University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA ASSESSING STAFF PROMOTION OF PUBLIC SECTOR EMPLOYEES IN GHANA: A CASE STUDY OF THE ACCRA METRO EDUCATION DIRECTORATE BY DANIEL KILONLEEB KOMBAT (10212787) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION DEGREE JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis is the result of my own research done under supervision and has not been submitted in part, or in full, to this institution, or any other institution for academic award. All citations and quotations have been duly acknowledged. I bear sole responsibility for any shortcomings. …………………………….… ……………………….… DANIEL KILONLEEB KOMBAT DATE (10212787) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CERTIFICATION I hereby certify that this thesis was supervised in accordance with procedures laid down by the University of Ghana. ………………………… ………………… RICHARDSON AZUNU (PHD) DATE (SUPERVISOR). ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the Mighty God for granting me good health and the capacity to successfully complete this study, to Richardson Azunu (PhD) for his maximum support and guidance to this write up, to my lovely wife, Mercy Fant, to my parents Mr. and Mrs. Gorrick Kombat and my Pastor Rev. Ben-Newlife Zotoo. God richly bless you. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The faithful and all mighty God in whom unfailing love abound, confounded my adversaries and provided me with the impregnable support to successfully complete this study. I will forever be indebted to Him. My unadulterated gratitude goes to my supervisor, Richardson Azunu (PhD), for his constructive criticisms and support to this study. May God replenish him and give him long life and good health. I am also grateful to all the faculty members of the Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management for their diverse support. I am again, obliged to Patrick Tandoh-Offin (PhD) of the Ghana Institute of Management and Public Administration (GIMPA), for his support. His contribution has been so helpful to this study. This work would not have being successful if not for the GNAT local executives, officers at the Accra Metro Education Directorate, and all teachers under the Accra Metro Education Directorate for agreeing to speak to me. God bless you. I am grateful to Dennis Oti-Awere, a colleague from the English Department for his kind support, God bless you. My thanks also go to Mr. Tachie Emmanuel for his immense support during data collection. I am also indebted to my family for their diverse inputs; my lovely wife, Mercy Fant, my parents Mr. and Mrs. Gorrick Kombat. My gratitude again goes to all my brothers and sisters who were there for me in my challenging moments; Christiana, Augustina, Nangyabit, Peter, Samuel, and Yoosah not forgetting George, Pastor James and Azumah. God bless you for your love and care. Finally, my thanks go to my colleagues Moses Atta, and the rest of the MPhil. Public Administration, class of 2017. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AD: Assistant Director ASTU: Assisted Schools Teachers Union CAGD: Controller and Accountant General’s Department DD: Deputy Director DG: Director General FGD: Focus Group Discussions FWSC: Fair Wages and Salaries Commission GES: Ghana Education Service GCTU: Gold Coast Teachers Union GIMPA: Ghana Institute of management and Public Administration GNAT: Ghana National Association of Teachers IPPD: Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database M.PHIL Master of Philosophy NBTA: National Best Teachers ‘Award PA: Performance Appraisal PMA: Performance Management and Appraisal PS: Principal Superintendent PSC: Public Services Commission SS: Senior Superintendent UNESCO: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION....................................................................................................................... i CERTIFICATION ................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION.........................................................................................................................iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................. v TABLE OF CONTENTS ....................................................................................................... vi LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................................ xi ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................ xii CHAPTER ONE ...................................................................................................................... 1 GENERAL INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 1 1.0 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................ 1 1.1 Research Background ....................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Research Problem ............................................................................................................. 5 1.3 Research Purpose ............................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Research Objectives ......................................................................................................... 7 1.4.1 General Objectives ........................................................................................................ 7 1.4.2 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................................ 7 1.5 Research Questions .......................................................................................................... 7 1.6 Significance of the Study ................................................................................................. 7 1.7 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................ 8 1.8 Organisation of the Study ................................................................................................. 8 CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................................... 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................... 9 2.0 Chapter Introduction ........................................................................................................ 9 2.1 Motivation Theories ......................................................................................................... 9 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.1.1 Equity Theory .............................................................................................................. 10 2.2 Empirical Review ........................................................................................................... 14 2.2.1 Promotion Processes and Procedures .......................................................................... 14 2.2.2 Teachers in the Colonial era and the early days of Independence .............................. 18 2.2.3 Teachers in the Post-Independence era and Fourth Republic ..................................... 21 2.2.4 Existing Promotion Structure of the G.E.S. to the post of Head of Basic School and Circuit Supervisor. ............................................................................................................... 23 2.3 Staff Promotion effects on Teacher Motivation ............................................................. 24 2.4 Determinants of Staff Promotion ................................................................................... 26 2.4.1 Seniority Based Staff Promotion ................................................................................. 27 2.4.2 Performance and Merit based staff promotion ............................................................ 28 2.4.3 A combination of Seniority and Merit based Staff Promotion Systems ..................... 30 2.4.4 Other Determinants of Staff Promotion ...................................................................... 31 2.5 Other Factors affecting Staff Promotion ........................................................................ 31 2.6 The effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers .................. 32 2.7 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 33 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................... 34 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ......................................................................................... 34 3.0 Chapter Introduction ...................................................................................................... 34 3.1 Research Paradigm ......................................................................................................... 34 3.2 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 35 3.3 Sources of Data .............................................................................................................. 37 3.3.1 Primary Sources of Data ............................................................................................. 37 3.3.2 Secondary Source of Data ........................................................................................... 37 3.4 Population of the Study .................................................................................................. 37 3.5 Sample Size .................................................................................................................... 38 3.6 Sampling and Sampling Techniques .............................................................................. 38 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Data Gathering Instruments ........................................................................................... 40 3.8 Data Gathering Procedure .............................................................................................. 42 3.9 Data Management .......................................................................................................... 43 3.10 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 43 3.11 Ethical Considerations.................................................................................................. 44 3.12 Chapter Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 45 CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................................. 46 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS ....................................................................... 46 4.0 Chapter Introduction ...................................................................................................... 46 4.1 Analysis of the Demographic Data of Respondents....................................................... 46 4.1.1 Gender of Respondents ............................................................................................... 47 4.1.2 Age and Ranks of Respondents ................................................................................... 48 4.2 Analysis of the Main Data .............................................................................................. 49 4.2.1 Processes of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service (GES) ....................... 49 4.2.2 Stages of Staff Promotion ........................................................................................... 50 4.2.3 Critiquing the Application Processes .......................................................................... 56 4.2.4 Promotion Interviews .................................................................................................. 62 4.2.5 Salary Upgrading......................................................................................................... 67 4.3 Determinants of Staff Promotion in GES ....................................................................... 69 4.3.1 Educational Level ........................................................................................................ 70 4.3.2 Length of Time Served by a Teacher .......................................................................... 74 4.3.3 Performance and Output of Teachers .......................................................................... 77 4.3.4 Exceptional Factors ..................................................................................................... 80 4.4 The Influence of Staff Promotion on Motivation and Performance ............................... 81 4.5 Retention and Attrition of Teachers ............................................................................... 83 4.6 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 84 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................... 86 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............ 86 5.0 Chapter Introduction ...................................................................................................... 86 5.1 Summary of Major Findings of the Study ...................................................................... 86 5.1.1 The Processes of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service. .......................... 86 5.1.2 The Determinants of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service. .................... 89 5.1.3 The Effects of Staff Promotion on Teacher Motivation. ............................................. 90 5.1.4 The Effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers............... 91 5.2 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 92 5.3 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 93 5.4 Limitations of the Study ................................................................................................. 95 5.5 Contributions of the Study to Theory ............................................................................. 95 5.6 Areas for Further Research ............................................................................................ 95 5.7 Chapter Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 96 REFERENCES ....................................................................................................................... 97 OTHER REFERENCES ..................................................................................................... 106 APPENDICES ...................................................................................................................... 107 APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE .............................................................................. 107 APPENDIX B: TABLES AND RESOURCES ................................................................. 112 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1. Teacher’s grade and salaries from 1953 to 1969. All figures are in cedis. ............. 20 Table 3.1 The Okaikoi Sub-Metropolitan Assembly: Circuits and number of Schools .......... 39 Table 4.1: Age and Ranks of Teachers .................................................................................... 66 Table 4.2: Educational Qualifications and Entry points .......................................................... 71 Table 4.3: Teachers’ Current Ranks and the Certificate that qualify them to their New Ranks. .................................................................................................................................................. 72 Table 4.4: Number of years served by teachers to move them from their current Rank to the next Rank. ................................................................................................................................ 75 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Ranks of Teachers after the first reforms ................................................................ 2 Figure 1.2: Ranks of Teachers after the second reforms ........................................................... 3 Figure 2.1 Equity theory Scale................................................................................................. 11 Figure 4.1: Gender of respondents (teachers) .......................................................................... 47 Figure 4.2: Ranks of Teachers and their Age Range ............................................................... 48 Figure 4.3 Major Phases of GES Staff Promotion. .................................................................. 49 Figure 4.4: Summary of GES Organizational Structure .......................................................... 50 Figure 4.5: Determinants of Promotion ................................................................................... 70 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT As part of its conditions of services the Ghana Education Service (GES) offers career advancement opportunities to its staff to progress from one rank to another. The practice of promoting teachers has been bedeviled with some challenges which have caused a lot of discomfort in the teaching fraternity within the GES. Hence, this study assesses the Staff Promotion of Teachers in the Accra Metro Education Directorate, using the interpretative paradigm to analyse qualitative data, collected from fifty two (52) respondents, of which were thirty four (34) teachers using Focus Group Discussions (FGD), and twelve (12) GES Officials, two (2) GNAT Executives and four (4) former teachers using interviews. The theory which underpinned the study is Adams’ Equity Theory of Motivation. The theory suggests that employees seek to exert a balance between their inputs and outcomes, and if the two are perceived to be equal, the propensity for employee motivation and retention is high and vice versa. The Study found that, the promotion process in the GES is cumbersome due to undue bureaucracy and the teachers’ inability to understand the New Performance Management and Appraisal form, coupled with unethical conduct of promotion interview panelists. Generally, this situation has caused many teachers to stop applying for promotion and rather take advantage of further studies (study leave) to quit the GES. It was discovered that the bases of GES promotion to the senior ranks is bias towards age rather than merit because, majority of teachers within the senior ranks are in a certain age bracket, while the educational qualifications of teachers at the basic level are considered for promotion up to the rank of Principal Superintendent. Meanwhile the GES does not practically stick to the stipulated number of years for promotion. In the same vein, teachers’ salary arrears are not paid to them after promotion. Finally, it was established that promotion in the GES did not have any influence on motivation and performance. Key Words: Staff Promotion, Motivation, Performance Management, Teachers’ Retention. xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE GENERAL INTRODUCTION 1.0 Chapter Introduction This study uses the qualitative approach to assess and analyse the staff promotion processes and practices of the Ghana Education Service (GES). The outline of this chapter is ordered beginning with the background of the study, followed by the problem statement, objectives of the study, the significance, the scope and the outline of the chapters. 1.1 Research Background Education started in Ghana (Gold Coast) with the monitorial system under the Castle Schools with the School Master as the Head of the school. The School Masters were assisted by monitors appointed from the top of the school to help them to manage the schools (Hillard, 1957). When the monitorial system was abolished and additional schools were built to serve communities, staff strength of teachers in the various schools increased, compelling the hierarchical structure of teachers to metamorphose from the Monitor - School Master hierarchy, into five levels. Figure 1.1 below is an illustration of the career ladder after the reforms. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 1.1: Ranks of Teachers after the first reforms Source: (Bediako 1970) The end of the 1950s saw a quantum leap in the number of Teacher Training Colleges which awarded teachers’ certificate ‘A’ and certificate ‘B’ to trained teachers in the country form four (4) to nineteen (19). Certificate ‘A’ was the highest qualification whilst certificate ‘B’ was the lowest in value. These two qualifications opened a new chapter for the ranking of teachers, with the Director of Education on top of the hierarchy with Pupil’s Teacher (PT) at the bottom (Bediako 1970). Figure 1.2 below depicts this hierarchical structure. 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 1.2: Ranks of Teachers after the second reforms Source: (Bediako 1970) After independence, Ghana used the hierarchical structure of educational staff from one structure to another until the current system called, the Ghana Education Service (GES). The GES was established as a department under Ministry of Education by ACT 506 (Act, 1995) as amended by ACT 778 (Act, 2008) to address issues that border on education in Ghana. The mandate of the GES is to formulate policies that will enhance the growth and development of education in Ghana. The GES has an organizational structure which is very complex. It involves both teaching and management/administrative staff. Given its mandate, GES provides career advancement opportunities to teachers as a means of motivation. Career advancement in the GES is understood as promotion and upgrading (Adam, Boakye, Ashie, Bawah, & Pobbi, 2016). Staff Promotion has been defined by several scholars in both academia and the corporate world. Some of these definitions are highlighted to help come out with a conceptual definition of staff promotion for the purpose of this study. According to Adam et al, (2016: 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 279) Staff Promotion means “advancement within an organization where workers can be trained and educated to occupy higher positions characterized by additional responsibilities and salary increases through the creation of a new position or the filling of a vacant position”. Staff promotion is also viewed as a policy in an organisation that seeks to move workers from one rank to the next higher rank with an appreciable salary, additional responsibilities, and power (Hamidi, Najafi, Vatankhah, Mahmoudvand, Behzadpur, & Najafi, 2010). Promotion is also regarded as the movement of a worker to a position that offers good returns including status and attractive privileges. (Najafi, Hamidi, Vatankhah, & Purnajaf, 2010). Okpara (2006), established that the majority of events that workers label as a “promotion”, do not involve any change in position or duties, hence, he sees staff promotion as simply an up- gradation of the current position or rank of an employee. For the purpose of this study, staff promotion is defined as the process by which organizations create career advancement opportunities for employees to progress along the career ladder in terms of rank, position/authority and pay, which comes with higher responsibilities as a result of education, training, experience and performance on the job. As a public institution defined by Article 295 of the 1992 Republican Constitution of Ghana, GES has the mandate to train, place, promote and upgrade all its employees both at the basic and secondary levels. The Ghana Education Service employs over 260,000 teachers country wide. The scheme of service of the Ghana Education Service (Job/career progression) in ascending order commences from Pupil’s Teacher, Superintendent, Senior Superintendent, Principal Superintendent, Assistant Director, Deputy Director, Director, Deputy Director General and Director General at the apex (Avudoahor, 2013). 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Research Problem The expectation of employees in every establishment is to be promoted, to receive wage increase and to advance on the career ladder. Workers do apply for promotion and salary upgrading when they are due as a result of additional education and training, serving for a period of time on the job, and the performance of the employee (Adam et al., 2016). Teachers and educational workers in the public sector apply for promotion to enable them rise to the next rank on the scheme of service (Avudoahor, 2013). Though teachers have a wide range of opportunities on the scheme of service to progress through the ranks, the ambitions of teachers to apply for promotion appear to ebb after a few attempts due to delays in the processing of applications for staff promotion and salary upgrading and the time they spend on one rank before moving to the next (GNAT and TEWU, 2009; Jude, 2011). Also, concerns have been raised about the distribution of the age bracket of staff within the ranks of Assistant Director (AD) and Director (D), since thousands of candidates for promotion to the rank of Assistant Director and beyond are being turned down each promotion year. As a result, teachers are in a state of dilemma with regards to the basis of their promotions. That is, whether they are promoted by age, seniority, merit or a combination of the three (Jude, 2011). Lemons and Jones (2001), averred that processes and procedures leading to staff promotion should be handled with tact to ensure that employees are treated fairly and equitably. They added that in most cases the processes are bedeviled with unethical practices which create flaws in the procedures leading to promotion. The situation can even degenerate if the performance appraisal system in use is ineffective, or complicated. This explains the ineptitude of the public service to measure and manage the performance of employees to aid effective staff promotion, whilst rather, becoming only interested in performance appraisals during promotion related interviews (Bawole, Hossain, Domfeh, Bukari, and Sanyare, 2013). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Among the recommendations made by Kadingdi (2004), for further research and analyses to improve on teachers’ motivation, morale and retention, staff promotion and career prospects were not left out since these have become major concerns for teachers in recent times. It has become necessary for employees to strive for promotion because when employees agitate for salary increment and fail, they resort to vying for promotion to increase their salaries, since most promotions go in tandem with increased remuneration (Cole, 1971; Ouchi, 1981). Because job satisfaction and motivation are perceived differently by different employees, Buchanan et al., (2013) acknowledged that one of the conditions that is dear to the hearts of teachers and gives them a source of joy is their working conditions relating to Staff Promotions. Farid (2011), thinks that priority is not given to teachers’ salaries and promotion. He intimated that the salary and promotion of teachers should be commensurate with performance and qualification. This practice will boost teachers’ motivational level and economic conditions. Improved economic condition of teachers is an indication of improved retention of teachers (Farid, 2011). It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to assess staff promotion processes and practices of the Ghana Education Service (GES) within the Accra Metro Education Directorate. 1.3 Research Purpose The purpose of this study is to examine the challenges facing staff promotion processes in the Ghana Education Service, and to suggest measures to improve on the staff promotion practices. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Objectives 1.4.1 General Objectives The main objective of the study is to assess the staff promotion policy and practices of the Ghana Education Service. 1.4.2 Specific Objectives The specific objectives of the study are to: 1. Evaluate the processes of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service. 2. Evaluate the determinants of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service. 3. Evaluate the effects of staff promotion on teacher motivation in the Ghana Education Service. 4. Evaluate the effects of staff promotion on the retention and attrition of teachers in the Ghana Education Service. 1.5 Research Questions 1. What are the processes of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service? 2. What are the determinants of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service? 3. What are the effects of staff promotion on teacher motivation in Ghana Education Service? 4. What effects does staff promotion have on the retention and attrition of teachers in the Ghana Education Service? 1.6 Significance of the Study The study provides additional literature on staff promotion in education to fill the gap that exist in the literature by assessing the staff promotion processes of the Ghana Education Service in the Accra Metro Education Directorate. This study also examines issues on staff 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh promotion in the Ghana Education Service and also how to guarantee that promotion is done fairly and equitably. Additionally, the findings of the study will be beneficial to policy makers on how to ensure job satisfaction, motivation and the optimum performance of teachers. It further provides additional literature on performance management and appraisal, which is useful to managing the performance of teachers. 1.7 Scope of the Study This study was conducted within the Accra Metropolitan Assembly in the Greater Accra region of Ghana. The study focuses on staff promotion of teachers in the Ghana Education Service which is intended to boost their (teachers) motivational level. Data was collected from teachers in the Okaikoi Sub-Metro, the management and administrative staff of the Accra Metro Education Directorate, Local executive of the Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT). Teachers who have exited the GES also took part in the study. 1.8 Organisation of the Study This study has been put in five chapters. Chapter one discusses the introduction to the study. The Second Chapter analysed literature on issues related to staff promotion. This focuses on the theoretical and empirical literature review. Chapter three concentrates on the methodology used for the study. This is followed by Chapter Four which discusses and analyses the data collected for the study. Chapter Five focuses on the main findings, followed by recommendations and conclusions of the study. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Chapter Introduction This chapter focuses on the theoretical and empirical review of the relevant literature on the subject involving the positions of various authorities relating to staff promotion issues in both public and private sector organisations. The study assessed the processes involved in determining staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service, with the specific case of the Accra Metro Education Directorate. The first section reviews the literature on motivational theories on staff promotion. The second section analyses empirical literature on staff promotion processes, policies and various factors that determine or drive employee promotion. 2.1 Motivation Theories There are two main classes of Motivation Theories; content theories and process theories. The content theories show why employees should be motivated irrespective of their jobs, (Maslow, 1954; Alderfer, 1972; McClelland, 1965; Herzberg, 2005; and Hackman and Oldham, 1976). While the process theories outline how employees are motivated (Adams, 1963; Locke, 1968; and Skinner, 2014). For the purpose of this study Adams Equity Theory (1963) was used as the framework to analyse and put the study into perspective. The equity theory was used for the study because justice and fairness in dealing with employees is a practice that reinforces motivation, and commitment whilst increasing the performance of employees. Motivation is most important because it spurs employees to work in a way that determines their work performance and brings out the best in them in relation to their functions in an 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh establishment (Viorel, Aurel,Virgil and Stefania, 2009). According to Adair (2006) the main reasons employees are able to achieve an objective or a goal may hinge on one of many factors such as promotion and career advancement. Promotion in an establishment centers on at least one or all of these reasons for which workers act to accomplish a task in their line of duties (Adair, 2006). The Promotion of employees on the career ladder should not be discounted because, it is the sources of employees’ morale and job satisfaction (Lam, Zhang, and Baum, 2001). Studying the theory of procedural justice in promotion decisions, Wan, Sulaiman, and Omar (2012), identified three most important reasons for staff promotion decisions; motivational consideration, efficiency consideration and the business climate consideration. The motivational consideration looks at the factors espoused by Adair (2006) to enable the management of institutions to create an enabling environment for employees to meet their targets. The efficiency considerations moves a step ahead of the targets and performance of employees to examine the quantum of resources utlised by them to achieve their targets. The business climate consideration seeks to scan the external environment to appreciate the promotion policies of other institutions to inform better staff promotion policies and practices that will boost employees’ morale for competitive advantage. Staff promotion in human resource management practices is undisputedly, an indispensable practice used to motivate employees whose main aim in the organisation is to develop their career goals and rise to the top of the career ladder (Hölzle, 2010). 2.1.1 Equity Theory The Equity Theory of Motivation was developed by Stacy Adams in 1965 to assert that employees the world over seeks to maintain a balance between their inputs and outputs or outcome they expect from their employers (Adams, 1965). This comparison is not limited to 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh personal inputs and outcomes but employees also seeks to juxtapose both their inputs and outputs/outcomes to their colleagues in the same establishment or another (Adams, 1965). According to Gill and stone (2010), Equity Theory serves as a measure for fairness and injustice at the work place and the labour industry. Figure 2.1 below is an illustration of the summary of Adams Equity Theory at a glance. Figure 2.1 Equity Theory scale INPUTS OUTPUTS Source: Adams Equity Theory (1965). The balance suggests that when workers perceive that their inputs are not commensurate with outputs/outcomes and the outcome is in favour of the employer, it affects employees’ motivation level. Hence, they begin to make adjustments to maintain the balance by randomly reducing any of the inputs to restore the balance. According to Carrell and Dittrich (1978), there are three assumptions that hinge on equity. Employees expect fair returns to what they contribute to their jobs; employees try to maintain a balance between inputs and outputs when they feel there is inequity by lowering their inputs 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh or quitting the job. They develop a sense of what they deserve after they have done their own comparison with their colleagues. The third assumption suggest that inequity in an organisation is a major fuel to dissatisfaction subsequent to demotivation. Motivation is an essential tool to enhance the performance of employees in an establishment (Muogbo, 2013). According to Muogbo, extrinsic motivation administered to workers fairly has a significant influence on their performance, an element that equity theory espouses. Employers are advised to develop policies that will help to reward the system fairly by investing in employees in terms of salaries, promotion, training, and opportunities for further education to attract better and career oriented employees (Deci and Ryan, 2012). In their study to find out the performance of subject teachers who receive individual incentives Deci and Ryan (2012), discovered that those who received rewards performed better than the controlled group. Yerie (2016), added that measures should be put in place to restructure the unfair and inadequate reward regimes in organisations to ensure equity. Managing people at work is an integral part of the strategic management agenda. Strategic management put the employee at the pivot of the organisation. Therefore, managing them demands tact and diplomacy to ensure job satisfaction (Armstrong, and Taylor, 2014). Satisfaction is an attitude that is characterized by happiness, pleasure and excitement (Locke, 1976; Spector, 1997). But it is very important to note that satisfaction does not necessarily translate to motivation and performance because, employees’ excitement about a situation on the job does not mean that it will make them work hard (Kian, Yusoff and Raja, 2014). As mentioned earlier by Muogbo (2013), most employees are motivated to perform when they are fairly rewarded financially or given rewards that suggest financial connotation. The input level of employees in an organisation might vary according to the effort expended by them. This explains why their inputs are examined and rewarded accordingly. The efforts of the employees are recognised and fairly rewarded by the hierarchy system, created in the 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisation to highlight the best performing employees as they are able to fulfil the requirements for gaining the reward (Munk and Linneberg, 2011). Those that are not rewarded will however be motivated to perform better the next time to fulfil the requirements for gaining the reward. According to Lawler and Porter (1968), satisfaction is determined by the difference between real rewards and the rewards that are perceived by employees. Individuals compare their rewards with rewards of colleagues in the same establishment. When there is a balance, workers will be satisfied but if they do not find the rewards sufficient, disaffection occurs. Equity theory seeks to maintain a balance between employees’ inputs and outputs or outcomes expected from their employers in an organization. It is in consonance with this that Gill and Stone (2010), asserted that employers should reward workers according to the amount of efforts expended by them in their line of duties which is reflected in the hierarchical structure of the organisation. Employees hold dear certain elements that provide them with satisfaction in the organisation (Kian, Yusoff and Raja, 2014) and these elements must be perceived to be fairly Distributed among employees (Lemons and Jones, 2001). This stems from the fact that policies on promotion and salaries may be viewed by employees as good, but if they are not equitably distributed. They may leave workers very dissatisfied (Zainalipou, Fini, and Mirkamali, 2010). According to them, all the necessary steps to pay, promotion, supervision and other variables to be enjoyed by teachers, should be in consonance with procedural and distributive justice in order to arrive at job satisfaction, this is how equity is ensured. Others have also submitted that pay and promotion are essential inducements to job satisfaction within the labour force due to their economic benefits to the employee. Hence, much as managers want to be fair and apply equity in administering pay and promotion, they should do it bearing in mind the cultural setting in which the organisation is located (Bolino 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Turnley, 2008). This means that the application of equity theory cannot be rigidly applied across the globe. Some scholars have criticised the equity theory with regards to its assumptions and its practical application to real situations. For example the theory looks very simple to apply to all situations. Peoples’ perception of equity are affected by several factors, such as their geographical, demographic and psychological factors among others (Bolino and Turnley (2008). Much has also being said about the limited construct of equity theory giving the setting in which it was conducted (Huseman, Hatfield & Miles, 1987). For this reason Carrell and Dittrich (1978) averred that promotion and pay may be fair but the procedural justice to assessing them may be compromised due to the beliefs and value system of the people, that is, cultural settings might differ in their perception of equity. 2.2 Empirical Review 2.2.1 Promotion Processes and Procedures Strategic human resource managers have over the years recognised the importance of justice fairness and organizational effectiveness with regard to pay, promotion, and welfare of employees (Bagdadli, Roberson, and Paoletti, 2006). Bagdadli, Roberson, and Paoletti, 2006), discussed equity in two ways. They were, distributive and procedural justice in promotion decisions. That is, what promotion and salary does one want to award to an employee (distributive justice), and how does one want to reward them (procedural justice). Therefore the kind of promotion to reward, and the procedure following the award of such promotion, should be treated without prejudice in order to gain full trust and loyalty of organisational members, an indication of motivation, commitment and job satisfaction (Kaplan, and Ferris, 2001) 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Employees who have worked in an organization for several years before others perceive the promotion processes and procedures as unfair if their counterparts who joined in the latter part are considered for promotion before them (Ferris, Berkson and Harris, 2002). The older employees may not just perceive the processes as unfair, but also the perception that they have rich experience on the job and more qualified than their current staff. On the other hand, Organizations that base promotion decisions on performance may be considered by employees as fair, than promotion that is based on persons-based reward system; systems that use powerful form of personal judgment rather than performance (Kaplan, and Ferris, 2001). Obscurity of processes and procedures of staff promotion are to a major extent disfunctional to the organization as supposed to procedures that are open and transparent to employees (Cropanzano and Wright, 2003). Teachers wonder if what goes into promotion really reflects what is on paper, since meeting all the requirements for promotion is not a guarantee for promotion (Adam et al., 2016). Employees might be turned down for promotion but will not be too much worried about management’s decision for turning them down because they have been part of the processes and procedures for which they have been turned down. In the words of Ball and Goodson, (2002), teachers are more generally satisfied with the outcome of staff promotion when they are given a voice in the decision making processes. To put it in another way, when procedural justice and fairness in staff promotion decisions exist, employees are likely to experience satisfaction in promotion decisions (McEnrue, 1989). Additionally, Lemons and Jones (2001), averring in their work, “procedural justice and promotion decisions” that fairness of the systems used in staff promotion decisions, may be an important determinant of employee satisfaction, motivation and commitment. Lemons and Jones (2001), concluded that one way an organisation may increase the perception of fairness, justice and impartiality in the promotion processes is to give opportunity to 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisational members to make an input into the processes (rules) which are used to promote them (employees). One way of doing this is via the performance appraisal system. During performance appraisals, employees are given the opportunity to appraise their peers since they are close to themselves they are in a good posture to give a fair and balanced accounts of themselves than their superiors who are a bit remote from them (Bernardin and Wiatrowski, 2013). But this form of employee involvement can breed contempt which can prejudice the promotion processes. In other words some may exaggerate the competencies and the achievements of their peers or give a bleak account of colleagues due to unresolved differences and friction between employees (Bernardin and Wiatrowski, 2013). Many researchers advocate that to ensure fairness in staff promotions, different styles of performance appraisal should be used. For example self-appraisal, peer appraisal and supervisor’s appraisal (Harris and Schaubroeck, 1988). Supervisors and managers have the responsibility to impartially monitor and track all the elements that go into promotions, for example staff attitudes, skills and knowledge on the job, focusing on both task performance and contextual performance (Kuo and Chen, 2008). However, Ball and Goodson (2002), stated that one style self-appraisal system is used to evaluate teachers’ performance annually. Processes and procedures for staff promotion may differ based on the institution in question, for instance the Local Government Service may differ from the Ghana Education Service but both use the same template for appraisal designed by the Public Services Commission (Adam et al., 2016). Task performances of employees may differ but it still holds that organisations almost look for the same elements like knowledge, skill, and attitude of employees on the job which culminates in their performance before considering them for promotions. Ultimately, it is incumbent on the management of organisations as part of their transparency measures, to 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh furnish every staff in the establishment with its promotion policies, spelling out all the necessary requirements one can meet to be considered for promotion (Momani, 2007). Performance Appraisal System that experts of human resource management purpose as a means of involving employees in an aspect of the promotion processes for the purpose of transparency and fair practices are seldom adhered to by the public sector in Ghana. This means that Ghana public sector’s attention is only drawn to performance appraisals when employees are due for promotion (Bawole et al., 2013). Aside the abysmal use of the performance appraisal system in the Ghana’s public sector, testimonies of teachers in the GES lends credence to the fact that there are numerous delays in the promotion processes. According to Adam et al., (2016) beginning from the time of application for promotion, promotion interviews, and putting teachers on the right salary scales to commensurate with their ranks, takes too much time to complete. Meanwhile one of the essentials of the motivation of teachers is staff promotion and one would have thought that the processes leading to promotion and upgrading of teachers would not be too cumbersome. But this is not so (Cobbold, 2006). On the same issue, a survey conducted on corruption in social services provision including education reveal that obstacles of this kind can result in corrupt practices in the recruitment and staff promotion exercises leading to the employment of substandard teachers in the classrooms (Poisson, 2010). One could also add that bribery and pay offs may not be the only clandestine practices in the staff promotion processes in the educational sector, but also nepotism, favoritism and cronyism exist. According to Chapman (2002), corrupt practices that go on in staff promotion “break the rules” or operate “within the rules”. What this implies is that, illegal payments can be made to some officials to ignore laid down rules due to unnecessary bureaucracy. From the evidence 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the literature. What this means is that a lot of the corrupt practices are encouraged by unnecessary bureaucracy and ambiguous rules (Poisson, 2010). In any case Tuwei et al., (2013) held the view that these illegal practices leading to promotion can be reduced when there is transparency and effective accountability. 2.2.2 Teachers in the Colonial era and the early days of Independence During the colonial era, the castle school system was prevalent in Ghana (Gold Coast), and was popularly known as the monitorial system of Joseph Lancaster and Andrews Bill (Hilliard, 1957). One master or trained teacher was put in charge of a school and a number of monitors were appointed from among the top teachers in the school to serve as aid to the master/trained teacher of the school. The method of teaching and learning under this system was basically mechanical (rote learning). But later, the system was abolished by Britain and Canada. Similarly, efforts were also made in Ghana (Gold Coast) to train professional teachers to manage the castle schools and the new schools established by the governor to serve the communities (Hilliard, 1957). In addition to the already existing teacher training college at Bla, The first and second theological seminaries were established at Akropong and Abetifi respectively in 1863These were the institutions which trained teachers for the various early schools in the Gold Coast (Ghana) until 1909, when the colonial government saw the need to supplement teacher training provided by the missions by establishing a teacher training college in Accra as a Center for training all teachers in the colony both with the government or with the mission schools. The duration was two years and candidates had to perform well in the final examination to determine the type of certificate awarded to them (Bediako, 1970). Three kinds of certificates were awarded, depending on the level of performance of the candidate; these were first, second and third class certificates in descending order of magnitude which in 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh turn determined their initial rank and salaries. With this, teachers would be graded based on an upgradating of their educational level. Bediako (1970), illustrates this in descending order:  Director of Education (highest rank)  First Class Teacher (high rank)  Second Class Teacher (middle rank)  Third Class Teacher (lower rank)  Pupil’s Teacher (untrained teacher) The motivation from the colonial government enabled the other missions to establish additional teacher training institutions, but the turnaround was when the 1937 Education Committee Report was implemented. This Report recommended four year certificate A., and two year certificate B., colleges. By the end of 1950 nineteen (19) colleges had been established. Eight of them were certificate ‘A’ awarding whilst eleven were certificate ‘B’ awarding. These two types of certificates determined the ranks of teachers with the highest rank being the Director of Education.  