Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51  Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use: Gender perspectives and implications for agricultural market development alex Barimah Owusu Department of geography and Resource Development, University of ghana, Legon, accra-ghana Paul W. K. Yankson Department of geography and Resource Development, University of ghana, Legon, accra-ghana Stephen Frimpong Department of agricultural and applied economics, College of agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Wyoming, Laramie, USa Abstract: Recent growth in mobile telephone and mobile-based information services in many developing countries provides opportunities to reduce costly and incomplete information dissemi- nation in the agricultural sector and ensure efficient functioning of markets. But in order to suc- cessfully use mobile phones for the optimal development of agricultural markets, understanding the impact of social structure on mobile phone adoption, its uses and perceived impacts are invaluable. although global assessments of capacity in the use of information communication technology (ICT) devices have been considered, such assessments mask significant geo-spatial variations among local farmers—male and female—with respect to their capacity to effectively use basic mobile phone functions. Documenting and recognizing this is important for the development of national agricultural ICT policies, as well as programmes aimed at increasing farmers’ knowledge and use of ICT for agricultural marketing. This article’s contribution to agricultural marketing and the use © 2017 Sage Publications 10.1177/1464993417735389 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 37 of ICT in developing countries (such as ghana) is anchored in the assessment of the technical capacity and mobile telephone-based market information access to farmers in selected rural districts of ghana. The selected districts are where most households are poor and heavily dependent on farming as their mainstay, and furthermore, where market information which mobile phones facilitate is crucial to maximizing their incomes. Key words: gender, smallholder, technical capacity, mobile phone, market access I Introduction about wider food distribution, greater avail- Shifts in demand and supply conditions of agri- ability and wider market accessibility, thereby food value chains are constantly reshaping the contributing to global food security. global agri-food marketing network (Bruinsma, But in order to successfully use ICT for the 2009; Cunningham, 2007; Mensbrugghe optimal development of the market economy, et al., 2009; Regmi and gehlhar, 2005; World understanding the impact of social structure on economic Forum (WeF), 2010). Particularly, adoption and use of ICT devices are invaluable. in developing countries where rural infra- Burrell and Oreglia (2015), Murphy and Priebe structure is not fully developed, these changes (2011), and Buskens and Webb (2009) argue present new opportunities and challenges that the dramatic positive changes brought to the potential use of information commu- about by mobile phones, however, have not nication technology (ICT), including mobile touched all people. Zainudeen et al., (2008) telephone systems to develop domestic and assert that the ‘digital divide’ is especially large international trade in food crops. Jensen (2007) in low-income countries, where mobile phone and Srinivasan and Burrell (2015) mention that penetration levels are also low. a key question when information is limited or costly, agents in this study, therefore, seeks to assess the are unable to engage in optimal arbitrage, extent of mobiles’ adoption, of IT knowledge, leading to excessive price dispersion across and its agricultural uses, and what might be markets and eventual inefficient allocation. the off-farm benefits for male and female This condition violates the law of one price smallholder mobile phone users. The european and undermines the Pareto efficiency. Under Union (eU) (2013) elaborates that to develop a such conditions, information access may competitive agricultural sector, investments in improve market efficiency and performance agricultural technology should be coupled with while raising the welfare of all value-chain access to knowledge and measures for small- actors. Studies by Donner (2006), Hudson scale farmers to help improve their technical (2006), and Muto and Yamano (2009) have capacity. Since rural food crop farmers, who shown a strong linkage between mobile phone are at the forefront of the agri-food value penetration (and adoption), and increased chains (United Nations Conference on Trade market efficiency and welfare. and Development (UNCTaD), 2009; WeF, ICT, therefore, has the potential to support 2010), often have limited formal education the access to and exchange of information for (asamoah et al., 2013; Wasihun et al., 2014), smallholder farmers, and expand networks improving their capacity to use ICT devices of farmers and agribusiness, so that they can would give farmers great impetus and benefit support each other (World Bank/FaO, 2012). from the emerging changes in agri-food Wegner and Zwart (2011) also emphasize that systems. This study, therefore, assesses the measures to improve smallholder farmers’ knowledge and capacities of male and female capacity to increase food production and pro- small landholders in mobile phone use from ductivity, as well as linking them to markets, a ‘gendered perspective’ to