand the needs of users (6.34) Library space that inspires studying and learning (6.20) Figure 2: Graphic Representation of the Reality and the Desire of Users (All 18 Propositions) 202 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Service Place Access Key to Figure 2 Graphic Representation of the 18 Propositions 1 Staff who give individual attention to user 10 Easy access to electronic information 2 Staff who are courteous 11 Materials that are relevant to my study 3 Staff who are ready to respond to users‘ questions 12 Easy access to materials in the library 4 Staff who are knowledgeable 13 Electronic catalogue that lets me easily locate information on my own 5 Staff who understand the needs of the users 14 Computers that work well 6 Staff who are willing to help users 15 Enough time to use the computer 7 Staff who are dependable 16 Library space that inspires study and learning 8 Printed library materials I need for my studies 17 Quiet space for individual learning/studying 9 Adequate journals 18 A comfortable and inviting location 203 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 General Comments on Expectations In addition to the 18 propositions, users were asked to give comments on their expectation on all the three dimensions. On the whole, there were 74 responses. Paramount among the issues that emerged were:  Staff attitude - Users expect staff who are friendly and respectful.  Access to current book - Users wanted current books  Access to information - Though the library is small and materials are well organized, the study has helped reveal that many of our users do not know how to use the electronic catalogue to look for materials.  Library Expansion - Many users commented that the library needs to be expanded.  Computers and Internet connectivity - Users wanted more time on computers to browse, adequate number of computers, and effective and efficient Internet connectivity. What Are We Doing Well? The library seems to be doing well in some of the propositions as perception exceeded users‘ minimum expectation. 1. Staff who are willing to help users 2. Staff who are knowledgeable to answer users‘ questions 3. Library space that inspires study and learning 4. Printed library materials I need for my studies. What Areas Need Attention? 1. The survey has revealed that the library‘s performance was below users‘ minimum expectations in 9 of the 18 propositions. Though users appreciate staff who are willing to help, they disapprove of staff who are not courteous. 2. Many of the users were not happy with the inadequacy of library journals, both print and electronic. 3. Enough time to use library computers registered a very low mean of 2.73. 4. Many users did not find the library a quiet space for individual learning/ studying 204 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Recommendations Due to the advancement in technology, the academic user has become sophisticated, and his/her desire for quality service has increased. The level of service users‘ demand at times seems unrealistic, nevertheless we cannot fail to take our users‘ expectations into account. The following recommendations are proposed to improve GIJ library services. Library Staff The library is about service and staff must deliver it in a courteous manner to enable users express their desires all the time. The staff must be retrained in the areas of customer service, especially those at the circulation desk. Staff who find it difficult to change should be reassigned. Information Retrieval Skills The delivery of information literacy skills is important to users to equip them to develop information retrieval skills. Information retrieval will also reduce time used on the computer for other users to also have access. In addition to the orientation period, users should be taught again how to use the electronic catalogue to search for information on their own. Subscription to Journals Though journals are expensive, they are the source of current information which augment other resources. The Institute should renew the subscription to communication journals and also join the Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Ghana to gain access to a variety of journals that are affordable. Conclusion The study has illuminated the GIJ library users‘ expectations and revealed how service is currently experienced from users‘ point of view. Naturally, users mentioned the general constraints of the library such as inadequate space, limited