University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN WHO ACCOMPANY ADULTS TO MADINA BY SUSANNA SHALLON ADISENU (10326595) A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA MIGRATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I, Susanna Shallon Adisenu wish to declare that except for references to other people's work which have been duly acknowledged, this dissertation is originally done by me and has neither in part nor in whole been presented for any degree. ………………………………………… …………………………………… SUSANNA SHALLON ADISENU DATE (STUDENT) ………………………………………… ……………………………………… DR. ERNESTINA KORLEKI DANKYI DATE (SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION This work is dedicated to the Almighty God for seeing me through the entire year I spent at the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana. I dedicate this work to my son Ryan, I love you and God bless you. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work would not have been successfully completed without the support of several and important people to whom I am highly indebted to for their diverse support. My utmost thanks go to the Almighty God for His divine favour resting upon my life. My sincere gratitude also goes to Henry Kofi Doe for his support and encouragement throughout my education. I am very thankful and appreciative of the Head of the Centre for Migration Studies, Dr. (Mrs.) Delali Badasu and the entire faculty members especially Professor Joseph Teye, the course coordinator, Dr. Leander Kandilige, Dr. Mary Boatemaa Setrana for their support, knowledge and the experiences I acquired from them during the period of the course. My appreciation goes to my supervisor, Dr. Ernestina Korleki Dankyi, University of Ghana for her patience, insightful direction and guidance throughout this project even when I did not know what I was doing. I also wish to thank the Head teachers and staff of all the four schools which opened their doors to me to interact with their students. Last but not the least, my thanks go to all students of the Centre for Migration Studies of the 2016/2017 academic year group. Your support made this journey a success. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Studies on the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults from the rural areas to the urban centres have been under-researched in the world, Africa and particularly in Ghana. The increasing number of adult migrants with accompanying children from the rural areas to the urban centres has contributed to the influx of children in the urban centres in Ghana. It was for this reason that the study sought to investigate the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults to Madina, Accra. The objectives of the study were: (1) to describe the socio-demographic characteristic of the children and their parents/relatives/guardian, (2) to examine the effects of rural-urban migration on the educational performance of these children, and (3) to investigate some possible changes in lifestyle since they accompanied their parents to Madina, Accra. The study adopted quantitative and qualitative approaches to gather the data. A simple random sampling method was employed to sample two schools each from two clusters, out of which one hundred (100) children between the ages of 12-17 were selected for the survey. In-depth interviews were also conducted for seven adults which were made up of four males and three females. The children were used as nodes in getting access to the parents for the interview in their various locations. The findings of this study shows that in the Ghanaian context rural-urban migration improve the educational performance of accompanying children in Madina. Again, on the lifestyle changes of the children, it was discovered that rural-urban migration affected the lifestyles of some children negatively whiles others were positively affected. However, the negative changes outweighed the positives. In view of these, it is recommended that schools should organize interactive sessions where school authorities, teachers, parents, relatives and guardian discuss the needs and challenges which these accompanying children may encounter and how they can collaborate to help sustain their performance. School authorities should make the effort to identify the rural-urban iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh accompanying children and partner with their parents or relatives in order to provide the needed support for these children who may have challenges with their living arrangement, health care and are also exposed to some lifestyles. Parents and guardians of accompanying children should keep a closer eye on the children to protect them from engaging in some risky lifestyles, for instance stealing, smoking and drinking. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i DEDICATION ..................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... iii ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ iv LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 1.0: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1: PROBLEM STATEMENT……………………………………………………………2 1.2: OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY……………………………………………………..4 1.3: RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY ……………………………………..…………….5 1.4: DEFINITION OF MAIN CONCEPT……………….………………………………6 1.5: ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY ........................................................................... 7 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................. 8 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................................... 8 2.0: INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 8 2.1: MIGRATION ............................................................................................................ 8 2.2: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION .............................................................................. 9 2.2.1: FACTORS INFLUENCING RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ...................... 10 2.2.2: THE EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN ......... 11 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3: LIFESTYLE CHANGES OF CHILDREN IN CITIES .......................................... 14 2.4: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION AND EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF CHILDREN .................................................................................................................... 16 2.5: RISKY BEHAVIOURS OF CHILDREN IN CITIES ............................................ 18 2.6: PARENTAL CARE AND PRACTICES ................................................................ 19 CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................ 25 METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY ................................................................................ 25 3.1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 25 3.2: THE STUDY AREA ............................................................................................... 25 3.3: SCHOOLS SELECTED IN THE STUDY AREA .................................................. 27 3.4: RESEARCH APPROACH ...................................................................................... 27 3.5: SAMPLE SIZE ........................................................................................................ 27 3.6: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE ..................................................................................... 28 3.8: EXCLUSIVE CRITERIA ....................................................................................... 29 3.9: DATA COLLECTION ............................................................................................ 29 3.10: PRE-TESTING ...................................................................................................... 31 3.12: LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 31 CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................. 33 SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILDREN AND THE PARENTS/RELATIVES/GUARDIANS ....................................................................... 33 4.0: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 33 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILDREN ........................................................ 33 4.1.2: MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE CHILDREN .............................. 34 4.1.3: LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF THE CHILDREN ...................................... 35 4.2: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPTH INTERVIEW PARTICIPANTS (PARENTS/RELATIVES /GUARDIANS). ..................................... 36 CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................ 38 THE EXPERIENCES AND THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE CHILDREN ........................................................................................................................................ 38 5.0: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 38 5.1: THE MIGRATION EXPERIENCES ...................................................................... 38 5.1.1: REASONS FOR MIGRATING TO MADINA, ACCRA. ............................... 38 5.1.2: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILDREN BY TYPE OF ADULTS THEY ACCOMPANIED TO MADINA. .................................................................. 39 5.1.3: DWELLING PLACES OF THE CHILDREN BEFORE AND AFTER MIGRATION ............................................................................................................. 40 5.2: THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE CHILDREN ..................................... 41 5.2.1: EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCES OF THE CHILDREN. ....................... 42 5.2.2: SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BEFORE AND AFTER MIGRATION............... 45 5.2.3: SOME LIFESTYLE CHANGES OF THE CHILDREN. ................................ 46 5.2.4: EATING HABITS OF THE CHILDREN ........................................................ 46 5.3.3: HEALTH STATUS OF THE CHILDREN ...................................................... 49 5.3.4: SOURCES OF HEALTH CARE IN THE RURAL AND URBAN AREAS . 52 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3.5: SOME PEER INFLUENCES ........................................................................... 53 CHAPTER SIX .................................................................................................................. 64 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................ 64 6.0: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 64 6.1: SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS ......................................................................... 64 6.2: CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................... 65 6.3: RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................ 65 6.4: ISSUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH .................................................................. 66 APPENDIX A INSTRUMENT A: QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY FOR THE ACCOMPANIED CHILDREN. ......................................................................................... 86 APPENDIX B: AN IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE FOR PARENTS, RELATIVES AND GUARDIAN ...................................................................................... 96 APPENDIX C: SAMPLE TRANSCRIPT ....................................................................... 100 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Summary of socio-demographic characteristics of in-depth interview participants (parents/relatives /guardian) ……………………………………………..46 Table 5.1: Relationship between perceived Improvement in Educational Performance and Gender and Age of Respondents………………………………………………………51 Table 5.2: Relationship between Perceived Improvement in Quality of Food, Gender and Age of Respondents …………………...........................................................................57 Table 5.3: Relationship between Perceived Improvement in Health Care and Gender and Age of Respondents…………………............................................................................60 Table 5.4: A cross tabulation of peer influence encounter with age and gender............65 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 3.1: Map of La-Nkwantanang Municipal……………….…………………….…..29 Figure 5.1: Percentage distribution of children by age group……….………………..…..39 Figure 4.2: Percentage distribution by main economic activity of all children........….......41 Figure 5.3: Percentage distribution by living arrangements of all children…....................42 Figure 5.4: Reasons for migrating to Accra…………………………………….…….…..43 Figure 5.5: Percentage distribution by type of adults the children accompanied to Madina (Accra)…………………………………………………………………………………….44 Figure 5.6: Dwelling places of the children before and after migration…………………..52 Figure 5.7: Educational performance of all children….......................................................53 Figure 5.8: School attendance before migration……………………………………….…54 Figure 5.9: Effect of migration on eating habits…………………………………..….…..55 Figure 5.10: Health status of the children…………………………………………...……59 Figure 5.11: Sources of health care in the rural area…………………………...…………62 Figure 5.12: Sources of health care in the urban area (Madina)…………………………..62 Figure 5.13: Some peer influences of the children…………………………………..…..63 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 1.0: INTRODUCTION Rural-urban migration is one of the important forms of migration and it involves people moving from rural areas to urban centres mostly in search of jobs (Mabogunje, 1970). The patterns of rural-urban migration in Ghana, like in any part of the globe, is as a result of the disparities between the rural and urban areas. The urban areas serve as a safety valve and coping strategies for survival for some adults to give better prospects for those children who accompany them (Kwankye et al, 2007). As more adults migrate with children accompanying them, there are so many concerns about the well-being of these children in the migratory process. Globally, the effect of migration on children is increasing as a result of more adults moving with children in the migration process (Whitehead & Hashim, 2005). Per the definition of United Nations, a child is defined as anyone between the ages of 0 and 17. According to Brockerhoff (1995), children in migration can be categorised into three, namely: children as independent migrants, as accompanying children and children left behind by migrant parents. Each of these three categories of children affected by migration has different survival prospects. Most studies conducted on children in Ghana has mostly paid attention to children who are left behind or as independent migrants. In contemporary times, the movements of adult migrants in Ghana has involved children accompanying them to cities and large urban centres notably, Accra (Anarfi et al, 2003). These children who accompany adults from the rural areas to urban centres are exposed to different urban environment which is characterised by more favourable norms and a broader variety of resources, including quality schools and teachers, good diet and modern infrastructure which is an empowering experience which impact positively to their well-being and development (Luke et al, 2012). 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Conversely, these children are susceptible and are often exposed to so many norms of urban society, peer pressure, some risks and are confronted with challenges of adjusting into a new urban setting that is somehow foreign and perhaps discriminatory towards them (Boyden & Mann, 2005). However, the rural culture in which they are born can therefore be a challenge to the children in this new urban environment. The present study therefore sought to examine the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany their adult migrants to Madina, Accra. 1.1: PROBLEM STATEMENT Migration literature indicates that, developing countries have mostly focused on the effects of family and social factors on migration. Similarly, early studies on migration mostly posed the decision to migrate in terms of the costs and benefits to the individual migrant (Kofman, 2000). Currently, several recent studies lay much emphasis on migration as a family strategy. Rural- urban migration could increase opportunities locally for income diversification vis-à-vis increase local opportunities for income diversification as well as puts pressure on urban centres. As many people are involved in the migration process, and as migrants prolong their length of stay in cities, children associated with these adult migrants become part of the migration stream, either left behind, born in the city or accompany adults (Massey et al, 1994). Several effects of internal migration, particularly rural-urban migration have been studied on children, for instance (Crawford-Brown and Rattray,1994; Smith et al, 2004; Jones et al, 2004; Pottinger and Brown, 2006 as cited in Jokhan), parental migration tends to unfavourably affect the children left behind, most especially when they are left in vulnerable circumstances, as not all are likely to attain effective alternative parental care. But, for some children, the experience may foster healthy growth, development and strengthen kinship relations as they move out to live with other family relations (Brodber, 1974; Senior, 1991). