University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES GENERATION OF INSPIRATION AND ASPIRATION IN GHANAIAN CHORAL MUSIC COMPOSITION: ALFRED ENTSUA- MENSAH AND JOHN GERSHOM KOOMSON SAMUEL KWAME AFFUL DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC JULY 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES GENERATION OF INSPIRATION AND ASPIRATION IN GHANAIAN CHORAL MUSIC COMPOSITION: ALFRED ENTSUA-MENSAH AND JOHN GERSHOM KOOMSON BY SAMUEL KWAME AFFUL (10551703) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN MUSIC DEGREE DEPARTMENT OF MUSIC JULY, 2017 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby certify that the present work is the product of my original research and that it has never been presented in part or in whole for another degree elsewhere. Wherever sources have been quoted or used, full acknowledgement has been made. ……………..………………… …………………………………… SAMUEL KWAME AFFUL DATE (STUDENT) ……………..………………… …………………………………… DR. JOSHUA A. AMUAH DATE (SUPERVISOR) ……………..………………… …………………………………… MR. TIMOTHY E. ANDOH DATE (CO-SUPERVISOR) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT In the early decades of the twentieth century, many Ghanaian choral music composers from different cultural backgrounds composed songs to depict African/Ghanaian identity distinguishing them from the European styles experienced by the people of the Gold Coast through the activities of the Christian missionaries. The European presence during the pre- independence era has impacted heavily on the economic, social, cultural and musical lives of indigenous Ghanaians. Born in 1906 at Elmina, Alfred Entsua-Mensah inspired by the intercultural environment created through Ghanaian European interactions during colonialism originally created new choral and instrumental music idioms of both Ghanaian and Western traits. The uniqueness of his art works is as a result of the extensive use of complicated rhythmic motif derived from the African society popularly called syncopation, and Western harmonic principles and elements such as chords like dominant seventh chords, augmented sixth chords as well as chromaticism. Per yɛ papa, M’enyigye nsunyiwa, Asamanadwow a, are few examples of art works with the aforementioned elements. Aspired by the compositional philosophies of Entsua-Mensah, John Gershom Koomson, also from Elmina originally introduced similar compositional style. The objective of this thesis is to delve into the profiles of the two composers of different generations but with common identifiable compositional traits. It again examines their works which will be an inspirational tool to the up and coming composers to work tirelessly in discovering their own unique creative compositional techniques and styles. Works of the above composers are analyzed disclosing their compositional creativity and philosophy. The objective of this study is intended to be achieved through data collection in relation to the composers of the study, transcription of scores, transliteration of text, and analysis and interpretation of selected pieces. It is envisaged that the biographical studies and the analysis of the compositions of Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson will be of a ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh great importance to scholars, students and composers when they patronize and try to apply the styles and techniques in their own works. It will as well add to the existing literature and enhance the study and composition of choral music in Ghana. I therefore recommend that art music composers alive make available their profiles and biographical details and make them accessible to all without hindrances. Also the choral works of Entsua-Mensah and John G. Koomson can be used as pedagogical tool for exercises in chromatic music for university students to polish up their analytical and musical skills. iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION To God Almighty And My Family iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Blessing and honour be unto God Almighty for making it possible for me to successfully pass through this programme, praise be to His name. I first of all give thanks to University of Ghana through the Department of Music for honoring me this great opportunity to broaden my knowledge and interact with very important personalities of the academia. Special thanks to Dr. Joshua A. Amuah and Mr. Timothy E. Andoh for your numerous advices and also taking time to vet my work with the necessary corrections and suggestions. I verily appreciate all that you have done for me ever since I gained admission into this noble institution. God richly bless you in all your endeavors. My special thanks go Professor Kwasi Ampene and Professor George Worlasi Kwasi Dor for playing a very important role in formulating my topic for this thesis. It was a very nice experience meeting you individually and as a class. I appreciate your efforts and contribution towards my academic life. My heartfelt thanks go to Dr. Hilarius Wuaku, Professor John Collins, Professor Daniel Avorgbedor, Dr. Adwoa Arhine, Mr. Albert Tsetse, Mr. Benjamin Amakye Boateng, Mr. Frank Ferguson Laing, and Mr. Eric Sunu Doe for contributing immensely to my success. Thanks to the Entsua-Mensah family, Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah, Madam Doris Entsua-Mensah, Mr. John Entsua-Mensah and Madam Grace Entsua-Mensah for assisting me with all the information I needed for this work. It was great meeting you as you always welcomed me. I salute you Late John Gershom Koomson for availing yourself with all information and encouraging me continuously to speed up because you claimed your time was short. Rest in perfect peace. I thank Mr. Oscar Charles Acquah and the Staff of Osu Presby “2” JHS for all the support given me. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS CONTENT PAGE DECLARATION .................