Director of Education  Principal Teacher  Senior Teacher  Certificate A., Teacher  Certificate B., Teacher  Pupil’s Teacher Teachers in this hierarchical set up were promoted, based on seniority and educational up- gradation. Also in this system, teachers were sometimes paid based on their performance. The education supervisors would come round intermittently to conduct tests with pupils. Their output consequently determined the performance of the teacher, and the percentage of the 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh salary to be awarded, or deducted. Table 2.1 shows the teachers’ grade and salaries from 1953 to 1969. Table 2.1. Teacher’s grade and salaries from 1953 to 1969. All figures are in cedis. Grade Initial Initial Initial maximum 1958 1961 1969 (Ȼ) (Ȼ) (Ȼ) (Ȼ) Principal Teacher ─ 1400 2040 2388 Senior Teacher ─ 1000 1380 2388 Certificate A Trained Teacher 300 500 612 1092 Certificate B Trained Teacher 220 400 480 900 Pupil Teacher 168 288 359 434 Source: Bediako (1970). There were no significant changes in the ranks and grades of teachers after Independence. Some avenues for promotion were Senior Teacher, Principal Teacher, Senior subject Master and Vice-Principal, the last two ranks were in secondary schools and training colleges. But there was a significant improvement in infrastructure, such as the number of training colleges and basic schools across the country (Bediako, 1970). There was also an increment in salaries as evident in Table 2.1. This was as a result of the recommendations made at the UNESCO Intergovernmental Conference on the state of the teacher, held in Paris, which advised that teachers’ salaries should reflect their ranks, importance of teaching function as well as the responsibilities of all kinds which fall upon them from their entry to their exit of the service. According to Bame (2011), Teacher association were also very instrumental in championing the cause of teachers with respect to such issues as career advancement (promotion), salary, 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and welfare, and the general conditions of service of teachers. The establishment of teacher association was necessary because the economic depression of 1931 had pressured the government to delay staff promotion, and reduce salaries of workers, including teachers. Because of the reduction of the salaries of teachers, they recongnised the need to have a solid front that could speak for them in times of distress, hence, the first teacher association called “Assisted Schools Teachers Union (ASTU)”, which was subsequently changed to “Gold Coast Teachers Union (GCTU)”, with Mr. J. T. M Yankah as their first President (Bediako,1970). This union was able to negotiate with the government to make an upward adjustment of teachers’ salaries. 2.2.3 Teachers in the Post-Independence era and Fourth Republic The demise of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah in 1966, as a result of coup d’état, ushered in the second Republic, with Dr. Abrefa Busia as the leader of government business. Unfortunately, he was toppled by another coup, to later usher in the Third Republic and Dr. Hila Liman as the president. The military again ousted Liman and brought in the Fourth Republic in 1993 with Jerry John Rawlings as president (Gocking, 2005). Given the unstable nature of the country after the First Republic, no meaningful policy on education concerning teachers could be sustained. Policies on education began picking up during the Fourth Republic from 1993 but was predicated upon various education review committees’ recommendations to address the existing challenges. Significant among them was the Dzobo Committee Report (1973), which set the pace for thinking about Ghana’s educational system. As a result, the Junior High School (JHS) formerly Junior Secondary School (JSS), became operational in 1987 following the Dzobo Committee Report popularly known as 6,3,3,4 system (Kadingdi, 2006). This new reforms replaced the old system which seldom performed due to lack of teacher motivation. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ghana Education Service is under the Ministry of Education and was established by ACT 506 (Act, 1995), as amended by ACT 778 (Act, 2008). Its mandate is to make policies that will bring about development in Ghana. Given the GES’s mandate, part of its remit is to create opportunities for teachers to advance in their career through promotions, upgrading, education and salary adjustments. The career ladder in the GES begins with Superintendent II up to the Director General at the top. All things being equal, recruitment into the service starts with admitting candidates into the Colleges of Education, formerly three year post- secondary and, ‘A’ 4, Year teachers’ training college. Successful candidates were posted to the various schools. The initial rank of the newly trained teacher was Senior Superintendent II, subject to a one year period of confirmation as a teacher. With the one year probationary period inclusive, all newly trained teachers serve four years and qualify by application to the next rank (if the teacher is in the town/city) and two years (if the teacher’s post is in the deprived area). The process continuous to the last level of the ladder. Another category of teachers are the ones produced by the universities (Bachelor’s degree holders), with a commencement rank of principal superintendent and who qualifies to the next available rank in five years. A detailed ranking of the GES organisational structure and grade are illustrated in Table 2.2, in appendix B. These represent the ranking of teachers from kindergarten (nursery school), to the level of Colleges of Education. Since this study focused on basic schools, emphasis will be placed on the ranks of teachers from Pupil’s Teacher to Deputy Director - the highest rank at the basic level (Avudoahor, 2013). According to the GES, other management positions that teachers could apply for are the post of Headteacher/Headmaster and Circuit Supervisor. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.2.4 Existing Promotion Structure of the G.E.S. to the post of Head of Basic School and Circuit Supervisor. According to the GES basic schools in Ghana consist of Kindergarten, Primary and Junior High Schools (J.H.S.). The duration at the Primary school level is six (6) years, and three (3) at the J.H.S level. In an ideal situation, a Primary school comprises of a minimum of six (6) class teachers including the headteacher. But more or less, teachers can be posted to a school depending on peculiar factors such as the number of subjects (courses) taught, the number of classrooms in use, and the location of the school. The duration for the J.H.S is three (3) years, with a minimum of eight (8) subject teachers and the Headmaster. The peculiar factors that determine the need for additional or less number of teachers also goes for the J.H.S. At the basic school, teachers ranks ranges from Superintendent II to Assistant Director I (AD I). With the exception of the deprived areas where it is difficult to find more teachers with the rank of Principal Superintendent (PS) and Assistant Director (AD) I and II, teachers must obtain the rank of PS and AD I or II to qualify for the post of Head of a school and Circuit Supervisor (CS) of an area. A CS is an officer of the GES who supervises an appreciable number of schools within a given geographical area. Normally a vacancy will be declared (Headteacher or CS, whichever is first) for all teachers with the minimum rank qualification to apply. After shortlisting and rigorous interview the best candidates are selected for the post. According to the Fair Wages and Salaries Commission, all teachers at the basic level with the same ranks are paid the same amount of salaries including the Headteacher and the CS, the difference in their remuneration being the responsibility allowance received by the headteacher and the CS. The CS is a senior officer, next is the Headteacher and his assistant and the subject and classroom teachers. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3 Staff Promotion effects on Teacher Motivation Motivation of teachers is one of the most complicated issues to deal with in education. It is also an indisputable fact that teachers are the most populous staff in every country of the world (Duffy, 2008), and this makes it much dicey than has been alluded to. This is due to the fact that motivation means different things to different people. It can be perceived as promotion, salary increment, training and education, or good condition of services. According to Peretomode (1991), “motivation is the process of influencing or stimulating a person to take action that will accomplish desired goals”. Thus, motivation is the stimulus that drives a person to act or perform an activity in order to arrive at a goal. As much as motivation has some factors that influences people, Harder (2008) and others think that it is an internal drive within a person that spurs and urges him to sustain a goal directed behaviour (Locke and Letham, 2004). However teachers’ motivation is a way of empowering them and involves using a series of strategic managerial tactics to arouse the interest of teachers in performing the task given them (Ofojebe and Ezugoh, 2010). Even so, all the determinants of motivation would have to be harnessed in an effective and coherent manner in order to optimally meet the satisfaction of all teachers. Staff promotion play a major role in the motivation of teachers in education and must be treated with the urgency and tact that it deserves. It is interesting to note that staff promotion is a package that cascades into salary upgrading, prestige and job training. This is what makes it indispensable in the determinants of motivation to consider in strategic human resource management practice (Armstrong and Taylor, 2014). Teachers are the most important focal point in education. Therefore falling quality standards in education rest to a large extent on them, depending on the level of their motivation. Because the success of education lies with teachers, policy planners on education prioritises 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teachers’ inputs in curriculum planning (Ofojebe and Ezugoh, 2010). It is due to this that many writers believe that teachers’ promotion is a key to guaranteeing their motivation and a better way to addressing falling standard of education in schools (Tuwei et al., 2013). In view of this, the assessment of factors that improve the standard of education should include a critical examination of the role of staff promotion. Other writers like Takahashi (2006), analysed the impact that promotion and wage increases have on motivation and realised that promotion and wage increase have a positive influence on both work motivation and work output. Again Abejirinde (2009) also identified that promotion of staff and growth in the organisation are positively correlated, better still the organisation becomes more productive when employees are promoted. Thus, while staff promotion is an impetus to employee motivation and job satisfaction, it equally serves as a tool for an organisation’s growth development and image. It is therefore important to look into employee remuneration and promotion packages since this gives them satisfaction and motivation, and spur them on to increased productivity and further enhanced staff retention (Osei, 2006). The economic and social value of promotion to workers and employers can never be over emphasised. It is therefore not surprising to read from Zainalipour, Fini, and Mirkamali (2010) who emphasised that fair, equal and just distribution of promotion and pay engender prestige and satisfaction among teachers. To this effect, Obineli (2013), throws more light on the adverse effects of lack of rewards such as promotion and pay on teachers’ satisfaction and organisation’s productivity. He asserted that, teachers cultivate good conduct to work when policies on employees’ career advancement and practices are assured, the reverse is the case if otherwise. Other writers have also emphasised that teachers’ promotion and career enhancement gives them job satisfaction which enhances quality education. Obineli (2013), added that the academic achievement of school children is influenced by variables of job satisfaction, like staff promotion, salary 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh upgrading, opportunity for teachers to educate and train themselves, and other good condition of services. All that these writers agree with is that, teachers are at the center of education and so if educational institutions wants to see a face lift in quality of education teachers should be strategically managed to give off their best. 2.4 Determinants of Staff Promotion Staff promotion in human resource management is a complex yet interesting activity which entails a litany of determinants, processes and procedures to carry out before a qualified employee could be moved from the lower level to the next available rank or vacant position (Osei, 2006). There have being tremendous improvements in staff promotion processes in recent times. When one looks in retrospect, a lot of literature depicts that seniority promotion was not uncommon in the early parts of the nineteenth and eighteenth centuries and beyond (Bae, 1997). This form of promotion was rife in the public sector institutions and the state owned enterprises. This is not surprising because a chunk of the businesses and institutions were managed by central governments. However, expediency with which the work and business environment was evolving placed immense pressure on various governments to cede control of businesses and institutions to the private sector. Thus, resulted diverse personnel management styles (Bae, 1997). Typical of these styles is “strategic human resource management”. Strategic human resource management focuses on all departmental heads as human resource managers since all managers have a considerable number of employees whose career ambitions and welfare they manage in order to achieve organisational goals and objectives (Armstrong, and Taylor, 2014). The management of employee career goals is what brought about the development of other determinants (factors/indicators) of promotion to ensure that there was free and fair promotion practices in organisations. Some of these determinants. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4.1 Seniority Based Staff Promotion Seniority promotion is staff promotion which considers the consistent period of time that an employee has spent serving in an organisation (Susan, 2016). This means that promotion will be awarded to the employee who has attained the status of continuous long service with the organisation. According to Dadson (1988b), seniority promotion is the kind that limits field selection to the existing employees rather than on management selection from outside the organisation to fill the vacant position. Thus, workers with ranks below the vacant position are preferred to the new person brought from outside. In Dadson’s assertion, the reason for considering employees within the organisation is that, existing employees have knowledge of clerical routine which tend to be specific to each firm. Secondly existing employees may have demonstrated trustworthiness compared to the uncertainty of a new recruitment (Dadson, 1988a). Seniority is considered important and attractive to employers because it is used as a measure of employees’ experience which in turn form the basis of their competence and efficiency. Even, the majority of the workers will feel marginalised and scandalised when they are being over looked. That is why the appointment of an outsider is almost always resented by existing staff because it reduces their promotion opportunities (Dadson, 1988b). Seniority promotion system provides a very clear career path for each employee, and that workers will have realistic expectations of their future promotion prospects. Hence, one of the reasons employers have preferred internal promotion to external recruitment is that they did not wish to demonstrate to existing employees that they had no promotion prospects, and that their careers could only be advanced by seeking employment elsewhere. Other managers admitted that they practiced seniority promotion not because it was easier but it enabled them to escape a lot of questions from employees on their promotion (Jeff, 2013). Jeff (2013), outlined the problems he had with seniority-based promotions: 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  It stifles motivation because employees do not have to work hard anymore to get their promotions or salary increases.  It stifles initiative because whether I add value to my work by bringing new innovations to it or not I will still be promoted  Ability; since workers are chosen for promotion on the basis of seniority rather than ability or capability, it follows that labour efficiency must be impaired.  Incentive to workers are reduced; Employers have traditionally used the prospect of promotion to motivate and reward workers. Seniority decreases the necessity of and the reward for competing for advancement.  It hinders recruitment because this type of promotion only attract substandard employees. In order to do away with the culture of mediocrity, seniority promotion system requires that steps are taken to minimise the number of workers who are incapable of taking seniority promotion. Therefore, it behooves on management to adopt a policy of recruiting only workers who are expected to be capable of promotion to the most senior job in the line (Conrad, 2010). To this effect, managers use several methods to minimise promoting incapable individuals, who by seniority, are due for promotion to the next vacant position (Margerison, 1993). One of such tactics used by managers is to persuade employees to decline promotion, or apply for demotion, due to the overwhelming nature of the responsibilities and capabilities required for the post in question (Margerison, 1993). 2.4.2 Performance and Merit based staff promotion As was discussed in the previous section, institutions do take advantage of the experiences gathered by their employees to promote them at the work place. Conversely, a merit-based 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh staff promotion system cannot also be discounted. A merit based staff promotion system measures the employees' qualifications, capabilities and contributions based on their performance and output in the organisation (Chris, 2016). Recommendations have extensively been made for the use of the two (merit and seniority), together so that the benefits of the two can be enhanced for the growth of the employees and the organisation (Kumar, 2012). Kumar (2012) further spelt out the benefits of merit promotion as “ability to attract talented new and passionate recruits, ability to promote talented workers to managerial positions, ability to position highly specialized workers in areas of expertise, increased work productivity, and improved management control over performance measures”. It is due to these benefits that the merit-based promotion system has become a household name in many institutions and organisations. Merit based promotions bring with them the recognition that the individual is seen as a person of potential (Ruderman, Ohlott and Kram, 1995). This means that the employee's career morale will certainly be enhanced to want to be retained in the organisation to develop his career goals. Advancement on the career ladder through merit-based confronts employees with challenging job responsibilities (Lisa, 2016), a necessary requirement for staff who yearn for challenges. Some factors to consider in the merit promotion system are employees’ qualification, competence, performance and the ability to justify oneself in a competitive promotion interview. To this effect, the practice of meritocracy in an organisation gives room for staff with higher ambitions to see the organisation as a congenial atmosphere for advancement. The stimulus effect of meritocracy on employees is translated into positive motivation for employees to expend their abilities, energies, efforts and time for the growth of both the organisation, and their own development. Unlike other forms of promotions, employees are motivated to make a difference by employing elements like creativity, initiative and innovations in all aspects of the roles and responsibility they discharge. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Merit-based promotions leave no stone unturned, that is why, organisations that practice meritocracy practice performance management (Weatherly, 2004). According to Pulakos (2004) Performance management is the continuous process of identifying, measuring, developing and aligning performance with strategic goals of the organisation while performance appraisal is an annual assessment of employees’ strength and weakness. He further expounded that performance management and appraisals enhance effective decision making on compensation and promotion issues. Pulakos (2004) further explained that managing employees’ performance helps organisations to make the best from the talents and the capabilities of employees for the growth of the organisation. The literature has also given instances of the down side of the merit-based promotion. According to Lisa (2016), the merit system can lead to subjective biases based on the personality and intuitive reasoning of decision makers. Some have also argued that because of the various factors that go into merit-based promotion, it is time consuming (Dobson, 1988b). Given the benefits and problems of the merit system, fair management promotion issues will ensue that workers are satisfied in all situations of promotion and salary administration (Zainalipour, Fini, and Mirkamali (2010). 2.4.3 A combination of Seniority and Merit based Staff Promotion Systems The probability of promotion is generally found to increase with seniority, education, productivity and firm growth (Furnham and Petrides 2006). Therefore, policies on promotion should be a mixture of the seniority and merit systems, which should work at ultimately using-merit bases promotion (Lima, 2004). Merit-based promotion is therefore one that hinges on factors associated with consistent period of time served, educational qualification, competences, performance and successful promotion interview (Castilla, 2012). Policies developed on merit and seniority promotion basically focus on two cardinal indicators which 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are performance/productivity and experience/length of continuous services, with an organisation holding all other indicators constant. 