help understand will not only raise their income but also bring knowledge gaps that need to be bridged in Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 38 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use africa’s emerging mobile-based agriculture context-specific application of ICT (avgerou, (magriculture) for gender mainstreaming 2010) and conceptualizing the utility of ICTs (United Nations, 2002). The rest of the article, in relation to the social structure is important which follows on from this introduction, since ‘merely providing technology does not comprises the objectives of the field study, a automatically create a need for it, nor does review of existing development literature on it foster a culture of use or attempt to com- the subject, data collection and analysis, results prehend the underlying issues and challenges of the empirical study and conclusions. most efficiently addressed with the aid of technology’ (Hosman, 2010: 50). II Objectives of the research The ability to use ICT to achieve such The growth of ghana’s mobile telecommuni- a development goal is critical to economic, cation sector over the past decades follow- social, cultural and agricultural development ing the introduction of ghana’s National (Mittal and Mehar, 2012; Srinivasan and Burrell, Telecom Policy (NTP) in 2005 (Ministry of 2015). Yet, there is a mixed bag of rewards to Communications, 2005) and accompanying men and women using ICTs. Whiles consi- cost reduction in usage of data bundles has led derable gap in the global ICT arena is notable to an increased number and wider coverage among gender groups, in ghana much less has of mobile network operators, and growth of been written on gender differences among a large number of mobile-enabled informa- smallholder farmers in terms of technology tion delivery models for the rural population adoption and practices (Sarfo et al., 2011). and the agricultural sector. For instance, Jensen (2007) also notes that while much different models for call centre operations has been written on the global ‘digital divide’ and partnerships as well as commodity prices between rich and poor countries, considerably are being tested by groups such as esoko, less is known about local and regional digital Farm Radio International, Digital green and divides within poor countries, and perhaps the grameen Foundation for smallholder among gender groups of smallholder farmers farmers. even though some african countries, who form the majority of the poor in these including ghana in contemporary times, have developing countries; and numbering about begun to experience increasing mobile phone 1.5 billion (Ferris et al., 2014) in overall size. use and wider regional penetration (Castells available information on gender and ICT et al., 2007), the same cannot be said of small- familiarity estimates that there are about holder farmers in rural and peri-urban areas. 300 million fewer female mobile phone sub- Therefore, understanding adoption and use scribers in low- and middle-income countries, of mobile phones among these more disad- than male users (Zainudeen et al., 2008). The vantaged smallholder farmers are particularly Food and agriculture Organization (FaO) important to ensure equity, and fairness is of the United Nations (2009) explains that upheld in the country’s rural sector. rural women, due to low levels of education, Mobile phones alone cannot play the role of high rates of illiteracy and lack of important market information access, though they can be developmental resources or assets, constitute more appropriate to deliver content for custo- the majority of the world’s poorest (Meinzen- mized, timely information delivery, if the ICT Dick et al., 2011; Peterman et al., 2010). These is developed appropriately. McNamara (2003) factors may delay the capabilities of women to maintains that ICTs are enablers of change and use mobile phones for accessing market infor- not necessarily creators of change. There is mation (Warschauer, 2003); and thus, consi- the need, therefore, to address capacity needs dering the gender dimensions of mobile phone of end users of the technology. Thus, under- use in developing countries in the context of standing the social structure underlying the africa’s emerging agriculture is important. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 39 empowering women farmers to adopt and road system of 145 km, out of which 65 km use innovations is important to offset these are tarred roads, while 80 km are un-tarred. structural imbalances, and that may require a The district has a total length of 425.60 km of global gender mainstreaming strategy (United feeder roads; 295.10 km of these feeder roads Nations, 2002). The World Bank (2009) also are properly engineered, while 59.50 km are warns that the failure to recognize the roles, partially engineered. The district has good differences and inequities between men and access to all six telecommunication networks women poses a serious threat to the effecti- in ghana and one radio station which facilitates veness of global agricultural development access and dissemination of information in the agendas. district (gSS, 2014). The objective of this article, therefore, is Twifo-Hemang Lower Denkyira District to examine gender disparities in mobile phone on the other hand, is also typically rural and adoption and use for agriculture and off-farm was recently (2012) carved out of old Twifo- income generation among local smallholder Hemang Lower Denkyira