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION .................................................................................................................... iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ v TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... ix CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ............................................................................................ 4 1.3 Purpose of Study (Objectives) ..................................................................................... 8 1.4 Justification of Choice of Topic and Composers ........................................................ 8 1.5 Definition of Key Words ............................................................................................. 9 1.6 Music Composition ................................................................................................... 10 1.7 Traditional Music ...................................................................................................... 11 1.8 Classical Music (Art Music) ...................................................................................... 12 1.9 Choral music (vocal) ................................................................................................. 13 1.10 Popular Music .......................................................................................................... 14 1.11 Asafo Music ............................................................................................................. 15 1.12 Ebibindwom (African Song/Akan Sacred Lyrics) ................................................... 17 1.13 Generation and Amuah’s Categorization of Choral Music Composers of Ghana .. 19 1.14 Scope of Study ......................................................................................................... 24 1.15 Significance of Study .............................................................................................. 25 1.16 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 26 1.17 Literature Review .................................................................................................... 31 1.18 Research Methodology ............................................................................................ 40 1.19 Field Work ............................................................................................................... 41 1.20 Data Processing ....................................................................................................... 42 1.21 Transliteration ......................................................................................................... 42 1.22 Transcription of Scores ........................................................................................... 43 1.23 Analysis and Interpretation ..................................................................................... 44 1.24 Summary ................................................................................................................. 44 CHAPTER TWO .............................................................................................................. 46 Biography and Analysis of Works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah (1906-1987) .................. 46 2.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................... 46 2.2 Biography-His Early Life .......................................................................................... 47 2.3 His Elementary Education and Early Musical Life ................................................... 47 2.4 His Advanced Musical Life ....................................................................................... 48 2.5 His Career Development ........................................................................................... 50 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6 His Life in the Church ............................................................................................... 52 2.7 His Compositional Style and Creativity .................................................................... 54 2.8 Preamble .................................................................................................................... 58 2.9 Melodic Organization ................................................................................................ 60 2.10 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity .......................................................................... 61 2.11 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure ...................................................... 63 2.12 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics .............................................................................. 64 2.13 Translation of Lyrics of Per Yɛ Papa ...................................................................... 65 2.14Preamble ................................................................................................................... 66 2.15 Melodic Organization .............................................................................................. 67 2.16 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity .......................................................................... 68 2.17 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure ...................................................... 69 2.18 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics .............................................................................. 70 2.19 Translation of lyrics of Asamanadwow a ................................................................ 70 2.20 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 71 2.21 Melodic Organization .............................................................................................. 