number of computers and lack of subscription to communication journals. The findings suggest that the library is performing modestly despite the constraints. However, there is more room for improvement since users have very high expectations. Examining users‘ expectations vis-a-vis the service performance might not always lead to a very favorable response, but it is necessary to compare expectation with 205 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 actual library experience to discover any gap in service performance and strive to improve upon services of our users. References Arshad, A. & Ameen, K. (2011). ―Reality versus expectations: a survey of university of the Punjab‘s libraries using SERVQUAL‖. Library Philosophy and Practice. Retrieved from: http://unllib.unl.edu/LPP/arshad-ameen.pdf +TM Asemi, A., Kazempour, Z., & Rizi, (2010). ―Using LibQUAL to improve services to libraries: A report on academic libraries of Iran experience‖. The Electronic Library, 28(4), 568- 579. Retrieved April 12, 2012 from Emerald database. Doi: 10.1108/02640471011065382 Association of Research Libraries - Statistics and Assessment Program (2012). ―LibQUAL+® general information‖. Retrieved from http://www.libqual.org/about/about_lq/general_info Badri, M. A., Abdulla, M. & Al-Madani, A. (2005). ―Information technology center service quality‖. International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management, 22(8), 819-848. Retrieved from: www.emeraldinsight.com/journals.htm?issn=0265-671X...22 Calvert, P. J. (2001, April). ―International variations in measuring customer expectations‖. Library Trends, 49(4). Retrieved from: http://www.ideals.illinois.edu/handle/2142/8376 Carr, R. (2006). ―What users want: an academic ‗hybrid‘ library perspective‖. Ariadne, 44,1-2. Retrieved March 2012 from: www.ariadne.ac.uk/issue46/carr Cooper, R., Dempsey, P. R., Menon,V. & Millson-Martula, C.(1998). ―Remote library users needs and expectations‖. Library Trends. Retrieved from: findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1387/is_1.../ai_53523836 Hariff, S. & Rowley, J. (2011). ―Branding of UK public libraries‖. Library Management 32 (4/5) pp. 346-360. Available at www.emeraldinsight.com/0143-5124.htm Doi: 10.1108/01435121111132338 nd Prakash, B. P. (2011). Managing user expectations in the changing information landscape.2 International Conference of Asian Special Libraries, 12 Feb. 2011. Retrieved February 10, 2012 from:units.sal.org/chapter/cas/ICoASL%202011.pdf 206 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Rooney, K. (Ed.). (1999). Encarta World English Dictionary. London: Bloomsbury Publishing. Syed, S. A. & Simmonds P. L. (1998). ―Explaining user satisfaction with academic libraries: strategic implications‖. College and Research Libraries, 59, 156-167. Retrieved from:crl.acrl.org/content/59/2/156.full.pdf th Thakuria, P. K. (2007). ―Concept of quality in library services: an overview‖. 5 Convention PLANNER- 2007. Gauhati University, Guwahati, December 7-8. P.412-420 Retrieved from http://ir.inflibnet.ac.in/dxml/bitstream/handle/1994/1370/46.pdf?sequence=1 Thompson, B., Cook, C., & Kyrillidou, M. (2006). ―Stability of library service quality TM benchmarking norms across time and cohorts: A LibQUAL+ study‖. Paper presented at the Asia-Pacific Conference of Library and Information Education and Practice. Singapore. Retrieved from: http://www.coe.tamu.edu/-bthompson/zone.pdf 207 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 RAPPORTUERS’ REPORT Korklu A Laryea (Ms) & Mr. Christopher K Filson Library, University of Cape Coast 1.0 INTRODUCTION th The 8 Seminar of the Committee of University Librarians and Deputies (CULD) was held from July 12-13, 2012 at the Centre for Continuing Education Auditorium of the University of Cape st Coast. It had The Academic and Research Librarian in the 21 Century as its theme. A total of seventy-eight librarians from the country‘s tertiary institutions participated in the seminar. Eleven papers were presented in addition to the keynote address which was delivered by Prof. A A Alemna. The host librarian was Mr. Clement Entsua-Mensah, University Librarian at the University of Cape Coast. 