District, and hence farmers. Specifically, this study explores: (a) it is characterized by a limited ICT and market the overall and gender-based adoption and infrastructure. Most of the communities are experiences in mobile phone use; and (b) difficult to reach and food crop farming is the the benefits and perceived impacts of mobile main source of livelihood in both districts. phone use in relation to agriculture and rela- These selectively sampled districts can be ted uses of mobile phones. The findings have policy stratified into five traditional council areas, implications for telecommunication industry namely: Twifo, Wawase, Morkwa, Hemang and Jukwa. Three of the traditional council operatives including government, non- areas (Twifo, Hemang and Jukwa) were ran- governmental organizations working in the domly selected and further stratified into rural sector, mobile network operators, other and Peri-urban communities. private sector players as well as users, and in The stratification was done through pilot developing evidence-based ICT policies and reconnaissance studies and key informant regulations (gillwald et al., 2010). It also seeks discussions held with the planning officers of to leverage agricultural market development the two districts’ director of the department to encourage (and engender) commercial of agriculture, traditional chiefs, assembly agribusiness development by improving smal- members, agricultural extension agents lholder linkages aimed at increasing on-farm (aeas) and chief farmers. Two communities productivity (Yankson et al., 2016). —one peri-urban and the other rural—were selected randomly from each of the three III Data collection and analysis traditional councils of the district. a simple The empirical context of this study is a rela- random-sampling technique was employed tively low-income region in ghana, inhabited to select 246 smallholder farmers, comprising by male and female smallholder, food crop 136 male-headed and 110 female-headed farmers. Central Region is the most deprived, smallholder farmers across the study districts. food insecure and poverty-stricken region in This allowed for disaggregation of the data southern ghana (ghana Statistical Service by gender. The selection of the sample size (gSS), 2008; World Food Programme (WFP), was based on a trade-off between resources 2009). Two districts, Twifo atti-Morkwa and time. and Twifo-Hemang Lower Denkyira, of the In addition to the household survey and Central Region were randomly selected to to provide in-depth understanding of gender serve as the study’s field sites. according to differences in the ownership, usage and the ghana Statistical Service (gSS, 2014), the experience of mobile phone, two focus group Twifo atti-Morkwa District has a total trunk discussions—one solely male and another Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 40 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use solely female—were held in each of the IV Results and discussions districts to determine some of the factors influencing mobile phone adoption and usage 1 ICT indicators of the study districts and that cannot be determined by quantitative socio-economic profile of respondents analysis, and also to provide additional insights The use of mobile phones for communication to some of the results of the household survey is widespread across ghana (ayensu, 2003; related to gender. Both the instruments for the Sarfo et al., 2011). However, national indica- household survey and the focus group discus- tors of mobile phone penetration and ICT sions were administered in local languages, use mask important district- or regional-level thereby enabling farmers (male and female) indicators. although data on mobile phone to fully understand each other. Data was diffusion across the study districts is sparse, collected in June and July 2015, and data available data from the gSS (2013: 14) indicates collected included farmer-specific attribu- that there are six mobile telecommunica- tes, household and community data, mobile tion network operators within the districts electronic literacy, market transactions, and (Table 1). Mobile phone subscriptions per 100 geo-spatial data of farmer’s residence and people within the two districts amount to 32. community markets or other agricultural The data also indicates that 38 per cent of the service providers. population of Twifo-atti-Morkwa District own mobile phones. Table 1. Socio-economic and ICTa indicators of surveyed districts Twifo-atti- Indicator Morkwa Twifo-Hemang* Both Districts Total population 61,743 55,131 116,874 Male population 30,254 (49.0) 27,370 (49.6) 57,624 (49.3) Female population 31,489 (51.0) 27,761 (50.4) 59,250 (50.7) Total households 12,959 12,242 25,201 Households involved in agriculture 9,309 (72.0) 7,345(60.0) 16,654 Proportion of farmers engaged in crop farming 9,060 (97.3) – – Number of mobile network operators 6 6 6 Mobile subscription per 100 people – – 32 Mobile phone ownership 15,433 (38.0) – – Men owning mobile phones 8,849 (57.3) – – Females owning mobile phones 6,584 (42.7) – – Population using Internet 1,005 (2.5) – – Male population using Internet 654 (65.1) – – Female population using Internet 351(34.9) – – Literacy (%) 77.7 – – Source: Compiled by authors from ghana Statistical Service (gSS, 2013, 2014). Notes: aPersons having mobile phones refer to respondents 12 years and older who owned mobile phones (irrespective of the number of mobile phones owned by each person). * Implies authors’ estimates based on available data. Figures in parenthesis are percentages. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 41 although females form the majority skills and resources—to implement new inno- (50.7%) of the population within the two distri- vations even if they so want. cts, relatively fewer numbers of females own The farmers we surveyed also have an mobile phones or use the Internet (persons average of 19.5 years of experiences in farming. using internet facility refers to those who have While these longer years of farming experien- access to internet facility at home, Internet ces might well enhance farmers’ production café and mobile phone or by other mobile skills (International Food Policy Research devices; which differs from the national trend Institute [IFPRI], 2009), ageing and longer as reported by Scott et al. (2004) that female years of farming experiences could make ownership of mobile phones in ghana is higher farmers resistant and hardened to adopting or than men). From Table 1, close to 72 per cent employing new innovations and technologies (9,309) of the total households of 12,959 in the such as mobile telephones in agricultural pro- Twifo atti-Morkwa District and about 60 per duction (Weir, 1999). Since there are no com- cent of the entire households in Twifo-Hemang parable statistics to show the exact number of Lower Denkyira Districts are engaged in agri- years of farming experiences beyond which culture with a large percentage (98.3%) of the farmers become more resistant and hesitant to farmers engaged in crop farming. adopting new technologies, we cannot confirm Table 2 presents the summary statistics for the exact stage of adoption by the farmers in the sampled respondents. From these results, the districts. However, from the focus group the average age of the sampled farmers in the discussions, there is sufficient confirmation study districts is 47 years, which is above the that longer years of farming experience may national average for the youthful age group have negative effects on adoption of new (the National Youth Policy of ghana endorses methods in terms of farmers getting stuck with ages in the range of 15–35 as youth; Ministry what they know, and becoming unwilling to of Youth and Sports, 2010). This illustrates an learn and adopt a new technology such as ICT. ageing farmer population in the surveyed distri- The farmers in the survey districts have cts, supporting the national trajectory that 8 out an average of 5.8 years of formal education, of every 10 older people are engaged in agricul- implying that the average level of education is tural activities (gSS, 2012; Mbamaonyeukwu, basic- or primary-level education. Thus most 2001). ageing farmer population may not only had only primary level education (53.7%). The affect adoption or diffusion of technology in number of years of formal education of the the districts but also the capacity—energy, surveyed farmers depicts high level of illiteracy, Table 2. Socio-economic and ICT indicator of respondents Overall Male Female Variable Mean Std. dev Mean Std. dev. Mean Std. dev age of respondents (yrs) 47 11.70 48.3 11.59 45.4 11.67 Household size (Number) 7.2 3.27 6.9 2.85 7.6 3.71 Number of income earning 2 1.28 2 1.45 1.9 1.03 household members Years of formal education 5.8 3.67 6.4 3.88 4.9 3.21 experience in farming (yrs) 19.5 11.98 20.9 12.03 17.7 11.75 Total landholding (ha) 2.8 2.23 3.1 2.13 2.6 2.34 Farm size (ha) 1.1 0.81 1.3 0.93 0.9 0.55 Source: authors’ fieldwork, 2014. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 42 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use and further illustrates that farmers in ghana few of the household members (1.9) employed are at relatively low levels of formal education in comparison to their male counterparts (2.0). (FaO, United Nations environment Science Perhaps, this implies female marginality or and Culture Organisation (UNeSCO)– vulnerability in the study location. Thus, while International Institute for educational Planning female farmers had large household sizes, they (IIeP), 2006; gSS, 2012). In situations where had fewer years of education, smaller landhol- farmers have low years of formal education, dings; fewer employed household members knowledge of technology use becomes limited, and in general, cultivated smaller farms. all and they are slow to learn or adopt new tech- these comparisons point to increasing margi- nological innovations. nality and also as a possible source of poverty another characteristic of the farmers in and food insecurity for female smallholders the study area is their large household sizes (United Nations Development Programme (average of 7.2) relative to the national average (UNDP), 1998). These comparative limitations of 4.4 (gSS, 2012) with only a few (2 out 7) of the female householders have implications of the household members being employed. for adoption and use of innovations in the study Though some of the household members may area since many vulnerable households tend to be in the unemployable age category (less than use basic and rudimentary technology and may 15 and above 65 years), it is possible that the be subject to self-exclusion from innovation majority of the households were primarily adoption. unemployed. On the other hand, the large For instance, one informant, afua (75 years) household sizes offer potential user markets confirmed that ‘although mobile phones are for operators of mobile phone networks helpful in terms of calling