72 2.22 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity .......................................................................... 74 2.23 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure ...................................................... 75 2.24 Summary ................................................................................................................. 77 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 79 Biography and Analysis of Choral Compositions of John Gershom Koomson (1954- 2017) ................................................................................................................................... 79 3.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................... 79 3.2 Biography-His Early Life .......................................................................................... 80 3.3 His Elementary Education and Early Musical Life ................................................... 81 3.4 His Advanced Music Life .......................................................................................... 82 3.5 His Career Development ........................................................................................... 83 3.6 His Life in the Church ............................................................................................... 85 3.7 His Life at the Methodist University College-Ghana ................................................ 87 3.8 His Published and Recorded Works .......................................................................... 88 3.9 Compositional Style and Creativity .......................................................................... 89 3.10 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 91 3.11 Melodic Organization .............................................................................................. 92 3.12 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity .......................................................................... 94 3.13 Harmonic Arrangement of Aseda ............................................................................ 96 3.14 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics .............................................................................. 98 3.15 Translation of Lyrics of Aseda ................................................................................ 99 3.16 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 99 3.17 Melodic Organization ............................................................................................ 101 3.18 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity ........................................................................ 103 3.19 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure .................................................... 104 3.20 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics ............................................................................ 105 3.21 Translation of Lyrics of Aheman Fɛɛfɛw ............................................................... 107 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.22 Preamble ................................................................................................................ 108 3.23 Melodic Organization ............................................................................................ 109 3.24 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity ........................................................................ 110 CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................... 116 A Study of the Choral Styles of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson ........................................................................................................................................... 116 4.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 116 4.2 Comparative Analysis of Choral Works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson ........................................................................................................ 117 4.3 Melodic Comparison ............................................................................................... 118 4.4 Rhythmic Comparison ............................................................................................. 121 4.5 Harmonic Comparison ............................................................................................ 125 4.6 Use of Chromaticism in their Choral Compositions ............................................... 126 4.7 Formal Structures of their Works ............................................................................ 133 4.8 Dynamics and Tempo Markings ............................................................................. 134 4.9 The Use of Language (Text/Lyrics) ........................................................................ 135 4.10 Findings from the Comparative Analysis .............................................................. 137 4.11 Reasons for the Underutilization of their Choral Compositions ........................... 139 4.12 Summary ............................................................................................................... 144 CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................. 147 Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations ............................................................. 147 5.1 Preamble .................................................................................................................. 147 5.2 Summary ................................................................................................................. 147 5.3 Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 153 5.