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Badasu (2004) examined the patterns and determinants of childcare practices among Ewe migrants in the city of Accra within the context of cultural and socioeconomic change but focused on the effects of nutritional and health status among the migrants. Anarfi et al (2007) also investigated the coping strategies of independent child migrants from northern Ghana to southern cities. Other studies also paid attention to some aspects of the predicaments of children left-behind. For instance, Tetteh (2008) sought to examine the extent to which children of international migrant parents are considered as the primary beneficiaries of migration in their families but the findings showed that parental migration unfavourably affect the children left behind, most especially when they are left in vulnerable circumstances, as not all are likely to attain effective alternative parental care and guidance. Appiah (2003) also studied the impacts of migration on children left behind but focused on international migrant mothers who have been left-behind in rural areas. Ackers and Stalford (2004: 130-131 as cited in Asimah, 2008) also suggested two forms of care that families can provide for children left-behind in the transnational space, caring for and caring about and came out with various dimensions of caring challenges. However, children who accompany adults from the rural to the urban centres are faced with a number of problems such as in education, care and also suffer numerous psychological and social challenges and are threatened to exploitation (Bakker et al., 2009). These have however received minimal attention in migration studies in Ghana. Most children who accompany adults sometimes stop schooling, others are compelled to drop out of school whiles others become susceptible to work as child labour due to the periodic movement of their parents (Hunt, 2008). More often than not it becomes difficult to train these children in the development process in achieving the goal of universal primary education (Roy et al, 2015). This therefore suggest that achieving the aim of universal primary education as well as minimizing child labour will be difficult to attain. Making exact estimation of the number of children who accompany adult migrants is a challenge not only in Ghana but in the 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh world at large. Nevertheless, findings from studies indicate that the number of children who accompany adults in migration is quiet high. (Whitehead & Hashim, 2005). McKenzie’s estimation done in 2007 revealed that, four out of every five children (12 and 16 years) move with their temporary labour migrant parents. In 2008, in China, for example, almost a tenth of the child population (27.3 million) migrated internally with their parents. (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2010). Accompanying children are mostly confronted with the risks of being used in family labour, on the street and societal rejection. Similarly, in situations in other countries, most accompanying children stopped schooling to work in the destination country (Vladicescu et al, 2008). In a study conducted in Tripura on the tribe of Tripuri, finds that the educational status of the accompanying children though improved after migration, there were inadequate amenities to register in good schools as a result of the high cost of living in the urban areas (Das and Das, 2014).The presence of some of the large numbers of children who accompany adults in cities, especially children of school-going age pose a major challenge for parents and policy-makers in education (Liang & Chen, 2005). It is not clear whether findings from samples in one country can be generalized to other countries since most of the available studies were conducted in the United States and Europe where clear differences in culture exist. It is against this background, that this study attempts to focus on the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adult migrants to Madina, Accra. 1.2: OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The general objective of the study was to examine the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults to Madina, Accra. The specific objectives were: 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. To describe the socio-demographic characteristic of the children and their parents/relatives/guardian. 2. To examine the effects of rural-urban migration on the educational performances of these children. 3. To investigate some possible changes in lifestyle since they accompanied their parents to Madina, Accra. 1.3: RELEVANCE OF THE STUDY This study will contribute to the growing literature on migration by revealing some of the issues on how adults’ rural-urban migration affects the educational performances and some possible lifestyle changes of children who accompany them to urban centres. Most studies conducted on children in relation to rural-urban migration have come out with varying findings. The purpose of this study is to investigate how rural-urban migration affect children who accompany adult migrants to Madina, Accra. The assumption is that growing up in a new environment comes with so many factors which affect children who accompany adult migrants negatively or positively. Most often the emphasis is on the left behind children (Biao, 2007, Abutima, 2011, Jiangzhong & Lu, 2011, Appianing, 2013) their challenges and needs thus the children who accompany their adult migrants to cities are largely under researched. Again, unlike other studies like the coping strategies of independent child migrants from the north to south (Kwankye & Anarfi, 2007) and again for instance, a study done by Badasu in 2004 on children of Ewe migrants in Accra, this study is a case specific in order to understand the individual case effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompanied adults to Madina who are in school. There is also limited evidence in Ghana on the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults to cities since most studies were conducted in the United States and Europe. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The findings of this study are meant to assist social workers, professionals and policy makers in the development of interventions to be used in addressing some of the challenges confronting children who accompany adult migrants to urban communities, for instance Madina. Also the outcome will contribute to the discussion on raising the awareness of the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults to urban centres. 1.4: DEFINITION OF MAIN CONCEPTS Children: Males and females, aged between 12 and 17 years. Accompanying Children: For the purpose of the study, accompanying child/children are those children who have migrated with adults (parents/relatives/guardian) from the rural areas to the urban centre (Madina). Adult(s): An adults for this study is a responsible person specified by law and assumes primary responsibility for the children they migrate with. Adult is used in this study to cover mothers, fathers and guardians who come along with children from rural areas to the urban area (Madina). Lifestyle: Lifestyle is defined to include living arrangements, eating arrangements, how they spend their leisure time and their social relationships. Private Schools: These are Basic and Junior High Schools that are owned and managed by private individuals and entities other than the government. Public Schools: These are Basic and Junior High Schools that are under the supervision and management of Government or its agency where pupils do not pay for tuition. Educational Performance: Self-reported performance in various subjects of children. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5: ORGANIZATION OF THE STUDY The study is organized into six chapters: Chapter one presents the introduction to the study. This includes the background of the study, statement of the problem, the objectives and relevance of the study. Chapter two contains the literature reviewed on the topic under investigation. Chapter three looks at the methodology of the study. It looks at the research design, the target population, sample size, sampling techniques, sources of data, and data analysis etc. Chapter four considers the socio- demographic characteristics of the children and the adults interviewed for the study. Chapter five presents the analyses of the migration experiences and the effects of migration on the children which includes the reasons for migration, the type of adults they accompanied to Madina and their dwelling places before and after migration, how migration has affected their educational performance, home environment and living conditions and some changes in behaviour. Chapter six presents the summary of the study, conclusion based on the results and some recommendations for policy makers and further research. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0: INTRODUCTION This chapter contains a review of relevant literature and theory for the study. Areas considered included, general definition of migration, rural-urban migration, factors influencing rural-urban migration, the effects of rural-urban migration on children, lifestyle of children in cities, migration and educational performances on children, risky behaviours of children in cities, parental care and practice and the theory underpinning the study. 2.1: MIGRATION Migration in general is the movement of people from one geographical area across international boundaries within a specific period of time (Martinez, 1994). It has been a long-lasting issue of human history and is considered one of the major world issues of the twenty-first century which includes both internal and international migration. It also transnational in nature and has become an important factor in the growing economic and social development in the world. The increasing number of migration is caused by differences between countries (Scholte, 2005). Currently, several millions of people from many countries live and work outside their home country in an effort to improve their own well-being and that of their families. Several steps has been taken by the United Nations in the past to firmly place international migration on the development agenda which lead to the assembling of the discussion on international migration and development (United Nation General Assembly, 2013). According to Awumbila et al (2008), migration is mostly informal in Ghana as in other parts of Africa, making it difficult in getting accurate data on migration. Despite the lack of records, 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the literature talks about a long history of population movements with migration playing a vital role in the livelihood and advancement strategies of rural and urban populations. According to Van Dijk et al (2001), Ghana, has been a country of net immigration for many years where the number of people immigrating exceeded the number emigrating and this has resulted in a setback in migration trends from the late 1960s with a decrease in the economy and political instability. For some years now however, new dynamics in migration have developed in Ghana with globalization, changes in the world political economy, economic and political stabilisation of the country have brought about growing mixtures and difficulty in internal and international movements. As a result, Ghana experience a change in internal migration, immigration, transit migration and emigration both within and outside Africa concurrently (Mowforth & Munt, 2015). 2.2: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION Rural-urban migration is one of the most important forms of migration and it involves the movement of people from the rural areas to the urban centres (Mabogunje, 1970). As a result of the disparities between countries, making a generalization of the definition of rural-urban migration is very challenging. This suggest that there is a contrast which embraces both spatial and sectorial dimensions. Rural urban population are usually determined by residential settlements which is above or below a certain size during population censuses and other statistical exercises. Rural folks are known to be engaging in agricultural activities whiles the urban dwellers engage in industrial production and other services (Gilbert, 1993). Attention has mostly been given to rural and urban issues by most development theory and practices with little focus on the interconnectedness between the two. On the other hand, most empirical studies show that the relations between rural and urban including movement of people, goods, capital and other social connections, play a significant role in the events of rural 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and urban change. Agricultural producers are often faced with the challenge of getting access to urban markets and services which come as a result of many urban enterprises reliance on demand from rural consumers within the economic sphere (Holden & Norland, 2005). Additionally, a huge number of households in both rural and urban areas depend on both agricultural and non-agricultural income sources for their livelihoods (Niehof, 2004). Contemporarily, the increase in urban population and economic boom in the world is as a result of rural-urban migration and it’s possible to stay so in future. Rural-urban migration comes with so many problems to the rural folks who are currently working in urban centres as a result of the difficult demographic processes which unavoidably affects the lives of migrants’ children, as accompanying children or left behind in the rural areas. The major factor that has contributed to urban growth in Ghana has been rural to urban migration and the high fecundity level of the migrants. In Ghana, censuses done between 2000 and 2010 revealed that urban population increased astronomically as a result rural-urban migration (GSS, 2010). 2.2.1: FACTORS INFLUENCING RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION The decision to migrate from the rural area to the city differ in person in so many ways. It is mostly connected to important changes in life, which include pursuing higher education, securing employment or getting married. This development in life has directed to socio-cultural and demographic changes in the places of origin and destination (United Nation, 2013). The push-pull factors of migration has mostly been revealed in most studies as the main causes of migration which is directly connected to both economic and non-economic aspects of the migrants. Push factors are those that pushes migrants to leave their origin which includes poverty, crop failure, hunger, conflicts whereas the pull factors includes better job opportunity, high wages, availability of good infrastructure and other social amenities (Simon, 1999). Households are mostly considered as somewhat permanent units, with forms extending predominant in rural areas and nuclear forms in urban areas. Getting access to adequate shelter 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is a common problem for the poor in urban centres leading to the enlargement of households with grown-up children bringing their partners and children into the family (Tacoli, 2009). According to Altaye (2015), economically, most rural areas exclusively depended on agriculture and when productivity of land declines, the environment becomes unconducive for the upkeep of the livelihood of the peasants which enforces the departure from rural areas to urban areas Also, in most developing countries, the lack of good governance and principles of democracy might also pave way for rural dwellers to feel less confident and decide to migrate (Aklilu and Tadesse, 1993). Urban areas are places with different attractions like a relative high wage, facilities, services among others that improve city cultural expression and way of life (Scott, 2004). In a study done by Hussain et al in 2004 in an effort to study the main factors behind the migration of 120 respondents of Faisalabad city in Pakistan discovered that most of the respondents agreed with the unavailability of job as the central reason why they migrated besides the absence of educational facility, poor health establishments, low paying jobs, poor rural settings, labour intensive agriculture production, among others were also found as the factors that pushed them to migrate. The result of the analysis showed that improved education, better jobs, better health establishments and amenities, high incomes, better housing, public entertainment and better sewerage system were the factors that pulled them to migrate. Similarly, in another study done by Singh and Kaur in 2007 of the city of Punjab made an effort to come out with the vital push and pull factors of migration as economic, social, psychological, political and natural. It was indicated by workers that poverty, low employment at native place, indebtedness, small land holdings and low earnings in villages were the economic causes of migration. 