and receiving market to explore. The average landholding of the information, many smallholder farmers espe- farmers in the study area was 2.8 hectares, cially the women, are unable to purchase unit but the average farm size of the farmers was [recharge cards] and often rely on relatives only 1.1 hectares, indicating that the majority working in big cities’. Notwithstanding these of the farmers are predominantly smallholders. practical caveats, or consequential realities, The interviewees were predominantly male mobile-based technology could be used to (55.3%) and a majority of the sampled farmers raise the income of poor farming households (80.1%) were married. through knowledge of market, production Table 2 also provides gender-based or weather information, provided there are summary statistics of the socio-demographic interventions that provide access and training characteristics of the respondents interviewed to ensure ICT adoption. for the study. Based on Table 2, the average age of male farmers was relatively higher than 2 Adoption and experiences in that of female farmers in the study area. Yet mobile phone use both gender groups’ average ages were older a large percentage (87%) of the farmers than the youthful age group of 15–35 years; owned and had access to mobile phones in their pointing to the ageing of both male and female households. This shows that more farmers farming populations. In addition, male farmers had adopted mobile phones compared to a had many more years of farming experience recent extant of ghana Statistical Service and more formal education than female (gSS, 2014) finding that only 38 per cent of farmers. Male farmers in the districts had larger households used mobile phones in the districts. landholdings and cultivated relatively larger The remaining 13 per cent who did not own farm acreages than female farmers. mobile phones is divided into 9 per cent female However, female farmers had relatively farmers and 4 per cent of male farmers. Put larger household sizes than male farmers with differently, this translates into 92.8 per cent Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 43 of male farmers as well as 79.9 per cent of and growing demand among farmers in the female farmers now own mobile phones. This survey districts for the past 14 years. result, while supporting the earlier assertion gender disparity in experience and years of of possible marginality among female farmers adoption of mobile phone use was also obser- in the study location, also provides an impor- ved. as shown in Figure 2, male farmers had tant opportunity for innovative uses of mobile many years (Mean = 5.03 years; SD = 3.122) phones in agriculture in the study districts. of experience in mobile phone use in compa- Of particular importance is the possibility of rison to female farmers (Mean = 3.03 years; dissemination of market conditions, produc- SD = 2.383). Specifically, the male farmers’ tion details and input information or weather years of experience in mobile phone use ranged information to farmers in the districts through from 0–14 years as compared to 0–9 years for mobile phones. female farmers. It goes without belabouring the obvious gladys (47 years) states: that experience and knowledge in the use If I hear my phone ringing [tone of my phone], of mobile phones is crucially important for I have to run to my neighbour’s [proximate the success of any mobile-based farmers’ literates and trusted others as described by programme. Differential gender experiences Dodson et al., 2013)] if my children are not with, and knowledge of, mobile phone use home for them to help me answer the call or was clearly observed to factor into the picture. make a call. I sometimes get fed-up with this an analysis of the timing of mobile phone running business. adoption shows that although some farmers Some farmers, especially men farmers, also at the time of the study neither owned mobile use involuntary mechanisms such as voice phones nor had access to mobile phones in their of the person calling, ringing tones assigned household; they had some years of experience to specific people with the help of trusted or knowledge in the use of mobile phones. This literates or nature of the mobile phone number was more common among women farmers in for gauging who to call or know who is calling the study area as confirmed in the focus group their mobile phone. discussions. explains Obribea (32 years): I feel shy going to my neighbour to ask him I used to have a chip [sim card] which I often to help me make a phone call or know who pleaded with my friends to place in their is calling my phone. So I use their voice or phone and use for making my calls or ‘flash- watch their position on my phone book or ing [giving someone a missed call]’ market tell my children to write their numbers in a women. But now they resist with the excuse book for me said Bonsu (51 years), a cassava that their phone will spoil with frequent grower with six children and a wife. opening and closure. So now I receive or Beyond this, the percentage of male farmers make calls using my male friend’s phones. with a lengthy number of years of experience Some other farmers who owned or had access (5 to 14 years) in mobile phone use was greater to mobile phones in their household had no than that of female farmers. also, close to knowledge of how they worked. as noted in 28 per cent of female farmers did not have Figure 1, about 15 per cent of the respondents any knowledge or experience in mobile