University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES UNIVERSITY OF GHANA TITLE PAGE ASSESSMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL AND HEALTH EFFECTS OF STONE QUARRY ACTIVITIES AT BUOKU IN THE WENCHI MUNICIPALITY. BY ADOM DARKO MAXWELL ID :10600450 A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN OCCUPATIONAL HYGIENE JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATIONS Candidate’s Declaration I, Adom Darko Maxwell, hereby declare that, except for reference to other people‟s work which has been duly acknowledged, this thesis consists of my own work produced from research undertaken under supervision and that no part has been presented for any degree elsewhere. Signature............................................................ Date................................................... Student: ADOM DARKO MAXWELL Signature……………………………… Date................................................... Supervisor: DR. URI SELORM MARKAKPO ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to almighty God for his protection and guidance during the conduct of the activities that led to the completion of the work. I also dedicate this work to my family, especially my parents, for their support. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to my supervisor, Dr. Uri Selorm Markakpo for his guidance encouragement, support and especially for his patient at all stages of this study. I am also grateful to all my friends who help me when I needed them most. iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Background Information: Quarrying comprises diverse activities and operations that produce high level of noise and dust particles in the environment within which it is practised. The main objective of this study was to assess environmental and health effects stone quarry activities at Buoku in the Wenchi Municipality. The study adopted a cross- sectional survey design. Probability sampling techniques such as; cluster sampling, stratified sampling, and simple random sampling techniques were used to select a sample of 323 respondents from the community for the study. Measurements were done for dust concentration levels in samples of air from various locations at the quarry site and the surrounding community. Eight sampling locations were identified where the Dust Measuring Device KM 3887 was mounted. Four of the sampling locations were at the quarry site and the other four were in the community. Structured questionnaires were used to collect data from selected community members at Buoku on some environmental effects and respiratory symptoms associated stone quarry activities at the Buoku quarry site. The environmental effects observed included cracks in buildings and plots of land near quarry site and air and water pollution by dust particles while respiratory symptoms assessed included chronic chest pains, difficulty in breathing chronic sneezing, and sore throat. Descriptive and inferential analysis were done using Stata version 14. Results: The results showed that the concentrations of dust particles within air samples collected from various locations at the quarry site were higher than the Environmental 3 3 Protection Agency (EPA) standard of 70 µg/m and ranged between 81.2 to 182.7 µg/m . Also, the total suspended particles within samples of air collected from the various locations within the quarry site were generally, higher than the EPA standard of 230 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 3 µg/m and ranged from 239 to 632.2 µg/m . The study also found that the various respiratory infections that were associated with the quarry activities include; cough, catarrh and shortness of breath. Other related respiratory infections that were observed also included frequent sneezing and sore throat. The study found a significant association (p<0.05) between exposure to dust particles from the quarry activities and respiratory symptoms such as; cough, shortness of breath and catarrh. Anther, observations from the study shows that, quarry activities in the Bouku community have adversely affected certain nearby farmlands and probably contributed to the reasons why they cannot support crop cultivation. In addition, the present study shows that quarry dust particles in the atmosphere make the environment cloudy, enter eyes of community members and make visibility poor. Conclusion: The results of the study noted that the dust concentration level in the community was slightly lower as compared to the EPA standard. In the quarry site, however, the dust concentration levels observed were higher compared to the EPA standards. The study also, found significant relationships between the dust emissions from the quarry activities and dust related health challenges, with exception of catarrh which was not significantly associated with amount of dust particles in the atmosphere. Finally, several buildings observed within the quarry community had cracks in them as typified by buildings occurring in quarry communities elsewhere. Therefore the study recommended that, regular environmental audit and monitoring of quarrying activities should be enforced in order to ensure adherence to the standards and limits of the concentrations of the dust generated from the different stages of their operations, the EPA need to visit the site of the quarry and put in place regulations to ensure that the vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh level of noise and dust concentrations are within the allowed limits. Operating beyond these limits have consequences on the whole environments and especially the health of the workers in the quarry. vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT TITLE PAGE ....................................................................................................................... i DECLARATIONS .............................................................................................................. ii DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................... iv ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENT ................................................................................................... viii LIST OF TABLE ............................................................................................................... xi LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS .......................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ............................................................................................... 2 1.3 Justification of the Study ........................................................................................... 4 1.4 Research Question..................................................................................................... 4 1.5 Objectives of the Study .............................................................................................. 5 1.5.1 General objective ................................................................................................ 5 1.5.2 Specific objectives ............................................................................................. 5 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 6 LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................................... 6 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 6 2.1 Concept of Quarry ..................................................................................................... 6 2.2 Quarry Process ......................................................................................................... 8 2.2.1 Drilling or channeling and wedging .................................................................. 8 2.2.2 Blasting and Cutting of rocks ............................................................................. 9 2.2.3 Crushing ........................................................................................................... 10 2.3 Concentration of Dust Particles at Stone Quarry ................................................... 10 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.4 Health/Respiratory Problems Associated with Stone Quarry Activities ................. 12 2.5 Impact of Stone Quarry Activities on Buildings and Farms ................................... 17 2.6 Environmental impact of Quarrying ....................................................................... 19 2.6.1 Vibration Effects ............................................................................................... 20 2.6.2 Noise ................................................................................................................. 20 2.6.3 Air quality ......................................................................................................... 21 2.7 Policy and regulatory implications ...................................................................... 21 2.9 Conceptual Framework ........................................................................................... 22 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 24 METHODOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 24 3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 24 3.2 Study Area ............................................................................................................... 24 3.3 Research Design ...................................................................................................... 26 3.4 Study Population ..................................................................................................... 27 3.5 Sample Size .............................................................................................................. 27 3.6 Sampling Technique ................................................................................................ 28 3.7 Study Variables ....................................................................................................... 29 3.7.1 Dependent............................................................................................................. 29 Environmental effect of quarrying ................................................................................ 29 Air pollution by dust, Noise pollution, Cracks in building, Water pollution by dust, Cloudiness of atmosphere ............................................................................................. 29 Respiratory symptoms ................................................................................................... 29 Chronic cough, Chest pains, Sore throat, Chronic cold, Chronic sneezing ................. 29 , Difficulty in breathing ................................................................................................. 29 3.7.2 Independent variable ............................................................................................ 29 Quarrying blasting, crushing, grinding of rock, policy on quarry ............................... 29 3.8 Research Instruments .............................................................................................. 29 3.9 Data Collection Procedure ..................................................................................... 30 3.10 Data Analysis and Plan ......................................................................................... 33 3.11 Ethical Considerations .......................................................................................... 33 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 35 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh RESULTS ......................................................................................................................... 35 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 35 4.1 Presentation of Results ............................................................................................ 35 4.1.1 Demographic and Personal Characteristics ...................................................... 35 Table 4.1.1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents ................................. 36 4.1.2 Assessment of atmosphere of quarry site and surrounding community for quarry dust concentration ......................................................................................................... 