2.2.2: THE EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN Changing residence is an important event in a child’s life, therefore there is the need to consider the factors that affect both the urban community and in the migrant family to have a good understanding of the factors that create opportunities, benefits, and problems in the 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh development of children (Zhou, 1997). Only a few researchers have focused on this issue even though it’s important in migration studies particularly in the context of internal migration (Whitehead & Hashim 2005). Children who are affected by migration are categorised into three groups as, independent migrant children, children left behind by migrants’ parents and children who accompany adults (Brockerhoff, 1995). Each of these three categories of children affected by migration has a different survival prospects in the origin and destination. Effects of migration on children have positive influences on their objective welfare without any negative effect on their personal welfare. There is little difference between the independent child migrant, the left behind child and the accompanying child across multiple life domains (Knight & Gunatilaka, 2010). Independent migrant children are largely affected by migration from the rural areas to the urban centres (Nobles, 2013). They face so many psychological and social problems and are also exposed to exploitation (Bakker et al., 2009). However, there are a lot of opportunities which also serve as attractions or incentives for these children in urban centres, giving them higher income in both formal and informal sector employment and in furthering one’s education and enhancing their lives. Migration affect children when they are left behind by either of the migrant’s parents (UNICEF Report, 2008). These Children adopt so many risky behaviours when they are left without parental guidance which increases their susceptibility to violence, abuse and exploitation (UNICEF Report, 2007). In a study done by Luo et al (2008) in China, revealed that left-behind children have substantial needs and reported that more than 50% of left-behind children were unhappy with their present living conditions thereby exhibited poor academic performance, were self-willed, indifferent, introverted, lonely unfriendly, vulnerable, and craved for love (Luo et al., 2008). In another study by Cortes (2008) explains that, in labour sending countries children who are left behind by migrant parents in households suffer the risk of the consequences of family interruption, accepting inadequate care and control, falling into the hands of ineffective 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh caregivers, and even the possibility of being established. In addition, another study conducted in Moldova recommended that the high rate of adolescent crime between 1993 and 2000 is positively connected to an increase in the number of left behind children, who constituted close to 60% of the criminals (UNICEF Moldova, 2008). Though de Haas (2005) thinks that the positive relationship between remittances and income may not necessary cause a positive development effect on children left behind, many parents migrate in order to improve their living standards and empower themselves economically, so as to economically support those left behind who comprise mainly as children, attributed to remittance into the migrant households (Parrenas, 2002). Notwithstanding these negative effects, there are other positive roles migrants play in enhancing the income of their households with left behind children. Households with left behind children tend to increase their income per capita significantly (Du et al., 2005). The health and nutritional level, investment, reduction in child labour, trafficking and the improvement in school attendance and retention of left behind children increases as a result of remittance send to their households by migrants (Adams, 2003). Globally, there are evidences which show that the number of accompanying children affected by rural-urban migration is increasing due to the mobile nature of their migrant adults. However, making an estimation of the number of these children is very challenging (Whitehead & Hashim, 2005). McKenzie’s estimation done in 2007 reveals that four out of five migrant children aged 12–14 move with their parents. In 2008, a greater proportion (27.3 million) of accompanying children were part of internal migration. These children are susceptible and are at the risk of family labour, risk on street and societal rejection (United Nations Children’s Fund, 2010). They are placed in conditions which affect their psychological and social well-being, exposing them to increased risk of poor academic performance as well as disruption of schooling (Bakker et al, 2009). Evidence of negative consequences for these children, especially in developing countries, remains undetermined. For instance, in sub-Saharan Africa, accompanying children who experienced 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh frequent change of residence may have become more exposed to disruptions of life over time and may have a lower risk of initiating early sexual intercourse (Luke et al., 2012). On the contrary, accompanying children may benefit from staying with their parents in addition to increasing family wealth. Therefore, these children are expected to be academically better than their peers left behind with their non-migrant parents in the rural areas. Again, the acculturation process in urban centres may be interrupted by organizational obstructions in the registration of household system that restricts the chances for these accompanying children to be registered, in good government as well in health care system. As a result, these accompanying children often have the problem of getting access to assets available to urban children but sometimes have to be registered in unregistered migrant-sponsored schools and face disease risks without vaccination coverage (Liang et al, 2008). However, there has not been much empirical evidence so far in support of the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults’ migrants to urban areas in Ghana (Chen et al., 2009). 2.3: LIFESTYLE CHANGES OF CHILDREN IN CITIES In recent times, lifestyle will be needed by perhaps two or more times the present human population. Changes in lifestyles comprises the changes in people, their capabilities and their means of living, including food, income and assets (Helman, 2007). A lifestyle is environmentally sustainable when it maintains or enhances the local and global assets on which livelihood depends and has net beneficial effects on other livelihoods (Kuruppa, 2009). A lifestyle is socially sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks, and provide for future generations (Tao & Wall, 2009). Changes are means of people adopting various activities for survival in different social, economic and environmental settings. It comprises the capabilities, assets and activities required for means of earning a living (Chambers & Conway, 1992). Migration whether internal or international is a lifestyle change 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in response to population pressure and other social, economic and political phenomena (Castles & Miller, 2013). Children in cities are faced with so many lifestyle changes. They show different and strong behaviours in their determinations to secure independence and privileges for themselves. These children being put in situations where they embrace new social and political space for themselves may involve irregularities which may result in painful experiences and might end in self - destructive behaviour (Hart, 2013). According to Conticini (2005), emotions of love and reliable friends are vital assets as presented by children when speaking about their life in the urban areas. Children emphasizes their dependency on social interactions, trust and affections. Social networks were perceived as vital in improving value of every actions and crises. Urban lifestyle is characterized with situations that may have lots of consequences on migrants’ families especially families from rural areas. For example, stress from family life responsibilities and work at the urban centre ad these changes in lifestyle my result in illnesses and in the long run death among the urban dwellers as acknowledged by Eckernrode and Gore (1990). Over population in urban centres, congestion, pollutions, has become a way of life for families living in slums and shanties as well as unplanned developments which causes massive environmental degradation and pollution problems in urban areas. For example, in South Asia, urban planners have to make provision for the necessary facilities and services such as, safe water among others which has become a major problem for the urban planners. This according to scholars such as Weiss et al. (2004), Biro et al (2010), and Wabitsch (2000) may have impact on migrants especially, immigrant children with low socio-economic status, poor lifestyle behaviours, and limited access to health care among others usually are dominated by high rate of overweight and obesity than natives. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh About fifteen million children aged less than fourteen years old were said to have accompanied their parents (migrant peasant workers) to the city during the 1978 China Reform and Opening- Up Policy in search of employment. In 2012, about five hundred and thirty thousand of those children were said to be in Shanghai City (Lu, Jin-Kul et al., 2016). According to Solinger (1999), these rural household registered migrant peasant workers are not entitled to city subsidies such as medical insurance, housing among others and these might affect the health status among others of these migrant peasant workers’ children and this is indicated in studies by some scholars such as Zhang et al., (2005) and Yin et al., (2011) that, peasant migrants workers’ children have poorer growth status as compared to children urban people. 2.4: RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION AND EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF CHILDREN Education and schooling is one of the most important investments in the development of social and human capital of children. In many developing countries rural-urban migration has improved the possibility for children to attend school and engage in other social activities important for children’s development (Parreñas, 2001; Whitehead & Hashim 2005). The potential problems for the education of children emerging from migration with children to cities have always been postulated (Suarez & Suarez, 2009). Parents are sometimes driven to cities by the desire to provide better educational opportunities for the children who accompany them or are left behind. Migrants’ parents’ wages are often used to pay school fees, buy books and other school necessities, thus assisting children to improve their education. However, parental migration under certain circumstances, may affect children emotionally and potentially interrupt their performance in school (Biao, 2007, Mazzucato, 2015). Literature on migration on children's education discovers conflicting evidences. Educational performance of children shows that migration negatively impacts on the schooling of children in transnational care as a result of the effects of parental migration. The effects are greater for 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh children separated from their mothers or from their primary caregivers (Lahaie et al, 2009). Similar results are found by other scholars, mainly targeting Latin American and Asian countries (Cortes 2015, Cortes, P. 2015). On the other hand, other studies conducted on the positive effects of migration on children's education (Rappaport and Docquier (2006), finds that parental migration increases the likelihood of caregivers and children receiving additional funds for the household's needs. If remittances target the younger members of the family, they can be invested in better schools, educational material and support. Research in Mexico shows that parental migration and remittances are positively associated with increased educational performance of children in transnational care (Kandel and Kao 2001, Kandel, W., and G. Kao. 2001). Some authorities working together with schools have also observed that children who remain indifferent to the surrounding and without expression are unable to concentrate and to follow lectures (Hart, 2013). In Ghana, there is a legal framework for the full development of children, backed by the 1998 Children’s Act. In fulfilment of the right to life, development and survival, and non- discrimination against children, section 8 of the Act of Ghana stipulates that all Children are entitled to free compulsory basic Education which provides an avenue for the children to have educational rights and ways for the child to develop to full potential. The Act also contains regulations on formal education and training in the informal sector (Lloyd, 2002). The 1992 Constitution, which is currently in use in the country, indicates that basic education should be free and compulsory to all children of school age. The country is doing considerably well in the educational sector in the context of the limited resources and the need to budget for other sectors to improve the low quality of education in the standardized mathematics and English tests in public schools. 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5: RISKY BEHAVIOURS OF CHILDREN IN CITIES Migration involves both risks and opportunities for children. Risks are part of life and can therefore be studies within the context of place. Taking risks has been hypothesized as behaviour which includes some possibilities for harm or negative consequence to the individual but that may also result in a positive outcome or reward, (Edmonson et al, 2004). According to Macintyre (2004), place is socio-culturally constructed locations in space which have different context to which people’s lives and experiences play out. The space is filled with actors acting out their lives with varying degrees of human movements including parental migration (Tulloch & Lupton, 2003). Most literature has it that the problems children often face in cities are mostly related to social and economic factors which focuses mainly around their living conditions (Kwankye et al, 2007). However, parental migration though improves the lives and welfare of children in many ways, it also in many cases serves as a catalyst to make children suffer some risks (UNICEF, 2000). Children who accompany their parents to urban areas are sometimes exposed to many risks which are normally overlooked by scholars in studying the effects of migration (Charlesworth et al, 2011). More so, Schiamberg & Gans (2000), further posits that children suffer the most risks among the family members as it also exposes them to physical abuse due to improper treatment from caregivers as well as the personal life styles of the children. The causes of migration are mostly referred to as the push and pull factors which is based on theories. Migration to cities exposes children to some major risk factors for diseases, particularly to environmental threats from natural and human-made and high rates of crime and violence (Adam, 2013). In China, so many important factors have been identified in connection with some risks children face in cities as a result of rural-to-urban migration (Castles & Miller, 2013). Attention has not been given to the high quality health care system which is a pull factor that drives adult migrants with children which is likely to be a strong contributory factor to the challenges these 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh migrants have encountered over the with access to health insurance and affordable care in urban areas (Gong et al, 2012). In Accra, Ghana, water bought from private suppliers are excessively expensive which is sometimes up to ten times higher than water from public suppliers. On the other hand, cheaper informal vendors sell polluted water that may affect the health of users, putting the lives of young children at risks of getting diarrhoea and increasing their need for care (Ruel et al, 1999). 