phone had no working knowledge in mobile phone use compared to 5 per cent for male farmers. use. The rest of the farmers had 1–14 years another prominent observation from the of experiences in the use of mobile phones. information shown in Figure 2 is that more a large percentage of the respondents had female farmers have experience in mobile about three to five years of experience in phone use in the range of 2.5–4.5 years than mobile phone use. The moving average, as male farmers. This perhaps indicates a category shown in Figure 1, suggests that there was an of women farmers with changing lifestyles who increasing trend of mobile telephone ownership have become interested in using mobile phones Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 44 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use or adopting new technologies. Overall, we the use of mobile phones to aid agricultural find significant differences in the number of development in Southwestern Uganda. years of adoption of mobile phone between male and female farmers (t (244) = 5.445; 3 Agricultural uses and off-farm income from P $ 0.01) in the study districts. By comparison, mobile phone use Masuki et al. (2010) also found that women The relevance to farmers for adopting mobile used phones less than men in a 2010 study on phones within the agricultural sector was Figure 1. Sample distribution by years of experience in mobile phone use Source: authors’ field work, 2014. Figure 2. Sample distribution by years of experience in mobile phone use by gender Source: authors’ field work, 2014. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 45 relatively broad and wide-ranging. One main market prices, most probably because they are use was to find market prices of commodities the main people involved in selling their farm in the product market, another was to contact produce in many rural parts of ghana. input dealers in the factor market, while Data was also collected on the use of another was to contact extension agents and mobile telephones for generating off-farm other specialized agricultural service providers income among the participants of the study such as veterinary officers. In addition, mobile (Table 4). Murphy and Priebe (2011) in their phones were used to contact transporters parallel study to ours mention that there are of their produce and financial institutions several entrepreneurial innovations of rural (Table 3). From the estimates we calculated, african cell phone users such as repairs and a large percentage of the farmers use their charging services. We expected that chal- mobile phones for accessing market infor- lenges in mobile phone use would generate mation on commodity prices (95.6%) and spontaneous local service provisioning in rural inputs (46.4%). On the other hand, few of areas. Our study found that mobile phones the farmers ever contact extension agents also provided off-farm income for some rural (12.8%) or financial institutions (17.6%). The inhabitants, even though the service provision majority of the male farmers used their phones was not entirely related to the challenges in for contacting input dealers, transporters mobile phone use as noted by Murphy and and financial institutions compared to their Priebe (2011). In some rural communities female counterparts. Female farmers often where mobile phones were difficult to access used their phone for seeking information on or network coverage was low, farmers found Table 3. agriculture and related uses of mobile phones by farmers agricultural Uses of Mobile Phones Overall (%) Male (%) Female (%) Contacting market women and other sellers for market prices 95.6 53.6 77.6 Contacting input dealers 46.4 94.8 14.4 Contacting extension agents and other specialized agricultural 12.8 24.0 14.4 service providers Contacting transporters 25.6 46.8 28.8 Contacting financial institution 17.6 48.0 6.0 Source: authors’ fieldwork, 2014. Table 4. Mobile-based off-farm activities of farming households No. of Households average Income/Year activity employed (gHC) Local call centre 12.00 690.17 Local credit transfer 13.00 260.62 Local credit wholesale distributor 3.00 2,000.00 Local money transfer 0.00 0.00 Local phone charging 0.00 0.00 Other phone-based income generating activities: 0.00 0.00 mobile phone sales Source: author’ fieldwork, 2014. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 46 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use it less attractive to own mobile phones. 4 Perceived impacts of mobile phone use In such instances, many farmers used local Our study was also interested in how farmers’ call centres, popularly called ‘space-to-space’. mobile phone usage relates to market access, Some farmers also took advantage of the poor profitability and productivity (Table 5). Many network by operating local call centres which farmers indicated that the use of mobile phones generates income or serves as secondary made it easier for them to communicate with source of livelihood for the farm family. their ‘middle-women’ providers and other In our study, a total of 12 farming house- market customers. Over 80 per cent of the holds were engaged in the provision of local call farmers owning mobile phones also reported services. This provided them with an average that ownership of mobile phones reduced their annual income of gHC1 690.17 to supplement market transaction costs. Thus, they were able on-farm household income. We found that to inform itinerant traders and middle-women the majority