2.0 OPENING CEREMONY 2.1 Welcome Address On behalf of the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Naana Jane Opoku-Agyemang, Prof. Lawrence Owusu- Ansah (Dean, School of Graduate Studies and Research, UCC) chaired the opening ceremony. He was introduced by Ms Paulina Kwafoa (the University Library, UCC) after Mr. George Banji (Sociology Dept. Library, UCC) had said the opening prayer. Prof. Owusu-Ansah welcomed participants to the Seminar and noted how privileged UCC was to host the Seminar for a second time, particularly because it was the University‘s golden jubilee year. UCC hosted CULD for the first time in 2000, which was the third in the series. Prof. Owusu-Ansah, noted that libraries are a critical part of any higher educational and research institution since they provide vital resources, facilities, and services to students and researchers, for the exploration of new ideas. He emphasized that knowledge-based organizations would continue to depend on efficient and effective information infrastructure, and that is where the relevance of the library comes in. In his opinion, how libraries are organized depends on the creativity and the leadership of the librarian. Librarians therefore need to facilitate access to the global knowledge base to support teaching, learning, research and development activities to generate knowledge. 208 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 He noted that with growing competition from the Internet, librarians must sit up and add value to the services they provide, to justify the investment made in them. The lack of quality assurance on the Internet, dwindling budgets and subventions in addition to new information formats like the social media, pose challenges to the management of knowledge, and librarians are required to find innovative ways of managing this growing knowledge and information for use by the communities they serve. He hoped that the Local Organizing Committee (LOC) would put at the disposal of participants, the modest facilities of the University to make their stay enjoyable. 2.2 Background to CULD Seminars and Introduction to the 8th Seminar Mr Entsua-Mensah in his speech traced the birth of the CULD Seminars to a meeting on 1st September, 1995. On that occasion, Alhaji I. K. Antwi, University Librarian, University for Development Studies (UDS)) mooted the idea of having periodic seminars and since then, seven such seminars had been organized. Below is a list of venues for the previous Seminars:  University for Development Studies, 1996 and 2010,  University of Education, Winneba, 1998 and 2008,  University of Cape Coast, 2000,  Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, 2002,  University of Ghana, Legon, 2004. He enumerated the following as the sub-themes for the 2012 Seminar: 1. Leadership and management: team building, mentoring and succession planning 2. Performance appraisal 3. Financial management 4. Human resource management 5. Project management 6. Managing web resources and diverse users 7. User expectations: the academic and research librarian in the 21st century. He hoped that colleagues would actively participate in the deliberations so that at the end of it all CULD would be in a position to make recommendations to Vice-Chancellors, Ghana. He thanked the 209 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Directorate of Public Relations of the University of Cape Coast and the media for publicizing the Seminar. 2.3 Keynote Address Prof. Anaba A. Alemna, a former Librarian of the Balme Library and lecturer at the Department of Information Studies, University of Ghana delivered the keynote address. He stated that many researchers and practitioners have claimed that academic libraries must make dramatic changes or risk being marginalized, especially in the last half of the twentieth century. This marginalization according to him, could be avoided if librarians would accept change; a change that comes not just from the potentiality of the new technology, but from the professional paralysis which has rendered libraries largely unusable. He suggested that academic librarians of the 21st century, must have the ability to embrace change because library clients are changing as are their demands. Librarians should be more proactive with the provision of their services and be more customer-oriented. These have to be managed with the image of the librarian as a professionally competent person. Prof. Alemna also reiterated the need for academic librarians of the 21st century to maintain a relationship with colleagues, faculty as well as students. This can be effectively done by being active in professional associations, meetings, conferences, and workshops. At the institutional level, the library-faculty relationship