2.6: PARENTAL CARE AND PRACTICES Parental migration tends to adversely affect children, mainly as left behind or accompanying in susceptible circumstances, since not all are likely to achieve effective alternative parental care and control (Crawford-Brown and Rattray, 1994; Smith et al, 2004; Jones et al, 2004; Pottinger and Brown 2006 as cited in Jokhan, 2007). But in the case of other children, fosterage healthy growth, development may strengthen their kinship ties as a result of experience (Brodber 1974; Senior 1991). Parents take so many means of interacting with and providing care for their children in order to be sure that the children are not in need or lack attention. Care includes all the necessary basic needs to make life comfortable. Care for children is important to provide them with the basic needs for self-development (Knowles, 1970). In times of parental migration child care is entrusted to the extended family, relatives as well as friends. Care can also be offered as a joint responsibility for children in the African culture, giving by the parents/caregivers together with members in the society (Mazzucato, 2011). General issues about children’s well-being has been a developing issue of discussion both in the international local and other levels over the years. The attention survey results received by both researchers and policy makers shows that Children’s health and nutritional status in particular has been deteriorating (Adler & Newma, 2002). Studies on care have also emphasized that the socioeconomic context within which care is provided, determines the 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh availability of resources for care and the personal capacity of care givers or families to meet their care obligations (Badasu, 2004). However, considering the family system in Ghana and the care system, children may not be affected greatly should either or all the parents migrate with them. There are other family members and caregivers who are capable of caring for the children just like the biological parents will care for them in the destination. Child fostering is a normal practise in Ghanaian society (Mazzucato and Schans, 2008). In Ghana and most African communities, child care is a community responsibility and not just the biological parents. Many aspects of child and adolescent development, which comprises care and monitoring are known to be closely related to parental practices More often than not, and mostly in traditional settings, mothers and fathers play different roles in the nurturance of children; mothers often perform primary parenting roles that need daily attention whilst fathers play bread winning roles (Harkness, 2002). Parental involvement and influence are very crucial in every facet of a child’s development no matter their age or their level of achievements in society. It is a widely accepted view that children may not be able to take full advantage of their full potential in life without the full support of their parents (Moynihan, 1997. In these contemporary industrialised societies where extended families are being transformed coupled with an increased desire for nuclear family structure, there is an increasing responsibility on fathers and mothers to satisfy every need of children without the support of other family members (Hartmann, 1981). With parental rural- urban migration and accompanying children now becoming more common, school performance of the accompanying children are being adversely affected by migration since parental care falls with migration (Whitehead & Hashim, 2005). Child monitoring which vary by child, gender and parent is a concept that includes both supervision and communication between parents and children. Basically, it refers to the extent to which parents know their children’s whereabouts, activities, and associates when they are not under their direct supervision. Child monitoring does not show whether the information is 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh obtained by unwanted youth discoveries, parental solicitation, or direct parental control of activities (Devore & Ginsburg, 2005). Authoritative parenting on the other hand, is considered by a high degree of parental warmth and support, firm limit setting, open communication, and high levels of supervision, have long been believed to be the ideal parenting style. Until the late 1980s, the bulk of research on parenting style was conducted on young children. Baumrind’s initial typologies of authoritarian, authoritative, and permissive parenting were developed from research in largely middle class white families. In one of the first large studies of parenting style and adolescents, researchers found that children from families high in authoritative parenting generally had higher academic performance across ethnic groups (Baumrind, 1991). Rankin and Quane in their study in 2002, established the underlying and healthy relation between authoritative parenting and adolescent academic achievement and supportive and involved parents and adolescent achievement, with some variation by ethnic group of which the evidence supports that parental monitoring is protective for teens is overwhelming. Similarly, in a study by Fletcher et al, 2012, found that parental control is directly and negatively associated with adolescent substance use. Adolescents in this longitudinal study were less likely to use substances when they had warm, involved parents who solicited information concerning activities and provided higher levels of control all consistent with the authoritative parenting model. 2.7: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY. A number of theories can be linked to parental migration and its implications for the accompanying children especially from rural to the urban centres. The present study utilizes the push-pull theory as a guiding theoretical framework. Literature in migration studies has mostly focused on two theoretical issues which have mostly attracted the attention of people on why people move and how far they move (Mabogunje, 1970). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Explanation to the reasons why people move has been formulated in terms of the “push-pull” hypothesis (Arango, 2000). The approaches of push and pull factors is a blend of neo-classical and Todarian methods. A variety of spatial movements can be placed into a scheme which can separate migrants’ perceptions into ‘negative’ and ‘positive’ factors. Push factors are those factors that force people to leave their place of origin, whiles pull factors are those that attracts migrants to destination areas in the aim of enhancing their standard of living (Inkoom, 2010). The positive factors according to Lee (1966:51) are more important than the negative factors. The push factors which are basic and persuade people to move are considered to be negative, which comprises, poverty, unemployment, land shortages, lack of social amenities and other driving forces that urge people to leave their places of origin to find a new place for better opportunities. On the other hand, the pull factors includes all those factors that attracts people to destination areas which includes income opportunities outside people’s homeland, better employment opportunities, quality health care system, quality schools and proper accommodation. Even though migration occur mostly as a result of either push or pull factors, Lee assumes that migration is as a result of the mixture of the two. In China, for example the gap between rural-urban is one of the most fundamental social, economic and demographic indicators and a major driving force behind the disparities (Liu, Hsiao and Eggleston, 1999; Wu and Treiman, 2004). The rural Chinese stay mostly poor compared with their urban peers in almost every part of their lives in spite of the institutional changes such as the de- collectivization of agriculture and the loose migration constraints that have generated societal and economic development in rural areas over the years. In reality, in the late 1970s increase in economic changes have arguably benefited rural and urban communities to different extents, causing a widened social and economic disparities (Yang, 1999, Meng, 2000; Zhao, 2006). Consequently, it is not surprising that the rural-urban gap in children’s well-being remains huge (Adams and Hannum, 2005; Short, Xu and Liu, (2013). 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is expected that the movement from rural areas to urban centres should have a positive influence on connecting the rural to urban gap such that the migrant children would fall somewhere in between in terms of their well-being. Migrants and their children slowly adjust themselves to the destination area and benefit from a better opportunity structure at their destinations compared to their places of origin (Warner and Srole, 1945). Even though the way of adjustment is likely to be segmented, and children of migrants may be faced by a number of concentrated residence in urban ghettos, cheap economic opportunities, and development of oppositional social environment, they can still resort to unique resources such as social capital to adapt and overcome these challenges and achieve rising movement, particularly in education (Greenman and Xie, 2008). In Ghana, so many push and pull factors account for the movement of adults with accompanying children moving from their origin and destination respectively, and Accra is no exception. The main push factors include a comparatively high rate of poverty, unemployment, limited or lack of social amenities and the limited economic opportunities in the rural areas. The major pull factors have been perceived employment opportunities, greater availability of social amenities and infrastructure that have attracted most migration to Accra (Ghana Statistical Service 1995). The push-pull theory is the most commonly used theory in migration studies. Most studies on migration consider the “push and pull” theoretical framework developed by Lee in 1966 as one of the major theoretical underpinnings for rural-urban migration (Yeboah, 2008). Several scholars have modified and developed this theory and have come out with various criticisms and limitations. The framework is a descriptive model in which the different factors playing a role in migration decisions are listed in a relatively arbitrary manner (De Haas, 2008). It is difficult when an attempt is made to characterize the combined effects of all the factors as predominantly either push or pull. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The theory only focuses on the movements of people but fails to consider the factors associated with the area of origin, the factors associated with the area of destination, the intervening obstacles and personal factors which is a major flaw of the theory (Lee, 1966). The theory oversimplifies a highly complex process which neglects to explain why some people migrate and others do not. It isn’t all the time that the factors in the destination and the origin pulls or pushes people to migrate. There are persons who are not moved by what goes on elsewhere and are always confounded in their places of origin no matter what the situation may be. For instance, a parent may decide not to migrate with her child despite the poor school conditions at the origin. However, other people may be pushed by some factors at the origin but intervening and personal factors may hinder their movements, for example, where to stay in the destination, cost of making the journey, language and different ways of life, political obstacles, who to get support from in order to be able to move. Again, different people will react differently to various combinations of pushes and pulls, according to their economic status, life-stage and personality. For example, a single unemployed young adult will respond more directly to job and income factors and be less concerned about the education system of a destination, which would be more relevant to the decision-making of family with children (King, 2012). The pull factors appear to be strongest among the factors responsible for migration because they appear as solutions to the push factors prevailing in the places of origin. This means that migration can only occur if the reason to live elsewhere (the push) can be solved by the corresponding pull factors at a particular destination (Muniz-Solari et al., 2010 and Solem et al., Eds 2011). This corroborates the Ghana Statistical Service (2005) citing Kelly and Williamson (1984) that rural-urban migration is response to opportunities in the urban destinations rather than population pressure from the areas of origin. In sum, despite the short falls of this theory it was the best theory for the study. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY OF THE STUDY 3.1: INTRODUCTION This chapter highlights the methodology adopted to carry out this study. The various issues that were discussed here are: the study area, the design for this study, the questionnaires to be administered to get the responses from the participants, the population, the sampling method(s) adopted, the sample size determination, method of data analysis and the data collection procedure and the limitations that were encountered in the course of conducting the research are also discussed and finally ethical considerations. 3.2: THE STUDY AREA No meaningful research can be conducted without taking into consideration the characteristics of the population for which is targeted, the size of the population, its spatial distribution, changes in growth over time, in addition to its socio-economic characteristics of the population is significant in conducting a research. The La Nkwantanang-Madina Municipality, which was created out of the Ga East Municipality by Legislative Instrument (L.I.) 2131, is one of the 16 Metropolitan, Municipal and District Assemblies in the Greater Accra Region created. It was created in 2012 as part of the newly Assemblies intended for the expansion of decentralization and taking development closer to citizens. It is located at the northern part of the Greater Accra Region which covers a total land surface area of 70.887 square kilometres at latitude 5,6833 (540’59.988” N), longitude -0,1667 (010’0.001” W) and altitude 77m with a population of 68591. It is bordered on the West by the 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ga East Municipal, on the East by the Adentan Municipal, the South by Accra Metropolitan Area and the North by the Akwapim South District. La Nkwantanang Madina Municipality is generally urban (84 percent) and has one of the largest market in Accra with other economic activities, large companies and organizations which has attracted a lot of migrants with children to the area. The greater percentage of the household structure account for 35.3 percent, spouses form about 11.1 percent, nuclear households (head, spouse(s) and children) constitute 25.3 percent of the total number of households in the municipality [Ghana Statistical Service, 2012]. (See Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1: Map of La-Nkwantanang Municipal Source: Ghana Statistical Service (2010) 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3: SCHOOLS SELECTED IN THE STUDY AREA The reason why this study was conducted in school environment is due to the fact that the main participants are children and one of the focuses of the study is on their academic performance, hence the choice of some selected schools. The data was gathered from a total of four Basic and Junior High Schools, made up of two public and two private schools in Madina, Accra. This was done in order to have a representative data on the constituents of the population. The schools are: La Nkwantanang School, Hannah School Complex, Queen of Peace Catholic School and Elim Cluster of Schools. 3.4: RESEARCH APPROACH The Mixed methods approach was adopted for the study. This implies that both quantitative and qualitative research approaches were used. The use of mixed methods is to compensate for the weakness of the dichotomous approach (Teye, 2012). The quantitative research methodology was adopted to help find out the effects of rural-urban migration on the academic performance of the children and some of their lifestyle changes in Madina. The qualitative research methodology, on the other hand, was adopted for this study to complement the findings that were obtained from the quantitative research methodology. It was also used to facilitate the drawing of valid conclusions regarding the extent to which rural- urban migration correlates with the educational performances and some lifestyle changes of the children since migration to Madina. 3.5: SAMPLE SIZE A total of one hundred (100) children were selected from four Primary and Junior High Schools in Madina, which were made up of two private and two public schools for the study. The ages of the respondents (children) ranges from 12 to 17 years. A total of 7 adults (parents/guardian/relatives) were also interviewed in-depth for this study. All the children 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh responded to the questions in the questionnaire, but only parents/relatives/guardian were interviewed. 