of the operators of the ‘space-to- of quantities of specific agricultural produce space’ business were female, especially school that were available. Farmers also contacted dropouts or those awaiting their school final other farmers or traders about prevailing examination results, or relatives brought in market prices which enabled farmers to know the prevailing market prices of agricultural to purposely manage some such rural enterp- commodities in various markets within the rises. Off-farm income according to Bryceson district, and thus enabled them to negotiate (1996) has the greatest poverty alleviating and sell produce at competitive prices (better potential. Improved mobile network coverage realization of price, 67.5%), and thereby and penetration will thus improve the rural improving their incomes (89%). For instance, business climate and enable the private sector Muto and Yamano (2009), investigating the to enter into other profitable mobile phone expected reduction in marketing costs of ventures. gigler (2004) also explains that ICT agricultural commodities in Ugandan house- could be a vehicle for empowering the poor. holds, observed that expansion in mobile Thirteen farming households engaged in local phone coverage induce the market participa- phone credit transfer and obtained an annual tion of farmers who produce perishable crops income of gHC 260.62. Three of the farming in remote areas. Knowing market prices and households were involved in local phone credit information of tradable quantities of produce wholesale distribution and made an average also helped the farmers to congregate them- income of gHC 2,000.00 per annum. No selves, blend their produce with others’ and sell household was found to be involved in either as a group, thereby reducing the individual’s local money transfer or phone charging. transaction cost and increasing profitability. Table 5. Impacts of mobile-based information Impact Percent (%) Chi-Square asymp. Sig. Better price realization 67.5 30.065 0.000 Increased trading quantities 75.6 64.537 0.000 Reduced searching and transaction cost 82.3 149.854 0.000 Increased income 89.0 5.87 0.015 easy access to support institutions 38.6 12.748 0.000 Source: authors’ field work, 2014. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 47 Findings from the survey also indicated that farming) and their phones were mainly used mobile phone ownership also helped farmers for contacting extension agents, agro-input in the acquisition of inputs such as fertilizers, shops, farm hands, and labourers and credit seeds and pesticides, and farm tools such as institutions at the beginning of the farming cutlasses, hoe and axes from the input dealers. season, and in contacting market women in Farmers group themselves together to negoti- the middle and end of farming season or during ate for input prices and purchase the essential the harvesting period. Saunders et al. (1994) inputs in bulk. similarly identified the benefits accruing from Mobile phone access also facilitated the widespread adoption of ICTs in develo- inter-market trading among the farmers as ping countries to include increasing people’s market information obtained by some farmers knowledge of market information; improving helped them to sell their produce in markets the coordination of transportation, especially beyond their community. although there were during emergencies; and enhancing the effecti- specific days set for each community market veness of development activities. (periodic markets) in the districts, in some instances farmers did not sell their produce in V Conclusions and recommendations some markets due to low demand and price In many developing countries and rural parts of (thus, they avoided markets where demand and africa, including ghana, logistical constraints prices are low at certain times). For instance, such as transportation facilities, and access when it was realized that although there is a roads to and from farming communities and large market in Hemang, the district capital of markets pose an immense challenge to rural Twifo-Hemang Lower Denkyira District, and development. In most of these developing its market day was always on Wednesdays, countries post-harvest losses are generally farmers in the community preferred to sell at beyond threshold levels due to large infrastruc- Twifo Praso market or Cape Coast Market tural deficiencies. Storage facilities may be non- based on information obtained about prices existent or very limited, and deplorable roads in those markets. Their arguments were that limit easy access to market centres, thereby Hemang market usually attracts fewer middle reducing the profitability of the farmers. women and other buyers when compared to access to mobile phones, therefore, bridges Twifo Praso or Cape Coast market. the gap between production and consump- access to mobile phones facilitated acces- tion centres, as it eliminates communication sing rural support institutions (38.6%). Some gaps that would have persisted due to the farmers used their mobile phones to contact existence of deplorable road conditions and extension officers who supported their farming high transport cost. activities. at the start of the farming season, Our study shows that the majority of the phones are used to enquire about the onset smallholder farmers in our study districts own of the rains and time of planting, sources, and mobile phones. Other studies in Sub-Saharan availability of seeds and other inputs. They also africa