should be strengthened by introducing and teaching courses that empower staff and students to confidently work in the digital environment, write proposals and manage projects independent of donor assistance, as well as deliver seminars. In short, the academic librarian has to be abreast with the changing times and seasons to remain relevant and be at the centre of the knowledge world. The Guest Speaker was also of the view that, the emerging trend where librarians write project proposals and manage them is a challenge that must be handled well. These require effort and resources of people with different expertise in IT, finance and faculty members, tools, machines, time and equipment which should be juggled well to enable the librarian work effectively even in the absence of donor support and funds. Prof. Alemna‘s recommendations for the survival and relevance of academic libraries in the twenty- first century included the need for institutional repositories and that librarians should be more 210 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 involved in mainstream teaching and project management, information marketing, be savvy in the use of new media technology, and be more assertive. Above all, librarians should be professionally active in national and international associations while libraries would greatly benefit from the twinning concept. 2.4 Closing In his closing remarks, Prof. Owusu-Ansah highlighted the changes evident in the field of librarianship, clients and their needs, information, customer services and focus on the need for librarians to upgrade their skills in information technology, and be more visible in faculty settings and activities. Ms. Paulina Afful-Yeboah (UCC) gave the vote of thanks after the closing remarks had been made. Mr. Paul Nunekpeku (UCC) said the closing prayer. Participants then gathered for a group photograph. 3.0 PAPER PRESENTATIONS & DISCUSSIONS There were five sessions in all with eleven paper presentations for the two days. Three papers were presented in the first session which was chaired by Mrs. Victoria Doodo, University Librarian of the University of Mines and Technology (UMaT)). Mr. I K Antwi, University Librarian of the University for Development Studies (UDS)) chaired the second session in which three papers were also presented. The third session also saw the presentation of three papers, chaired by Prof. A. A. Alemna of the Department of Information Studies, University of Ghana while Mrs. Valentina A Bannerman, University Librarian of the University of Education, Winneba (UEW)) chaired the last session of two paper presentations. 3.1 Leadership & Succession Planning The first paper, Leadership and management: team building, mentoring. succession planning and conflict management, gave a broad view of the subject under leadership and human resource management for effective and efficient administration of libraries. Some participants saw the paper as too broad and lacked focus on a particular aspect of leadership. The author was urged to take a second look at the recruitment of staff into the library, his methodology for study and the abstract which differed from the content of the paper. A member suggested that a quota system be used by the Department. of Information Studies to train staff of the university libraries to meet the required 211 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 number of professional librarians needed in the country. A major contribution was made by Mr. I K Antwi, who catalogued the qualities of successful people. In his opinion, the following are characteristics of successful people – are mindful of their weaknesses and welcome those who complement them, find treasure in painful experiences, are accountable for their actions, create an environment that will nurture their passions to enable them achieve their goals. The second paper was on Leadership and management of libraries. Comments on this paper included that even though it had a good conceptual framework; it needed to be more objective since some personal issues seemed to have influenced the work. A contributor stated that concrete examples of activities should have been included to illustrate the use of team-building in libraries. 