3.6: SAMPLING TECHNIQUE A list of all the basic schools within Madina were obtained from the Municipal Assembly and were segmented into two (public and private schools). Given that, the cluster was obtained, a simple random sampling method was employed to sample two schools each from the two clusters. Thus, two private and public schools from the two clusters to give equal representation to the study area for the study. 3.7: INCLUSION CRITERIA A sample frame for all the accompanied children were obtained in each school, 172 from the public basic schools and 28 from the private basic schools. A simple random sampling method was then employed to select children who are between the ages of 12 and 17 for the questionnaire survey. After obtaining the list, the various authorities of the basic schools were contacted and with the help of one teacher in each school the questionnaires were administered to the children in their various classrooms. The questionnaires were read and explained to the children in English. Unfortunately, majority of these migrants were in public schools than private schools. One could argue that most of the parents/relatives/guardian of these children are low income earners and would thus make use of the free public basic schools than pay much for private schools. Seven parents/guardian/relatives made up of 4 males and 3 females were connected through the children who were used as nodes in schools to their various locations which were in the market, offices, houses and restaurants. Unfortunately, most children were reluctant to give their parents/relatives/guardians contacts with the fear of their parents/relatives/guardians giving out information about their bad behaviours. Others too were scared of being queried or beaten by their parents/relatives/guardian for given out their numbers out. Again, most parents/relatives/guardians turned down the interview with the reasons of not knowing the benefits they would derive and the impacts it will make in their lives as well as the research is 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh concerned. Most people contacted did not answer to their calls. All these contributed to why the interview was conducted for only seven parents/relatives/guardians To qualify to be part of this study, one must be: 1. A child between the ages of 12 and 17 who has accompanied an adult (parent/relative/guardian) from the rural area to the urban area, Madina and is in school. 2. Must at least understand Basic English and be able to communicate it. 3. An adult (mother, father, relative, guardian) who has migrated from a rural area to an urban area (Madina) and brought a child along. 3.8: EXCLUSIVE CRITERIA The following will be excluded from the study: 1. Those beyond the age appropriate for someone to be considered as a child. 2. A child who accompanied an adult (parent/relative/guardian) from the rural area to an urban area but is too sick to participate. 3.9: DATA COLLECTION As indicated above, this study employed both quantitative and qualitative data collection procedures. The questionnaires were distributed to accompanied children in the four selected private and public schools in their various classrooms to respond to the questions already prepared to help find out if there are any effects in their educational performance and some lifestyle changes since they accompanied their parents/relatives/guardian from the rural area to Madina. The questionnaires were structured which included mostly closed ended questions of various types. Open-ended questions were also included in collecting additional information. A total of one hundred questionnaires were filled by accompanied children from four primary and Junior High Schools comprising two private and two public schools for the exercise. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The questionnaires comprised three sections. Section A of the questionnaire was on the socio- demographic characteristic background of the children such as age, sex, place of birth, religious affiliations, reasons for migrating with parents, lengths of stay in Madina, current and former places of residence, main economic activity. Section B contained questions that sought information on the educational performance of the children such as current academic stage, performance in the rural area to that of their current place of residence. This aimed at finding out the improvement in their educational performances and other factors that might influenced their performances in school. Section C addressed some lifestyle changes of the students which was aimed at finding out their engagements in physical fights, smoking, alcoholism and peer influence activities, the type of dwelling in Madina to that of the rural area, daily feeding compared to the origin, quality of food in the city compared to the origin, sources of health care both in Madina and in the origin. The qualitative data was collected through an in-depth interview with all the adults (Parents/relatives/guardian) selected for the study. The adults were made up of four males and three females. The interview guide comprised three sections. Section A was on the socio- demographic characteristic background of the adults. Section B sought to find out from the adults the educational performances of the child/children. Section C were questions on some of the lifestyle changes of their child/children which was aimed at finding out the engagements of the children in physical fights, smoking, alcoholism and peer influence activities, their type of dwelling in Madina to that of the rural area, daily feeding compared to the origin, quality of food in the city compared to the origin, sources of health care both in the origin and in Madina, Accra. All the interviews were recorded alongside field notes and were later transcribed and analysed, with the thematic analysis also made on each interview with the help of a past student from the Centre. The quantitative data was analysed using the SPSS, 23 with charts and tables. All the participants answered the questions in English language. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10: PRE-TESTING A pilot study was conducted in Oyarefa, a suburb of Adentan Municipality in Accra before the study commenced. The purpose of the pilot study was to check for the reliability and validity of the instruments that will be used for the study. Again, the pilot study was done to identify any problems in the instruments to be administered for the main data collection as well as any other challenges that were likely to be encountered in the main data collection. This was to adopt measures to find solutions to any challenges before they occur. 3.11: ETHICAL CONSIDERATION According to American Psychological Association (APA), when using human beings for a research, it is important that ethical issues are strictly adhered to. A letter of introduction was collected from the Centre for Migration Studies of the University of Ghana. This letter was submitted to the District education office of the selected area who subsequently informed the various schools that were selected for the study. Parents/relatives/guardian of the children who qualified to be part of the study were also contacted through their children by letters and on phone to seek for their consent. Some of the ethical issues that guided this study are: Seeking of informed consent, Confidentiality of data collected, anonymity of participants, researcher taking full responsibility of any harm of whatsoever that was experienced in the course of the data collection. Again, to ensure the protection of the participants before conducting the interviews, pseudonyms were used throughout in the note taking and recordings. 3.12: LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The limited time available for the study did not allow for a detailed study of the accompanying children sampled for a longer period in order to undertake a trend analysis of the effects of rural-urban migration on the educational performances and some lifestyle changes of the children. Again, the limited time did not allow for the study of other accompanying children who are not in school. The children were asked to give information on their performances and 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some lifestyles changes since their stay in the city. A longitudinal approach should have been better for such a study. Also, apart from five parents who were able to give detailed account of their children, the other two parents gave general information about their children. It must be noted, however, that the general information about children is also important for the study. It provided the context within which the situations of the individual accompanying children were examined. Despite these limitations, the study was conducted with techniques that yielded quality and credible data. 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHILDREN AND THE PARENTS/RELATIVES/GUARDIANS 4.0: INTRODUCTION This section describes the socio-demographic characteristics of all the children sampled for the study. These characteristics include age, sex, main economic activity, living arrangements, present educational levels, religious affiliation, place of birth, previous place of living, length of stay in Accra, means of coming to Accra and the living arrangements of the children within Accra. The total number of children who participated in the study was 100, comprising primary and Junior High School pupils from both private and public schools. The data shows that more than half (51%) of the children surveyed for the study were males whiles 49% were females. 28% pupils were from private schools and 72% pupils from public schools. It was again revealed that a greater percentage (87%) of the children studied are Christians, 8% are Muslims and 5% Traditionalists. Also, when asked on where born, the results shows that a significant number (73%) of the children were born outside the Greater Accra Region whiles 27% were born in the Greater Accra Region but stayed in the rural areas and have accompanied adults to Madina, Accra. 4.1: AGE DISTRIBUTION OF THE CHILDREN The children were grouped into two categories. The results shows that 53% of the children were within ages 12-14 whiles 47% of them were within the ages of 15-17. (See figure 4.1). 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.1: Percentage distribution of children by age group Source: Field Work, June 2017. 4.1.2: MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES OF THE CHILDREN Figure 4.2 shows the distribution of the economic activity of the children. In the analyses, the results shows that 69% do not work whiles 6% are porters, 2% are Technicians/mechanics, 15% are street vendors, 5% are engaged in trading activities, 2% are Artisans, 1% representing labourer and 0% representing others. The majority of them do not work with a percentage of 69%. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.2: Percentage distribution of main economic activities of the children. 80% 69% MAIN ECONOMIC ACTIVITY OF ALL CHILDREN 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 15% 10% 6% 2% 5% 2% 1% 0% 0% Source: Field work, 2017. 4.1.3: LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF THE CHILDREN The study also examined the living arrangements of the children in Madina with results shown in Figure 4.3. The results shows that, 17% of the children were living with mothers only whereas 6% were living with fathers only, 34% were living with both parents. About 37% of the children were living with either an aunt or an uncle, 3% with siblings and another 3% were living with their grandparents. Also, more children were in the care of migrant mothers than fathers. This implies that children are more likely to accompany other relatives (aunties/uncles) in the migratory process than their own parents (fathers/mothers). A relatively higher percentage of the children (37%) were in the care of aunts and uncles than any other group. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.3: Percentage distribution of living arrangements of the children 40% 34% LIVING ARRANGEMENTS OF ALL CHILDREN 35% 37% 30% 25% 17% 20% 6% 15% 3% 10% 3% 5% 0% Both parents Mother only Father only Aunties/Uncles Siblings Grandparents Source: Fieldwork, June 2017. 4.2: SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INDEPTH INTERVIEW PARTICIPANTS (PARENTS/RELATIVES /GUARDIANS). This section shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the parents/relatives/guardian of the accompanied children that participated in the in-depth interview. All the parents/relatives/guardian of the children interviewed migrated from various rural areas to Madina across the country. They were all married with ages ranging from 30-56. It was also revealed that 3 of them were females whiles 4 were males. Again, at least all the participants had primary or secondary education with one having a tertiary education. About 5 of them that responded to the in-depth interview were Christians whiles 2 were Muslims. The least number of years stayed by the parents/relatives/guardian was 1 year while the maximum was 12 years. The number of children in the interviewees’ household ranges from 1 to 7. The findings are presented in table 4.1. 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE 4.1: SUMMARY OF SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF IN- DEPTH INTERVIEW PARTICIPANTS (PARENTS/RELATIVES/GUARDIAN). R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 PSEUDONYMS TAMPICO OKATAH MELIWE INUSAH ENYONAM ABA DANSOA AGE 44 56 53 46 34 30 38 SEX Male Male Male Male Female Female Female OCCUPATION Carpenter Driver Technician Trader Teacher Trader Trader MARITAL STATUS Married Married Married Married Married Married Married DURATION OF STAY 10 12 8 10 Years 2 Years 2 Years 5 Years NUMBER OF CHILDREN 3 7 4 5 3 1 2 LEVEL OF EDUCATION Middle school Primary Secondary Primary Tertiary Primary JHS/JSS RELIGION Muslim Christian Christian Muslim Christian Christian Christian Denkyira PLACE OF ORIGIN Obuase Agona Nsabaa Fume Bunkpurugu Nkawie Tokokoe Ada Source: Fieldwork June, 2017. 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE THE EXPERIENCES AND THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE CHILDREN 5.0: INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with the migration experiences, the effects of migration as well as the findings of the results of the study. This specifically looked at the reasons for migrating, the type of adults they accompanied to Madina, their dwelling places before and after migration and the effects of migration on the educational performance and some lifestyles changes of the children. 5.1: THE MIGRATION EXPERIENCES This section discusses the experiences of the children as a result of accompanying their parents to Madina (Accra) on their reasons of migrating, the type of adults they accompanied to Madina, their dwelling places before and after migration. 5.1.1: REASONS FOR MIGRATING TO MADINA, ACCRA. This section introduces another key important issue in analysing migration which has to do with the migrant’s reason for migrating. This study asked children their reasons for migrating with their adults (parents/relatives/guardian) as were told by their adult migrants since most decisions are taken for them. The results as indicated in figure 5.1 shows that, majority of the children (71%) said schooling or education was the reasons for their adults migrants bringing them to the city, (Madina). 15% said that work pursuits were their reason for migrating. The rest of the children (14%) indicated that they were brought to join their family. This was confirmed in the interview with one of the parents. Below is what she has to say, ‘I brought her to come and work and to school at the same time to help me take care of the other siblings. I left her in the village with my mum because she was young at the time and I 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh wanted to settle first before I go for her. Life in Accra is so hard that I can’t take care of her two other siblings I gave birth to in Accra here. Now she goes to school and help me in the market after school and on weekends. She sometimes buys her own clothes and other things that she needs.’(Dansoa, 38 year female trader). Figure 5.1: Reasons for migrating to Accra. REASONS FOR MIGRATION 80% 71% 70% 60% 50% 40% 15% 30% 14% 20% 10% 0% SCHOOLING/EDUCATION WORK PURSUITS JOIN FAMILY Source: Field work, June 2017. 5.1.2: PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CHILDREN BY TYPE OF ADULTS THEY ACCOMPANIED TO MADINA. Another key variable to exploit in the analyses was the type of adults these children accompanied to Madina, Accra. The import of this question was to examine whether children migrated with parents or accompanied someone else other than their parents. The findings shows that a significant number (63%) migrated with parents, 20% migrated with uncles/uncles to join parents in Madina, Accra and 17% migrated with someone else apart from parents/uncles/aunties and left parents in the origin as shown in figure 5.2. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.2: Distribution by type of adults the children accompanied to Madina, Accra PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TYPE OF ADULTS ACCOMPANIED TO MADINA 70% 63% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 20% 17% 10% 0% Migrated with parents Join parents in Madina with other relatives Left parents and came with other realtives Source: Field work, June 2017. 