37 4.1.3 Prevalence of respiratory symptoms associated with quarry Activities ........... 38 4.1.5 Association between experimental group (worker) and control group (non workers) with some respiratory symptoms ................................................................ 40 4.1.5 Impact of quarry dust on eye and visibility .......................................................... 42 Impact of quarry activities on selected buildings.......................................................... 48 4.1.7 The Need for Rehabilitation or Relocation .......................................................... 49 CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 51 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS .......................................................................................... 51 5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 51 5.2 Demographic characteristic of respondent ............................................................. 52 5.3 Assessment of dust particles in the atmosphere of the quarry site and the surrounding community................................................................................................. 53 5.4 Respiratory symptoms associated with quarry dust exposure among participants 54 5.5 Impact of quarry activities on the environment ...................................................... 55 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................................. 57 6.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 57 6.2 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 57 6.3 Recommendations............................................................................................... 58 REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 60 RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................... 68 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLE Table 4.1.2: Concentration of dust particles in the atmosphere at quarry site and the surrounding community .................................................................................................... 37 Table 4.1.3: Association of Dust exposure with presentence of respiratory symptoms among respondent. ............................................................................................................ 39 Table 4.1.4: Response to respiratory symptoms ............................................................... 40 Table 4.1.5: Association between experimental group (worker) and control group (non- workers) with respiratory symptoms ................................................................................ 41 Table 4.1.6: Response on the need for health screening ................................................... 43 Table 4.1.7: Association between dust impediment and need for health screening ......... 45 Table 4.1.8: Association between dust impediment and need for health screening (multiple logistic regressions) ........................................................................................... 46 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework .................................................................................. 22 Figure 2.2: Map of the Wenchi Municipality Showing the Buoko Township ................. 26 Figure: 3.1 Photos of some locations sampled for TSP and PM10 .................................... 32 Figure: 3.2: Photos of some locations sampled for TSP and PM10 .................................. 32 Figure 4.1: Impact of quarry dust on eye and visibility .................................................... 43 Figure 4. 2: The Need for Rehabilitation or Relocation ................................................... 50 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS A Agree AQL Air Quality Location CDDC Commodity–Dependent Developing Countries D Disagree, EPA Environmental Protection Agency FR Flow rate, ICMM International Council on Mining and Metals m1 Initial milligram, m2 Final milligram, PM Particulate Matters SA Strongly Agree. SD Strongly Disagree, SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences T Time U Undecided, UNDP United Nation Development Plan WHO World Health Organization xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Quarrying involves diverse activities and operations that produce high level of noise and dust particles in the environment within which it is practised (Oyinloye & Ajayi, 2015). During quarrying rocks are blasted using dynamites and machines of various sizes and capacities are used in transporting, crushing and grading of quarry materials (Elizabeth, 2006). These processes are often characterized by noise and dust causing related environmental pollution (Gizaw, Yifred, & Tadesse, 2016) According to (Banez, Mae-Ajaon, Bilolo and Dailyn, 2010) quarrying is carried out through diverse methods. The type of rock and the equipment that is used in the process determine the method that is utilized. There are instances that require explosives to blast rocks after which they are broken into smaller pieces for the market through the process of crushing (Nartey, Nanor, & Klake, 2012). During quarrying holes are drilled into rock masses by power drills. Explosives are inscribe into the holes and then detonated to split the rock dunks for further breaks down(Eshiwani, 2014). In wedging process, however, chisels or power drills are used to create spaces in the rock masses following which wedges are inserted to split the rock apart(Nyakeniga, 2009). This is used for marble, sandstone, limestone and other related rocks that one can reckon as softer. Small scale quarrying on the other hand does not required any heavy machinery(Sayara, Hamdan, & Basheer-salimia, 2016a). These are normally the case for small scale in quarrying. Here instruments like pickaxe, shovel, wheelbarrows, among others, are used. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Quarry, irrespective of the type, can have a negative impact on the environment and the health of workers as well as individuals in the surrounding communities, particularly those who live within 1km distance away from quarrying site (Nanor, 2011). Most of the health hazards are usually respiratory diseases caused by inhalation of dust particulates in polluted air. Dust emitted from the quarry site may also pollute water and food and make them unwholesome for consumption (Co, 2016). Finally, quarrying dust may also make the atmosphere cloudy to obscure visibility lead to eye infections and also produce loud noise that leads to hearing loss (WHO, 2008).There is the need for this reason, intension research to be conducted on quarry operations in order to develop effective ways of minimizing the deleterious effect of quarry activities in our communities (Co, 2016) notes that quarrying serves as a means for acquiring most of the supplies for construction and other related activities. Construction stuffs like granite, slate, and marble are all obtained traditionally from quarrying (Sayara et al., 2016a). Ceramic tiles are also produced as a result of quarrying activities. Despite the benefits associated with it, quarrying also tend to present some vital implications to the environment and its inhabitants as noted by Okafor (2006). The practice of blasting and crushing has been identified as the main source of noise and air pollution in quarrying environments (Sayara et al., 2016a). 1.2 Problem Statement Quarrying involves the use of explosives to blast rocks and heavy machinery to drill, split and break large chunks of rock into smaller bits. These activities lead to the release of mass of dust particles into the atmosphere leading to air pollution (Adeola & Abstract, 2009). Other environmental impacts of quarrying include ecological disturbance, 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh destruction of natural flora, land and water pollution, instability of soil and rock masses as well as landscape degradation (Adeola & Abstract, 2009). Quarrying also leads to contamination of water bodies by harmful chemicals, oil and rock mineral particles (Sayara, Hamdan, & Basheer-salimia, 2016b), leading to water-borne disease in situations where these sources of water are not properly treated before consumption. The use of explosives and heavy machinery during quarrying produce loud environmental noise that causes hearing loss, stress, high blood pressure, sleep disturbance and loss of productivity among people exposed to these environmental hazards (Adeola & Abstract, 2009). Apart from these, dust and chemical emissions during quarrying lead to chronic respiratory conditions such as cough, pulmonary tuberculosis, silicosis, difficulty in breathing, chest pains, decreased lung capacity and lung cancer due to prolonged inhalation of dust particles in the polluted air (Adjei- Boateng; Makori, Nandi, Thuo, & Wanyonyi, 2012; Nartey et al., 12). Furthermore, the blasting of rocks in the quarrying process leads to vibrations and shock waves that affect the structural integrity of most buildings in the environment, leading to their collapse (Sayara et al, 2016 Eshiwani, 2014). Even though the Buoko community in the Wenchi Municipality experiences all the adverse environmental and health effects enumerated above as a result of quarry activities virtually no remedial measures are in place to minimize the degradation of the environment and improve the health of the community members. Also, though there are legislative instruments to regulate the activities enshrined in stone quarry operations such legislations are apparently not being enforced. Lastly, existing literature shows that several studies have been conducted on 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stone quarry activities elsewhere, however, very few of such studies have been conducted in Ghana, and virtually none has been conducted in the Buoko community. Assessment of environmental and health effects of stone quarry activities at the Buoko stone quarry site therefore, would generate additional evidence based data needed to improve legislative instruments for regulating stone quarry activities in Ghana as a whole. It would also augment existing literature on the subject and help improve the awareness of community members about the association between stone quarrying and certain chronic respiratory conditions. 1.3 Justification of the Study The environmental and respiratory symptom associated would produce baseline data necessary for the formulation of policies to regulate quarry activities in the study area that will assist in the minimizing the adverse effect in terms of the environment and health of the people at risk. Also, it would help produce critical evidence – base scientific information needed to devise measures to protect the health of people involved in quarry activities. Finally, the finding of this study would generate critical scientific information for the improvement of quarry activities globally. 1.4 Research Question  What are the concentration levels of dust particles at the Buoko Stone Quarry site?  What are the respiratory problems associated with quarry activities in the Buoku community? 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh  What is the impact of quarry activities on selected buildings and farms near the Buoku Quarry site? 1.5 Objectives of the Study 1.5.1 General objective The general objective of this study is to assess the environmental and health effects of stone quarry activities at Buoku in the Wenchi Municipality. 1.5.2 Specific objectives  To determine the concentration of dust particles at the stone quarry in the Buoko community.  To identify respiratory problems associated with quarry activities in the Buoku community  To assess the impact of quarry activities on selected buildings and farms near the Buoku quarry sites. 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction This chapter reviewed relevant literature in relation to environmental and health effects of stone quarry activities. The literature review was organised according to the objectives of the study as stated in chapter one. The purpose of the literature review was to identify gaps in existing works in which the present study intended to address. 