4.2 Mentoring On mentoring, it was observed that the concept of mentoring was not being pursued enough in the library profession. It was therefore suggested that this shortcoming could be addressed by the Ghana Library Association (GLA) by factoring it into its constitution so that young professionals get the proper understanding of the concept. Participants were also encouraged to engage in peer-mentoring in which those with similar interests could mentor each other. Example of peer-mentoring already exists in CULD and CARLIGH (Consortium of Academic and Research Libraries in Ghana) to some extent, but they do not explore the full potential of the different burgeoning interest areas in librarianship. 4.3 Performance/Staff Appraisal Three papers were presented on Performance appraisal. When a member wondered why senior staff had been singled out for appraisal, it was revealed that UCC (and indeed UDS) do not have appraisal systems for senior members while UG and UEW have hierarchical appraisal systems for all library staff. At UG, the University Librarian assesses all senior members while Heads of Units assess all other staff at the Unit. At Central University College, the practice is for officers at the Human Resource Department to communicate and discuss results of assessment by Heads of Department with the staff members. This helps to encourage staff to do better since they get to know the underlying reasons for their performance. Another member wondered which appraisal systems were used in Ghanaian university libraries. A recommendation for the second paper under performance appraisal was that it should have been a case study using a qualitative approach. 212 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Though these papers were insightful, a member noted that none of them mentioned goal setting even though it is an integral aspect of performance appraisal. An example of a goal will be to publish an article within a year. Mrs. Vivian Atta (GIMPA) offered to share the scheme (by e-mail) used at GIMPA with members. 4.4 Financial Management Only one paper was presented on financial management. The presenter was urged to make maximum time for presentation and not present the abstract which had already been made available to participants. The issue of not getting the cooperation of some university librarians was seen as a controversial one. On methodology, the presenter was encouraged to use interviews instead of structured questions to collect information. The need for libraries to have separate accounts was emphasized and extensively debated. While some were of the view that having a separate library account was beneficial to the library, others thought this had its adverse effects and challenges. At UDS for example, the Librarian was not a signatory to the account set aside for the library; but the Vice-Chancellor would approve of any expenditure before monies are released to the library. UEW for example, has operated with and without a separate account and found the latter option more favourable. A key reason given for having a separate bank account for the library was that donor funding for projects was easier to source and monitor. 4.5 User Expectation Three papers were also presented on user expectations. The first presenter was asked to re-examine her methodology and population size. Some participants shared their experiences on how staff and students got involved with the selection of titles and acquisition of books. These included the photocopying of course outline from students because the library does not have copies of such; requesting faculty to submit reading or wish lists and telling them when the books are purchased. On the use of the resources, some members noted that faculty should to be given feedback when titles were acquired. The second presenter was urged to use the SERVQUAL instrument used by the third presenter to measure the quality of service and for convenience instead of random sampling to select his population. Another suggestion was that he should have used objectives or research questions for his work and not both. He was also urged to use the graphs and tables as indicated in the abstract. The other presenters were urged to take cognizance of both diploma and degree-registered students and 213 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 include some background information on the library. Another suggestion was that the study be correlated to show the desired levels of expectation vis á vis that of reality and that the authors should think of recommending a computer laboratory for students to reduce the pressure on staff computers and a bigger library for the Institute. A central theme that ran throughout the