5.1.3: DWELLING PLACES OF THE CHILDREN BEFORE AND AFTER MIGRATION The study asked questions on the dwelling places of the children before and after migration. From the analysis it was revealed that, before migration, 53% of respondents lived in own homes, 46% lived in family houses and in uncompleted buildings. After migration, 18% lived in own homes, 32% in kiosks, 32% in uncompleted buildings, 1% in cinema halls, 1% in workshops and 5% in market stations (See figure 5.3). What this means is that, in the rural areas, a child either live in a home with parents or extended family house whereas in the cities (Madina) there is nothing like family house for a child. The child is forced to live in a cinema hall, uncompleted building, workshops, in front of shops or market stations. What could explain this finding is that, the extended family system is stronger in the rural areas. The result from 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the qualitative section also affirmed by some of the parents/guardian. For instance, a male parent said, “We are living in a rented apartment, but in the village, we were in the family house. But I will soon move in to my own building at Oyarefa, it is a four-bed room apartment with a big hall” (Meliwe, 44 years old, Male), “Oh here we are in a Kiosk, we have rented it, it is not too good but we can manage till I raise some money for at least a single room. Back home we were in my mother’s family house but because of traveling we have to manage this kiosk” (Aba, 30 years, Female). Figure 5.3: Dwelling places of the children before and after migration Source: Field work 2007. 5.2: THE EFFECTS OF MIGRATION ON THE CHILDREN This section focused on the effects of migration on the educational performance and some lifestyles changes of the children. This aspect pertains specifically to how their migration to 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the city (Madina) has influenced their educational performance, home environment and living conditions and some changes in behaviour as a result of migration. The results derived from this section were from the responses of the children through questionnaires and the in-depth interview with the parents/relatives/guardian. The results is presented along two thematic areas in line with the study objectives (educational performance and some lifestyle changes of the children). 5.2.1: EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCES OF THE CHILDREN. Given the fact that most of the educational performances of students are often affected when they migrate with parents, the study sought the need to examine improvement in the educational performances of children (Hoover-Dempsey & Sandler, 1997). In view of this, the researcher asked the children to indicate whether their educational performances in school has improved, remained the same or has worsened as a result of migrating to Madina. This was examined in relation to the gender and age of the children. As a result, cross tabulation and chi square test were performed to examine the relationship between the two variables. In respect to gender and educational performance, the chi square test indicated no statistical significance (χ2 value = 2.53, df (2), p value = 0.28 > 0.05). The reason is that one’s gender does not influence his /her academic performance and therefore irrespective of your gender and education was not a determined factor. This corroborates a study done by Vlachose & Papadimitriou, (2015) on the effects of age and gender on children’s reading performance. Though some have said that age plays a role in one’s educational performance it was not the case with this study since the chi square test (χ2 value = 1.367, df (4), p value =0.85 > 0.05) did not show any statistical relationship with the age of the respondents and their educational performance. The results of this analysis are presented in Table 5.1. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh On the assessment of the educational performances of the children, results of the analysis also indicated that out of the 100 children sampled, a greater percentage (86%) indicated that there has been an improvement in their educational performances, 1% remained the same whereas 13% of them showed that their performances has worsened as a result of migrating to Madina with their parents (see figure 5.4). Majority of respondents were of the view that their educational performance has improved. A greater percentage (93.9%) of the children whose performance had improved were females whereas (78.4%) were males. With regards to age of respondents, majority of respondents aged between 15-17 years (94.1%) perceived that their educational performance has improved than those within the ages of 12-14 years. This finding was affirmed during the qualitative in-depth interview with the parents/relatives/guardian as many of them said that they had observed that there is a positive change in the educational performances of their children in the cities as compared to when they were in the rural areas. For instance, below is what a 56-year-old male parent have to say, “I will say it’s good. The improvement is very remarkable. When he was brought from where he is from, even his BECE result is not remarkable. And because he was in the village, all hope was lost and nobody was able to help so we offered that they should bring him to be given the second chance to see whether he will be able to do it. Now from what we are seeing. Even though he has not written exams for us to compare but he is showing a remarkable improvement” (Okatah; 56 years; Male guardian). Another female parent also affirmed that her child has improved in her educational performance after moving to the city as compared to when her child was in the village. Below is an illustration of what she said, “Yes, here I am able to give here better education. When we were in the village we had no TV. At least I have being able to buy TV and during weekends she watches cartoons and other 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh educative stuffs on the TV which she wouldn’t have gotten when she was in the village. I am also sure they are teaching her good things at the school” (Aba; 30 years old; Female mother). Figure 5.4: Educational performance of the children EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE OF ALL THE CHILDREN 1% 13% 86% Improved Worsened Remained the same Source: Field work, June 2017. Table 5.1: Relationship between Perceived Improvement in Educational Performance and Gender and Age of Respondents. Gender Improvement in Educational Performance Total Improved Remained the Worsened same Male 40 10 1 51 78.4% 19.6% 2.0% 100.0% Female 46 3 0 49 93.9% 6.1% 0.0% 100.0% 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Total 86 13 1 100 86.0% 13.0% 1.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 2.53, df (2), p value = 0.28 > 0.05 12-14 69 12 1 82 years 84.1% 14.6% 1.2% 100.0% 15-17 16 1 0 17 years 94.1% 5.9% 0.0% 100.0% Total 86 13 1 100 86.0% 13.0% 1.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 1.367, df (4), p value =0.85 > 0.05 Source: Field work, June 2017. 5.2.2: SCHOOL ATTENDANCE BEFORE AND AFTER MIGRATION This section is on the school attendance of the children before and after migration. The analysis is centred on finding out if there are any improvements in their school attendance after migration. With regards to this, Figure 5.5 which is on student’s school attendance before migration, shows that 86% were attending school whiles 14%were not even though they were all of school going age. This shows that the 14% of the children who were not attending school in the rural areas were in school after accompanying their adults’ migrants to Madina, Accra. However, since the 14% who were of school going age but were not in school attended school after migration can be attribute to the 100% school attendance after migration. This shows a relative increase in school attendance from 86% to 100% after migration (See figure 5.5). 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.5: School attendance before migration Source: Fieldwork, 2017. 5.2.3: SOME LIFESTYLE CHANGES OF THE CHILDREN. This section is on the changes in the lifestyle of the children since they migrated. This aspect pertains specifically to how migration to the city (Madina) has influenced their home environment, living conditions, eating habits, sources and access to health care, some confrontations they have had with other peers, peer influence to start clubbing, drinking, stealing, smoking and other lifestyles. 5.2.4: EATING HABITS OF THE CHILDREN Migration is often noted as a response in improving the economic and social conditions of people. The existence of better living economic and social conditions within the destination regions often serve as a pull factor for most migrants. Against this background, the study sought the need to examine if there has been an improvement in the food they ate after migrating to Madina. It was revealed that more than half (51%) eating habits has worsened whiles (27%) has remained the same and 22% has improved (See Figure 5.6). An interview with one of the parents shows that life in the city has worsened the eating habits of the child as compared to the village. Below is an illustration of what she has to say, 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Here in the city you can’t afford to eat three times a day unlike in the village where food is in abundance and you can eat anytime you want. Here in the city if you want to eat three times you cannot save any money for your rent and cannot send money to your people back home, and if that happens you can be called a failure when you return home. We eat when necessary, that is in the mornings and evenings.’’(Enyonam, 34 year, female). Figure 5.6: Effects of migration on eating habits Source: Fieldwork, 2017, 5.2.5: IMPROVEMENTS IN QUALITY OF FOOD The study sought to examine the improvement in the quality of food the children ate in the city (Madina) as compared to the origin. This was examined in relation to the gender and age of respondents. As a result, cross tabulation and chi square test were performed to examine the relationship between the two variables. The results of this analysis is presented in Table 5.2. Out of the 100 respondents sampled, majority of them (70%) indicated that there has been an improvement in the quality of food they ate. 11% of respondents who indicated that the quality of food ate has worsened. Again, 19% of respondents indicated that the quality of food has neither improved nor worsened. With regards to the gender of respondents, majority of females 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (81.6%) indicated that quality of food has improved compared to 58.8% of male respondents. In view of this, the chi square test showed a significant relationship between gender of respondents and the perception on improvement in quality of food respondent eat at the destination area (Madina). With regards to the age of respondents, majority of those within the ages of 15-17 years indicated that the quality of food has improved compared to those within the ages of 12-14 years. Nonetheless, the chi square test showed no significant relationship between the age of respondents and perceptions about the improvement in the quality of food they eat (p value = 0.77>0.05). Table 5.2: Relationship between Perceived Improvement in Quality of Food, Gender and Age of Respondents. Gender Improvement in Quality in Food you Eat Total Improved Remained the Same Worsened Male 30 15 6 51 58.8% 29.4% 11.8% 100.0% Female 40 4 5 49 81.6% 8.2% 10.2% 100.0% Total 70 19 11 100 70.0% 19.0% 11.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 7.85, df (2), p value =0.02 < 0.05 12-14 years 57 17 8 82 69.5% 20.7% 9.8% 100.0% 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15-17 years 12 2 3 17 70.6% 11.8% 17.6% 100.0% Total 70 19 11 100 70.0% 19.0% 11.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 1.83, df (4), p value =0.77 > 0.05 Source: Field work, 2017. 5.3.3: HEALTH STATUS OF THE CHILDREN On the assessment of the health status of the children, the researcher asked the children to indicate whether their health status has improved, remained the same or has worsened as a result of migrating to Madina., a greater percentage (80%) of the study population recorded improvement in health care, 12% said their health status was the same whiles 8% reported that their health care had worsened as shown in figure 5.7. This was examined in relation to the gender and age of the children. As a result, cross tabulation and chi square test were performed to examine the relationship between the two variables. The results of the analysis further indicate that majority of both males (80.4%) and females (79.6%) were of the view that their health status have improved. In view of this, there was no significant relationship between gender of respondents and their perception on improvement in health status after migrating to Madina (χ2 value = 0.84, df (2), p value = 0.66> 0.05). The results of this analysis are presented in Table 5.3. During the in-depth interview with the parents, they could not clearly state if migrating from the rural area has improved the health of the child or not, but one of the female respondents made an interesting remark when she was asked how migrating to the city has affected the health of the child. Below is an illustration of her remark, 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “I just brought her about a year ago, and she has never been sick. In the village too, we don’t normally fall sick because we eat the leaves and we treat ourselves with the herbs but here in the city, you cannot find any fresh herb. Is only God that is keeping us, we just pray that we don’t fall sick” (Dansoa, 38 year old, Female). Figure 5.7: Health status of the children Source: Field work, 2017. 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.3: Relationship between Perceived Improvement in Health Care and Gender and Age of Respondents Gender Improvement in Health Care Total Improved Remained the Same Worsened MALE 41 5 5 51 80.4% 9.8% 9.8% 100.0% FEMALE 39 7 3 49 79.6% 14.3% 6.1% 100.0% 80 12 8 100 80.0% 12.0% 8.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 0.84, df (2), p value =0.66 > 0.05 12-14 65 10 7 82 years 79.3% 12.2% 8.5% 100.0% 15-17 14 2 1 17 years 82.4% 11.8% 5.9% 100.0% 80 12 8 100 80.0% 12.0% 8.0% 100.0% χ2 value = 0.395, df (4), p value =0.98 > 0.05 Source: Field work, 2017. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3.4: SOURCES OF HEALTH CARE IN THE RURAL AND URBAN AREAS The study sought to examine the sources of health care of the accompanied children both in the rural area and that of the urban area (Madina). The results revealed that 28% represented self- medication in the rural area whiles, 6% represented drugs from parents, 55% represented herbal treatments, 1% Soothsayer/Divine Healers/Oracles, 1% Pharmacy, 3% Chemical shops, 0% represented hospitals, 3% Clinics, Health posts 2%, No medical care 1%. However, in the urban area (Madina) it was revealed that self-medication represented 8%, Pharmacies 3%, Chemical shops 6%, Hospitals 8%, Clinics 51%, Health posts 22%, never fallen sick 2%, others 0%. From the analyses it can be said that rural-urban migration can make people access health care more in clinics, pharmacies and chemical shops not because they want to use it but probably cannot find the fresh herbs in the cities, as was confirmed by one of the parents of the children during the in-depth interview, “We find it difficult getting the fresh herbs here in Madina, even if you get, they are expensive. Unlike in the village that we get them free. So it’s better for us to get the health insurance card and attend clinics and health posts which is cheaper for the whole year than to be buying expensive herbal medicines”. (Okatah, 56 year old male). 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.8: Sources of health care in the rural area. Source: Fieldwork, June, 2017. Figure 5.9: Sources of health care in the urban area (Madina) Source: Fieldwork June, 2017. 5.3.5: SOME PEER INFLUENCES The study sought to find out some of the lifestyle changes of the children since they migrated to Madina. The results shows that 22% have encountered peer influence to start club, 17% 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh engage in drinking, 52% stealing, 3% smoking and 6% gave other reasons. This is depicted in Figure 5.10. A cross tabulation between having encountered any peer influence in Accra with Age and sex. The p-value from the chi-square results shows that, the age of the accompanied children is not statistically significant with encountering peer influence in the city (P-value= 0.539). From the analysis, 53% of the accompanied children within ages 12-14 years have encountered peer influence in Accra whiles close to 47% said they have not encountered any peer influence in Accra. Also, about 52% of the children with ages 15-17 years have encountered peer influence whiles close to 48% of the accompanied children within that age group has not encountered any peer influence. Notwithstanding, the analysis of the cross tabulation shows that, there is a significant relationship between the sex of the accompanied child and encountering peer influence (P- value=0.005). From the analysis, close to 67% of the males have ever encountered peer influence in Accra whiles about 33% of them have not encountered any peer influence in Accra. The result also shows that, about 61% of the females have not encountered peer influence whiles about 39% have encountered peer influence in Accra (See table 4). 