2.1 Concept of Quarry Quarrying is the process of obtaining quarry resources, usually rocks, found on or below the surface of the soil (Banez et al., 2010). The difference between mining and quarrying is that quarries extract nonmetallic rocks and aggregates while mines extract the site from metal mineral deposits. Some of the stones extracted by quarrying are sandstone, limestone, perlite, marble, scrap, slate, granite, rock salt and rock phosphate. Quarrying like many other human activities has a significant impact on the environment. In particular, it is often necessary to explode rocks with explosives to extract the materials, but this method of extraction generates noise pollution, air pollution, biodiversity and destruction of habitat (Banez et al., 2010). Quarrying is process that takes different steps. The first step in quarrying is to survey an area to locate an ore (Ellis's, 2008). This involves physically going out into the field and looking for different types of minerals and fossils to give you an indication of where you might find a mineralized body. The company that intends to carry out quarrying activities 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh obtains licenses from the relevant department. Next is exploration of the area, which consists of finding and determining the extent and value of mineral-rich ore, using a variety of methods, including practical work, field work, remote sensing (Eshiwani, 2014). This is done in different ways, depending on the type of quarry and what you want to remove from the ground. Once the professional activity is completed, there is a need for an ecological reconstruction, which involves reclaiming the site of the quarry so that the land can be used in the future. It means returning the land as much as possible to your previous condition, after the extraction has been done (Ayodele & Lameed, 2010). Impact propagation can range from barely perceptible to highly invasive, and the nature of the impact can also vary widely depending on the work of the quarry, the extraction method and the characteristics of the quarry site(Elizabeth, 2006). One of the most common complaints from the public about the crushed stone industry located near population centers is blast noise (Eshiwani, 2014). Blasting can occur daily or as rarely as once or twice a year. In the case of Bouku, this is due to the method used in the quarries and the proximity of the quarries and the effects that occur in different parts of the community. Rock crushing is a worldwide phenomenon that has raised concerns around the world(Gizaw et al., 2016). Quarry is an important activity because it provides a large part of the materials used in traditional hard floors, such as granite, limestone, marble, sandstone, slate and even clay to make tiles and ceramics. However, like many other human-based activities, quarrying activities have a significant impact on the environment (Okafor, 2006). 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are two types of quarries: quarries of crushed stone and quarries of dimension and / or construction stone. Crushed stone refers to rock that has been divided into small irregular fragments of specific particle size. Crushed stone quarries produce aggregates for the construction industry and cement plants, while dimensioned stone quarries produce building blocks and ornamental stones for construction (Sullivan, 2006). This type of operation includes drilling, blasting, crushing and screening. The overload is removed to expose the surface of the rock(Oyinloye & Ajayi, 2015). The rock is drilled in preparation for blasting. When blasting explosives are used to break rocks into fragments that are then transported and fed to a crushing plant to be crushed, they are sifted, washed and stored (Langer et al., 2004). 2.2 Quarry Process The extraction involves more activities that generate significant amounts of noise, dust and waste. As a result, the use of machinery to transport materials and the processing of materials to crush and calibrate materials all contribute to air pollution and even greater noise affects the environment. Such extraction of raw materials from their natural habitats for quarrying, drilling and harvesting greatly affects the natural environment and constitutes a hazard to humans, the agricultural and terrestrial crops among the residents around the quarry (Eshiwani, 2014). The major activities that are involved in stone quarry are identified and discussed below. 2.2.1 Drilling or channeling and wedging According to Gale and Groat (2001), channel cutting, and Drilling and Broaching are amongst the oldest methods of quarrying. There is a channeling machine that is mostly used to develop a channel through the rocks by using multiple chisel-edged cutting bars. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The process ensures that there is an aspect of chopping simultaneously with the drilling and broaching. The broaching tool then chisels and chops the web between the drill holes, freeing the block. In this regard the channel cutting, and drilling and broaching can be noted to be slow. The cutting instrument needs to be sharpened at points in time. The processes of Channeling and wedging in the quarrying industry are the utilization of machines that cut channels through rocks that provide sufficient room for a wedge to be inserted. When the wedge is in place, the rock is then torn apart by using the fracture that has been created in it. This process is mostly used when quarrying for softer products like sandstone and marble among others (Feldman, 2006). In order to ensure that products are not destroyed, the cutting process is combined with other lubricants and coolants like water to maximize efficiency. Line drilling and sawing, according to Gale and Groat (2001), can be considered too be modern compared to others. This process entails the drilling of overlapping holes utilizing a drill that has a mushroom head. This assist in positioning the drill and align holes (Lameed & Ayodele, 2010). 2.2.2 Blasting and Cutting of rocks This process entails blasting of the rocks which makes it very easy to be carried by using simple instruments like shovels. For rocks that are soft, they stand the chance of being degraded when they are subjected to blasts (MWANGI, 2014). In cases where rocks cannot be accessed directly with shovels, blasting becomes the most appropriate alternative(Elizabeth, 2006). When the blasting process is over it gives room for the crushing process since by then the rocks will be smaller to go through that process(Nyakeniga, 2009). The pressure and energy that is unleashed by the explosives planted in the rocks causes them to break up. Blasting is occurred by the release of noise, 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dust and gasses that are harmful and add up to their adverse effects created in the environment which include destruction of farmland development of cracks in building and cloudiness of the atmosphere around the community (Elizabeth, 2006). 2.2.3 Crushing Gale and Groat (2001) noted that crushing involves the use of equipment such as “vibrating feeder, jaw crusher, vibrating screen impact crusher or cone crusher, belt conveyor and centrally electric controlling system”. In the process the large materials are carried into a jaw crusher in an even manner. These are progressively transferred by vibrating feeder through a hopper for the primary crushing. “The material is transported to influence crusher or cone crusher by belt conveyor for secondary crushing after the initial crushing”. After this process, the crushed material is then conveyed to a vibrating screen for separation which is followed by the screening process. 2.3 Concentration of Dust Particles at Stone Quarry Dust can be defined as a fine powder that consists of very small pieces of a particular substance. The main sources of dust in a quarry operation are drilling, crushing and road haulage. The workers are at risk of inhaling the emitted dust, which is injurious to their health. Inhalation of the dust can cause severe health problems including respiratory and pulmonary problems, while dust deposition causes skin and eye problems (Mengesha & Bekele, 1998). Local communities can potentially be affected by dust up to 1 km from the source, although concerns about dust are most likely to be expressed within 100 meters(Gizaw et al., 2016). Deposited dust gives rise to the greatest number of complaints to quarries from 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh local communities, particularly for contrasting colours that are more noticeable on deposition. Settled particles may show up particularly on clean or polished surfaces such as cars, windows and window ledges, or surfaces that are usually expected to remain free from dust. The impacts from quarrying activities on the health of the people are quite significant as blasting vibrations have also resulted in cracks in several buildings exposing the occupants to danger. Other potential quarrying effects which are of concern to environmentalists include biodiversity loss, land degradation, nuisance effects, reduced plant growth (Nartey, Nanor & Klake, 2012). Particulates are the tiny solid or liquid particles that are suspended in air and which are usually individually invisible to the naked eyes (Baird, 1992). The particulates include soot, smoke, ash from fuel (mainly coal) combustion, dust released during industrial processes like quarrying and other solids from accidental and deliberate burning of vegetation (Montgomery, 1992). Quarrying generates a lot of particulate matter (dust) with diameter 1 - 75 µm (micron). Particles with aerodynamic diameters of less than 50 µm (termed Total Suspended Particulate matter, or TSP) can become suspended in the atmosphere, and those with aerodynamic diameters of less than 10 µm termed PM10 (inhalable particles) can be transported over long distances (Nickling & Boas, 1998) and enter the human respiratory system (Ferris, Speizer & Spengler, 1999). Total Suspended Particulate Matter (TSP) is the concentration of all particles in the atmosphere. Particles with an aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm (respirable particles) are most effective for light scattering and have a significant effect on visibility or visual intrusion (Malm, 1999), alteration and terrestrial radiative equilibrium 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (Charlson, Schwartz, Hales, Cess, Coakley, Hansen and Hofmann, 1992). Inhaled PM4 and PM2.5 penetrate deep into the lungs and are able to make their way to deep air sacs in the lungs where they can settle and cause respiratory problems (Zheng, Dionisio, Arku, Quaye, Hughes and Vallarino, 2011). Air pollutants such as dust are unhealthy particles (solids, liquid gas mixtures) that can harm both living and non-living things (Ward, Peterson and Hao, 1992). Variable degrees of air, water and land pollution occur during mineral development depending on the stage and scale of activities. While only minor pollution occurs during mineral exploration, more intense air and water pollution emanates from the exploitation stages, especially if carried out on a large scale. In Nigeria, the greatest pollution effect comes from the large-scale exploitation of oil, limestone and rocks used in construction works (UNESCO, 1995). 