papers for user expectation had to do with customer service in libraries which members discussed extensively. It appeared that this was an area that posed a challenge to librarians who are not naturally inclined to front desk manners. Suggestions to address this challenge, included the introduction of self-service, giving staff technical tasks with minimal customer interaction, retraining of staff to learn interactive and communication skills, the creation of an internal public relations desk, making library brochures and handbooks that spell out who, what, where and when of services rendered, providing signage and layout of the library. Of paramount importance too was the need for the librarian to be abreast with the literature in various subject areas so as to make meaningful contribution at faculty level and to procure the requisite titles. This process can be facilitated by asking faculty to provide their reading list and for students to suggest titles for purchase. Orientation for students should also be factored into the scheme of things for first year students. 4.6 Digital Resources The paper sought to find out the management of digital collections with emphasis on their accessibility and the skills of the staff in charge of digital collections in the two institutions. The paper revealed the challenges faced by staff in managing the digital collections and the efforts being made to revitalize the projects which had been spearheaded by Teaching and Learning Innovation Funds (TALIF). 5.0 OTHER ACTIVITIES A dinner dance was organized for participants on the first evening of the Seminar at the UCC Senior Staff Club House. Live band music was provided by the Esuapon Band, the resident band of the University of Cape Coast. This was well patronized and afforded participants to let their hair down. The planned tourist trip to the Kakum National Park was replaced by one to the Cape Coast Castle because of delayed lunch. 214 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 In conclusion, the Chair used the occasion to express gratitude to the LOC, Chairs of sessions, CCE for facilities and uninterrupted power supply, the drivers and the media. He noted that the LOC would evaluate the conference and pass on information to UMaT, the next host of CULD. He also thanked sponsors, especially members of the Library staff. Mrs. Theresa Adu (Wisconsin International University College) voluntarily gave the vote of thanks, singling out the individual staff members of the LOC who had provided sponsorship for commendation. Mr. Paul Nunekpeku said the closing prayer to end proceedings at 12.30pm. Mr. Kwame A Boohene, who was the MC throughout the Conference, also said the closing prayer on the second day of proceedings. 215 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 RESOLUTIONS The following resolutions were adopted:  It was suggested and adopted that papers be reviewed by others before they were presented at such meetings. Mrs. Bannerman shared that at UEW, papers (especially those for international conferences) are critiqued prior to presentation. Other institutions could consider adopting this approach. Members were urged to keep writing so as to improve on the quality of writing and research in academic libraries.  It was suggested and adopted that the name CULD is changed to CARL (Committee of Academic and Research Librarians) or CALD (Committee of Academic Librarians and Deputies) to reflect the composition of both academic and research librarians and not just university librarians. In response, the Chair said that the change of name had been discussed at the last meeting. CARLIGH as a consortium does not organise conferences and therefore it was more prudent for CULD to join hands with CARLIGH to organize such seminars.  The logo of CULD should be redesigned to reflect what librarians do which now transcends dealing with books.  A website for CULD: the Chair of the Committee suggested that it could be hosted by one of public universities or the GLA website.  Members were urged to organize regular in-house workshops and seminars on customer care to augment the image of the profession.  Librarians should apply proper performance appraisal policies to ensure discipline in the profession by adopting a uniform performance appraisal procedure in university libraries. 