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 5.10: Some peer influences of the children Source: Fieldwork June, 2017. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 5.4: A cross tabulation of peer influence encounter with age and gender Have you ever encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra? Age YES NO Total 12-14 Number 31 27 58 % within Age 53.40% 46.60% 100.00% % within Have you ever 58.50% 57.40% 58.00% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra 15-17 Number 22 20 42 % within Age 52.40% 47.60% 100.00% % within Have you ever 41.50% 42.60% 42.00% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Total Number 53 47 100 % within Age 53.00% 47.00% 100.00% % within Have you ever 100.00% 100.00% 100.00% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra P-Value= 0.539 Sex MALE Number 34 17 51 % within Sex 66.7% 33.3% 100.0% % within Have you ever 64.2% 36.2% 51.0% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra FEMALE Number 19 30 49 % within Sex 38.8% 61.2% 100.0% % within Have you ever 35.8% 63.8% 49.0% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra Number 53 47 100 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh % within Sex 53.0% 47.0% 100.0% % within Have you ever 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Accra P-value-= 0.005 5.4: DISCUSSION OF RESULTS This section presents the discussion of the findings of this study. The findings are systematically discussed along with the research objectives of the study and supported with empirical evidence from similar studies where necessary. The characteristics include age, sex, main economic activity, living arrangements, presents educational levels, religious affiliations, place of birth, previous place of living, reasons for migration, length of stay in Accra, means of coming to Accra. The children were grouped into two categories, 12-14 and 15-17. More than half of the children (53%) were within 12-14 whereas 47% were within the ages of 15 and 17. The reason for this ascertain is that as stated by parents, children within the ages of 12-14 are easy to control compared to that of the 15-17 ages. This assertion confirms a finding on a study done by Pynoos et al, (1987) on in school- age children. Out of these more than half of the children (51%) were males whiles 49% were females. Other characteristics of interests was the living arrangements of the children which the results revealed that greater percentage (37%) were living with aunties and uncles. This implies that children are more likely to accompany other relatives in the migratory process than their own parents to the urban centres. It can also be attributed to several cultural practices entrenched 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh among the Akans which requires nephews and nieces to be catered for by their perspective relatives. This agrees with Ofori-Dua, 2004 on his study on extended family and elderly care where other relatives other than their own relatives took care of the elderly. Another key important variable in analysing migration issues is the migrant’s reasons for migrating. Here, the children were asked why they migrated with their adult’s migrants to Madina as they were told by their adults migrants since most decisions were taken for them. The results shows that majority (71%) of them accompanied their adults migrants to school, 15% accompanied with the reason to work and the rest (14%) indicated that they just accompanied their adults to join other families in the city (Madina). The main objective of the study was to examine the educational performances of the children. This specifically was to establish the effects of rural urban migration on their educational performances. Though other studies like the effects of migration on children’s educational performance in rural China (Chen et al, 2009) shows that migration can adversely affect children. There is yet another group of researchers who are even-handed when considering the negative and positive sides of the phenomenon. It was against this background, that the study used a mixed method approach to examine the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults to Madina, specifically on their educational performances and some lifestyle changes. In all, 100 children, made up of 51% boys and 49 % girls were studied. From the analysis, the majority (86%) of the children indicated that they have had improvement in their educational performances after accompanying their adults to Madina, which was affirmed by most of the parents/guardian during the in-depth interviews. What this means is that migration may affect the educational performance of left behind children as in other studies (Zhou, 2014), but may positively affect the educational performance of accompanying children. The improvement in education confirms an earlier work done in literature by Kandel and Kao (2001),that parental migration leads to an increase in reading performance. It could 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also be linked to the fact that there is availability of schools in Madina. Aside that, there are also availability of teachers in the schools where classes and academic performance also monitored. This was affirmed by one of the parents interviewed, “My boy has been having good grades in most of his subjects since I brought him to Madina. In fact, the environment too has had some influence on him since he has been learning with my next-door neighbour’s son. I think that serves as a challenge, hence his high results in most of his subjects. His homework is always signed by me and the teachers also make sure that it is signed before they mark. He has not been going to the farm and doesn’t to bring cassava to sell so I think that has also contributed to his improvement in performance, (Meliwe 53, male Technician). Less than (15) of their performance remained the same and worsened. However, with regards to the worsened performance, one can attribute to the engagement of extra activities after school which was denying them ample time to study. It also has to do with the extra work I engage her in when she closes from school and come to the market to sell with me till market closes. We get home at 9pm and you can see that my child will be tired and he can’t learn. And since she helps me get more money to take care of her since the father died in the village I don’t have any choice than to let her be helping me here in Madina”. (Dansoa, 38, female trader). Children are faced with so many lifestyle changes in cities. Urban lifestyles come with situations that may have a lot of influences on children especially those that have come from the rural areas (Ekernrode & Gore, 1990). With regards to this, the study sought to investigate some possible lifestyle changes of the children since they accompanied their adults to Madina which includes, their home environment, living conditions, improvement in quality of food, health status, dwelling places, eating habits, sources and access to health care, some 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh confrontations they have had with other peers, peer influence to start clubbing, drinking, stealing, smoking and other lifestyles. On the eating habits it was revealed more than half (51%) eating habits has worsened whiles (27%) has remained the same and 22% has improved. One can say that its expensive to stay in the city coupled with high prices of foodstuffs as compared to the villages where foodstuffs are cheaper. When the children were asked, how many times they eat in a day, majority of them responded that it has been difficult for their adult’s parents to afford three square meals in a day as a result of the high cost of accommodation coupled with buying of drinking water and for household chores. This ascertain confirms a study done by Gordon et al, 2000 on poverty and social exclusion in Britain. This finding was further revealed in detail during the interview section with the parents. A parent explained that, the burden of rent and the obligation to send remittances home cannot afford them together with the children to have three square meals a day. Another area revealed by the analysis is the health status of the children, the analysis shows that a greater percentage (80%) of the children have observed an improvement in their health status but the in-depth interview with the parent/guardian could not clearly show whether migration has improved health status or not. Again, on the living arrangements of the children, it was revealed that a greater percentage (37%) of the children were living with aunties and uncles than those who live with both parents (34%) and other relatives. This confirms a study done by (Coe, 2012) which revealed that living arrangement is more common among migrants in Africa due to the culture where child care is shared among other family members. This type of living arrangement is more common among migrants in Africa due to the culture where child care is shared among other family members. Some of the children migrated with their parents while others joined their parents later with 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other relatives. In a few instances, some children migrated with other relatives to Accra leaving their parents behind at their places of birth. In addition, the living arrangements for the children has no significant relationship with children’s educational performances. The study found that rural-urban migration has a negative impact on the eating habits and dwelling places of the children because of high cost of rent in the city and the obligation on parents/guardian to send remittances to their origin. The effect of rural urban migration was not clear on health, probably because of the complexity of the concept of health. Another key area the study revealed was the engagements of the children in other economic activities after school and on weekends. According to the field survey, a significant (15%) number of children are currently engaged in selling items on the streets and at public places mostly near other important public places where more number of pedestrians are passing which mostly include selling of sachet water (pure water), pastries, electronics, cosmetics and etc. Their working condition is mostly mobile in nature. Some of the children (5%) also help their adult’s migrants in the market to sell after school and on weekends. Again, aside those selling in the market and on the street, there were other groups which were also working as technicians and mechanics (2%). In addition, the study also showed that migration can adversely affect the dwelling places of accompanied children. From the analysis, none of the children before migrating lived in uncompleted buildings or slept in market places, but after migrating, the analysis showed that some of the children slept in cinema halls, uncomplicated buildings and market stations. This could be as a result of the high cost of accommodation in the city as revealed by some of the parents in the in-depth interviews. None of the children may not dwell in any of such places (uncompleted building, market stations, and cinema halls) in the rural areas because of the strong prevalence of the extended family system in the rural areas. Furthermore, it was revealed 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in the study that some of the children adopted city lifestyles as a result of peer influences hence their engagements in some risky behaviours by stealing (52%), drinking (17%) and going to the night club (22%). 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.0: INTRODUCTION This chapter focuses on the summary, conclusion and some recommendations for the study. 6.1: SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS Many concerns about effects of rural-urban migration on children in general have been studied. Research conducted so far on the subject is not conclusive on the effects of rural-urban migration on children who accompany adults. Some studies indicate that rural-urban migration has negative consequences on the wellbeing of children who accompany adults whilst others show that it has positive consequences on them (Knights & Gunatilaka, 2010). It was against this background, that the study sought to examine the effects of rural-urban migration on the educational performances of accompanied children. It was clear that rural-urban migration has some effect on the educational performance of the children. The results shows that rural-urban migration leads to an improvement (86%) in educational performance of the children who have accompanied adults to Madina. With regards to some lifestyle changes of the children. This specifically looked at the living arrangements, eating habits, health status, some peer influences and some risky behaviours like stealing (52%), drinking (17%) and going to the night club (22%). The results from the study also indicated that rural-urban migration can affect the eating habits (70%) of the children positively. Out of the 100 respondents sampled, majority of respondents (70%) indicated that there has been an improvement in the quality of food they eat. 11% of respondents who indicated that the quality of food ate has worsened. Again, 19% of respondents indicated that the quality of food has neither improved nor worsened. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Though the sample size in this study may be too small for any generalization, based on the findings from this study, the effect of rural-urban migration on a child may depend on whether the child is a left behind child or accompanying child. 6.2: CONCLUSION From the findings it was revealed that rural-urban migration improves the educational performances of accompanying children, may expose them to worse eating habits and dwelling places. Rural-urban migration may also expose children who have accompanied adults to Madina to some peer influences like stealing (52%), clubbing (22%) and drinking (17%). Though the sample size used in this study is small, if the findings of the present study are juxtaposed with the discoveries of the international literature on migration, it can be concluded that the effects of rural-urban migration on children are case specific (educational performance and some lifestyle changes of children). This is due to the fact that, the discoveries of this and the information from some of the guardians interviewed for this study, points out that, the migration per say does not necessarily impact on the educational and some lifestyle changes of children but the living arrangement, the kind of exposure to some lifestyles and support that they receive from their relatives/parents/guardian that are typical of the Ghanaian extended family system. 6.3: RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations are made: School authorities should make the effort to identify the rural-urban accompanying children and partner with their parents or relatives in order to provide the needed support for these children who may have challenges with their living arrangement, health care and exposure to some lifestyles. School system in rural areas should be strengthened in order to enhance academic performance so as to curb the mass movement of adults with accompanying children into the urban centres. 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Parents and guardians of accompanying children should keep a closer eye on the children and to prevent them from engaging in extra activities after school in order to prevent them from involving in some risky lifestyles, for instance stealing, smoking and drinking. There is the need to family involvement and stakeholder participation. The communities and families of such children should be involved in programme design and implementation whenever and however possible, it could also involve other stakeholders as city administrators, Ghana’s women and children affairs ministry and the police. The need to focus on accompanying children to a broader focus on all children, family school and community, reinforcing their coping strategy involving them in the elaboration of more affordable approach to help in family preservation, and school and community development. The Ghanaian family system where equal care for children by all family members is practiced should be encouraged and sustained. Policy makers can use this study to strengthen policy issues related to rural out migration. 