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 158 BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 163 APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 166 Appendix A: Choral Scores of Alfred Entsua-Mensah ................................................. 166 Appendix B: Choral Scores of John Gershom Koomson .............................................. 191 Appendix C: Persons Interviewed ................................................................................. 230 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Excerpt on rhythmic patterns common in traditional songs .......................... 59 Figure 2.2: Melodic sequences in a descending motion .................................................. 60 Figure 2.3: Excerpt showing another melodic line with chromatics ................................ 61 Figure 2.4: Excerpt showing application of syncopation ................................................. 61 Figure 2.5: Another excerpt on syncopated notes with rests ........................................... 62 Figure 2.6: Third excerpt on rhythmic creativity with syncopated notes ........................ 62 Figure 2.7: An extract demonstrating a German Sixth chord and resolution .................. 64 Figure 2.8: Opening melodic theme of Asamanadwow a ................................................ 67 Figure 2.9: Excerpt demonstrating a variation of the main melody shown in figure 2.8. 67 Figure 2.10: Excerpt demonstrating leap/jump in the melody ......................................... 68 Figure 2.11 Syncopation as presented by all four voices ................................................ 69 Figure 2.12: Tonic chord of B-flat monopolizing the first four measures ....................... 69 Figure 2 13: Excerpt showing melodic repetition of measure 1 by measure 3 ................ 72 Figure 2.14: Excerpt depicting scales in ascending and descending motions in Ndaase 73 Figure 2.15: An extract showing scales and leaps ........................................................... 73 Figure 2.16: Use of chromatics in the melody for modulation ........................................ 74 Figure 2.17: Demonstration of speech tone in melody (traditional) ................................ 74 Figure 2.18: Excerpt depicting Western melodic tone ..................................................... 74 Figure 2.19: Excerpt showing the rhythm of Ndaase ....................................................... 75 Figure 2.20: Organ interlude and chorus with evidence of secondary dominant seventh chords............................................................................................................ 76 Figure 2.21: Excerpt showing some modulations in Ndaase ........................................... 76 Figure 2.22: Excerpt on restoration to home key ............................................................. 77 Figure 3.1: Melodic theme of Aseda which begins from measure 8 to16........................ 93 Figure 3.2: Combination of the first and second phrases demonstrating melodic repetition ...................................................................................................................... 93 Figure 3.3: Second melodic themes with sequences ........................................................ 94 Figure 3.4: Excerpt on rhythmic repetition and as well addressing speech rhythms ....... 95 Figure 3. 5: Common rhythmic patterns for all voices .................................................... 95 Figure 3.6: Organ introduction of the harmonic theme ................................................... 96 Figure 3.7: Excerpt of Aseda on chords progressions ...................................................... 98 Figure 3.8: Excerpt on melodic sequence in Aheman fɛɛfɛw ......................................... 101 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.9: Another melodic sequence in descending motion ....................................... 101 Figure 3. 10: Scales from measure 27 to 30 ................................................................... 102 Figure 3.11: Excerpt on repetition in a descending motion from 35 to 38 .................... 102 Figure 3.12: Melodic patterns from measure 27 to 42 on scales and sequences ........... 102 Figure 3.13: Rhythmic alternations between high and low voices ................................ 103 Figure 3.14 Rhythmic alternations between high and low voices with syncopations ... 103 Figure 3.15: Excerpt on polyphonic rhythmic motif with syncopations in Aheman fɛɛfɛw .................................................................................................................... 104 Figure 3.16: Some cadences found in the piece ............................................................. 106 Figure 3.17: Melodic patterns of the first four measures on repetition .......................... 109 Figure 3.18: Melodic line ignoring speech tone from measure11 to 12 ........................ 109 Figure 3.19: Melody introduced by the bass from measure 17 to 20 ............................. 110 Figure 3.20: Rhythmic patterns that begin the piece by all voices ................................ 111 Figure 3.21: Soprano’s rhythmic imitation of melodic line introduced by bass ............ 111 Figure 3.22: Excerpt from Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban on syncopation .................................. 111 Figure 3.23: Extract from Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban showing progression of chords.......... 112 Figure 4.1: Excerpt from Aseda on speech tone system of melody ............................... 119 Figure 4.2: Excerpt on jumps/leaps and chromatics in Bekoe ....................................... 119 Figure 4. 3: Another excerpt on jumps/leaps and chromatics in Bentuma..................... 120 Figure 4.4: Excerpt from The Great Jehovah showing scales and repetitions............... 120 Figure 4.5: Melodic line of Bethel showing jumps/leaps .............................................. 