2.4 Health/Respiratory Problems Associated with Stone Quarry Activities The quarrying is an age long economic activity in areas endowed with natural resources such as marble, lime stone and gypsum. Workers in the quarry industries are exposed to various hazards resulting from the inhalation of air borne particulates and these poses a lot of danger to their health and safety. Airborne particulates pose a potential health risk to quarry employees in the form of respiratory, dermal, ocular irritation and damage Urom SE, Antai AB, Osim EE. (2004) chronic exposure to dust generated from crushing of granite rocks impairs lung function and causes some respiratory and non-respiratory symptoms in quarry workers. A particular concern in some quarries is the inhalation of dust containing silica which can lead to silicosis, an irreversible lung disease resulting in 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh inflammation of the lungs and breathing difficulties which progresses even when exposure. A very high degree of respiratory morbidity is associated with this industry. Fine rocks and mineral dust of all kinds have been shown to be carcinogenic when inhaled (Montgomery, 1992). The control of particulate pollution is a health and aesthetic issue. Increasing attention is being paid to the impacts of dust on human health, as finer particles can be inhaled and exhaled into the lungs and cause damage. It is generally recognized that dust up to 10 μm can be inhaled beyond the larynx and dust up to 4 μm can be breathed into the lungs. Potential health impacts are almost exclusively related to the presence of airborne dust, including respirable particles, ie those with a diameter of less than 10 μm (PM10). Cardiovascular systems (Banez et al., 2010). According to Banez et al. (2010), inhalation of dust may cause "pneumoconiosis", a term for a group of lung diseases. Dust from quarry sites is a major source of air pollution, although its severity depends on factors such as local microclimates, dust concentration in ambient air, dust particle size and chemistry(Sayara, 2016a). The quarries of limestone dust are very alkaline, while the coal mines produce acid dusts. Air pollution is not only a nuisance in terms of surface deposits and possible health effects, especially for people with respiratory problems, but dust can also have physical effects on surrounding plants leaves and cuticles (Guach,2001). In India, quarries have affected many workers in the mining industry. According to (Azad and Ashish, 2006), the extraction and crushing of stone is known as extremely dangerous work, in which workers are exposed to many debilitating risks and diseases for 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh occupational health. Most of the time, migrant workers are engaged in this highly unorganized industry. The most common exposure is silica dust, which causes silicosis in exposed workers. Silicosis is a disabling, non-reversible and sometimes fatal lung disease caused by overexposure to respirable crystalline silica(Province, 2015). Silica is the second most common mineral in the earth's crust and is a major component of sand, rock and ores. Overexposure to dust containing microscopic particles of crystalline silica can cause scar tissue to form in the lungs, which reduces the lungs' ability to extract oxygen from the air. In addition to silicosis, the inhalation of crystalline silica particles has been associated with other diseases, such as bronchitis and tuberculosis. Some studies also indicate an association with lung cancer. The disease does not cure, but it is 100% preventable if employers, workers, and health professionals‟ work together to reduce exposures by using appropriate protective equipment (Nartey et al., 2012). Other health risks could be due to noise pollution, heavy manual work, minor or major injuries and workplace accidents, as well as long working hours. The lack of basic sanitation, drinking water and shelter compounds the poor working conditions. As mining and crushing operations are both a danger to the environment and to humans, they require continuous monitoring of the workplace as well as workers. Mining operations result in deforestation, loss of vegetation, soil erosion, changes in groundwater levels and pollution, which can lead to ecological imbalance(Impacts, 2016). Aigbedion (2005) large amounts of dust from the Nigerian limestone quarries are discharged daily into the air. Similarly, a lot of air-borne particulate matters are generated by the numerous stone crushing industries in the country. When the air is laden with such 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh dust, it causes health hazards for some people. For example, pollution studies around Sagamu and Ewekoro cement works in Ogun State have shown that several people are suffering from eye pain, and asthmatic attack due to the dust-laden air that prevails within a few kilometers radius of the factories. The dust particulates that result from the disintegration of solid can cause air pollution when it remains in the atmosphere for long. The particulates may cause interference with the respiratory functions, it is susceptible to persons with respiratory disease, young and elderly and to vegetation it may led to reduction in plant growth by physical blockage of light when deposited on the leaf surface. The process involved in stone quarry activities yield several diseases that can be attributed to environmental factors. The blasting digs up rocks coupled by a large noise and vibration of the ground, thereby increasing lot of dust in both air and water. In addition large craters generated from open quarry become major breeding grounds for mosquitoes, thereby increasing the incidence of malaria in the locality(Lameed & Ayodele, 2010). Vector borne diseases such as malaria and schistosomiasis are the common mini related diseases observed in the area over the last the common mining related diseases observed in the area over the last 10 years according to a data collected by the Third World Network from the District Health Directorate. Respiratory tract diseases especially pulmonary tuberculosis and silicoses, disease of the eye especially acute conjunctivitis; and Mental cases are also mining related diseases(MWANGI, 2014). The analysis that has been done above is enough grounds to note that quarrying activities are related to upper respiratory diseases. There are also associated diseases such skin conditions, and acute conjunctivitis among other relate infections (Akabzaa, 2000). 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It has been noted that there are airborne hazards in the mining industry. Gases like engine exhaust and some chemical vapors come as a result of quarry activities. Research indicates that free crystalline silica is the commonest compound that is within the crust of the earth. This particle is the commonest that poses threat to the health of workers in quarries and the surrounding community (Access, 2016). The effects associated with dust emission resulting from quarrying activities have both micro-spatial and household dimensions. Air pollution and vibrations resulting from quarry activities have an impact on human health. With regard to the environmental impact of the quarry, most studies have indicated the negative effect of quarrying on the environment. Damage associated with biodiversity is the biggest problem (Anard, 2006). By biodiversity, reference is made to all living species, plants, animals and sites of micro- organic anomie found at different career sites (Anard, 2006). Air pollution has many sources. There is pollution from power plants and cement plants. Nevertheless, high volumes of emissions are caused by the quarry. In the study by Nwibo et al. (2012), they noted that most studies have associated the career with respiratory infections and negative effects. Conditions such as bronchitis, lung cancer and chronic silicosis have all been identified with career activities. These conditions can be disabling and have fatal consequences on an individual's health. In the study of Urom et al. (2004), they noted that among career workers, most symptoms associated with breathing problems include; dyspnea, catarrh, chest pain and productive cough. In a related study, Ghotkar et al, (2012) noted a prevalence of 32.86 respiratory problems among quarry workers. Safety was related to the worker's exposure level and age. Work- related lung problems are noted as the deposition of dust in the lungs of an individual. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The type of dust and, as noted earlier, the level of exposure affects the severity of dust particles on an individual's health. Black smoke, noise and vibration are pollutants from quarry activities that result from airborne particles resulting from blasting in quarry operations. When the waste tips of the quarry are heavy and bulky, they can contribute to the formation of dust suspended in the air. This normally exceeds the normal level required (Akabzaa, 2000). 2.5 Impact of Stone Quarry Activities on Buildings and Farms One of the greatest negative impacts of quarries on the environment is the degradation of biodiversity (Anand, 2006). Biodiversity refers essentially to the range of living species, including fish, insects, invertebrates, reptiles, birds, mammals, plants, fungi and even micro-organisms. Biodiversity conservation is important because all species are interconnected, even if this is not immediately visible or even known, and our survival depends on this delicate balance that exists in nature (Anand, 2006). Quarrying activity has the potential to destroy habitats and the species they support (Mabogunje, 2008). Although habitats are not directly removed by excavation, they may be indirectly affected and damaged by environmental impacts such as changes in groundwater or surface water that cause some habitats or water bodies dry up. Even noise pollution can have a significant impact on some species and affect their successful reproduction. Nevertheless, with careful planning and management, it is possible to minimize the effect on biodiversity and, in fact, quarries can also provide a good opportunity to create new habitats or restore existing ones (Tanko, 2007). Quarrying activities also to leads to the production of large quantities of waste(Quartey & Puplampu, 2012). Some types of quarries do not produce large amounts of permanent 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh waste, such as sand and gravel quarries, while others will produce significant amounts of waste such as clay and silt (Wang, 2007). However, there is still potential for damage to the environment, especially with water contamination. The activity releases dust that is deposited not only on the soil, plants and trees, but also on the surface water used for drinking and other household chores. The uncontrolled expansion of quarries in Senegal has resulted in coastal erosion, reduced available farmland, and skin and lung problems for quarry workers and people living nearby. The effects have forced the government to stop issuing more permits to people who want to participate in extractive activities in the affected areas of the country(Oyinloye & Ajayi, 2015). A common negative effect of quarrying activities is the destruction of natural landscape, creating an open space in the ground and generating piles of waste rock that cannot be easily removed. These phenomena are amply demonstrated in many parts of Nigeria, where mines or commercial quarries have already occurred or are underway (Tanko, 2007). Vegetation in the area around the quarry is also affected because dust blocks the leaves and their growth is disrupted. Recent studies of the environmental impact of the limestone mining and cement industry in Sagamu, Nigeria, have revealed a decline in kola nut production in plantations located a few kilometers from the cement plant (Aigbedion, 2005, Adekoya, 2003). This phenomenon is associated with dust pollution, because a large amount of dust is released into the air mainly by the cement plant. The particulate matter eventually settles on the leaves and flowers of kola nuts as well as on the soil that supports the plants. The overall effect of this is that the photosynthesis and fruiting capacity of the kola nut tree is altered with a consequent decrease in kola nut 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh production. Most of the effects of dust particles on plants include the potential to block and damage stomata, so photosynthesis and respiration are affected. Other effects are shading that can lead to reduced photosynthetic capacity, leaf surface wear and cuticle wear (Igbal & Shafig 2001). Pollutants such as dust, gaseous emissions and atmospheric particles will be produced and deposited on the plants. This will undoubtedly affect the physiological activities of plants, especially those around the quarry site, such as photosynthesis and respiration. The implication of these is that some of the plants may have retarded growth while others may be eliminated. 