2.4.4 Other Determinants of Staff Promotion Common indicators of staff promotion are seniority, merit and a combination of the two. However, there are other indicators that serve as de facto determinants, such as gender, age, politics marital status, family characteristics, ethnicity, and whom you know (Sharabi, 2008). Some writers think that women seldom apply for jobs that are highly competitive and performance oriented, yet still, the limited adventurous females who sign up for these jobs just succeed as the men do (Blasco and Bertolín, 2009). Politics and pressure on managers also play a role in the promotion decisions of employees. Sharabi (2008), established that institutions that are influenced by politics sometimes pull strings in promoting its members. This was evident in his study when he ranked politics and pressure on supervisors as second and third in making promotion decisions. No matter how promotion is looked at, it can be used as a diversity management tool to harness employees’ potentials, despite their differences in terms of gender, politics, ethnicity, race and age (Ruderman, Ohlott and Kram 1995) 2.5 Other Factors affecting Staff Promotion Promotions are meant to elevate the employee from his current rank/position, to a new rank with prestige, responsibility, salary adjustments and status. Policies made by institutions and organisations to fulfil these practices sometimes are not adhered to due to circumstances beyond their control. There are diverse factors that can affect staff promotion policies in an organisation. According to Amsalu, (2014), irrespective of the policies made to reward employees with promotion, central government laws can affect promotion of staff in an 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organisation. Due to economic challenges, the government can cut down budgetary allocations for promotions in a particular year, or delay the disbursement of funds for employees’ promotion. Change of government is inevitable within modern forms of governance and no government can rule in perpetuity. Hence, change of government with attendant new laws can dislocates a company’s policies on staff promotion (Harvey-Beavis, 2003). The best qualified staff can also be hindered by seniority (Amsalu, 2014). Among the factors affecting promotion, Roche (1979), and Sharabi (2008), established that protégés for mentorship and promotions can be affected by political influence through personal knowledge, attributes values and belief systems of the decision maker. Witt and Nye, (1992), write that regardless of the factors affecting staff promotion, transparency is the key note to ensure that fairness is adhered to. 2.6 The effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers Teachers stay or leave the profession due to the lack of motivation with its associated factors such as unattractive reward and incentives schemes, socioeconomic factors, personal factors and students’ behaviour (Farid, 2011; Kian, Yusoff, and Rajah, 2014). Accordingly, Kian, Yusoff, and Rajah (2014), spelt out the similarities that exist between motivation and satisfaction, but bemoaned that as much as there is a positive correlation between the two, job satisfaction does not necessarily mean motivation neither does it necessarily translate into performance. Some have also established that while the presence of job satisfaction does not necessarily mean motivation but the deficiency of job satisfaction in workers can lead to attrition. This reaffirms Herzbergs (2005) motivation and hygiene factors which posit that, the presence of motivators does not means satisfaction but the absence of motivators can lead to dissatisfaction and attrition. In defining promotion, Adam et al., (2016) stated that 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh promotion is a motivational policy that seeks to reduce dissatisfaction and turnover of teachers. The age group of teachers in the GES with the highest number of attrition is the young professionals (TEWU and GNAT, 2009). The youth in the teaching service who have obtained higher qualification look out for more promotions and challenging jobs but because of blocks in promotion and professional development, they resort to moving out for greener pastures. Following this, Appiah-Agyekum, Suapin, and Peprah (2013), affirmed that teachers are more satisfied and motivated in an environment which is congenial for rapid professional growth and opportunities for value addition through higher education and training. They further maintained that the main stay of teachers’ satisfaction and motivation is higher salaries, hence, any opportunity like promotion that will enable teachers’ salary to go up is a source of satisfaction and retention of teachers. Conversely, teachers with youthful exuberance, higher educational qualification, and human capital are less satisfied and more vulnerable to drifting off the GES. Phurutse (2005), also averred that inadequate and irregular salary schemes of teachers can lead to demotivation and attrition of teachers, or increase their rapid rate of quitting. 2.7 Chapter Conclusion This chapter reviewed related literature on Theory of Motivation. It also reviewed related literature on, Promotion Processes and Procedures, Teachers in the colonial era and the early days of Independence, Teachers in the post-Independence era and the Fourth Republic, Existing Promotion Structure of G.E.S. to the post of Head of Basic School and Circuit Supervisor, Determinants and factors of Staff Promotion, Staff Promotion effects on Teacher Motivation and The effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers. The next chapter is on Research Methodology. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Chapter Introduction Research methodology is an important part in conducting a given study because it gives an indication of how the study is directed. To give a vivid explanation of research methods and methodology, Kothari (2004) distinguished between research methods and research methodology, that, all techniques deployed in a study, or research work, or the procedures employed by the researcher in the study processes are known as the research methods. Whiles he sees research methods as the deployment of the techniques, on the other hand, he defines research methodology as the art of identifying and finding a solution to a research problem. The methodology includes all the techniques identified and deployed in the research methods to address a given problem. According to Kothari (2004), researchers’ main task is not just developing the indicators and testing them, but also, they have a duty of sorting out the relevant methods that best suit the problem to be studied, why the techniques were chosen, what they mean, and what they indicate? This chapter discusses the structure of the study, using the qualitative research approach and focuses on research paradigm, research design, sources of data, sampling techniques, instrumentation, data gathering procedure, and ethical consideration. 3.1 Research Paradigm Paradigm is simply the philosophy and beliefs that are espoused by a group of scholars within a given fraternity that guide them in their research (Wahyuni, 2012). To make it clearer, Jonker and Pennink (2010: 80). defined paradigm as “a set of beliefs, values and techniques 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which are shared by members of a scientific community, and which acts as a guide or map, dictating the kinds of problems scientists should address and the types of explanations that are acceptable to them”. A number of paradigms exist such as interpretative, pragmatism, critical theory and critical realism paradigm (Fisher, 2010), but for the purpose of this study interpretative world view was used to shape this research. According to Creswell (2007) the interpretative world view indicates that the researcher closely studies a situation and based on his understanding and the experiences of others he develops subjective meanings to the experiences to enable him analyse and draw conclusions on his earlier assumptions. This presupposes that the interpretative view is adopted to enable the researcher to make meaning out of the staff promotion processes in the Ghana Education Service, aided by responses made by the subjects. 3.2 Research Design According to Kothari (2004: 20), research design “is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose or the conceptual structure within which research is conducted constituting the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of data”. He further stated that the research design answers the fundamental questions that are usually asked in an inquiry, for example what happened, where did it happen, when did it happen, and how did it happen? Creswell (2013b), asserted that a design is used to knit the various sections of a study in an interconnected and a chronological manner to create a succinct and unequivocal trajectory to arrive at a conclusion of a study. This means that research design is employed in an inquiry as a skeletal construct to give an illustration of the various components of the study. The design that was adopted for this inquiry was a case study. Merriam (1998: 4), defined a case study as 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “an exploration of a bounded system or a case over time through detailed, in-depth data collection involving multiple sources of information and rich in context”. The study assesses the promotion of public sector employees within the Accra Metro Education Directorate, using the qualitative approach, which encompasses both education officers and the teaching staff of Ghana Education Service (GES), Accra Metro GNAT local executives, and teachers who have quit GES for greener pastures to answer the research questions. For more clarity, Boateng (2014) defined qualitative research as “one which tends to explore the meanings, attitudes, values and beliefs that people associate with a phenomenon in order to establish a better understanding, rather than to test or either support or disprove a relationship”. Some also averred that qualitative research concentrates on making interpretations to occurrence in their natural situations to draw conclusions with regard to the meaning people make of these circumstances (Denzin and Lincoln, 2002). It also involves the collection of detailed information from a limited number of subjects compared to quantitative study (Bunham et al., 2008). The benefit of qualitative research is that it allows the researcher to give his own interpretations to responses made by the subjects. Irrespective of the advantages of the qualitative research approach, Occupy Theory (2014) explained that qualitative study is largely dependent on the knowledge, experience and technical knowhow of the researcher and due to that the findings and conclusions of qualitative research can be influenced and skewed by his personal characteristics. Further, saturation of data makes it laborious and time consuming. Meanwhile, inevitable the presence of the researcher during the data collection can affect the responses of the respondents. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Sources of Data Sources of data to an enquiry remain an indispensable factor in a study. Due to this data was collected from primary and secondary data source. 3.3.1 Primary Sources of Data The primary source of data was put into two groups. The first group were the management and administrative staff of the Accra Metro Education Directorate. The second group of primary source of data was obtained from the teaching staff of basic schools within the Accra Metro Education Directorate. 3.3.2 Secondary Source of Data A plethora of information in government institutions and academia served as immense support to analysing the study. Thus, secondary data of this study was obtained from the Ghana Education Service (GES), the National Inspectorate Board (NIB) of GES, and the Fair Wages and Salaries Commission (FWSC). 3.4 Population of the Study Yin (2013), referred to population as the summation of the entire subjects that form a distinct group to be studied. The population of this study was made up of two groups, namely the administrative staff of the Ghana Education Service (GES) and the teaching staff in the public schools of the GES. The target population of the study were the Director of Education, the Human Resource Director, the training officer, Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database (IPPD) officers, the circuit supervisors and all the teaching staff in the public schools, within the Accra Metro Education Directorate. The study area was the Okaikoi North Sub- Metropolitan Assembly. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.5 Sample Size Mostly, the validity and reliability of a study are partly dependent on the magnitude of the population considered for the study. Suffice it to say that when the sample size is large, the better it is in representing the population, and the more reliable and valid the results (Golafshani, 2003). In view of this, it was expedient to use a reasonable sample of thirty four (34) schools from which respondents were selected for the study. The schools were made up of a mix of Junior High Schools and Primary Schools. It was within this sample that conclusions were drawn. In all, a total of fifty two (52) respondents were used for the study. The schools constituting the study population are vividly illustrated under the sampling techniques on Table 3.1 below. 3.6 Sampling and Sampling Techniques Muresherwa (2013), defined a sample as “subset of a population selected to participate in the study, it is a fraction of the whole, selected to participate in the research project”. Again, McMillan and Schumacher (2014), defined a sample as a representative portion of the population that is selected for investigation. Meaning, it was important to sample the respondents that were used for the study since it will be cumbersome in terms of time constraints and the resources available to carry out the research. Therefore, a subset of subjects, representative of the population was selected from the entire population as a sample (Levy and Lemeshow 2013). The Simple Random Sampling technique was used to select the Sub-Metro, Headteachers and the Teachers while Purposive Sampling was used to select the GES officers, Circuit Supervisors (CS), and local GNAT executives. Snowball Sampling was used to select teachers who had left the GES. The Okaikoi Sub-Metro in Accra Metropolis was selected for the study by Simple Random Sampling. All the schools under the Sub-Metro were considered 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for the study, using one (1) teacher from each school. Thirty-four (34) teachers were considered for data collection using Focus Group Discussion. Also, four (4) Circuit Supervisors, four (4) Headteachers and four (4) administrative staff of the Accra Metro Education Directorate, two (2) Local Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT) executives and four (4) teachers who had left the GES were considered for data collection using an Interview Guide. Separate instrument was used for each of the group of subjects mention. Hence, six instruments were used for the data collection. Table 3.1 below is an illustration of the Sub-Metro, Circuits and schools, number of teachers and sample size of teachers in Okaikoi Sub-Metro. Table 3.1 The Okaikoi Sub-Metropolitan Assembly: Circuits and number of Schools Circuit Schools Respondents Sampled Respondents One Tr. each Abeka Circuit 11 1 11 Achimota Circuit 5 1 5 Apenkwa Circuit 10 1 10 New Achimota Circuit 8 1 8 Total 34 4 34 Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. The total number of teachers who took part in the FGD were thirty four (34), whilst the number of GES officers, GNAT executives, and quit teachers who were interviewed were eighteen (18). A breakdown of the information is illustrated in Table 3.2 below. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3.2 Summary of sampled respondents Respondents Number of Sampling Technique Respondents GES Office Staff 4 Purposive Sampling Circuit Supervisors 4 Purposive Sampling GNAT Executives 2 Purposive Sampling Headteachers 4 Random Sampling Teachers 34 Random Sampling Quit Teachers 4 Snowball Sampling Total 52 Source: Author’s own construction based on field data, 2017. 3.7 Data Gathering Instruments The main instrument for the study was an interview guide, which was conducted with the management and administrative staff of the Accra Metro Education Directorate, Circuit Supervisors and Headteachers of the schools considered in the study. According to Turner (2010), interview is an interaction either face to face or via telephone between the researcher or his assistant and the interviewee or respondents to obtain verbal responses to questions. Specifically, semi-structured interview was employed in the inquiry process. Semi-Structured Interview is an interview which consists of structured and semi structured questions. Semi structured interviews consist of same questions prepared for all respondents, but follow up 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh questions, known as probing questions, are asked when deemed necessary to make clarifications (Kadushin, 2012). Semi structured interview is very important, because, it gives the researcher the opportunity to delve deep into the thoughts of the respondents to scoop out latent information that can put the study into a perspective for easy analysis and conclusions. According to Fetterman (1998), it is a verbal approximation of enquiries with unambiguous research goals. He further stated that semi-structured interviews give opportunity to researchers to make changes to their enquiries, and to make further probes on interesting responses. As a result, it was helpful in modifying the questions to focus attention on areas of particular importance. However, there was the need to make appointments with the interviewees to help spend quality time with them. Focus Group Discussions (FGD) were held with the teaching staff selected by means of simple random sampling from each school. The FGDs were meant to solicit answers to questions from groups of teachers instead, of one-on-one interview with them. The FGD was used to allow larger numbers of the population to take part in the research, and to enable the expression of diverse opinions on the subject. It also ensured that interview reports from the administrative staff and Headteachers were corroborated or juxtaposed to make an informed decision on the subject under study. Both the interviews and the focus group discussions covered three parts. Part I collected data on the demography of the respondents, part II collected data on four sections in line with the objectives of the study. Section A: the processes of staff promotion in the GES. Section B: the determinants of staff promotion in the GES. Section C: the effects of staff promotion on teacher motivation, and section D: the effects of staff promotion on the retention and attrition of teachers. Finally, Part III collected data on the Circuit Supervisors, Headteachers, and GNAT executives, Education Officers at the Metro Education Directorate and teachers who had quit the GES. 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.8 Data Gathering Procedure Procedure in the data gathering process is a component in an enquiry that should be considered carefully to ensure that proper data is collected for analysis. The procedure started with securing an introductory letter from the University of Ghana, Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management. On arrival, all heads of respondents were given the introductory letter after an oral introduction was made. Each Headteacher was briefed on the objectives and importance of the study to staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service. Prior to interviewing respondents, suggestions proffered by Gyimah (2006; 212, 213) were taken into consideration. He suggested the following procedures in interviewing:  Orient respondents on the nature and purpose of the interview and FGD.  Be very truthful with the respondents.  Create a congenial atmosphere for the respondents to feel at home.  Explain to respondents how you will be recording the data, either by audio or by note taking.  Receive permission from the respondent to record information supplied.  Ensure that he/she does not allow his/her own biases, opinion or curiosity to affect his/her behaviour.  Ensure that the respondent does not veer off the purpose of the interview. After the introduction the essence of the enquiry was explained to the teachers and their confidentiality and anonymity were also assured. The significance of candid responses was emphasised to remind teachers of the immense importance that their responses will make to policy formulation the GES on staff promotion. Each interview and Focus Group Discussion 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lasted about thirty (30) to forty five (45) minutes. The recording of the interviews took the form of note taking and tape recording which were later transcribed on paper for analysis. The semi-structured interview approach, helped to probe and clarify responses that were unclear. It also helped the participants to provide forgotten information. 3.9 Data Management The audio recordings from the field was kept in a safe place for protection. With the permission of the participants, a digital recorder was used for the interviews and care was taken to keep the recording safe until transcription was done. 3.10 Data Analysis According to Selltiz et al., (1959), analysis of data is the process that involves different sets of activities such as organising, synchronizing and summarising collected data in a way that conclusions can be drawn on the entire study. In the same vein, Dey (2005:31) stated that “data analysis is a process of resolving data into its constituent components, to reveal its characteristic elements and structure”. Analysis of data is very essential since it helps the researcher to breakdown the data into smaller units in order to categorize it and see how the data can interconnect to make a meaning. This is why Dey (2005), further claims that without data analysis, researchers are inclined to give biased judgment, because, they will be prone to relying on their own opinions and intuitions. Content, interpretative and narrative analysis was used to analyse the data which ensured that the story of individual respondents on staff promotion was not lost. Content analysis, was pioneered by Gottschalk and Gleser (1969). Thus, the interviews were transcribed and analysed based on the themes suggested from the research questions and theoretical framework. The interview data collected was categorised into smaller manageable themes. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Direct quotes from the interviews were utilised in order to preserve the original meaning of what was exactly said by participants. Transcription is a bit tedious and technical, hence extra care was taken to ensure that meanings intended by the respondents were not thwarted. All the interviews were conducted in English, but because of difficulty on the part of some respondents to make their points, the local dialect was allowed to make it easier in arriving at a point. Also, efforts were made to contact respondents where transcription was a bit difficult. The analysis of data was based on the objectives of the study, the research questions and themes developed from the Theory of Institutional Integrity. What was not included in the transcription were unnecessary comments by the respondents and mannerisms. 3.11 Ethical Considerations Professionalism in every endeavour is indispensable in upholding the authenticity and credibility of its values. For that matter, research in academia and the corporate world have tenets and ethical consideration on which they thrive. Based on this, it was worthwhile to consider respondents and users of the reports as an integral part of the study process. For instance, the confidentiality, anonymity, rights and privacy of respondents were respected in the data collection process. This is in consonance with Bricki and Greens (2007), assertion that everyone who participates in a study should have freely consented to participate, and their confidentiality is assured by being discreet with the participants’ identity and responses they make to your questions. Legally, permission was obtained from the Accra Metro Education Directorate and all schools that were visited in the Okaikoi North Sub-Metro, with the aid of documents such as Student ID and an introductory letter from the Department of Public Administration and Health Services Management of University of Ghana before access was granted to all respondents. 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.12 Chapter Conclusion This chapter discussed the methodology that was used to collect and analyse the data. The sections considered in the methodology were the research paradigm that was used to shape the study, the research design, the population and the study area, as well as the sampling and sampling technique. It also looked at the instruments and the procedure that was used to collect data for analysis and the ethical consideration to ensure respondents’ consent and confidentiality. The next chapter deals with the Data Presentation and Data Analysis. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.0 Chapter Introduction This chapter focuses on the discussions and analyses of the demographic data of respondents and the main data obtained from the field interviews and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs). Discussions and analyses of the main data were done according to the four objectives of the study together with the themes and sub themes developed under each of the objectives. The first section of the analyses focuses on the processes of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service under the following themes; the stages of staff promotion, length of time of promotion of teachers, Performance Management and Appraisal (PMA) of teachers, and the extent of fairness of staff promotion processes. The second section discusses and analyses data on the determinants of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service, and this hinges on the following themes; promotion based on education, length of continuous service, and promotion by performance, and promotion by exceptional factors. The third section of this chapter analyses data on the effects of staff promotion on teacher motivation under the following themes; influence of promotion on teacher motivation, influence of promotion on teacher performance and teachers’ career prospects. Finally, the fourth section discusses and analyses data on the effects of staff promotion on the retention and attrition of teachers. The framework within which the discussions and analysis are done on the in-depth qualitative field data is underpinned by Adam’s Equity Theory (1963, 1965). 4.1 Analysis of the Demographic Data of Respondents The demography of the respondents gave an indication of the gender, age range, educational background, rank and teaching experience of all the teachers who took part in the study. Data 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh on the demography of teachers was important because it helped in the discussion and the analysis of the main data collected from the FGDs and the Interviews. 4.1.1 Gender of Respondents The study was conducted to include both females and males. Figure 4.1 below represents the total number of females and male teachers who took part in the study. Figure 4.1: Gender of Respondents (teachers) Source: Field data 2017 A glance at figure 4.1 above shows that more females participated in the study than males. From the graph 22(65%) of females took part in the study, as opposed to 12(35%) of males. This gives a reflection of the ratio of male to female teachers in the Accra Metro Education Directorate. 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.2 Age and Ranks of Respondents The ages of respondents were also included in the study to give a picture of the age range of respondents. The ages of respondents and their ranks were important to this study because it gave an information about the number of age groups which fall within each of the ranks. Figure 4.2 illustrates this information. Figure 4.2: Ranks of Teachers and their Age Range Source: Field data 2017 It is clear from figure 4.2 that 10(30%) of teachers who are below thirty six (36) years fall within the ranks of Senior Superintendent (SS) and Principal Superintendent (PS). The graph also illustrates that 16(47%) of teachers who are within thirty six (36) and forty (40) years fall within the ranks of Principal Superintendent (PS) and Assistant Director (AD). Teachers who have ranks of Assistant Director (AD) and Deputy Director (DD) were predominantly forty (40) years and above. It is clear from figure 4.2 that teachers within the ages of twenty (20) and forty (40) years are generally within the ranks of Senior Superintendent and Principal Superintendent, whiles those in the age bracket of forty one (41) and above are in the ranks 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of Assistant Director and Deputy Director. This has confirmed the assertion that age has influence on teachers’ promotion (Jude, 2010; Amsalu, 2014) 4.2 Analysis of the Main Data 4.2.1 Processes of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service (GES) The data collected from the field interviews and FGD, revealed four major phases in the promotion processes of the GES. These phases are; notices of applications for promotion, application for promotion, promotion interviews, promotion, and salary upgrading, and the processes commence again for the next promotion year. Figure 4.3 below illustrates the major phases of staff promotion in GES. Figure 4.3 Major Phases of GES Staff Promotion. Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.2 Stages of Staff Promotion The stages of staff promotion are the various phases of the promotion process that a qualified candidate for promotion goes through in order to be promoted to the next rank of his career (teaching profession). It was found out that, in view of the decentralisation of Government Departments, some categories of promotion are done at the District, Regional, and National levels. Data obtained reveals that there are two (2) types of promotions in the Ghana Education Service (GES). These are, internal staff promotions, and external staff promotions. According to the District Education Directorate, internal staff promotions are done at the District level, and this covers the junior ranks from Pupils’ Teacher to Senior Superintendent I, and the senior ranks are done at the Regional and National level. Figure 4.4 below is a summary of GES Organizational Structure in ascending order, beginning from Pupil’s Teacher (PT) to Director General (DG). Figure 4.4: Summary of GES Organizational Structure Senior Ranks Junior Ranks Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh An officer at the GES took time to explain the hierarchical structure of the GES teaching staff and how the promotion is done. The internal promotion is done for the junior ranks. When a teacher at the lower level is due for promotion, he is given a notice to apply. The Director of Education at the District receives the applications on behalf of the Director General. The District Director then details the human resource department to examine the merits of all applications and shortlist all the qualified applicants for work inspection. The next thing we do is to announce a date to all the shortlisted candidates (teachers) so that they can prepare for interviews or for a team consisting of the human resource personnel, circuit supervisor and the headteacher to inspect the work of the candidates for promotion (Interview with GES officer, 2017) It was revealed that the length of continuous service, efficiency, academic qualification, sense of responsibility, general behaviour, relevant experience, power of expression, leadership qualities among others, are what the officers look out for to promote the teacher. A teacher said; When I was due for promotion at the junior rank, officers at the district level together with the circuit supervisor and my headteacher examined my lesson notes, exercise books of pupils, my general conduct and co-curricular activities, and lastly, they also examined my competence by sitting in the classroom to observe me teach pupils (FGDs with teachers, 2017) The officers then write reports on all the teachers they have supervised and submit them to the District Director for consideration. After that, all the teachers who are promoted to the next rank on the career ladder are served with promotion letters to apply for salary upgrading and adjustment accordingly. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Headteachers indicated that at the junior rank level, the performance of teachers is generally very good. They adhere to the code of ethics of the teaching profession and teach very well, their output of work is good and they have good conducts. This performance was attributed to several factors, it may be due to their age, being young and energetic having youthful exuberance. They (Headteachers) also attributed the performance to the career ladder teachers seek to climb. To get to the higher level within the junior ranks demands hard work because officers at the District Education Directorate will come and supervise teachers’ work before they are recommended for promotion. Teachers did not mince words to identify with these sentiments. A teacher with the rank of Senior Superintendent II affirms this succinctly; As for me, when I graduated as a teacher, all that I was interested in was to teach and get my salary to take care of my family. But I started teaching and all the prospects in the teaching profession were made known to me during an orientation program for the newly trained teachers. Due to that I worked diligently to ensure that a good record was created for me so that when I am due for promotion, the inspection officers will not have a damning report to write about me. This is what has motivated me to get to this far (FGDs with teachers, 2017) According to Islam and ZakiHj. Ismail, (2008) prospective candidates looking for employment do not think beyond the employment. They first think of getting the job before the additional benefits that come with it. This explains why some teachers are not privy to the staff promotion prospects that go with teaching profession until they get into the profession. But other teachers gave a contrary view that at this level, the team who come from the GES office to inspect teachers’ work for promotion is always given a package in a form of appreciation and this can influence the recommendations they write to the authorities for promotion. A crosscheck with the Headteachers revealed that officers are provided with snacks as a form of refreshment. Further probe indicated that it is not their duty, but since no 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh one is doing it, teachers have taken it upon themselves to do it. Even though the Headteachers limited their submissions to a snacks, other teachers added that; Our year group were asked to put something in an envelope together with snacks for the team who inspected our work for promotion to the rank of Senior Superintendent II, when I inquired why, I was told that was the norm (FGDs with teachers, 2017). This act can lead to the promotion of substandard teachers which can have a negative effect on the standards of education (Poison, 2010) The external staff promotions are done at the Regional and National levels of the Ghana Education Service (GES), and this covers the senior ranks, from Principal Superintendent to Director I. Deputy Director General and Director General at the apex of the career ladder are solely by appointment by the President of Republic of Ghana. There are five phases in the external promotion process ses. This begins with the GES giving out notices and circulars to schools announcing to prospective candidates to apply for promotion. The next phase is the application processes, where qualified teachers for promotion fill the necessary application and appraisal forms, and submit them with all necessary attachments to the GES Headquarters via the District and Regional offices. The Director General of the GES in consultation with the GES Council then empanels a team to conduct interviews with applicants for staff promotion at all the Regional Directorates of GES. The panel would prepare their reports on all the teachers who attended the interviews and submit them to the GES Council for consideration on who should be promoted. Finally, the Director General furnishes the Human Resource Department with the list of promoted teachers to prepare promotion letters which are then forwarded accordingly to the teachers to reapply again to the GES for salary upgrading and adjustment. In the words of GES officer. 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh At the GES we have a number of stages that we follow to promote a teacher to the next rank. First, we put out notices for teachers who are qualified to apply for promotion. Second, we receive applications from teachers with a dead line. Third, we conduct interviews with all applicants for promotion. Fourth, we then prepare the interview reports on teachers and submit them to the GES Council for consideration. And finally, the Human Resource Department prepares and forwards letters of promotion to all teachers who have been promoted. All teachers are aware of these processes (Interview with a GES officer, 2017). In the same vein, discussions with teachers also indicated that teachers do not apply for promotion when they qualified, rather they wait to be served with a notice of application from the GES before they put in applications for promotion. Some teachers claimed that in their first promotion, they served for six years instead of four years before they were given notices to apply for promotion. So they were promoted in the seventh year. This meant an additional three (3) years to the number of years stipulated for them to serve to qualify for promotion. According to the teachers, the stipulated years to serve for promotion is just a promotion policy for the GES on paper, but it is not strictly followed by the GES to the letter. This was further corroborated by GES officers at the education office that, promotions are expected to be done yearly, but this policy is flouted by the GES on several occasions. We have it on paper to do promotions on yearly bases and that is exactly what we do. But sometimes we are handicapped because we have to receive clearance giving us a quota of teachers to promote from the government before we can conduct staff promotions. Sometimes due to the bureaucracy in the system it may cause a delay in addition to delays in the release of funds (Interview with a GES officer, 2017). This explanation hinged on budgetary and economic constraints or lack funds, because teachers are promoted with increment in salaries. So, government is sometimes unwilling to 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh promote teachers due to the pressure it may put on the public purse. That is why the GES may not stick to the promotion policy. Otherwise promotion is done every year. This is in consonance with Amsalu (2014) who articulated that, irrespective of the policies made to reward employees with promotion, central government laws can affect promotion of staff in an organisation. Due to economic challenges the government can cut down budgetary allocations for promotion in a particular year. But this irregular practices does not mirror the objective of staff promotion in the GES. According to the GES, the only period that a teacher can apply for staff promotion without recourse to the notices of staff promotion application is when he/she upgrades his knowledge by pursuing further studies at the University. This will automatically qualify the teacher to the next rank of his career depending on the certificate, diploma, or degree that they were awarded. The only caveat is that, after every course pursued by teachers they are mandated to serve for additional five (5) years to qualify them for further studies. A Teacher can apply for upgrading any time of the year if he/she can prove that he has obtained a certificate, diploma or a degree. But the teacher should ensure that he/she has served for the required number of years after the last upgrading. The GES normally refers to this kind of staff promotion as upgrading. This is how it goes;  Pupil teacher – Superintendent II (professional certificate)  Pupil teacher/ Superintendent II/I – Senior Superintendent II ( diploma)  Pupil teacher/Senior Superintendent II/I – Principal Superintendent (Degree) All other promotions, subsequent to the rank of Principal Superintendent, are subject to promotion interviews (Interview with GES officer, 2017). 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This was unanimously corroborated by the teachers. One of the discussants was happy to share his experience; In our days when you graduated from the Teachers Training College now Colleges of Education, you were called “teacher”, that was your rank. I took the pains to go for further studies immediately and when I was awarded a degree, GES upgraded (promoted) me to the rank of Principal Superintendent (FGDs with teachers, 2017). This is in line with the recommendation made by Kumar (2012) that, companies should blend the two bases of promotion and gradually move towards the merit-based promotion system where employees will be promoted based on their educational qualification and performance, among other factors. 4.2.3 Critiquing the Application Processes It was revealed that application for staff promotions within the GES involves two activities. The Filling of application and performance appraisals forms. All teachers who are due for promotion from a junior rank to a senior rank are required to download an application and appraisal form from the website of the GES, and fill the forms manually with the aid of the Circuit Supervisor and submit them accordingly to the GES office for vetting. A teacher quickly added; There are two forms to be filled for promotion, the application form and the appraisal form and it is normally brought to us from the GES office but now we can get them on the internet or better still make copies from colleagues who have already downloaded them or we can still get them for the GES office (FGDs with teachers, 2017). Teachers were very emotional explaining the difficulty they go through processing applications and appraisal forms for promotions. These emotions emanate from the fact that 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh teachers are made to fill the forms a number of times before they are finally accepted owing to the flaws teachers sometimes make on the forms. Circuit Supervisors are therefore given training by officers of the GES to orientate the prospective applicants for staff promotion on the demands and inputs of the application and the appraisal form. This is necessary because inputs for each rank of promotion may differ, and new applicants who have never had any experience in the promotion process, may be part of the group of applicants. This is also needed to avoid common mistakes committed by teachers on the application forms. It was revealed that teachers were not able to fill the Performance Management and Appraisal forms even after they have been given an orientation. According to the teachers, the forms are mostly returned to them by the GES to refill because, the previous set was full of mistakes. This do happens during every promotion for about two to four times before the forms are finally accepted satisfactorily. One respondent intimated; When it was my turn to apply for promotion I almost abandoned the process because I concluded that the promotion processes of GES was a punishment or a way of frustrating teachers to quit applying for promotions. We were a group, my colleagues and I. We did the first, second, third and fourth set of applications before the applications were accepted on the eve of the closing date for submission. And I must admit that we were twelve in our cluster who started the process but five declined to continue with the process because of this difficulty (FGDs with teachers, 2017). Teachers could not hide their displeasure about the difficulty they go through to process their applications for promotion. They complained about the low morale of teachers in the society and the difficulty they go through fending for their families as a result of the low salaries they receive from their hard labour. Yet, the only components in their conditions of services that could motivate them to work harder and stay in the profession rather caused them discomfort. 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The teachers asserted that the process that should take a day or two can take a whole week or two to complete. A teacher with the rank of Assistant Director I (AD I) had this to say; I have a concern about the filling of the application and performance appraisal forms. Filling these forms can make a teacher spend the whole week without working. Sometimes it may extend to two weeks. Worse still, you may not get it right. This is really discouraging to teachers. I am AD I. now and some of my colleagues that I completed school with who should be on the same rank with me or a rank closer to mine are still marking time at the junior ranks. Why because, they have abandoned the application for promotions and some have left the GES with the perception that the GES does not provide an environment to develop a career (FGDs with teachers, 2017). Discussions with teachers further portray that because of the difficulty they face in processing the forms, there was a potential threat to fairness and honesty in the system. Teachers demonstrated that if there was an avenue for them to pay their way through to get themselves promoted they would not hesitate to use it. This confirms the assertion that, corruption exists because the standards and procedures associated with staff promotion are sometimes difficult or equivocal, and not widely understood by all employees (Tuwei et al., 2013). Hence, to reduce corruption, these standards and procedures should be simplified to employees. This is what one teacher said as he was even applauded for saying so; I am telling you on authority that if there is an avenue for teachers to pay their way out to be promoted I will not hesitate to sacrifice my one or two month salary or even go for a loan from the bank to pay my way out. I know people who paid their way out but just that they do not disclose it. (FGDs with teachers, 2017). This statement was affirmed in the FGDs, but teachers admitted that the clandestine nature of it would not allow them to adduce evidence to support their claim. This assertion by teachers 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confirms the statement made by Lemons and Jones (2001), who averred that public sector promotions involve a lot of processes and procedures which make it complicated for employees to comprehend, thereby creating administrative lapses which make it possible for officers in charge of processing documents to engage in acts shrouded in unfairness and injustice. Discussants in other groups from different locations in the Metropolis corroborated the above, stating that in most cases they (teachers) do pay for the processing of the application forms and this payment begins with the field officers who have the sole responsibility of forwarding the forms to the education offices. Teachers, who were lucky to meander their way through the application process without paying may not be lucky to escape paying during the application for upgrading and salary adjustments. A teacher added that; I have done three promotions since I came out as a teacher and all these three occasions I paid my way to process the application forms. I did the payment because the officers verbally asked for it, and in some instances their demeanor suggested louder than the verbal request that I should pay. Failure to do the payment will mean that you are shortlisting yourself out, because your form may never get to the necessary quarters. My colleagues applied twice and never got an interview, but when they employ the payment mode, they were invited. This is what I am talking about (FGDs with teachers, 2017). A cross check with the Ghana National Association of Teachers (GNAT) shows that they have had several complaints concerning the demands made by officers at the education offices before attending to teachers. The local GNAT executives alluded that it is true that teachers come with series of complaints accusing GES officials of corrupt practices. But when they (GNAT) ask them for evidence they (Teachers) are not able to produce it. In 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consonance with this, GNAT has urged all teachers to use any means necessary to produce evidence that can help in the investigative process to address this challenge. Sometimes I find it difficult to blame both teachers and officers of the GES. The application process is very cumbersome and this is a fertile ground for corruption. Due to this, on many occasions that I have had the opportunity to interact with teachers, I have advised them to learn to take evidence to enable GNAT pick the issues up with the GES for resolution (Interview with local GNAT executives, 2017). Interviews at the Metro Education Directorate reveal a different view of the claim that officers demand money to process forms for teachers. The officers rather laid the blame at the corridors of teachers. They intimated that when teachers come to work on their documents they come with the notion of influencing the officers with some money, so that the processes will be made faster for them. A senior officer disclosed that it is impossible to get hundred percent of honest officials in an establishment, so they are not entirely dismissing the claim that officers may demand, or accept some token from teachers. Rather, teachers make the offer and vulnerable and dishonest officials accept the offer. The senior officer admitted; The officers here are not corrupt, just that we may have vulnerable officials who can fall into temptation. Most of the teachers, I’m told by the grape vine, offer clerks with money on their own volition in order to influence them to speed up the process for them. There may also be another group (dishonest group) who may demand payment from teachers before they work on their documents but this group is in the minority. I may not be able to vouch for the entire GES staff in absolute terms since there is a Judas in every establishment. So the alleged claim that the GES is corrupt is not entirely true, rather, teachers make the offer to the vulnerable and dishonest ones (Interview with a GES officer, 2017). 