6.4: ISSUES FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Since the present study was based on a small sample and solely on accompanied children in schools, it was difficult to generalize on the findings. Larger and more representative samples could be drawn from different parts of the Greater Accra Region which will consider accompanied children who are not in schools but in households and on the streets for further studies. 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Annual review of sociology 23.1 (1997): 63-95. 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Zhu K. Li C. Zhou S. (2002). Analysis and suggestion on the academic performance of the left- behind children. Education Science, 18, 21–24. 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A INSTRUMENT A: QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY FOR THE ACCOMPANIED CHILDREN. UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES RESEARCH TOPIC: EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN WHO ACCOMPANY ADULTS TO MADINA Hello, I am Susanna Shallon Adisenu, a student of University of Ghana, Legon from the Centre for Migration Studies. I am undertaking a research project as part of my course requirements in migration studies. The study aims to investigate the Effects of Rural-Urban Migration on children who accompany adults to Madina, Accra as part of my dissertation leading to the award of Master of Arts in Migration Studies. I would like to ask you a few questions regarding the study. Your participation is very important for the success of this project. I would therefore be grateful for your assistance in completing the following questionnaires to the best of your knowledge. I would like to assure you that the information you will share with me will only be used for research purposes and will not be traced back to you. You are also free not to participate or discontinue with the interview at any time. However, your input will be greatly appreciated as it will impact on the rural-urban migration on the children that accompanied their parents to Accra. Thank you for your co-operation. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION A: SOCIO - DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS INFORMATION OF THE CHILDREN 1. Sex 1. Male 2. Female 2. Age……………………………………………………………………………………….. 3. Educational level 1. Primary school 2. JHS/middle school 3. SHS/Vocational/O’ level/A’ level 4. Never been to school 5. Other, specify…………………………………………………………………………… 4. Apart from schooling, what is your main economic activity? 1. No work 2. Porter 3. Technician/mechanic 4. Street vendor 5. Trading/selling 6. Artisan 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. Labourer 8. Other, specify……………………………………………………………………………. 5. Religion 1. Christianity 2. Islam 3. Traditionalist 4. Other, specify 6. In what region were you born? 1. Western 2. Central 3. Greater Accra 4. Volta 5. Eastern 6. Northern 7. Ashanti 8. Brong Ahafo 9. Upper East 10. Upper West 7. What was the main reason for migrating with your mother to the city? 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Work 2. Join family/marriage 3. Schooling/Training 4. Conflict 5. Disaster (flood, drought, fire ) 6. Other, specify……………………………………………………………………………. 8. How long have you been living in Accra?………………………………………..……… 9. How did you come to Accra? 1. Migrated with parents 2. Parents were first here and I joined them 3. I left parents at origin 10. Who do you stay with here in Accra? 1. Both parents 2. Mother only 3. Father only 4. Siblings only 5. Uncle/Aunte 6. Other specify…………………………………………………………………………… SECTION B: EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCES OF THE CHILDREN 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11. Were you attending school before moving ? 1. Yes 2. No 12. What type of school did you attend at the origin? 1. Private 2. Public 13. What type of school do you attend now? 1. Public 2. Private 14. Who was paying your school fees in your origin? 1. Father 2. Mother 3. Aunte 4. Uncle 5. Sister 6. Other, specify……………………………………………………………………………… 15. How do you see your learning outcomes in the city as compared to where you are coming from? 11. Improved 2. Remained the same 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Worsened 16. Compared to the origin, would you say that learning environments here has improved or worsened? 1. Improved 2. Remained the same 3. Worsened 17. Compared to the origin, would you say that the quality of teaching here has better or worsened your learning outcome. 1. Better 2. Remained the same 3. Worsened SECTION C: SOME LIFESTYLE CHANGES 18. What type of dwelling do you live in the origin? 1. Own home 2. Market/transport station 3. Street 4. In front of shop 5. Kiosk 6. Workshop 7. Family house 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8. Uncompleted building 9. Others, specify…………………………………………………………………………… 19. What type of dwelling do you live in the city now? 1. Home 2. Market/transport station 3. Street 4. In front of shop 5. Kiosk 6. Workshop 7. Cinema hall 8. Uncompleted building 9. Others, specify……………………………………………………………………………. 20. How has migration to the city improved the number of times you eat daily? 1. Improved 2. Remained the same 3. Worsened 21. Compared to the origin, what would you say about the quality of food you eat in the city (Madina)? 1. Improved 2. Remained the same 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3. Worsened 22. What was your source of health care in the rural area? 1. Self-medication 2. Drugs from parents 3. Herbal treatments 4. Soothsayers/Oracle/ Divine healers 5. Pharmacies 6. Chemical shops 7. Hospitals 8. Clinics 9. Health posts 10. No medical care 23. How do you access health care in the city? 1. Self-medication 2. Pharmacies 3. Chemical shops 4. Seek treatment from hospital 5. Clinics 6. Health posts 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. Never fallen sick since migration 8. Other, specify…………………………………………………………………………….. 24. Compared to the origin, what would you say about the access to health care in the city Madina)? 1. Improved 2. Remained the same 3. Worsened 25. Have you ever had any confrontation since you came to the city? 1. Yes 2. No 26. Have you ever encountered any peer influence activity since you came to Madina, Accra? 1. Smoking 2. Drinking 3. Stealing 4. Clubbing 5. Others, specify……………………………………………………………………………. 27. Do you smoke? 1. Yes 2. No 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28. Which environment do you normally play? 1. In the vicinity 2. Lorry parks 3. Along the street 4. Around the house 5. School park 6. Market area 7. Others, specify……………………………………………………………………………… 29. Do you wear helmet when riding a bicycle/motor cycle since you came to the city? 1. Rarely 2. Never 3. Always 4. Others, specify……………………………………………………………………………… 30. Have you engaged in a physical fight since your migration to the city? 1. Yes 2. No THANK YOU. 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX B: AN IN-DEPTH INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE FOR PARENTS, RELATIVES AND GUARDIAN UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON CENTRE FOR MIGRATION STUDIES RESEARCH TOPIC: EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN WHO ACCOMPANY ADULTS TO MADINA. I am a student from the Centre for Migration Studies, University of Ghana, Legon. I am undertaking a research project as part of my course requirements in migration studies. The study aims to investigate the Effects of Rural-Urban Migration on children who accompany adults to Madina. I would like to ask you a few questions regarding the study. Your 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh participation is very important for the success of this project. I would like to assure you that information you will share with me will only be used for research purposes and will not be traced back to you. You are also free not to participate or discontinue with the interview at any time. However, your input will be greatly appreciated as it will impact on the rural-urban migration on accompanied children. SECTION A: SOCIO -DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS INFORMATION OF THE ADULTS (PARENTS/RELATIVES/GUARDIAN) 1.Can you please tell me something about yourself (Probe for age, sex, where born, religious denomination, level of education, place of origin, where living previously, length of stay in the city, reasons for migration, number of household, number of children, ages of children). SECTION B: EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCES OF THE CHILDREN 2. What is/are your children’s educational status? 3. How do you see the learning outcomes of your child/children in the city as compared to the origin? 4. How has migration to the city influence the position of your child/children? (Probe for how it has affected school attendance). 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5. In the areas of Maths, Science and English, has there been any improvements in these areas as compared to the origin? Probe for grades obtained in the last exam/position. SECTION C: LIFESTYLE CHANGES OF THE CHILDREN 6. Which part of the country do you and your child/children originated and where do you live now? 7. What type of dwelling do you and your child/children leave in? 8. Why did you leave your origin with the child/children to the city (Madina)? 9. How long have you and your child/children stayed in the city (Madina)? 10. What was your main occupation before coming to this place? Was it sufficient to fulfil your household requirements? 11. What is your current occupation? Has it been sufficient taking care of your child/children? Probe for difference in the origin and in the city. 12. What changes have you seen in your income level after migrating to the city? How was your income before and how about now? Probe for how it’s affecting the upkeep of the child/children. 13. How many times do you feed your child/children in a day as compared to your origin? 14. How do you combine your activity and taking care of your child/children in the city? 15. Who bears the cost of taking care of your child/children? (Probe for, feeding, payment of fees, health, rent, clothing etc). 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16. I think, there is quite differences in the physical assets (infrastructure and other facilities) between your home place and here, do you believe this assets contribute to improve the lifestyle of your child/children in any way? 17. In what ways do your spouse’s /other family members’ contribute to your household budget for your child/children upkeep? 18. What do you feel about the social relation of the child/children here as compared to your origin? Does your neighbour society help you to solve any problem in any way? 19. At last, do you have anything to say about some lifestyle changes of children in Madina? 20. Has your child/children ever had any confrontation since she/he came to the city? Probe for type of confrontation. 21. Do you think your child/children relationship with peers has influence his/her behaviour since migration to the city as compared to the origin? (Probe for smoking, alcoholism, stealing, clubbing etc). 22. At last, do you have any more to say about the general risky behaviours of the accompanying child/children in Madina? Probe for the, clubbing, drinking, smoking, use of helmet in riding bicycles and motor bikes. THANK YOU. 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX C: SAMPLE TRANSCRIPT THE EFFECTS OF RURAL-URBAN MIGRATION ON CHILDREN WHO ACCOMPANY ADULTS TO MADINA, ACCRA. TRANSCRIPT DATE: 5th July, 2017 LOCATION: MADINA INTERVIEWER: SUSANNA SHALLON ADISENU RESPONDENT: FEMALE Interviewer: Can you tell me something about yourself? Respondent: My name is Christine Gota I am 28 years, I was born in Volta region. I have completed Primary. I have being in Accra about 2 years now. I have a child and she is a girl. She is 14 years old. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interviewer: Why did you migrate to Accra? Respondent: I have been bringing Cassava dough and Charcoal to sell in Madina, Accra. When I was able to raise enough income so I got a place at Madina market and I finally decided to stay there. So monthly I go to the village to bring stuffs to sell in the Market. Interviewer: What is your child educational Status? Respondent: She is in JHS 2. Interviewer: How do you see the learning outcomes of your children in the city that is Madina as compared to where you are coming from? Respondent: I think she is picking up. She is doing well in school. When I gave birth to her, she was with my mother so I can’t really tell her performance as at that time. Now that I have enough money to put here in a private school I think she is doing well. Interviewer: Have migration in the city influence the position of your child in the city as compared to the village? Respondent: Yes Interviewer: How has migration to the city influence the position of your child? Respondent: Now I have some money to put her in a good school. If I were in the village I wouldn’t be able to do that because there are no jobs in the village and even if you sell they don’t buy because everybody goes to the farm for food stuffs. Interviewer: In the areas of Maths, Science and English have there being an improvement in these areas as compared to the village. Respondent: Yes, the teachers have been telling me that she is improving remarkably well. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interviewer: What type of dwelling did you leave in with your children in the village and also here? Respondent: Oh here we are in a Kiosk, we have rented it, it is not too good but we can manage till I raise some money for at least a single room…back home we were in my mother’s family house but because of traveling we have to manage this kiosk. Interviewer: What was your main occupation before coming here? Respondent: I was not working. Interviewer: What change have you seen in your income level? What was your income in the village compared to the city? Respondent: When I was in the village I was not working. But here in Madina, when I sell a week I am able to save about Ghc 50 a week. Interviewer: So in a month you make about GHc200? Respondent: Yes Interviewer: How many times do you feed your children in a day in the city compared to the village? Respondent: When she is going to school she eats before she goes and when she closes from school she comes to me at the market and I give her money for food. So I will say 2 times. Interviewer: Who bears all the cost in taking care of the children? That is school fees, school uniform, their feeding, and health. Respondent: I bear all the cost Interviewer: Do you think the physical asset such as infrastructure and other facilities between home place and village contributes to improve the livelihood of your children in any way? 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Respondent: Yes, here I am able to give her better education. When we were in the village we had no TV. At least I have being able to buy TV and during weekends she watches cartoons and other educative stuffs on the TV which she wouldn’t have gotten when she was in the village. I am also sure they are teaching her good things at the school. Interviewer: Please in what ways do your spouse and other family members’ contribution to your household budget on the part of the child? Respondent: I have no spouse and I have no family here. But considering my stay here my mother has supported a lot and she is still supporting. Before my stay here she has been the one that has looked after the child until I finally move here. Sometimes she is able to make arrangement for the purchase of the Charcoal and the Cassava dough. Interviewer: What do you feel about the social relation of the children here as compared to the village? Respondent: I think she will have a lot of opportunities because there are a lot of opportunities here. Interviewer: Has your children had any confrontation since they came to the city? Respondent: No Interviewer: Do you think this child relationship with peers have influenced her behaviour since migrating into the city as compared to where he was coming from? As I said early on like smoking Alcoholism, Clubbing and those things. Respondent: No Interviewer: How? Respondent: She is always with me in the Market if she is not in school and also she doesn’t like going outside. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Interviewer: At last, do you have any more to say about risky behaviours of the accompanied child in Madina? Respondent: Not much, but I think that one has to do with the parent. If you leave the child to be roaming always she will go and pick a bad behaviour and bring it to the house because here in Accra there are a lot of different types of people. Some of them are with good behaviours whiles others with bad behaviours. So you have to teach the child the right thing and even when she goes out he wouldn’t bring home bad behaviours. 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 105