2.6 Environmental impact of Quarrying The activities of blasting have a negative effect on the surrounding communities. As noted earlier blasting can induce a shock wave that can cause devastating harm on buildings and other structures in the community(Sayara, 2016b). Aside creating cracks in buildings, it can actually collapse the buildings. In some of the case, there is a resultant effect of death or permanent damage as a result of these cracks(Impacts, 2016). When an explosive is blown up, large amount of energy is released. By the very design of explosives, they are able to transpose rocks at various quarry sites(Nartey et al., 2012). The rest of the build in energy that is released comes to the earth‟s surface and some suspends unto the atmosphere(Impacts, 2016). The ground shaking that characterizes blasting can be attributed to emanating waves. The disturbance then comes in the form of air or noise. If explosives are not designed better it results in fly rocks (MWANGI, 2014). These are an uncommon problem with plans that have designed with the outmost care and execution. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.1 Vibration Effects There is cacophony from operations of all surface mines in the area. Vibration effects of blasts conducted at a number of open pits in the locality have been a major expostulation of residents. The frequent blasting that is characterized with the operations of quarrying in most of the cases results in ground vibrations that causes cracks in many buildings in mining localities. (Akabzaa, 2000) 2.6.2 Noise Noise normally comes about as a result of the activities that is related to the stone. Quarry operations by its very nature demands some form machinery and equipment that produce a lot of noise(Gizaw et al., 2016). The source of noise in most quarry sites is dependent on a number of factors. The climatic condition at a point can be considered as well as the landscape. The effect of the noise on the receiver can also be affected by the frequency and distance from the source of noise (Langer, 2001). In some cases, the vegetation of a location can also reduce the sound levels. The ability of sound to travel in cold weathers is higher than warm dense air. In trying to determine how tolerant an individual is to a new noise, there need to be an adjustment in the existing ambient levels. In an urban or industrial environment, ambient noise may camouflage noise from a quarry operation since the environment itself has so many different noise at play. The same cannot be said of rural communities in which there are less noise (Province, 2015). 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6.3 Air quality Dust can have a substantial impact on air quality. Generally the impacts diminish has distance from the source increases and the most acute impacts are likely to occur in enclosed spaces (for example the processing plant) or in close proximity to major sources(Sayara et al., 2016b). Impacts resulting from air quality degradation can include those related to health (although these are typically linked to occupational rather than environmental exposure), visual intrusion and, most commonly, nuisance for surround communities and businesses(Adeola & Abstract, 2009) 2.7 Policy and regulatory implications In order to address the issues related to the pollution that is associated with quarry activities, there is the need to put in place the right policy and regulations to ensure that the benefits associated with quarrying can be obtained not at the expense of the environment and the health of community members. Quarrying is done along a value chain system. The country in which quarrying is done need to ensure that there is a well- structured value chain system to ensure that each player in the industry is identified. When this is done, the pre-requisites needed to ensure the right regulations can be noted and its related regulations instituted (Province, 2015). The community who stand to lose the most with the operations of the quarry cannot be left out in the consultative process. When this is done well, it will enable the policy and regulatory direction to benefit a host of players. The measures can assist in providing the needed financial assistance to local entrepreneurs, developing the infrastructural potential of the communities and the setting up of bodies to ensure that the best practices are maintained and operations benefit all stakeholders (Eshiwani, 2014). 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.9 Conceptual Framework Environmental Effect of Quarrying.  Air Pollution  Noise Pollution  Water Pollution  Cracks in buildings Quarrying Activities Policy on quarrying Respiratory Symptoms  Chronic cough  Sore throat  Chest pain  Chronic sneezing  Difficulty in breathing Figure 1.1: Conceptual Framework 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The figure 1 above represents the researcher‟s conceptual frame work of the effects of quarrying to the environment; the policies in place will influence the quarrying activities in the industry. The activity of the quarrying presents itself in two ways: the environmental effect which includes air Pollution, Noise Pollution, Water Pollution in Cracks in buildings and the health Respiratory Symptoms includes Chronic cough, Sore throat, Chest pain, Chronic sneezing, Difficulty in breathing 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on tools which was used to conduct the study. It comprise the research design, target population, sample and sampling techniques, research Instruments and data collection procedures as well as data analysis. 3.2 Study Area The Wenchi Municipality is located in the Brong Ahafo Region, One of the twenty-two administrative districts of the Brong Ahafo Region of the Republic of Ghana. The Administrative capital of the Municipality is Wenchi. The Wenchi Municipality can be found geographically on latitudes 7°30‟ and 8°05‟ North and longitudes 2o 15‟ West and 1o 55‟ East. The municipality occupies a land size of about 1,145 square kilometers. The Municipality is bordered on the West by the Techiman Municipal. To the south of the municipality is the Kintampo South District. To the northwest and east of the municipality is the Tain District and Sunyani West Districts respectively. Statistics from the 2010 Population and Housing Census indicated that the municipality has about 89,739 inhabitants. This represents about 3.9 percent of the Brong Ahafo region‟s entire population. The male population in the municipality stands at about 49.1 percent with the rest of 50.9 percent being females. The population is mostly rural in nature about sixty percent (60%) of the population (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). More than (57.8%) are engaged Agriculture. This is followed by sales and service industry then craft and trade, and some technical and professional employments. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Construction is mainly done with cement or concrete in the major towns. Mud and bricks are however the mainly materials when it comes to the villages and hamlets (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The real inhabitants in Wenchi are the Bono. This, not withstanding, does not deny the presence of other tribes such as Fante, Asante, and people from the northern part of Ghana perhaps due to its proximity with the northern sector. Bono and Twi are the commonest means of communication. English and pidgin are also used by few literates and students in the community. The Municipality is well known for quarry activities with about four (4) quarry companies currently in operation two of these are located at Bouku. The bouku community can boast of one government health centre, a rural bank called (Capital Rural bank) for monetary transactions, and a town council to solve legal matters. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BOUKO COMMUNITY Figure 2.2: Map of the Wenchi Municipality Showing the Buoko Township 3.3 Research Design A cross-sectional survey design was adopted for the study. Quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection were employed using questionnaire. Cross sectional study comprises survey in relation to data collected predominantly by the use of questionnaire or structured interview method. In using this design, the researcher was able to collect data on more than a single case at a single point in time especially with the topic under 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study. Also, this design allows for a level of objectivity and reliability to be obtained. The cross-sectional survey design was employed because it helps the researcher to solicit the needed information to arrive at a tangible conclusion 3.4 Study Population The study population was adult inhabitants of Buoko located in the Wenchi Municipality. The population which was considered for the study was adults residing in Buoko for at least three months at the time of the study and were of sound mind. The estimated population of Buoku as per the 2010 population and housing census was 2000. 3.5 Sample Size The sample size for the study was 323 respondents which comprised the community members of Buoku. The sample size was calculated based on the total population size of 2000 (Ghana Statistical Service, 2010). The sample size was calculated at 95% confidence level and 5% margin of error. The sample size was arrived at using the formula below: 2 Z * (p) * (1-p) ss = 2 c ss = ss = 323 Where: 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Z = 1.96 for 95% confidence level p = 50% which is 0.5 c = confidence interval or margin of error which is 0.05 3.6 Sampling Technique The research employed probability sampling techniques such as cluster sampling, stratified sampling and simple random sampling technique to select the subjects for the study. First of all, cluster sampling was used to group the community into clusters according to the known suburbs within it. These locations were further stratified into households and popular community meeting places. This was done by way of stratified sampling. From the strata that were noted, a simple random sampling technique was conducted to select the sample size. This was done using „yes‟ and „no‟ coded pieces papers in a covered container. Based on the probability of being selected or otherwise members of, the population were made to pick a folded paper from the container. Those who chose pieces of papers with the „yes‟ inscriptions formed part of the study. Those who selected the „no‟ cards were excluded from the study. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.7 Study Variables 3.7.1 Dependent Environmental effect of quarrying Air pollution by dust, Noise pollution, Cracks in building, Water pollution by dust, Cloudiness of atmosphere Respiratory symptoms Chronic cough, Chest pains, Sore throat, Chronic cold, Chronic sneezing , Difficulty in breathing 3.7.2 Independent variable Quarrying blasting, crushing, grinding of rock, policy on quarry 3.8 Research Instruments Research instruments used include the following as recommended by Kombo and Tromp (2006). The questionnaire was structured into different sections. The section A collected information on demographic characteristics such as, gender, occupation, etc. of the respondents of the study. The section B collected data on quarry activities and their effect on the health of respondents and lastly the section (C) collected data on the impact of quarry activities on buildings and farmlands. Furthermore, in relation to measuring of dust concentration in the study area, the researcher used a Dust Measuring Device KM 3887. This served as the instrument for detecting accurately the levels of air pollution in the eight (8) Air Quality Locations 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (AQL) the measurements were done and was compared with the EPA standard of air quality which is 70 µg/m3 at any industrial area and 65 µg/m3 within a community where a company is located. Where; SD=Strongly Disagree, D=Disagree, U= Undecided, A=Agree, and SA=Strongly Agree. 