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The GNAT officials at the local GNAT office cited instances where teachers have complained on regular basis to them about the unfriendly conduct of GES officials towards them when they visit the office to process documents of any sort (Promotion, Upgrading, Salary Adjustment, Reinstatement, Transfers etc.). They attributed the unfriendly conduct to the lean staff of the education office who are tasked to work on volumes of application forms of teachers manually, so out of fatigue, they may become vulnerable to misconduct such as unfriendliness to teachers or accepting bribe (Lemons and Jones 2001). The GNAT local executive recommended that going forward, the education office should beef up the staff strength, adopt Information Technology to reduce the burden on the clerical staff at the records and the Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database (IPPD) offices respectively. The GNAT executive reiterated that; The IPPD officers are not motivated enough to do the work diligently. Sometimes they work overtime. Can you imagine about 1500 to 3000 documents being worked on by one or two officers? Meanwhile these forms come in quadruplicate. This will surely put a burden on them to behave in an unfriendly manner or accept bribes from teachers to speed up the processes for them. A software designed for the process, or online applications can make things easier (Interview with GNAT executive) The GNAT executive’s submission is shared by Ogbomo and Ogbomo (2008), who stated that developing a healthy information society involves getting reliable and timely information to its members. Therefore Information and Communication Technology (ICT) will deliver these benefits to organisations that adapt themselves to the use of ICT in their management and administrative processes. Technology is the order in modern organisations. For practices of promotion to be smooth sailing and less burdensome on administrative staff, online application will help expedite the process and curb corruption in the GES. 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.4 Promotion Interviews Promotion interviews are conducted for employees who are moving from one rank to the next rank with an increase in responsibility, pay and status (Najafi, et al., 2010). Promotion interviews in the GES are conducted for teachers who have served the required number of years, and have applied to be promoted. Apart from the work inspection and supervision which are conducted at the District level, all senior rank promotion interviews are done at the Regional and National level. The aim of promotion interview is to screen all candidates so that the best candidate can be identified and selected for promotion. According to the GES, all teachers who have applied for promotion, are first shortlisted for promotion based on proper documentation of application and appraisal forms. When teachers apply for promotions, our duty is to go through all the application and appraisal forms to ascertain that all the inputs made by teachers on the forms are correct and consistent. If there is inconsistency in the information given and the accompanying documents are incomplete, the candidate will not be shortlisted for interview (Interview with GES officers, 2017). This explains why some teachers apply for promotion and are never invited for interview. Discussions with the GNAT executives indicated that the staff strength of the Education office to handle promotion and upgrading matters is not enough, hence, the pressure on the officers becomes unbearable in most cases, and this leads to improper and incomplete filing of application forms. There are about five thousand teachers in Accra Metro and in every promotion year about one thousand five hundred (1500) to three thousand (3000) teachers apply for promotion and salary upgrading. Definitely, the burden on one or two staff will be unbearable. If the application process was done electronically the system itself will peruse the document and do 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the shortlisting automatically better than the manual system which is subject to human error (Interview with GNAT executives, 2017) It was revealed that the interview is a good means of determining the right candidate for promotion, since it gives a form of credibility to meritocracy. Teachers affirmed that, during interviews candidates for promotions are given the opportunity to demonstrate their competence, knowledge and skill, on the job, and their readiness to rise to the task when they are given the opportunity to move to the next rank. However, teachers reiterated that there are some practices in the promotion interview processes which are unethical. Sometimes, panel members on promotion interviews are intimidating and verbally abusive when teachers are unable to meet their expectations. A teacher admitted; Promotion interviews in GES are gory situations. Panelists on promotion interviews in most cases are unfriendly. The way they look, talk and yell at us is not the best. (FGD with teachers, 2017) Further enquiry indicated that some teachers prefer written examinations as opposed to promotion interviews. Conversely, other teachers demonstrated their disagreement by spelling out the advantages of promotion interviews over written examinations. For instance, promotion interviews are able to test one’s professional competence. One’s ability to deliver to a panel demonstrates one’s communication skills. How one is able to express oneself is an indication of one’s confidence level during lesson delivery. The test item was not dismissed in its entirety as some of them (teachers) spoke on the sidelines; At least there should be a test component in the screening process if not entirely to compensate for the flaws of those who perform abysmally in the interviews (FGD with teachers, 2017). 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Another teacher gave an account of his experience in the promotion interview. He spoke of how he was yelled at; As I entered and sat, I answered three questions successfully. My response to the fourth question got a verbal abuse. If I may quote one of them “how can you call yourself a teacher, these are the teachers we want to sack from the service.” These were his words and even, this is just a sanitized version of it. The other three interviews that I attended attracted similar verbal assaults (FGD with teachers, 2017). Others also shared similar experiences. One of them said; When I entered the first time I was a bit nervous so one of them passed a comment “how can you be nervous and want to be promoted. He does not even look like a teacher. Comport yourself” At that point I knew I had failed in advance (FGD with teachers, 2017). According to Kaplan, and Ferris, (2001), if employees can be guaranteed fair procedural treatment, they are more likely to become loyal organizational members, an indication of motivation, commitment and job satisfaction. The reverse launches teachers into dissatisfaction. This explains why most teachers have refused to apply for promotions because they have concluded that interview panels are engaged to frustrate them. Instances were cited where candidates were rushed to the hospital as a result of high blood pressure. A female teacher delivered prematurely at the mere mention of promotion interviews. In effect many teachers have stopped applying to save themselves from unfriendly interview panel and difficult application processes. It was obvious that teachers who have had bad interview experiences preferred to stay on their current ranks and look for jobs elsewhere rather than apply for promotion. Meanwhile salaries, promotions and other conditions of services of teachers are supposed to motivate and retain them in the classroom 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Cobbold, 2006). Hence, one should have the conviction that the processes leading to promotion and upgrading of teachers would not be too cumbersome. The Study also revealed that, young professionals who had upgraded their educational level appeared too stagnated at the entry point of the senior rank level (Principal Superintendent). Many of these professionals had attended promotion interviews on two or four occasions to be promoted to the rank of AD II, but to no avail. Due to the alleged unethical conduct of some interview panelists, teachers had formed opinions about the GES promotions towards young professionals who because of their educational level had moved quickly to the rank of Principal Superintendent (PS). A teacher with the rank of PS who has attended promotion interviews three times proclaimed; In my first interview one panel member remarked; young certificated PS, want to move to AD II, are you sure you are prepared for this rank? I answered yes! But I knew I had failed in advance because of this statement (FGDs with teachers, 2017). The teacher reiterated that during his second interview, as he was walking into the room, he overheard the panelists discussing among themselves, where one panel member said; These young guys, you think you can go over to AD II and leave your seniors behind. Another teacher passionately spoke out and said; Look, the panelists do not regard the young professionals at all. They pointed to me that I was too young to move to the rank of AD II and that I should not worry when my time comes I will be moved to AD II (FGDs with teachers, 2017). This fits exactly into Roche (1979), arguments that promotions can be affected by organisational politics through personal knowledge, attributes, values and belief systems of the decision maker (in this case, the interview panel). This assertion typifies the arguments made by young teachers that the retired educationists who are engaged by the GES to conduct 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh interviews have disregard for the young professionals who go through the ranks quickly by virtue of their educational qualification. A critical look at the Age and Ranks of Teachers illustrates this clearly in Table 4.1. Table 4.1: Age and Ranks of Teachers Age Frequency Percentage (%) Ranks Break down Rank (# of teachers) < 36 10 30 SS/PS. SS (7) and PS (3) 36-40 16 47 PS PS (15) and AD (1) >40 8 23 AD/DD AD (6) and DD (2) Total 34 100 Source: Author’s own construction based on field data, 2017 From Table 4.1, all teachers below forty (40) years are mostly Senior and Principal Superintendent (PS), while teachers who are above forty (40) years are within the ranks of Assistant Director (AD) and Deputy Director (DD). This data confirms the position that the practices of GES promotion does not favour young professional teachers who have attained the level of Principal Superintendent by dint of their educational level. This is a clear indication that age plays a significant role in promoting a teacher to the rank of AD and DD. Meanwhile, in the conditions of service of the GES, the prospects of a young professional of twenty two (22) years, with an initial rank of SS and PS to rise to the rank of AD at the age of thirty (30) to thirty five (35) years is high. Some Headteachers added their voices to the perception teachers have on the deliberate denial of young professionals from rising to the senior ranks. Some Headteachers submitted 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that they had heard indirect comments made by some panel members before. This is how he put it, Sometimes the panelists do not make the point straight forward to you but their speech, action and mannerism suggest a lot to the interviewee that despite his competence he/she is likely to be delayed for some time. A look at the age bracket of teachers who hold the rank of AD suggest that GES sometimes looks at the age and length of service (Interview with Headteachers, 2017). This means that some panel members on promotion interviews have contributed to the delays of teachers to move from one rank to another within the senior ranks. 4.2.5 Salary Upgrading Promotion is the upgrading of an employee which involves increase in rank/post and responsibilities. Generally, promotions are accompanied by increases in pay/salary, benefits and perquisites (Adams et al., 2016). In line with this, all promotions in the GES come with upward salary adjustments. Some of the positions in the GES are dry promotion and do not come with salary adjustments but with allowances and perquisites. Positions such as Headteacher/Headmaster, Circuit Supervisor, or Senior House Master, are typical examples of dry promotions in the GES. It was observed that after promotions teachers are not given automatic salary adjustment. All newly promoted teachers are required to apply for salary upgrading and adjustment before they are placed on the right salary scale. Teachers confessed that this process can span a period of one year. They (teachers) admitted that until 2014, teachers were paid all salary arrears taking effect from the date of promotion to the new rank, but government has since been lackadaisical in paying teachers their salary arrears. Teachers registered their 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh displeasure towards government for denying them their salary arrears and paying them only three months arrears. I was promoted in October 2015 and applied for salary adjustment in November 2015. My salary was accordingly adjusted in September, 2016. On my promotion letter the right salary scale should take effect in October, 2015. I was only given three months’ salary arrears. So the government denied me about nine month salary arrears. This is not fair (FGD with teachers, 2017) According to the Integrated Payroll and Personnel Database (IPPD) department of the GES office, government has shown commitment to paying the arrears and some teachers have already received theirs. An announcement was made in 2015 for teachers to apply for validation and salary arrears before they were paid their salary, but, most of the teachers did not apply. That is why they were not paid their arrears. But teachers had a contrary view on this, We have applied for validation not just once but for three to four times but to no avail from 2014 to date. The recent applications were on the 9th and 10th March, 2017. That was even a mess, because teachers could not find their names among those qualified to apply for salary arrears. Which means that they were not to receive any arrears which is not true. What I am saying was shown on TV3, Metro TV, Joy News, at 7:00 PM and 10:00 PM news, 9th, in March 2017 (FGD with teachers, 2017). Teachers are convinced that they would not receive salary arrears from the government because it has been long overdue. In Ongori’s (2007) submission he noted that pay and pay- related variables such as promotion and employees’ performance have an overbearing effect on motivation and turnover. Hence, if teachers are not satisfied with the related pay that come with their promotion, there is the likely threat of teacher dissatisfaction and attrition. 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To counteract the claims of teachers about their salary arrears not being paid, the education officers explained that the reason teachers were asked to validate their promotion letters and certificates for their salary arrears was that, in one way or the other teachers obtain promotion letters which are not valid. So the validation was instituted to rid the system of corruption. The officers intimated that when the validation was started in 2015, hundreds of teachers were expelled from the service because they had fake promotion letters and certificates. This confirms the position stated by Poisson (2010), that obstacles in the promotion process can breed corruption. Teachers cited the promotion letters issued in April, 2017 to prove that government had denied them their salary arrears. The first paragraph of the letter promoting a Principal Superintendent (PS) to Assistant Director II (AD. II), reads, PROMOTION TO THE GRADE OF ASSISTANT DIRECTOR II I am pleased to inform you that His Excellency the President on the advice of the Ghana Education Service Council has authorized your promotion to the grade of ASSISTANT DIRECTOR II. This promotion takes effect from 1st September 2015 but you will be placed on your current rank effective 1st April, 2017 (GES, 2017) This means that all teachers promoted will be paid salaries to commensurate with their new ranks beginning from April, 2017 instead of September, 2015. This is an indication that a backlog of almost two years of salary arrears has been denied the teachers, a situation described by the teachers as unfair. 4.3 Determinants of Staff Promotion in GES Determinants of promotion are the various factors to consider in staff promotion. Staff promotion in an organisation may be given on the basis of seniority, merit or a combination of both. According to the GES, the basis of staff promotion is both seniority and merit. This 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh seeks to maintain a proper balance of the two (Seniority and Merit based promotion) so that the drawbacks of one will be offset by the other. Determinants of staff promotion identified in the GES are illustrated in Figure 4.5 below as Educational qualification, length of continuous service, performance and output of work, and other factors like teacher’s competence (leadership skills, communication skills, ability, knowledge, and attitude). Figure 4.5: Determinants of Promotion Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. 4.3.1 Educational Level The Ghana Education Service employs all manner of personnel with different qualifications ranging from certificates, diplomas, degrees, masters to Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.), to perform diverse functions. All qualifications have their entry points. It was revealed that the following ranks in Table 4.2 correspond with each certificate at the entry point of the high school level in descending order. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.2: Educational Qualifications and Entry points Rank Qualification Deputy Director (DD) Subject to passing a competitive Promotion Interview Assistant Director (AD) II/I Subject to passing a competitive Promotion Interview Principal Superintendent (PS) First Degree/Master’s Degree Senior Superintendent (SS) II/I Diploma Superintendent (S) II/I Teachers Certificate A. Pupil’s Teacher (PT) A’ Level, O’ Level, SSSCE/WSSCE, NVTI. Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. Due to inadequate personnel in the GES, Ordinary Level and SSCE/WSSCE certificate holders have been employed to teach at the kindergarten and the lower primary school level in some of the deprived schools. In order to give this crop of teachers the professional training and skills, the GES has collaborated with the University of Cape Coast and University of Education, Winneba, to develop a sandwich and distance professional certificate, as well as diploma and degree programs for the, Ordinary Level and SSCE/WASSCE certificate holders, in order to equip them with professional training and upgrade them to the next available rank. At present, all certificate holders in the GES are mandated to upgrade to diploma level. Currently, the thirty eight (38) Colleges of Education are the main source of human resource development of the GES. The University of Education 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and the University of Cape Coast also provide avenues for SSCE and professional certificate holders to be trained in Diploma, Degree, Master’s, and Ph.D., programs. Teachers who are nonprofessionals are also supplied by the other universities and tertiary institutions. When a teacher obtains a qualification she/he is automatically moved upwards to the next rank (new rank), on application. Table 4.3 below illustrates these vividly, Table 4.3: Teachers’ Current Ranks and the Certificate that qualify them to their New Ranks. Current Rank Qualification New Rank Teacher’s Certificate A Superintendent (S) Pupil’s Teacher Diploma Senior Superintendent (SS) Degree Principal Superintendent (PS) Masters Principal Superintendent (PS) Current Rank Qualification New Rank Diploma Senior Superintendent (SS) Superintendent Degree Principal Superintendent (PS) Masters Principal Superintendent (PS) Current Rank Qualification New Rank Senior Superintendent Degree Principal Superintendent (PS) Masters Principal Superintendent (PS) Current Rank Qualification New Rank Principal Promotion Interview Assistant Director (AD) Superintendent 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Assistant Director Promotion Interview Deputy Director (DD) (AD) Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. All the FGDs confirmed the various movements along the career ladder as a result of obtaining certificates, diplomas, degrees or masters, depending on the rank of a teacher at a particular point in time. However, a problematic feature of a teacher’s qualification as a factor for promotion is that, at the rank of PS any additional qualification obtained by the teacher will not qualify the teacher to the next level of AD. A Principal Superintendent who has obtained his/her master’s degree also has to serve for four years in order to be promoted as an AD subject to passing a promotion interview. The bench mark of qualifying for upgrading (promotion) with educational qualification is Principal Superintendent (PS). Beyond PS level, any additional degree obtained will only be an added advantage (Interview with GES officers, 2017). When officers were asked why a PS with a master’s degree cannot automatically qualify for the rank of AD, one officer retorted; You do not need a master’s degree to teach at the high school. You only need a degree. (Interview with GES officers, 2017). The above observation portrays the fact that teachers are very much worried about this practice. Many teachers who had obtained their masters at the PS level are still stagnating at the PS level. A teacher passionately lamented; 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Why is GES doing this to us! They encourage us to upgrade our selves. I have done my degree and master’s but I am still where I am. How can situations like this motivate me to work hard or be a teacher? Another observation was that, this practice has become one of the leading causes of exit of teachers from the GES. Two of the teachers who has exited the GES said their qualifications were not recognised. I went for my master degree and when I came back to the GES it was not recognised, so I was not promoted to Assistant Director II (interview with former teachers of GES, 2017). According to Ngala (2010), one of the reasons for teachers leaving the GES for greener pastures after obtaining their degrees is the lack of equitable condition of services that recognise teachers’ qualifications for promotion, and inadequate compensation. Teachers have expressed concerns about colleagues who had migrated from the profession as a result of obtaining masters degrees which were not recognised. If further education, training, career advancement, and promotion are part of the conditions of service of teachers, and also part of the retention policies of the GES, then it should be seen to be equitably administered. This phenomenon explains why employees quit pursuing promotion and change their orientation to developing skills through further education in order to obtain higher wages from greener pastures (Cole, 1971; Ouchi and Wilkins, 1985). 