and other parts of the World (asongu used phones to report the incidence(s) of pests and Nwachukwu, 2017; Mittal and Mehar, and diseases on their farm. This served as an 2012; Murphy and Priebe, 2011; Muto and excellent means for initiating an early response Yamano, 2009; Scott et al., 2004; Srinivasan to emerging environmental and ecological and Burrell, 2015) further assert that increased dangers. a few farmers also contacted rural mobile phone penetration and access could financial institutions for accessing agricultural reduce information asymmetry within rural credit. production systems, enhance rural extension To summarize our findings, the main live- communication, access to agricultural market lihood activity of the interviewees (namely information and improve the performance Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 48 Smallholder farmers’ knowledge of mobile telephone use of agri-food chains of smallholder farmers various fields such as food processing, integra- through mobile-based telephony and infor- ted pest management, animal husbandry, envi- mation systems. Unfortunately, the majo- ronmental toxicology and rural development, rity of the smallholder farmers interviewed the programme coverage should be broadened had limited or no knowledge in the use of to include ICT. The ghana education Service mobile phones, predominantly among the through the National Council for Tertiary female farmers. Scott et al. (2004) similarly education, in collaboration with MoFa, should identified low awareness and potential use also introduce diploma programmes in ICT and of mobile phones among women in ghana, agro-technology to the smallholder farmers Uganda and Botswana as major setbacks in without barriers of academic background, age the use of mobile-based information systems and gender in local languages. among men and women, as inferred from our Mainstreaming gender in agricultural ICT study. But beyond awareness, capacity to use programmes would also serve to promote mobile phones to access information is key to and increase the use of mobile phones among the achievement of inclusive development as the gender groups. Therefore, Women in outlined in the Sustainable Development goal agriculture Development (WIaD) directorate seven (SDg7). Therefore, investing in ICT of MoFa—which is involved in the provision access and quality education is more critical of technical backstopping for regional and for africa, not only because growth potential district staff for effective transfer of appro- of ICT in africa is higher compared to other priate technologies to women farm families in continents such as asia, europe and North crop, livestock and fish production, processing, america—which are currently experiencing utilization and marketing—through regional stabilization in the growth of ICT and business officers and other stakeholders should also opportunities related to mobile phones and incorporate ICT programmes in their annual the Internet (asongu and Moulin, 2016)—but work plans for implementation and assessment. also because ICT has the potential to catalyse The agricultural information services directo- rural transformative agenda in africa by rate of MoFa should also support training of fostering innovation, inclusive and sustainable aeas and farmers in the use of ICT devices, industrialization. especially mobile phones since this could be an It, therefore, implies that for effective use effective conduit for agricultural production of mobile technology and other ICT devices as well as market information dissemination. for agricultural information dissemination and Often farmers rely on relatives, friends or marketing, smallholder farmers’ overall use— customers in various markets for prices of com- familiarity and effective capacity—range needs modities. Meanwhile the Statistics, Research to be enhanced. This study, therefore, sug- and Information Directorate (SRID) of MoFa gests that extension education in ghana and collects weekly data on market prices. This other rural parts of africa should go beyond data could be more useful to farmers when awareness campaigns to include building the there is fast, efficient and reliable means of capacity of smallholder farmers, especially communicating the information to farmers. women farmers, to effectively use mobile Therefore, the various ministries, departments phones in accessing useful agricultural and and agencies in the agriculture sector should market information. While there are routine collaborate in the training of aeas, particularly in-service, local or foreign capacity building female aeas (especially due to the inability and refresher training for staff of the Ministry of male aeas to conduct some activities that of Food and agriculture (MoFa) (as reported are women related as noted in the 2010 aPR in the annual Performance Review (aPR) of of MoFa) on mobile telephone technologies MoFa, 2010, 2011, 2012), including aeas, in and to facilitate information access by farmers. Progress in Development Studies 18, 1 (2017) pp. 36–51 Alex Barimah Owusu et al. 49 government, through MoFa, should work References closely with cocoa marketing agencies in Asamoah, M., Ansah, O.F., Anchirinah, V., forming farmer-based organizations (FBOs) Aneani, F. and Agyapong, D. 2013, May: Insight to facilitate ICT capacity building among into the standard of living of ghanaian cocoa farmers. Greener Journal of Agricultural Sciences 3, 363–70. farmers. 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