3.9 Data Collection Procedure Questionnaire were administered to the sampled population by the researcher. This was with the aid of research assistants. The purpose and individual questions were explained to the respondents before administration of questionnaires in order to ensure accuracy of answers. The aim was to prevent or avoid any avenue that can compromise the quality of responses. The research team established good rapport with respondents throughout the questionnaire distribution and collection periods to enable them feel comfortable to give independent and accurate information. The questionnaire was pretested before its administration to respondents. Determination of the concentration of dust particles In measuring the dust concentrations, filter papers were used by the researcher. These filters have pore sizes that were noted to be less than 10 microns. These were used to collect particulates. These were first stabilized in a desiccator for a 24-hour period. The filters were then pre-weighed with an electronic balance (AG104 Mettler Toledo). The filters were then fitted into the PM10 samplers which draw air at a rate of 5.000 m3 per minute. Loaded filters with PM10 were removed and conditioned in a desiccator for 24 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hours to ensure there was no moisture effect on the air particulate weight before re- weighing (M2). The study considered eight (8) site locations. Four (4) of these locations were at the quarry site and the other four (4) in the community. The mass concentration of the sampled particulates was then calculated using the equation below: ( ) ( ) = Where; m1 = Initial milligram, m2 = Final milligram, FR = Flow rate, T = time, and PM = Particular matter. Identification of respiratory problems associated with quarry activities In order to identify the various respiratory problem among the community members, they were given questionnaire to complete. The questionnaire contained questions regarding the various respiratory conditions that they experience in the community. The respondents were asked to indicate the kind of respiratory condition(s) that they ever experienced or they have been experiencing frequently. Assessing the impact of quarry activities on selected buildings and farms The researcher personally observed the buildings in the community and farms near the quarry sites to identify the various impact of activities on the building. In doing this, the researcher listed the potential impact of the quarry activities using a checklist. Upon visiting nearby farms and buildings, any sign of the various impacts that the researcher spotted. The impacts that the researcher looked out for were cracks in buildings and 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh collapse of buildings waste farmlands. There were follow up questions in the questionnaire to confirm the actual cause of the damage on the building and farmlands. t Air Sampler Minivol Figure: 3.1 Photos of some locations sampled for TSP and PM10 Air Sampler Minivol Figure: 3.2: Photos of some locations sampled for TSP and PM10 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.10 Data Analysis and Plan In general, the collected responses were analyzed with the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 and STATA version 14. The SPSS was used for the coding and was exported to STATA for the final analysis. The responses obtained from completed questionnaires were first of all checked for accuracy and consistency. In the case of open-ended questions, they were grouped based on the responses given by the respondents. Regression analysis was done to determine the relationship between dust in the community and the prevalence of upper respiratory tract infections/diseases. The relationship between blasting and vibrations and its effect on buildings too was looked at and finally the relationship between quarrying activities and waste farmlands was also determined. 3.11 Ethical Considerations The following ethical issues were considered to ensure that the participants of the study are protected in all aspect required of academic research like this. In order to ensure that the study causes no harm of any sort, the proposal for the study was first summited to the School of Public Health, University of Ghana Studies for their approval. To ensure that the study protocols were ethically sound in relation to health- related research, the study proposal was also submitted for Ethical approval from the Ghana Health Service Ethical Review Committee before the collection of data needed for the study. The study ensured that no harm of any sort was done to the respondents of the study as a result of the conduct of this study. The data collected was used only for the purpose of academic research as explained to the respondents of the study. Academic dishonesty in terms of plagiarism was avoided in the study. Frantic effort was put in place 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to ensure that all those whose studies were used as a point of reference were dully acknowledged both in text and at the Reference part of the study. 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.0 Introduction The main objectives of this study is to assess some environmental effects and respiratory symptoms associated with stone quarry activities at Buoku in the Wenchi Municipality. The methodology used for the study was discussed in the previous chapter, the results of the study are presented in this chapter. The researcher in an attempt to collect data relevant to the study sampled 323 respondents from the quarry community in Bouku. Data on some environmental effects and respiratory symptoms associated with quarry activities in the community were ascertained using questionnaire and Dust Measuring Device KM 3887. 4.1 Presentation of Results 4.1.1 Demographic and Personal Characteristics Table 4.1.1 below summarizes the distribution of demographic characteristics of respondents. In relation to sex 187 (58%) of respondent were female while 136 (42%) were male. Majority of the respondents were within the ages (26-36). A total of 183 (57%) of the respondents were married, 174 (54%) were Christian and 152 (47%) were secondary school graduates. Finally, relation to occupation, 96 (30%) of the respondents were farmers, 75 (23%) were traders and 75 (23%) work at the quarry company. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.1: Demographic Characteristics of the Respondents Demographic of Frequency Percentage Respondents Sex Male 136 42 Female 187 58 Total 323 100 Age 15-25 60 19 26-36 100 31 37-47 90 28 48-58 73 23 Total 323 100 Marital Status Married 183 57 Single 76 24 Divorced 53 16 Widow 11 3 Total 323 100 Religion Christian 174 54 Muslim 64 20 Traditionalist 85 26 Total 323 10 Educational Status Tertiary 33 10.22 Secondary 152 47.05 Primary 84 26.1 No Education 54 16.72 Total 323 100 Occupation of Respondents Farmer 96 30 Trader 75 23 Teacher 32 10 Quarryman 54 17 Non-Employed 66 20 Total 323 100 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.1.2 Assessment of atmosphere of quarry site and surrounding community for quarry dust concentration The Table 4.1.2 below summarizes the result of assessment of air in the surroundings of the quarry site and the community for the dust particle. As shown, generally all the sample locations within the quarry site had higher levels of dust particles which were above the recommended Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) standards of (70 µg/m3) with the highest concentration of dust (182.7 µg/m3) being recorded at location AQL3 and the minimum of (81.3 µg/m3) at location AQL 7. Also, the results show that all the communities around the quarry site recorded lower concentration of dust particle in the ambient air with the highest concentration of (68.8 µg/m3) at location (QL2) and (52.9) in location AQL6 Table 4.1.2: Concentration of dust particles in the atmosphere at quarry site and the surrounding community Dust Particles Dust Concentration 3 Concentration (µg/m ) Location ID PM10 TSP (Total Suspended Particles) Quarry Site AQL1 103.5 256.4 AQL3 182.7 632.2 AQL5 121.0 239 AQL7 81.2 192.0 Surrounding Community AQL2 68.8 153.2 AQL4 67.4 178.1 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh AQL6 52.2 190.2 AQL8 5 4 . 9 2 3 4 . 0 EPA(Standard) 70 230 IFC/WB (2000) 1 5 0 700 4.1.3 Prevalence of respiratory symptoms associated with quarry Activities Table 4.1.3 summarizes analysis done on dust related diseases that the respondents suffered from. The results indicate that, 93.19% (301) of respondents normally suffer from Cough, 69.97% (226) from Sneezing, 79.6% (227) from Catarrh, 70.28% (227) from Sore throat, 66.50% (215) from short breath, 83.3% (269). Again, regression analysis was conducted using a chi-square test at 95% confidence level and 5% significance level to determine the associated between dust exposure and respiratory infections encountered by community members. The findings indicate that there was a significant association (p<0.05) between dust exposure and the occurrence of respiratory infections such as; chronic cough, catarrh, and short breath with probability values (p- values) of 0.001, 0.000, and 0.000 respectively. In other words, the probability values were less than the alpha value (p<0.05). The study however, revealed that there was no significant association (p>0.05) between dust exposure and the occurrence of respiratory infections such as; chronic sneezing, and sore throat with p-values of 0.090 and 0.213 respectively. In other words, the probability values were greater than the alpha value (p>0.05). 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.3: Association of Dust exposure with presentence of respiratory symptoms among respondent. Variable Responses Dusty air Total P-value Yes (%) No (%) Chronic Yes 258(95.90) 43(79.6) 301(93.2) <0.001 Cough No 11(4.1) 11(20.4) 22(6.8) Total 269(100.0) 54(100.0) 323(100.0) Chronic Yes 183(68.1) 43(79.6) 2 2 6 (69.9) <0.090 Sneezing No 86(31.9) 11(20.6) 97(30.1) Total Catarrh Yes 1 7 3 ( 6 4.3) 54(100.0) 227(70.28) <0.000 No 96(35.6) 0(000) 96(2.7) Total 269(100.00) 54(100.0) 323(100.0) Sore throat Yes 183(68.1) 3 2 (59.2) 215(66.50 <0.213 No 86(31.9) 22(40.7) 108(33.4) Total 269(100.0) 54(100.0) 323(100.0) Short breath Yes 247(9..8) 22(40.7) 269(83.3) <0.000 No 22(8.2) 32(59.3) 54(16.7) Total 269(100.0) 54(100.0) 323(100.0) Table 4.4 reports the respondents‟ response to the respiratory symptoms. From the results, 55.7% responded positively to catarrh, 24.8% responded yes to chronic cough, 15.5% responded positively to chronic sneezing and headache as well, sore throat was recorded yes with 31% by respondents. 26.3% respondents also claimed that they get short breath, 27.9% respondents responded positively to heart problems while 24.8% respondents reported with yes to eye problem. 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.4: Response to respiratory symptoms Attribute Frequency Percent Chronic cough Yes 80 24.8 No 243 75.2 Chronic sneezing Yes 50 15.5 No 273 84.5 Catarrh Yes 180 55.7 No 143 44.3 Sore throat Yes 100 31.0 No 223 69.0 Short breath Yes 85 26.3 No 238 73.7 Heart problem Yes 90 27.9 No 100 31.0 No response 133 41.2 Headache Yes 50 15.5 No 199 61.6 No response 74 22.9 Eye problem Yes 80 24.8 No 243 75.2 4.1.5 Association between experimental group (worker) and control group (non workers) with some respiratory symptoms The results suggested that the non-workers and the workers with chronic cough have P- value (P<0.474), chronic cough and chronic sneezing (P<0.445), chronic cough and catarrh (0.527), chronic cough and short breath (P<0.475). Also, chronic sneezing and 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chronic cough (P<0.452) and the other respiratory symptoms among non-workers and workers were all insignificantly related. Table 4.1.5: Association between experimental group (worker) and control group (non- workers) with respiratory symptoms experimental group(worker) and Chronic cough P value control group Attribute Yes No Chronic cough Yes 74 6 0.474 No 227 16 Chronic sneezing Chronic cough Yes 57 23 0.445 No 169 74 Catarrh Chronic cough Yes 56 24 0.527 No 171 72 Short breath Chronic cough Yes 66 14 0.475 No 203 40 Chronic cough Chronic sneezing Yes 46 4 0.452 No 255 18 Chronic sneezing Chronic sneezing Yes 36 14 0.452 No 190 83 Catarrh Chronic sneezing Yes 35 15 0.542 No 192 81 Short breath Chronic sneezing Yes 41 9 0.464 No 228 45 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Chronic cough Catarrh Yes 168 12 0.539 No 133 10 Chronic sneezing Catarrh Yes 126 54 0.542 No 100 43 Catarrh Catarrh Yes 126 54 0.501 No 101 42 Short breath Catarrh Yes 150 30 0.547 No 119 24 Chronic cough Short breath Yes 79 6 0.544 No 222 16 Chronic sneezing Short breath Yes 59 26 0.499 No 167 71 Catarrh Short breath Yes 60 25 0.53 No 167 71 Short breath