4.3.2 Length of Time Served by a Teacher The basis of promotion in the GES is both seniority and merit. Seniority is hinged on the relative length of service or the consistent number of years served by an employee in an organisation. Data from the GES indicates that, as part of the factors considered for promotion, all teachers at the point of joining the GES must serves a certain number of years 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh before qualifying to the next available rank. According to the human resource, the number of years served by teachers from one rank to the other is represented in Table 4.4 below, Table 4.4: Number of years served by teachers to move them from their current Rank to the next Rank. From old Rank To new Rank No. years from old to new Rank Senior Superintendent II Senior Superintendent I 4 Principal Superintendent Assistant Director II 4 Assistant Director II Assistant Director I 4 Assistant Director I Deputy Director 4 Deputy Director Director II 4 Director II Director I 4 Source: Author’s own construction based on data from GES, 2017. Discussions with teachers confirmed the information in Table 4.3. However, given the information provided, teachers had reservations with the staff promotion practices that go on in the GES. Two teachers cited instances of their promotions respectively; I was due for promotion in 2011 but I was notified to apply in 2013; I was also due for promotion in 2014 but I was notified to apply for promotion in 2016 (FGD with teachers, 2017). Additionally, the period between the time of application and promotion is about one to two years. Teachers who applied for promotion in March, 2013 were called for interview in December, 2013, and the results of the interview were published in May, 2014. Subsequently, teachers who applied for promotion in September, 2015 were interviewed in November, 2016 and the results of the interview were published in April, 2017. This means that about two to 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh three additional years were added to the four stipulated years that qualify a teacher for promotion. One of the circuit supervisors admitted that; Teachers who were promoted to Principal Superintendent in 2007 were supposed to be promoted to the next rank of Assistant Director II in 2011, but they were rather promoted to Assistant Director II in 2014. Another example is that, those who were promoted to Principal Superintendent in 2010 were actually supposed to be promoted to Assistant Director II in 2014, but they were rather promoted to Assistant Director II in 2017 (Interview with Circuit Supervisor, 2017). Practically, this means that teachers serve for seven years before they are promoted to Assistant Director and beyond. This actually confirms Riggs (1969), Prismatic Sala Model of Heterogeneity, Formalism, and Overlapping. Riggs emphasised that the Formalism is characterised by bureaucrats identifying themselves with laws, policies and laid down rules, whereas the practice is a different thing. Hence, the GES policy to promote teachers in the fifth year after serving for four years is not adhered to. Officers at the Metro Education office corroborated this fact, but added that it was as a result of factors beyond their control, such as the transition involved in the change of government, and budgetary constraint of the central government. All public sector workers subsist on the Consolidated Fund but not on the Local Authorities. So until clearance is given to the GES on the numbers to promote, the GES cannot initiate the process. Therefore a greater number will be denied promotion because of the quota system. This goes to confirm Amsalu’s (2013), assertion that policies and procedures formulated by organisations to reward their employees with promotions can be affected by central government’s actions and inactions, most especially, new government policies and laws can disorganise companies’ promotion policies. 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.3 Performance and Output of Teachers Teachers’ performance or output of work is a factor to be reckon with in the Ghana Education Service (GES). The productivity of employees in an organisation culminates in the overall performance of the organisation. The output of teachers is one of the litmus tests to the quality standard of education, hence, a good determinant for staff promotion in the GES. The question is, how do we measure the performances of a teacher? Data obtained from the GES indicates that there are two ways to measure teachers’ performance. These two ways are the performance appraisal of teachers and the monitoring and observation of teachers otherwise known as the inspection of teachers. The two main ways also cascade into other subsidiary indicators (competence); ability/knowledge, efficiency, effectiveness, attitude, leadership and innovation, experience, relationship with colleague teachers and pupils (student). Performance appraisal is used to measure the performance of senior rank staff, from Principal Superintendent to Director, while the work inspection is used to measure the performance of junior rank, from Pupils’ Teacher to Senior Superintendent. They (Officers at GES) also disclosed that the old performance appraisal system is no more in use. The new performance management and appraisal system is what the GES uses to manage the performance of its teachers. The old performance appraisal has been abandoned for the new performance management and appraisal which was provided to GES by the Public Services Commission (PSC) as a template for us to manage the performance of all GES staff. We began using the new performance management and appraisals in 2013 (Interview with GES officers, 2017). He continued to explain that the new performance management system allows the Headteachers and Circuit Supervisors to continually interact with teachers on the progress of their work within the academic year. The Headteachers confirmed that the old appraisals 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were done annually, but the new one engages both the appraiser and the appraisee throughout the year. The new performance appraisal system has four phases; performance planning, progress review, review and appraisal, and decision making. The Headteachers reiterated that when teachers are due for promotion, they are rather provided with a new set of appraisal forms to complete instead of appraisals done with teachers in the previous years. There are some technicalities with the new performance appraisals and they are yet to be understood. To use a new appraisal indicates that the previous appraisals are unimportant. And it is done just like the old annual appraisal system. This further means that teachers will set new performance targets and objectives that have not yet been achieved. They will assume that progress reviews and appraisals have been done already which is not so (Interview with Headteachers, 2017). The Headteachers added that even though they had started using the New Performance Management and Appraisal system. The GES was actually lackadaisical using it for any major decision on teachers. The only time they pay attention to it is when teachers are applying for promotion, and because some sections on the form are not understood, processing the form becomes very difficult. This observation agrees with the observation by Bawole et al., (2013) that the public sector becomes interested in performance appraisals only when employees are due for promotion. They (Headteachers) lamented that, it does not demonstrate the true reflection of the teacher’s performance, and recommended that appraisals that have been done already with teachers should be used as inputs for staff promotion. It was reiterated that when this is done it will bring some credibility and fairness to the system since some teachers do not work enough to deserve promotions. Teachers have raised issues about how their performances are measured. Explaining these concerns, they revealed that there are lazy teachers in the service who do not 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh discharge their duties appropriately. Meanwhile, they get promoted when they are due for promotion, simply because they have been able to justify themselves during promotion interviews. They (teachers) believe that it does not auger well with the hard working teachers. Look, we know ourselves well and we can tell who is working and who is not working. Better still, when these lazy ones go for promotion interview they pass and leave the hard working teachers behind, simply because they performed well at the interview (FGD with teachers, 2017). They (teachers) proffered that work supervision should be intensified on regular bases and records on every teacher’s output or performance and improvements should be guided carefully in the new performance management appraisals. In their view, both promotion interview and work inspection should be used concurrently to create a balance between the candidate’s conduct at an interview, and his/her regular conduct on the field of work to determine the right person for promotion. The Circuit Supervisors and Headteachers were of the same view that the GES had given them the responsibility to write report on all teachers into the Logbook but lamented that these report are seldom used to augment the promotion processes. Teachers did not agree with that because they thought that they might be abused by the Circuit Supervisor and the Headteacher to victimize them. Teachers who are critical about the welfare issues of colleagues are also critical about unfavorable decisions and management styles of Circuit Supervisors and Headteachers and because of that, we have seen these teachers victimized by them (Circuit Supervisors and Headteachers) on several occasions (FGDs with teachers, 2017). Teachers who bemoan this fact advocated that if the Logbook is to be used in the promotion process, it should be added to the external inspection theme’s report so that it can be used to 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh call the ‘truce’ when promotion interview panelists are in dilemma about the teacher’s general conduct and output of work. 4.3.4 Exceptional Factors Teachers asserted that the outstanding performance of their colleagues in the profession deserved to be recongnised and rewarded accordingly during staff promotion. Much was said about the military, police and other professions on how they recognise their distinguished employees with instant pecuniary benefits and promotions. In their view, the National Best Teachers Award (NBTA) can be used to promote outstanding teachers who defy all odds to excel in their profession. They reiterated that the only award seen is the one which is covered by the media on the NBTA day. The NBTA is predicated on several categories of awards won by teachers in the various Districts and Regions of the country. These crop of teachers are not recognised with any tangible benefits. Therefore, these teachers should be promoted one step or two as a consolation to their effort. I was the best special education resource teacher in the Central Region in 2015. I was not given a certificate or any award to laud me for my efforts. I was promised a sound system and that has not been given to me as we speak (FGDs with teachers, 2017) The Circuit Supervisors added their voices on the NBTA scheme that, it is a good tool for motivating teachers but it is just a preserve of the few who are represented on the NBTA day. There is a backlog of teachers, who have won the same awards at the District and Regional levels to climax the grand finale of the NBTA. A teacher said, I think that teachers who win awards at their Districts and Regions should be taken on board by the GES in terms of moving them some steps ahead on the career ladder if there are no sponsors to help give such teachers tangible awards (Interview with CS, 2017). 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Teachers were very positive that promoting colleagues who excel in the NBTA scheme from Sub-Districts, Districts, Regional and National levels would not only boost the morale of teachers, but will also improve on their performance since the NBTA award scheme has a great deal to do with teachers’ general performance. According to the GES officials, GNAT proposed this to the GES to include it in the staff promotion scheme some years back, but it is still going through the consideration stage. It was discovered that government has not accepted to take it on board as a tool for promotion of teachers. 4.4 The Influence of Staff Promotion on Motivation and Performance To keep employees motivated is one of the major tasks of every employer this can be resolved in a number of ways. Promotions to positions that include more responsibilities and authority are among the many ways that employers have to motivate workers. The possibility of staff promotion to motivate teachers is high, especially, when it goes in tandem with increase, in salary, authority and responsibilities. According to Hu (2017), indicators for measuring the motivation of teachers include work output, punctuality, early reporting time, relationship with colleagues and pupils and the general mood of the teacher among others. Some Head teachers were indifferent with their responses concerning teacher motivation. Headteachers could not confidently tell whether those who had been promoted have enhanced their work output. They disclosed that teachers’ output for the last four to five (5) years had remained almost the same, they keep fluctuating every term, and it is very difficult to tell if the trend is due to the promotion of some of the teachers. Two Headteachers were however emphatic about the general output and performance of teachers but did not attribute it to staff promotion. 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Just staff promotion cannot improve the performance of teachers. The only thing that improves the performance of my staff is when I am strict and firm with work inspection. Supervision and inspection are the only means that can aid the performance of teachers (Interview with Headteachers, 2017). Headteachers admitted that they had hard working teachers but did not associate their performance solely to staff promotion. To them, love for the profession and the fulfillment got from seeing students excel in their examinations, is the stimuli for teachers’ motivation and performance. This assertion also confirms the work done by GNAT and TEWU (2009) on teacher attrition in Ghana, in which part of their findings revealed that the love for the profession (teaching), other than pecuniary gains, kept teachers in the profession. Headteachers articulated that upward salary adjustments that come with promotion are too marginal, and therefore not enough to motivate teachers. From the perspective of a Circuit Supervisor, when teachers are promoted their general mood is good, but that does not translate into performance. The CSs added that the reporting time of teachers to school, their relationship with colleagues and pupils, does not improve after they have been promoted. A CS corroborated that their work as field supervisors expose this, Teachers’ performances do not change at all. The output of teachers last three years ago is the same as this year. I am saying this because as a supervisor I go for work inspection and see that teachers do not write lesson notes, give enough exercises, and come to school on time (Interview with CS, 2017). This is an indication that staff promotion of teachers does not necessarily influence their work output. This observation has confirmed the findings of Kian, Yusoff and Raja (2014) who established that there is a positive relationship between satisfaction and motivation, but satisfaction does not mean motivation that will lead to productivity. Headteachers indicated 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh that work inspection, supervision and performance-based pay is one of the important means that can incentivize teachers to increase output and performance. 4.5 Retention and Attrition of Teachers Teacher attrition and retention are generally affected by the level of remuneration (Ngala, 2010). Teachers do not have any means of increasing their salaries, except by vying for increase in ranks to up their gains. Teachers noted that the government hid under the banner of resource constraints to deny them (teachers) of promotions, or salary increases, Our salaries are just meagre but any agitation for the government to increase our salaries always come to naught. We are mostly met with excuses like “the government is facing resource constraints.” Those of us who are trapped in GES have promotion as the source of increasing our salaries, though salaries that accompany promotions are very marginal. The government gives quotas to be promoted every year. (FGD with teachers, 2017). This conforms to the observation made by Jude (2011), and Adam’s et al., (2016) that, because of resource constraints the GES is obliged to use a quota system for promotions. Meanwhile, promotion and its attendant pecuniary benefits can reduce the quit propensity of teachers (Feng, 2005). TEWU and GNAT (2009) advanced that the age group in GES with the highest rate of attrition is the young professionals (22 to 40 years of age). Headteachers confirmed this fact. I have seen several young teachers enrolling on distance programs for their degrees and masters but after obtaining their certificates they leave to work in other organisations where career prospects and remunerations are higher (Interviews with Headteachers, 2017). The above fact also falls within the causes of teacher attrition expressed by Stockard and Lehman (2004), as low salaries and working conditions, inadequate motivation and job 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfaction. Meanwhile, one of the practices that brings about the improvement of teacher salary and job satisfaction is staff promotion (GNAT and TEWU, 2009). This means that the manner in which staff promotion is managed in the GES can have an adverse effects on the retention of teachers. Further enquiry indicated that teachers’ plans on further studies are undisputed. The only means of moving up the ladder and enriching one’s knowledge is via higher education, though there is a stagnation point where no further education can push a teacher higher the ladder. This also leads to higher attrition rates since most teachers leave for greener pastures after obtaining their bachelor and master degrees (TEWU and GNAT, 2009). It was revealed that when teachers apply for further studies or study leave they pursue courses that sometimes have no bearing on the classroom at the basic level and when they complete their programs they quit the GES. According to the GES officials, they (GES) have approved courses for teachers to pursue higher education. This is to ensure that the GES does not educate teachers to be poached by other institutions. This was confirmed earlier by Ngala (2010), in a survey where a significant figure of teachers avowed that they pursued higher programs in education to enable them leave the GES for other jobs. They also did not recommend the profession to their children and other relatives. 4.6 Chapter Conclusion This chapter discussed and analysed demographic and main data collected from the Focused Group Discussions with teachers, and Interviews conducted with Headteachers, Circuit Supervisors, GNAT local Executives, and GES officers at the Accra Metro Education office. The discussions revealed that the staff promotion processes in the GES involve a lot of bureaucracy with its attendant problems. It revealed five major stages; notification of 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh application for promotion, application processes, promotion interview or work supervision, promotion and application for salary upgrading and adjustments. According to the GES the bases of staff promotion indicate seniority and merit-based promotion, but however, according to the analyses of data, practices lean more on seniority and age than merit. The discussions also indicates that staff promotions barely have influence on motivation of teachers. If it does, it just excites teachers but does not necessarily influence performance. Yet still, the lack of promotion, or presence of promotion related problems, urges teachers to quit the profession. The next chapter, Chapter five (5), which is the concluding chapter, deals with the summary, findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.0 Chapter Introduction This study was conducted to assess the staff promotion processes of the Ghana Education Service (GES). Specifically, to assesses teachers’ views of GES staff promotion processes, the determinants of staff promotion, the influence of staff promotion on teacher motivation and the effects of staff promotion practices of the GES on the retention and attrition of teachers, using qualitative (interview and focus group discussions) data collection procedure. This chapter presents the summary of the findings, conclusions and recommendations of the study. The chapter also suggests areas in relation to this study for further research. 5.1 Summary of Major Findings of the Study This section presents a summary of the major findings of the four objectives of the study, the processes of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service, the determinants of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service, the effects of Staff Promotion on Teacher Motivation and the effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers. This section presents the findings in four sub-sections. 5.1.1 The Processes of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service. The study revealed that there are two types of promotions, which are internal and external promotion. Internal promotions are done for the junior rank staff at the District level while the external promotions are done for the senior rank staff at the Regional and National levels. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It was revealed that all candidates due for promotion go through five stages to complete their promotion processes. First, qualified candidates are served with notices to apply for promotion. The application is done by processing and submitting an application form and performance management and appraisal form duly completed with its accompanying attachments. This is followed by a promotion interview conducted for all the shortlisted candidates for promotions. After the interview, the successful candidates are served with promotion letters to proceed with application for salary upgrading and adjustment. The study also revealed that the average duration between the last promotions to the next promotion of a teacher within the senior ranks is seven (7) years. But the promotion policy of the GES stipulates that, teachers are supposed to serve for four years to qualify them for promotion in the fifth year. But this is not done, the process rather starts in the fifth or sixth year, and ends in the seventh or eighth year. This means that in reality, the GES depart from its own policy confirming Riggs (1964) Prismatic Sala Model of Formalism where administrators respect rules that actually do not mirror practices which prevail. In this phenomenon, the four years is just a principle in the GES, but not actually adhered to. It was discovered that the process of applications and the performance management and appraisal form is too cumbersome. The number of times teachers had to fill the form under the guidance of the Circuit Supervisor and officers at the Metro Education office is an indication of the fact that the new performance management and appraisal form for teachers is not understood by them. This situation has led to many teachers abandoning the system. The difficulty in the processes has become a threat to fairness and justice in the staff promotion processes because some dishonest and vulnerable officers of the GES have taken advantage of the system to accept offers from teachers in order to circumvent and expedite the processes for teachers. This confirms such difficult processes averred by Lemons and Jones (2001) as breeding grounds for corruption. Another prominent revelation was that, 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some teachers found their way to obtain fake promotion letters to undeserving ranks from some dishonest GES officers. This confirms the assertion that, corruption exists because the standards and procedures associated with staff promotion are mostly equivocal, and widely not understood by all stakeholder groups (Tuwei et al., 2013). The major findings that have cascaded into the findings discussed previously are as a result of the limited use of information technology in the GES management and administration to process correspondence with teachers. The website of GES was developed some years back, but the platform to process teachers documents on staff promotion, salary upgrading and others are not yet fully developed. Online application could deliver reliable and timely information to the GES as well as an automatic and robotic system of validation and shortlisting of candidates for interviews (Turban, Leidner, McLean and Wetherbe, 2008). The study has shown that GES promotion interviews are a terrifying and frightening situation for teachers because, panel members do not create friendly atmosphere for teachers during the interview process. This is as a result of the age of teachers and the abysmal performance of some teachers at the interview. If a candidate hears the phrase “you are young” that candidate will surely conclude that he/she will not be promoted. This claim was confirmed by Headteachers and Circuit Supervisors on the sidelines. On application for salary upgrading and adjustment, it was revealed that government has ceased paying teachers’ salary arrears. Promotion letters issued to teachers in April 2017 proves that teachers will not be paid their arrears. The study also shows that promotions at the junior rank level is tainted with corruption as it was confirmed that inspection officers are often offered some pecuniary packages which were said to influence decisions of the GES officers on promotions. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.1.2 The Determinants of Staff Promotion in the Ghana Education Service. The study revealed that there are three major determinants for staff promotion in GES; educational qualification, length of consistent services on the job, and performance or output of work. One major element which was discovered as a potential factor but which is not considered by the GES is, what the teachers termed as exceptional factors. An instance is when a teacher wins an award for exhibiting his or her professionalism at the Circuit, District or Regional level leading to winning a National Best Teachers Award (NBTA) of any category. Currently, a teacher can win the NBTA which is characterized by a series of interviews and inspection of work, and still fail a single promotion interview. This means that, there is disconnect between the two meanwhile, they should be complementing each other. For the educational qualification as a determinant for promotion, it was discovered that teachers have a limit to which further education can move them ahead on the career ladder. Teachers have the opportunity to upgrade themselves to the rank of Principal Superintendent with a bachelor’s degree, beyond which all teachers are subject to passing promotion interview irrespective of obtaining their master degrees which is just an added advantage, but not a prerequisite; a situation teachers have described as unfair and which leads to attrition (Ngala, 2010; Ouchi, 1981; Cole, 1971). Further, on the consistent length of service of teachers as a determinant of promotion, the study discovered that practically, the GES does not adhere to the stipulated period of four years which teachers have serve to qualify them for promotion. Analysis of the data revealed that the number of years teachers serve for promotion at the senior rank is seven (7) years. A retrospective look confirms this assertion. Teachers who were promoted in 2007 received their next promotion in 2014. Though backdated to 2012, they were not paid their salary arrears. This indirectly means they were promoted in 2014. Those (teachers) who were 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh promoted in 2010 had their next promotions in April, 2017. These two promotions are enough to conclude that teachers served for seven (7) years before they receive their next promotion. Ocran (2010), was of the view that promotions done in long intervals demoralizes employees whiles promotions in short intervals based on performance and output of work encourages hard work and productivity. This simply means that promotion based on performance, is preferred to promotion based on continuous length of service of employees. It was further revealed that the true performance of candidates (teachers) for promotion are abysmally assessed since they were being dictated to put figures and information that does not tally with their actual performance on the Performance Management and Appraisal form. This does not give a true reflection of the teachers’ performance trajectory to draw conclusion on their promotions. This observation agrees with Bawole et al., (2013), proclamation that, the public sector becomes more interested in performance appraisals only when employees are due for promotion. Teachers have raised this concerns with the GES to re-examine. 5.1.3 The Effects of Staff Promotion on Teacher Motivation. Headteachers and Circuit Supervisors were indifferent in their response to the question concerning the influence of promotion of teachers on motivation and performance. They could not establish whether or not that teachers are motivated after being promoted. References in their Log Books revealed that teachers work output, punctuality, reporting time, relationships with colleagues and pupils have remained fluctuating within the same range. So, Headteachers could not make an emphatic statement that promotion in the GES motivates teachers. But inferring to teachers’ general mood after every promotion, Headteachers reiterated that teachers felt good, happy and excited, indicating some amount of satisfaction, but nothing goes beyond that feeling. This goes to confirm earlier finding in the literature which suggest that as much as job satisfaction has a positive correlation with 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motivation, being satisfied after achieving such things like promotion is not a guarantee to motivation and performance. 5.1.4 The Effects of Staff Promotion on the Retention and Attrition of Teachers. Responses from both teachers and Circuit Supervisors indicated that the processes leading to the promotion of a teacher are cumbersome and time consuming. For instance, practically, the number of years teachers serve to get their promotions and salary increases is not attractive to teachers. The period between one rank and another within the senior ranks is seven (7) years instead of the stipulated period of five (5) years. The new performance management and appraisal systems is not understood by teachers and are also improperly administered by Headteachers and Circuit Supervisors (CSs) during promotion. This has led to promotion interviews which are described by teachers as a tense atmosphere supposedly created by interview panelists. The Government’s inability to place teachers on the right salary scale following their promotions coupled with the failure to pay teachers their salary arrears even after improperly migrating teachers onto the right salary scale is another unfair treatment to teachers in the promotion processes. According to the teachers, this situation described by teachers has created a lot of discomfort for them in the past years. As a result the perennial exodus of teachers from the GES has been attributed to the inequity in the promotion package for teachers described in the previous paragraphs. This was corroborated by teachers who have quit the GES that, the impetus for them exiting GES is the unfair reward system of the GES which is characterized by low and anomalous salaries, and unfair and difficult promotion practices. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.2 Conclusions In general, a number of the practices in the GES promotion processes do not conform to the distributive and procedural justice explained by Lemons and Jones (2001), as the perceived fairness and equity in staff promotion practices, given that, the general objectives of the study were to examine the staff promotion policy and practices in the GES. As such, the following are the conclusions made from the findings of the study For the staff promotion processes, it was revealed that the application processes are cumbersome, since the application and performance management and appraisal forms are too technical for teachers to comprehend. This situation is exacerbated by promotion interviews conducted by the GES using mean interview panelist who have scared many teachers with their conduct from applying for promotions. As a result, despondent teachers have resigned from the promotion processes with the intentions to stay on their current ranks, or seek for greener pastures by quitting the Ghana Education Service. It was also revealed that the average number of years spent by teachers to get their promotions is seven (7) years as opposed to the five (5) years stipulated in the GES promotion policy. Application for salary upgrading which is hinged on every successful promotion has been found to be daunting and anomalous, taking a long time for the teachers to be put on the right salary scale. Albeit, salary arrears are not paid to teachers after all the necessary conditions have been met in a given promotion regime. Staff promotion which is intended to motivate teachers to perform, rather do not have any influence on them. Findings made on the determinants of promotions indicate that apart from education and training, length of continuous service, and performance and output of work, one major determinants which was ignored by the GES was what the teachers termed as exceptional factors. For example, teachers are calling for the inclusion of prize winners in the 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh determinants of promotion. They bemoaned that a situation where award winners are not promoted automatically sounds illogical and does not enhance performance. More so, the height at which educational qualification can promote a teacher on the career ladder at the basic level is untenable for Principal Superintendents. At least, a master’s degree should suffice for a teacher to move one Step from Principal Superintendent to Assistant Director II. The seven years that teachers serve to get their promotions, and the age group within the senior ranks, do not make the profession attractive for young and ambitious professionals who are performance oriented. Meanwhile, performance appraisals are abysmally administered because of teachers’ inability to understand the technicalities of the performance appraisal system. The study revealed that staff promotion has no influence on motivation and performance. There were no disputes about the satisfaction teachers derive from promotion. However, satisfaction did not automatically translate into motivation and performance. Finally, it was discovered that GES promotions have greater influence on the attrition of teachers due to the unattractive nature of staff promotion practices. Following this, teachers use further studies program offered to them to add value to themselves and later quit the GES. 5.3 Recommendations Based on the findings and the conclusions of the study, the following recommendations are made to address the issues raised. In the first place, the GES should fully develop its website to enable all applications to be made via the internet to ensure speed and accuracy instead of the manual system which breeds bureaucracy, leading to improper and anomalous filing of applications and corrupt practices in Ghana the Education Service. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Ghana Education Service in collaboration with the Public Services Commission should simplify the various sections on the New Performance and Appraisal form in order to demystify the technicalities on the forms so that teachers will be able to provide the required information for better performance evaluation. Better still, a comprehensive training program should be organised for teachers on the demands of the New Performance and Appraisals System. To enable the creation of a conducive atmosphere during promotion interviews, consistent orientation should be given to interview panelists constituted by the GES annually on how to conduct affable and cordial interviews with teachers. The career progression of teachers is very important to them since it helps to address some of their financial challenges. Hence, the GES should work at using short intervals to promote teachers based on merit when teachers ask for promotion by dint of their performance and output of work, including prize winners, such as Best Teachers Award of any categories in the various District, Regional and National levels. This will boost the morale of teachers, motivate teachers to perform, and reduce the attrition rate of teachers. The most sensitive part of the promotion processes is salary upgrading and the payment of salary arrears. Hence, the Ghana Education Service, the Fair Wages and Salaries Commission (FWSC), and the Controller and Accountant-Generals (CAG) Department should collaborate and design a system that will automatically validate and migrate teachers onto the right salary scale immediately a teacher is promoted to the next higher rank. This will ensure that teachers are put on the right salary scales and paid the right salary including the right salary arrears due them. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.4 Limitations of the Study The study was limited to the current officers of the Accra Metro Education Directorate and teachers of the basic schools within the Accra Metropolis. Teachers who had quit GES for greener pastures, and GNAT local executives also took part in the study. The findings and conclusions of the study cannot be extended to teachers in the Senior High Schools, teachers in the Colleges of Education, and retired teachers. 5.5 Contributions of the Study to Theory The Equity Theory of Motivation (Adams, 1965) suggests that employees seeks, to maintain a balance between what they put into the job, and what they get from their job (inputs and outcomes). This study supports the theory when it concludes that teachers are not motivated by the staff promotion practices of the GES, because promotion is not done fairly per the rules and procedures of engagement. Meanwhile, the majority of teachers have resolved to balance their inputs with their outcomes by putting up just satisfactory performance, which is an indication of lack of motivation. As a result teachers have taken advantage of the study leave program and further studies to quit GES for greener pastures after graduation. It must be noted that staff promotion is a tool used to boost the morale of teachers, as well as improve on their retention if it is fairly and equitably administered, as suggested by Adams’ Equity Theory of Motivation. 5.6 Areas for Further Research This study uses the qualitative approach to assess the staff promotion of teachers in the Ghana Education Service. Other areas for further research could be the following. 1. A study could be conducted on the New Performance Management and Appraisal system to review the sections that are too technical for teachers to understand. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. A study could be conducted to compare the conduct on panelists for promotion, using two or more Regional Directorates of Education. 3. A study could be conducted on programs offered by teachers at the various universities on study leave against the stated programs defined by the GES to be offered by teachers on study leave. 5.7 Chapter Conclusion This chapter concluded the study by discussing the summaries and conclusions drawn from the findings of the study. This chapter also made some genuine recommendations to address the challenges identified in the study, the contribution of the study to theory, and finally, suggested areas for further investigation. 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Abejirinde, A. A. (2009). Motivation and Workers Performance within Public and Private Enterprises in Nigeria. Lapai International Journal of Management and Social Sciences, 2(2), 101-112. Adair, J. E. (2006). Leadership and motivation: the fifty-fifty rule and the eight key principles of motivating others. Kogan Page Publishers. London. Adam, A. K., Boakye, K. O., Ashie, A. A., Bawah, A. S., & Pobbi, M. 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Section 4. 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW GUIDE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BUSINESS SCHOOL DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND HEALTH SERVICE MANAGEMENT Topic: Assessing Staff Promotion of Public Sector Employees in Ghana: a case study of Accra Metro Education Directorate. I humbly seek your views on a number of issues raised below. The study is purely for academic purpose and your identity has been made anonymous. Thank you for your help. PART I Interviewee Background Data 1. Age: [ ] 18-25 [ ] 26-35 [ ] 36-45 [ ] 46-55 [ ] 56-60 2. Sex: [ ] Male [ ] Female 3. Educational level…………………………………………………………………. 6. Position/Rank ……………………………………………………………………. 7. Number of years with Ghana Education Service? .................................................. PART II Interview Guide for (teachers) Section A Research Questions: What are the perceptions of teachers on the processes of staff promotion in the Ghana education service? Questions: 1. What are the processes involve in staff promotion? 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2. How are you appraised for promotion? 3. Have you been promoted before? 4. How long did it take you to get to your current rank from the penultimate rank? 5. Since you started teaching how many times have you applied for promotion and how many times were you turn down? 6. What are your views on promotion interviews? 7. Do you think the promotion processes used by GES to promote teachers is fair? Probe why they think it is fair or not fair. Section B Research Questions: What are the determinants of staff promotion in the Ghana Education Service? Questions: 1. What are the bases of promotion GES? 2. What other factors does GES consider before promoting teachers Section C Research Questions: What are the effects of staff promotion on motivation? Questions: 1. What are your career plans for the profession? 2. Do you see the staff promotion processes as a motivation to your career as a teacher? 3. What influence has the last promotion had on your performance? 4. Did you chose teaching because of its career prospects or because of other factors? 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Section D Research Questions: What effects do staff promotion have on retention and attrition of teachers? Questions: 1. Do you have any intention of leaving GES for other profession? 2. What are some of the factors influencing you to leave or stay? Probe for further clarification in each of the cases when necessary. General Question: what are your recommendations to improve GES staff promotion policy and practices? PART III Headteachers 1. Do you think teachers should be promoted by seniority, merit/output of work and education or a combination of the two? Probe why if any of the above is chosen. 2. By your observation does promotion motivate teachers or does it have an influence on their output of work? 3. Who appraises teachers for promotion? Do you think the kind of appraisal that is used is good and why? 4. What are some of challenges you face with monitoring teachers? 5. How do you communicate teachers’ performance to the authorities? 6. By the current system of promotion, do you honestly think some deserve to be promoted? 7. What influence do you think GES staff promotions have on teacher retention and attrition? 8. How many of your teachers have quit the profession in the last four years? 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9. How best can staff promotion be used to motivate teachers? Executives of Ghana National Association of Teachers 1. What are the promotion processes of G.E.S teaching staff? 2. What are some of the reasons you think teachers who are due for promotion are not promoted? 3. What are some of the report of complaint you receive from teachers concerning G.E.S promotions? 4. How do you address some of the challenges and reports of complaints from teachers concerning promotions? 5. How effective are promotion interviews? Do you think it should be the focal point for teachers’ promotions? 6. Do you think the current promotion policy and practices are effective? 7. If you are given the opportunity to change the promotion system of G.E.S which one will you go for and why? 8. Turnover of teachers is on the high side. What do you think are the causes? 9. How can staff promotion be used to motivate teachers to stay in the education industry? Officers of Accra Metro Education Directorate 1. What are the processes involve in staff promotion or how does it start and how does it end? 2. Who qualifies for promotion? 3. Do you do promotions every year? 4. According to preliminary interviews with teachers most of them have stopped applying for promotions because of the cumbersome nature of it. How do you manage the bureaucracy in the promotion processes to encourage teachers to apply for promotions? 5. Some teachers think that the system is tainted with corruption. E.g., whom you know and ability to pay. What do you think? 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6. Why is application not done digitally to save teachers from filling a lot of forms with their own hand writing and to avoid errors? 7. What are the grievances you receive from teachers on staff promotion issues and how do you address them? 8. What are the approved courses for teachers with ambitions for further education? 9. What kind of promotion system is best for GES? 10. What influence do you think GES staff promotions have on teacher retention and attrition? Teachers who have exited GES What are your reasons for quitting the GES? 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: TABLES AND RESOURCES Table 2.2. Rank/Grading structure for Ghana Education Service – teaching staff L- Low, H- High N TITLE/RANK LEVEL/ O GRADE 1 Director General 25H 2 Deputy Director General 24 H 3 Director I 23 H 4 Director II 22 H 5 Director II Principal 22 L 6 Deputy Director SHS Head 21 H 7 Deputy Director Vice Principal 21 L 8 Deputy Director Basic Head 21 L 9 Deputy Director Assistant Head SHS 21 L 10 Deputy Director Senior House Master 21 L 11 Deputy Director House Master/Head of Department/Chaplin/Imam/Guidance & 21 L Counselling Coordinator 12 Deputy Director Unit Head 20 H 13 Deputy Director Base Grade 20 H 14 Deputy Director Non Professional 20 L 15 Assistant Director I Head SHS 20 H 16 Assistant Director I Vice Principal 20 L 17 Assistant Director I Unit Head 20 L 18 Assistant Director I Senior House Master 20 L 19 Assistant Director I Head JHS 20 L 20 Assistant Director I Assistant Head SHS 20 L 21 Assistant Director I House Master/Head of Department/Chaplin/Imam/ G&C 20 L Coordinator 22 Assistant Director I Headquarters, Region, District 19 H 23 Assistant Director I Base grade 19 H 24 Assistant Director I Non Professional 19 L 25 Assistant Director II Head Basic 19 L 26 Assistant Director II Assistant Head SHS 19 L 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 Assistant Director II Senior House Master 19 L 28 Assistant Director II House Master/Head of Department/Chaplin/Imam/G&C 19 L Coordinator 29 Assistant Director II Assistant Head Basic 18 H 30 Assistant Director II Headquarters, Region, District 18 H 31 Assistant Director II Base Grade 18 H 32 Assistant Director II Non Professional 18 L 33 Principal Superintendent Head Basic 17 H 34 Principal Superintendent House Master/Head of Department/Chaplin/Imam/G&C 17 H Coordinator 35 Principal Superintendent Professional 16 H 36 Principal Superintendent Non Professional 16 L 37 Principal Superintendent I Professional 15 H 38 Principal Superintendent I Non Professional 15 L 39 Principal Superintendent II Professional 14 H 40 Senior Supervisor Instructor 14 L 41 Senior Superintendent II Non-Professional 14 L 42 Supervisor Instructor 13 H 43 Superintendent I Professional 13 H 44 Principal Technical Instructor 13 L 45 Superintendent I Non-Professional 13 L 46 Senior Technical Inspector 12 H 47 Superintendent II Professional 12 H 48 Technical Instructor I 12 L 49 Superintendent II Non-Professional 12 L 50 Technical Instructor II 8 L 51 Senior Craft Instructor 8 H 52 Pupil Teacher WASSCE/GCE ‘A’ Level 8 H 53 Trainee Teacher 8 H 54 Craft Instructor 8 L 55 Pupil Teacher GCE ‘O’ Level 8 L Source: Document Prepared by Avudoahor (2013), Ghana Education Service, Single Spine Salary Structure, Across Board Salary Increase. Demography of Respondents 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table .1 Gender of Respondents Gender Frequency Percentage (%) Female 22 64.71 Male 12 35.29 Total 34 100 Approximation Gender Frequency Percentage (%) Female 22 65 Male 12 35 Total 34 100 Source: Author’s own construction based on field data, 2017 Table 2: Age and Rank of Respondents (teachers) Age Frequency Percentage (%) Ranks Break down Rank (# of teachers) < 36 10 29.41 SS/PS. SS (7) and PS (3) 36-40 16 47.06 PS/AD PS (15) and AD (1) >40 8 23.53 AD/DD AD (6) and DD (2) Total 34 100 Approximation Age Frequency Percentage (%) Ranks Break down Rank (# of teachers) < 36 10 30 SS/PS. SS (7) and PS (3) 36-40 16 47 PS/AD PS (15) and AD (1) >40 8 23 AD/DD AD (7) and DD (1) Total 34 100 Source: Author’s own construction based on field data, 2017 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 3. Qualification and Experience of Teachers Qualification Frequency Percentage (%) Diploma 7 20.59 Degree 19 55.88 masters 8 23.53 Total 34 100 Experience (# of years) Frequency Percentage (%) 1-5 10 29.41 6-10 9 26.47 10-15 9 26.47 16 and above 6 17.65 Total 34 100 Source: Author’s own construction based on field data, 2017 115