216 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 LIST OF PARTICIPANTS Surname First Institution E-mail Address Tel. Number Name(s) Anku Prosper OPRI, CSIR kofiyesu@yahoo.com 024 487 0118 Annan James Accra Polytechnic accrapolylibrary@yahoo.com 024 415 0330 Annan-Baidoo Emmanuel Takoradi Polytechnic emmlannanbaidoo@yahoo.com 026 173 0445 Antwi I. K. UDS ikantwi1993@yahoo.com Antwi Kodjo A.A. GIMPA kodjoantwi2004@yahoo.com Aryeetey Faustina Methodist Univ. ak6b@yahoo.co.uk 020 056 4687 College 024 420 3061 Asare Comfort Wisconson Int. Univ. comfortakwa@yahoo.com 026 790 4521 Coll. Ashaley Frederick Morning Star ashaleyfrederick@yahoo.com 026 547 1179 Asiamah Ofori KNUST asiamahof@yahoo.com 024 617 5846 Kwabena Attah Vivian H. GIMPA vhmattah@yahoo.com 024 432 4924 M. 028 508 9659 Awedoba Mary-Anne UGBS awedobamaryanne@yahoo.com 020 480 148 Awortwe- James CC Polytechnic jawoban@yahoo.com 033 213 5510 Abban Ayiah Efua Mansa UEW efua.ayiah@yahoo.com 020 755 6696 Baiden William UCC kbaidenus@yahoo.com 024 477 9986 Banji George UCC tbanjigeorge@yahoo.com 024 332 4528 Bannerman Valentina UEW valnin@yahoo.com Boateng Michael KNUST sakyiboat2@yahoo.com 020 814 3090 Boohene Kwame UCC kwameakonnoh@yahoo.com 024 473 6200 Buer Viscount B. UEW visbuer@gmail.com 202 816 0109 Chachu Nina Ashesi Univ. College nchachu@ashesi.edu.gh 024 477 8229 nina_chachu@yahoo.co, 030 261 0330 217 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Dadzie Perpetua S. UG pdadzie@ug.edu.gh 027 760 2325 Dodoo Victoria UMaT vicdodoo@yahoo.com 020 818 3167 Dogli Edmund GCB gcollectionsbooks@yahoo.com 024 465 5361 Dogoe Gloria CC Polytechnic glodogoe@yahoo.cpm 024 698 1610 Donkor Lawrencia CRI, CSIR lawdonkor@ymail.com 024 453 3482 Acheampong Dorvlo Selikem Accra Polytechnic sasebuava@yahoo.com 027 367 2089 Dukper Bawa Kojo Tamale Polytechnic kbdukper@yahoo.com 024 336 1867 Dzansi Sitsofe CHS, UGMS sitsodzansi@yahoo.com 020 812 5800 Entsua-Mensah Clement UCC paakwesi71@yahoo.co.uk 024 442 4962 Fiawotoafor Theophilus UEW fiawotheo@yahoo.com 024 355 7960 Fie Amanda Dominion Univ. manddy67@yahoo.com 027 745 3379 Delali Filson Christopher UCC kwafils@gmail.com 024 356 3981 Frimpong George UCC georgefrimpongmanso@yahoo.co 024 218 7326 m Gbordzoe- Margaret CUC jubeye@yahoo.com 024 317 1141 Atieku Enyo Haizel Rose UCC rejoicepep1962@yahoo.com 024 656 2028 Karikari Kwasi UCC peakok@gmail.com 024 467 6046 Opuni Kofi Christian Y. UCC cabodu14@yahoo.com 024 417 4930 Kumah Cynthia UEW cynkumah@yahoo.com 020 874 5307 Henewaa Kwafoa Paulina UCC kwafoa@yahoo.com 020 813 0897 Kwarteng Maude Garden City Univ. maudya@hotmail.com 024 347 7916 Amaning College Laryea Emmanuel Valley View Univ. O. Laryea Korklu A. UCC abayie.laryea@gmail.com 024 445 5056 218 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Letsu Robert M. Tamale Polytechnic robertletsu@yahoo.com 027 617 3372 K. Mensah Elijah A. IPS elimens@ymail.com 024 461 4483 Mensah Evelyn KNUST evemensah@cheerful.com 020 824 3999 Ekua Mensah Matthew OPRI, CSIR kofikade@yahoo.com 024 310 2108 Mensah-Brown Christabel RMU cmensahbrown@hotmail.com 030 271 2343 Mfum Christopher UEW Chrisoansah@gmail.com 054 662 7671 Mingle Jeffery Accra Polytechnic minglej2000@yahoo.com 020 676 8049 Mingle Naa Aku CSIR-BRRI beming45@yahoo.com 024 497 6605 Ntarmah Albert Takoradi Polytechnic aintarmah@yahoo.com 027 711 4223 Nunekpeku Paul UCC paulpeku@yahoo.com 024 499 3544 Nyantakyi- Lydia GIJ lydianyantakyibaah@yahoo.co 024 453 2142 Baah m Odoi Pearl UCC paodoi@yahoo.com 024 371 3391 Okai Rosemary IPS rosemaryokai@yahoo.com 020 811 0105 Omaboe Joseph UCC omashikpe@yahoo.com 020 812 4850 Omenyo Rosekel UG rromenyo@hotmail.com 024 438 6854 Opare-Ababio Mabel Methodist Univ. ma_babio@yahoo.com 024 462 9580 Asabea College 020 873 2092 Opare-Adzobu Julie UCC amaviopare@yahoo.com 024 338 4983 Osei- Doris UCC doridokuaa@gmail.com 024 689 9270 Agyemang Owusu Acheaw M. Koforidua Polytechnic Oamicky2004@yahoo.com 020 847 4482 Parbie Seth UCC parbieseth@yahoo.com 020 807 8836 Plockey Florence UDS fplockey@yahoo.com 024 214 1166 Pwadura Joana UDS jopwadura@yahoo.co.uk Senyah Yaw KNUST ysenyah@yahoo.com 020 822 5613 Sulemani Solomon CHS, UG sbayugo@yahoo.com 024 421 9514 Buyago 219 Proceedings of the 8th seminar of CULD 2012 Tetteh Evelyn Methodist Univ. eapronti@yahoo.com 024 498 7822 College Thompson Edwin UDS edstommy@yahoo.co.uk 024 448 2004 Yankah Edward CC Polytechnic eyankah@yahoo.co.uk 024 058 0491 Ebow Yebowaah Adjoa UDS ayeboaah@yahoo.co, 020 8159128 Franklina Yonye Cecilia GCB gcollectionsbooks@yahoo.com 024 421 6102 Zando Oscar UDS oskizando@yahoo.com 024 626 8764 220 View publication stats