121 Figure 4.6: Excerpt on rhythmic creativity with syncopation ........................................ 122 Figure 4.7: Rhythmic creativity with syncopation in Per yɛ papa ................................. 122 Figure 4.8: Heaven Man on rhythmic creativity with syncopation ................................ 123 Figure 4.9: Excerpt from Aheman Fɛɛfɛw on rhythmic creativity ................................. 124 Figure 4.10: Exhibit on chords and progression from M’enyigye Nsunyiwa ................. 126 Figure 4.11: Another excerpt on chords and progression by Koomson ......................... 126 Figure 4.12: Excerpt from Per yɛ papa on the use of chromatics .................................. 127 Figure 4.13: Chromaticism being used in Fitz by Entsua-Mensah ................................ 128 Figure 4.14: Excerpt from Ao bra on the use of chromatics .......................................... 129 Figure 4.15: Chromatics as used in Just as I am by Koomson ...................................... 130 Figure 4.16: Excerpt of Amansuon showing modulation through chromatics ............... 131 Figure 4.17: Excerpt from Ndaase on modulation ......................................................... 132 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction Before the coming of the European merchants and Christian missionaries into the Gold Coast now Ghana in the fifteenth century, there existed uninterrupted traditional and cultural practices including music. These musical traditions were highly patronized and appreciated by the indigenous Ghanaians. The introduction of Western educational system and the activities of Christian missionaries in Ghana during colonialism had and continue to have influence on our traditional and cultural environment. The early Christian missionaries institutionalized and promoted their culture, and introduced the people of Gold Coast and their Christian converts to Western music genres such as hymns, anthems, chants, canticles and other popular musical forms. Western musical instrument were as well promoted and made popular to the detriment of their African / Ghanaian counterparts. Amu, who is acclaimed the “Father of Art/ Choral Music” in Ghana, in the 1920s revolutionalized the rapid spread of Western art music and introduced his own art music compositional style which incorporated both traditional and western music elements but with African identity. Amu’s intention of Africanizing choral music was opposed by the Presbyterian missionaries as he had several encounters with them. He was therefore dismissed from the Church in 1934 as a result of his insistence on the wearing of traditional cloth to church instead of being in European outfits to preach. His dismissal from the Presbyterian Church might probably be the reason for his popular choral composition Nkradi (Farewell) which demonstrate his love and sense of belongingness to the black race and tradition. Andoh confirms Amus’s dismissal saying, “Amu began to meet with opposition from the church authority on the ground that he was preaching in cloth and teaching African songs and drumming in the college. Things eventually came to 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh a head when in 1934 he was asked to leave the College (Andoh 2007:270) Nketia also supports Amu’s revolutions by saying, Amu of Ghana who discovered the traditional music of his people in the late 1920’s and created his own compositional idioms out of it to serve the needs of the church and new choral groups in his country had the same attitude. He distinguished sharply between his own works which were syncretic and traditional music which he admired and for which he did not consider his music a substitute (Nketia 1982:89). According to Nketia’s statement above, Amu never placed his art compositions second to those of the Westerners. His revolutionary measures gained root and as such many composers that followed his footsteps also composed for Ghanaians fusing both traditional elements and Western harmonic principles. One major compositional trait of Amu’s art works is the use of Hemiola as rhythmic creativity found in works such as Nkradi (Farewell), Asomdwoe (Peace), among others which also influenced N. Z. Nayo and expressed in his works Towo Ato Da and Aseye Nedi Kple Dzidzɔ. He was also particular on speech tone depending on the contour of the language, which is also a major influential and significant element in African choral music. Amu’s compositional philosophies and legacy is what many choral / art composers of Ghana rely on today. Dor affirms this by stating, Today, the younger generation of composers owes such forbears a debt of gratitude for their hard work, experimentations, and solutions to problems that emerged from combining Western and African choral traditions. Amu, for example, spent years experimenting on how to best notate African rhythm and exploring the use of traditional linguistic devices, such as proverbs and other philosophical dicta that could enrich the poetic content of song texts. Amu also developed a style in which melodies rigidly adhered to the contour of spoken texts of Ghanaian tone languages. (Dor 2005:443- 444). 