Short breath Yes 71 14 0.546 No 198 40 4.1.5 Impact of quarry dust on eye and visibility Figure 4.1 below summarizes the responses of participants concerning dust obscuring visibility in the community. Most of the respondents out of 323 from the community 269 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (83%) said yes which indicate that dust in the community affect eyes and hinder their visibility and 54 representing (17%) said No. impact of quarry dust on eye and visibility 54(17%) 269(83%) yes No Figure 4.1: Impact of quarry dust on eye and visibility Table 4.6 reports the respondents‟ response to the need for health screening. From the results, 30.34% strongly agreed that haulage trucks covered with sheets, 56.35% agreed, 9.91% disagreed and 3.41% strongly disagreed. For dusty haul roads, 33.44% strongly agreed that dusty haul road impede dust, 23.22% agreed, and 43.34% disagreed that haul road impede dust. Table 4.1.6: Response on the need for health screening Attribute Percent Frequency Haulage trucks covered with sheets Strongly agree 98 30.34 Agree 182 56.35 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Disagree 32 9.91 Strongly disagree 32 3.41 Dusty Haul Roads Watered Regularly Strongly agree 108 33.44 Agree 75 23.22 Disagree 140 43.34 Nose Mask Worn Especially during Rock blasting Strongly agree 86 26.63 Agree 129 39.94 Disagree 22 6.81 Strongly disagree 86 26.63 Exposed Surface must be watered regularly No Response 10 3.10 Strongly Agree 65 20.12 Agree 87 26.93 43.34 Disagree 140 Strongly Disagree 21 6.50 Reduction of Drop height belts using sleeves Strongly agree 96 29.72 Agree 172 53.25 Disagree 44 13.62 Strongly disagree 11 3.41 Provision of Channels to drain Quarry run- offs Strongly agree 173 53.56 Agree 75 23.22 Disagree 53 16.41 Strongly disagree 22 6.81 Rehabilitation/ relocation of community members Strongly agree 96 29.72 Agree 162 50.15 Disagree 43 13.31 Strongly disagree 22 6.81 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.1.7: Association between dust impediment and need for health screening Dust impedes sight P value Attribute Yes (%) No (%) Haulage trucks covered with sheets Strongly agree 87 (81.6) 1 1 (16.4) 0.001 Agree 150 (151.6) 3 2 ( 3 0.4) Disagree 32(26.7) 0 ( 5 . 3) Strongly disagree 0(9.2) 1 1 ( 1 . 8 ) Dusty Haul Roads Watered Regularly Strongly agree 86 (89.9) 2 2 (18.1) 0.001 Agree 75(62.5) 0 ( 1 2 . 5 ) Disagree 108 (116.6) 3 2 ( 2 3 .4) Nose Mask Worn Especially during Rock blasting Strongly agree 75(71.6) 1 1 (14.4) 0.069 Agree 107 (107.4) 2 2 ( 2 1 .6) Disagree 22 (18.3) 0(3.7) Strongly disagree 65(71.6) 2 1 ( 1 4 . 4 ) Exposed Surface must be watered regularly No Response 10 (8.3) 0(1.7) 0.001 Strongly Agree 43 (54.1) 2 2 ( 1 0 . 9) Agree 87(72.5) 0 ( 1 4 . 5 ) Disagree 108 (116.6) 3 2 ( 2 3 .4) Strongly Disagree 21 (17.5) 0 ( 3 . 5) Reduction of Drop height belts using sleeves Strongly agree 85(80.0) 1 1 (16.0) 0.001 Agree 129(143.2) 4 3 ( 2 8 . 8) Disagree 44 (36.6) 0 ( 7 . 4) Strongly disagree 11(9.2) 0 ( 1 . 8 ) Provision of Channels to drain Quarry run-offs Strongly agree 87 (81.6) 1 1 (16.4) 0.001 32 Agree 150 (151.6) (30.4) Disagree 32(26.7) 0 ( 5 . 3 ) Strongly disagree 0(9.2) 1 1(1.8) Rehabilitation/ relocation of community 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members Strongly agree 96 (80.0) 0 (16.0) 0.001 Agree 119 (134.9) 4 3 ( 2 7 .1) Disagree 43 (35.8) 0 ( 7 .2) Strongly disagree 11 (18.3) 1 1 ( 3 .7) 4.1.8 Association between dust impediment and need for health screening The results suggest that the covering of trucks with sheets (P<0.001), dusty haul roads (P<0.001), exposed surface (P<0.001), reduction of drop height belt (P<0.001), provision of channels to drain quarry (P<0.001), and rehabilitation of community members (P<0.001), were all significantly related to dust impediment. On the other hand, wearing of noise mask was not significant. Table 4.1.8: Association between dust impediment and need for health screening (multiple logistic regressions) Attribute AOR (95% CI) Haulage trucks covered with sheets Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.21 0.32 1.02 Disagree 0.21 0.44 0.95 Strongly disagree 1.21 1.16 1.25 Dusty Haul Roads Watered Regularly Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.06 0.02 0.15 Disagree 0.11 0.25 0.33 Strongly disagree 0.89 0.68 1.09 Nose Mask Worn Especially during Rock blasting Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.20 0.09 0.31 Disagree 0.02 0.67 0.12 Strongly disagree 1.20 1.13 1.27 Exposed Surface must be watered regularly 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh No Response Ref. Strongly Agree 0.04 0.06 0.14 Agree 0.13 0.30 0.45 Disagree 0.12 0.01 0.23 Strongly Disagree 1.13 1.05 1.23 Reduction of Drop height belts using sleeves Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.34 0.10 0.57 Disagree 3.06 0.23 0.23 Strongly disagree 0.23 0.01 0.45 Provision of Channels to drain Quarry run-offs Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.14 0.04 0.23 Disagree 0.11 0.24 0.02 Strongly disagree 0.11 0.34 0.12 Rehabilitation/ relocation of community members Strongly agree Ref. Agree 0.10 0.20 0.04 Disagree 0.25 0.36 0.37 Strongly disagree 0.25 0.41 0.18 4.1.8 Association between dust impediment and need for health screening (multiple logistic regression) A multiple logistic regression was also conducted to test the association between the outcome variable and other independent variable and to control for confounders. From the results, respondents who disagree that haulage trucks covered with sheets leads to dust impediment (OR 0.21, 95%Cl: 0.44-0.95), and those who strongly disagree that haulage trucks covered with sheets leads to dust impediment (OR 1.21, 95%Cl: 1.16- 1.25) were both significant determinants of dust impediment. However, participants who agreed (OR 0.06, 95%Cl: 0.02 – 0.15), those who disagreed (OR 0.11, 95%Cl: 0.25 - 0.33), and participants who strongly (OR 0.89, 95%Cl: 0.68 – 1.09). Similarly, those who agreed the wearing of nose mask (OR 0.20, 95%Cl: 0.09 – 0.31) and participants who 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh disagreed (OR 0.02, 95%Cl: 0.67 – 0.12) were less likely to be associated with dust impediment. Contrary, those who strongly disagreed (OR 1.20, 95%Cl: 1.13 – 1.27) were more likely to be associated with dust impediment. In considering exposed surfaces, respondents who strongly disagreed (OR 0.04, 95%Cl 0.06 – 0.14), those who agreed that exposed surfaces must be watered (OR 0.13, 95%Cl: 0.30 – 0.45), and respondents who disagreed (OR 0.12, 95%Cl: 0.01 – 0.23) were all less likely associated with dust impediment. However, those who strongly disagreed that exposed surfaces must be watered to prevent dust impediment were more likely to associated with dust impediment (OR 1.13, 95%Cl: 1.05 – 1.23). Impact of quarry activities on selected buildings Plate 1, 2, 3 and 4 summarize some environmental effects of stone quarry activities on selected buildings within the Buoku community as determine by personal observation. As shown, a number of buildings in the surroundings have developed cracks due to the effects of stone quarry activities. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 1 Plate 2 Plate 3 Plate 4 Plate 1, 2 3 and 4: Cracks developed by buildings in the Buoko community as a result of quarrying. 4.1.7 The Need for Rehabilitation or Relocation The results from Figure 4.2, below shows that 30% (96) of respondents from the community answered „Strongly Agree‟ that there is the need for rehabilitation and relocation of community members. While 50% (162) „Agree‟ that there is the need for rehabilitation and relocation of community members. A total of 13% (43) also „Disagree‟ that there is no need for rehabilitation and relocation of members of the community. While the remaining 7% (22) also „Strongly Disagree‟ that there is no need for rehabilitation and relocation of community members. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree 7% 13% 30% 50% Figure 4. 2: The Need for Rehabilitation or Relocation 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF RESULTS 5.1 Introduction The study assessed the environmental and health effects of stone quarry activities at Buoku in the Wenchi Municipality of the Brong Ahafo Region of Ghana. Quarry which falls into the extractive industry has been noted over the years to cause serious environmental and health challenges. Quarrying activities involve blasting and cracking of rocks into smaller grades for constructional purposes. The blasting and cracking of rocks lead to the release of copious amounts of sand particles into the atmosphere which upon exposure to the respiratory system and contact with the eye, may lead to respiratory and eye infections. Also, they may lead to cracks and premature collapse of buildings as well as destruction of farms in the surroundings. Even though a number of studies have been conducted elsewhere (WHO, 2003), very few were in Ghana. Assessment of environmental effects and respiratory symptoms associated with quarrying in the Buoku community would provide baseline data to augment data required to formulate policy decisions to prevent adverse health effects of quarry activities on humans and degradation of the environment around quarry sites. Also, studies on activities and their effects would provide critical data needed to create awareness of the health and environmental consequences of quarrying among people living near quarry sites and the safety precautions that must be taken in order to prevent disease and protect the environment. Finally, studies on quarry activities at Buoku would generate information to augment scientific knowledge currently existing on the subject. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh To meet these objectives, therefore, a cross-section of the individuals living in the surrounding community of Buoku quarry site were administered questionnaires to assess information on respiratory symptoms and environmental impact of the quarry activities among the inhabitants of the community. Also, measurement of dust particles in the atmosphere within the quarry site and the surrounding community was conducted using dust sampling machine. Lastly, buildings and farm lands in the surrounding communities were observed for cracks characterizing the degradation effect of quarrying on the environment. 5.2 Demographic characteristic of respondent The demographic characteristics of the respondents indicated that a majority of them were educated, 10.22% (33.1/323) had tertiary level of education and 46.72% (152/ 323) had secondary education. At these levels of education, it was expected that health seeking behavior among them would be high. This is because, a majority could read and therefore, should be able to access information about the need to protect themselves against respiratory diseases associated with dust exposure. However, health seeking behaviour among them was low because most of them indicated that they never went for medical check –up or used personal protective equipment. It was therefore, not surprising that a high prevalence of respiratory symptoms associated with dust exposure was observed among the participants. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Assessment of dust particles in the atmosphere of the quarry site and the surrounding community. The results showed that the concentration of dust particles within air samples collected from various locations at the quarry site were higher than the Environmental Protection 3 3 Agency (EPA) standard of 70 µg/m and ranged between 81.2 to 182.7 µg/m . Also, the total concentration of suspended particles within samples of air collected from the various locations within the quarry site were generally, higher than the EPA standard of 230 3 3 µg/m and ranged from 239 to 632.2 µg/m . These results confirm the report of earlier studies (Ferris speizer and Spengler, 1979) that quarry activities lead to the release of high concentration of dust particles into the immediate atmosphere surrounding the quarry site. Even though the concentration of dust particles in the various samples of air within the 3 quarry site were higher than the EPA standard of 70 µg/m for particulate matter (PM) 3 and 230 µg/m for TSP most of these values were lower than the World Health 3 Organization (WHO) standards of 150 and 500 µg/m for PM10 and TSP respectively. It is however important to note that the EPA are the regulators of environmental pollution at various locations in Ghana and since, they are in charge of licensing for quarry operations in Ghana, we are more answerable to them than to the WHO. It is therefore, for these reasons that, we should be particularly concerned when the amount of pollutions we are generating are becoming higher than the limits that the EPA has set. In addition, the results indicate that the concentrations of PM in the various air samples 3 from the community were all lower than the EPA standard of 70 µg/m with half of the samples, however, having particulate matter (PM) concentrations which ranged from 67.4 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 to 68.8 µg/m and therefore give the signal that it is time for measures to be taken to control the emissions from the quarry activities. Also, the TSP concentration from air samples from various locations within the communities were generally lower than the 3 3 EPA threshold of 230 µg/m though one of them registered 234.0 µg/m of TSP, which was slightly higher than the EPA standard and therefore, gives the signal that pollution by quarry dust particles at various locations within the community could also escalate if measures are not taken to control quarry dust emission into the environment. In spite of the foregoing, the fact that the concentrations of dust particles in the Bouku community were generally lower confirms the report by chaullya, chakrborty and Sing (2001) that concentration of dust particles that are measured in air samples from communities around quarry site are usually lower than those within the quarry itself. 5.4 Respiratory symptoms associated with quarry dust exposure among participants The study found that the various respiratory infections that were associated with the quarry activities include; cough, catarrh and shortness of breath. Other related respiratory infections that were found include frequent sneezing and sore throat. It turned out that a chi –square analysis of the relationship between the presence of respiratory symptoms and exposure to dust particles showed that they were significantly associated (p<0.05). Quarry dust is known to contain minerals such as silica and asbestos and respiratory exposure have been linked with respiratory disease as reported by several writers in the field (Nartey et al., 2012). In view of this, the fact that a majority of the participants reported that they had respiratory symptoms which were significantly associated with higher levels of quarry dust in the atmosphere suggests that probably they had developed such respiratory symptoms as a result of exposure to quarry dust which affirms his study 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of Urom SE, Antai AB, Osim EE. (2004) chronic exposure to dust generated from crushing of granite rocks impairs lung function and causes some respiratory and non- respiratory symptoms in quarry workers. Based upon these observations, it is therefore important to note that while levels of quarry dust in the community atmosphere are generally lower than the Ghana EPA standards measures must be put in place to prevent them from worsening. 5.5 Impact of quarry activities on the environment The blasting and crashing of rocks which cause vibration in the earth (Province, 2015). These vibrations create shock waves which travel along the ground causing disruption of the integrity of land for farming and eventually lead to cracks and gullies (Akobzaa, 2000). Eventually these, factors are reported to disturb the foundations of buildings and other structures on the land causing them to crack and collapse with time (Akabzaa, 2000). Vibrations, cracks and galleys that occurs in farm lands are also reported to lead to erosion of the top soil which eventually make the land unable to support agricultural activities (ICMM, 200). In line with the various report stated above, findings of this present study show that a number of buildings in the quarry community have cracks in them while some have collapsed as shown in the photographs (Plate 1-4). Furthermore, observations from the study show that quarry activities in the Bouku community have adversely affected certain nearby farmlands and probably contributed to the reasons why they cannot support crop cultivation. In addition, the present study shows that quarry dust particles in the atmosphere make the environment cloudy, enter eyes of community members and make visibility poor. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In view of the foregoing, quarry activities at the Buoku Stone Quarry could be said to have deleterious effect on the environment and health of the people living in the surrounding community. There is therefore the need to regulate the activities of such companies. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Introduction The section presents a summary of the whole work, draws conclusions and makes relevant recommendations. 6.2 Conclusion The study noted that the dust concentration level in the community was lower compared to the EPA standards. In the quarry however, the observed levels were noted to be far higher than the EPA standards. The study found a significant association between exposure to dust particles from the quarry activities and respiratory infections such as cough, shortness of breath and catarrh. Except for frequent sneezing and sore throat which were found to be insignificant, all the other dust related health challenges were significant. In relation to the effect of blasting and vibrations and other activities of the quarry on buildings and farmlands, the study identified a significant relationship between the variables. There was also a significant relationship between the activities of the quarry and the quality of surrounding farmlands indeed, the observed loss of farmlands in the community due to quarrying has directly affected the livelihood of the people. Before, since farming is the major occupation of the community, destruction of farmlands is dangerous to the survival of the community members. The activities of the quarry apart from emission of dust levels above the EPA standards, adversely affected the buildings in the community. Dust emissions have a number of 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh health implications that need to be addressed. The community has lost farmlands due to the activity of the quarry and this directly affects their livelihood. 6.3 Recommendations From the results and discussion of the study the following recommendations are offered to address some of the challenges identified in the study: 1. The EPA need to visit the site of the quarry and put in place regulations to ensure that the levels of noise and dust concentrations are within the allowed limits. Operating beyond these limits has consequences on the whole environments and especially the health of the workers in the quarry. 2. Regular environmental inspection and monitoring of quarrying activities should be enforced in order to ensure adherence to the standards and limits of the concentrations of the dust generated from the different stages of their operations. 3. The health directorate and other stakeholders in health also need to put in place measures to ensure that the health challenges identified in the community are prevented. In cases where diseases have occurred some form of intervention to assist in addressing these challenges can be carried out. 4. In relation to their buildings, relocation can be done or community members can be assisted by the quarrying companies and other stakeholders to put up buildings with firm foundations that can withstand the vibrations. This can prevent the collapsing of buildings and causing the death of community members. 5. Further research can be conducted into the Corporate Social Responsibility activities of the Quarry in the community and the policies in place to address the 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh challenges that the operations of the quarry have presented to community members. This will assist in identifying the measures the should be put in place to address some of the challenges that the community members face and their coping strategies in the community. 6. 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I am collecting this data to aid in a research entitled “Assessment of some environmental effects and respiratory symptoms associated with Stone quarry activities at Buoko in the Wenchi.”. You may refuse to answer any of the questions that you do not feel comfortable to answer. SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHIC DATA Age a) 18-30[ ] b) 31-40 [ ] c) 41- 50[ ] d) 51 and above [ ] Marital status: a) Married [ ] b) Single [ ] c) Divorced [ ] d) Widow Religion a) Christian [ ] 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh b) Muslim [ ] c) Other, specify Educational background: a) Primary [ ] b) Vocational [ ] c) Secondary [ ] d) University [ ] Occupation: a) Farming [ ] b) Trading [ ] c) Quarrying [ ] d) Teaching [ ] e) Specify other………………………………………………………………………. (Please fill in the following or tick as applicable) 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION B: QUARRYING ACTIVITIES (IMPLICATIONS) A) STRONGLY AGREE (SA) B) AGREE(A) C) DISAGREE( D) D) STRONGLY DISAGREE (SD) QUESTIONS RESPONDS S/N SA A D SD 1 The main source of dust in your village is quarrying by the companies involved. 2 Concentration of dust in the atmosphere is highest during blasting of rocks? Crushing, conveying, sieving, and haulage of gravel produce a lot of dust? Vehicles transporting quarry products on the unsurfaced roads also generate much dust Dry weather promotes dust emission Windy weather facilitates emission of dust. Sunny weather promotes distant movement of dust. Rainy and Cold weather reduce the amount of dust in the air 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Many living things have lost their homes (habitats) due to rock removal, noise and dust deposition. Dust is a nuisance to you? Dust affects your health? Have lands in and around the concession been destroyed? Yes [ ] No [ ] Are heaps of quarry waste and holes filled with water found around the sites? Yes[ ] No [ ] Is it true that farmlands near the concession cannot be used to grow crops? Yes[ ] No Restoration of degraded land must start immediately. Yes[ ] No[ ] SECTION C: HEALTH IMPLICATIONS Has the noise level affected your hearing? Yes[ ] No[ ] Has any of your buildings developed cracks due to blasting vibrations? Yes [ ] No [ ] The main cause of cracks in buildings in the village is vibration blasts. Yes [ ] No[ ] Has any of the cracked buildings collapsed? Yes[ ] No[ ] Has any member of the community died in a collapsed building? Yes[ ] No[ ] What is the life span of a well maintained mud house in the village? 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Does dust prevent you from seeing things a distance away? Yes[ ] No [ ] Can these heaps of quarry waste be considered an eyesore? Yes [ ] No Which dust related disease do you usually suffer from? (You may tick more than one). Chronic Cough [ ] Chronic Sneezing [ ] Catarrh [ ] Sore throat [ ] Difficulty breathing sometimes, high reaction to dust) [ ] Short breadth [ ] (Occasional cough, general nausea, body weakness, fever) [ ] Heart problem [ ] Headache [ ] Eye problems [ ] Whistling of chest [ ] Water harvested from roofing spouts is usually unclean (contains dust). Yes [ ] No [ ] Your frequent ill health may be associated with dust, flooded farmland or rain water from roofs. Yes [ ] No [ ] 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh SECTION D: CONTROL MEASURES ASTRONGLY AGREE (SA) B) AGREE (A) C) DISAGREE (D) D) STRONGLY DISAGREE (SD) QUESTIONS RESPONDS S/N SA A D SD Health screening should be organized every 1 or 2 years Haulage trucks must be covered with sheets. Dusty haul roads must be watered regularly using water tankers. Nose masks must be worn especially when rocks are blasted. Exposed surfaces(stockpiles) must be watered regularly Reduce drop heights from conveyor belts using sleeves Channels must be provided to drain quarry run-offs. Communities must either be relocated or buildings rehabilitated. THANK YOU 73