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh African art music has been the fusion of African traditional music elements and Western harmonic principles. This intercultural musical tradition has been the soul of African art music as it promotes cultural co-operation especially between Ghanaians and the Western communities. Laz Ekwueme substantiates this when he states, New African Art music is intercultural in the sense that it incorporates various aspects of African culture in contemplative and functional art music-created and composed by Western trained musician in the form that may be performed by both Africans and non-Africans”. The intercultural compositional technique as introduced by the early pioneering choral art musicians have been copied by the Westerners and are being performed in concert halls promoting music and cultural co-operation (Ekwueme 1990:10) Despite Ephraim Amu’s choral compositional revolution and creativity depicting African identity, some of his contemporaries also upheld the Western compositional styles and principles even though they also incorporated the traditional elements of their geographical areas into their works. Alfred Entsua-Mensah, who was a first generation art music composer like Amu, had a different philosophy in choral composition where most musical elements he used are of Western descent. 1Notable amongst the elements propagated by Entsua-Mensah are chromaticism, secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords dominantly used by the Western world, and sophisticated and complex rhythmic motives (syncopation) which is typically associated with Africans. John Gershom Koomson who belonged to the third compositional generation of Ghana also believed in the compositional philosophies of Alfred Entsua-Mensah so he emulated him by applying his ideas and principles. The hybridity, originality and intercultural approach 1 Generation here is described as all “people born and live at the same time”. The period composers lived and composed 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh exhibited by these two composers created a new and unique choral identity. Laz Ekwueme expresses that, The ideal composer of African Choral music needs to be a multi- talented composer, competent in languages and linguists with a sound knowledge of the theory of music and a vast competent experience in harmony and counterpoint. He or she should have an impeachable ear of hearing and distinguishing between microtones. She/he should have a thorough understanding of the human voice and a more than superficial knowledge of the state of affairs in African and international choral technique (Ekwueme, 1990, Agordoh 2010:60). Possessing the above mentioned qualities will enhance a composer’s original compositional creativity and also promote global patronage of laboured composed songs. Most of the art works composers claim ownership to today have existed long ago but contemporary composers add and subtract to come out with their own discoveries and innovations. Mereku therefore discloses that, “The question of originality in music has been fought in courts of law. This should not scare you as a composer. Composers have consciously quoted works of colleagues. Others have unconsciously written semblance of what others have done somewhere else. However, be ethical and always acknowledge” Mereku (1993:5). In this thesis, I explore the profiles of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, and further examine their compositional styles and traits since there have not been enough scholarly research on them. By this, it will serve as a guiding principle to students and researches when carrying out similar projects. It will also add to the existing literature of the Ghanaian choral music history. 1.2 Statement of the Problem The introduction of Western civilization and Christian missionary activities commencing from the fifteenth century to date has facilitated the dominance of Western musical forms 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh including choral music in Ghana to the disadvantage of the indigenous musical styles. Most of Ghana’s traditional and cultural practices were classified unholy to the extent that even dancing was banned in orthodox churches. It is generally accepted in Ghana that in the 1920s Amu, who is accredited the Father of Ghanaian art music and also belonged to the first generation according to Amuah’s classification, with his contemporaries tried the best they could to institutionalize choral art music with African/Ghanaian identity. Dor (2005) articulates that, The Ghanaian art choral idiom since the 1930’s can be described as a symbiosis of traditional African Music and Western art music. The 1920’s and ‘30’s marked the path-finding efforts of Ephraim Amu and his contemporaries. Ghanaian composers have sought not only to situate their songs in the broader social, cultural, and political landscapes of their nation, but also to use indigenous materials and creative procedures that define their identity as African composers. Today, younger generation of composers owes such forbears a debt of gratitude for their hard work, experimentations and solutions to problems that emerged from combining western and African choral traditions” (Dor 2005:443). Who was Amu’s music teacher? Who was Amu’s grand teacher of music? It is obvious that tracing all the teachers who developed Amu and his colleague art composers will be a very difficult task due to the problem of record keeping in Ghana’s tradition. Most of Amu’s contemporaries as well as the younger generation of composers are not widely known with respect to their works and backgrounds. Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson happen to be among those art musicians neglected with respect to their biographies and performance of their compositions. This is an issue that needs a critical attention and as a result constitutes a significant area considered in this thesis. Ephraim Amu, N. Z Nayo, M. K. Amissah and J.H.K. Nketia are among the few choral art music composers that have been made popular through documentation of their profiles/biographies, works and performance of their compositions. Others such as Alfred 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Entsua-Mensah, a first generation composer and John Gershom Koomson also belonging to the third generation respectively have been neglected in all aspects even though their works happen to be among the finest compositions in Ghana’s choral history. Detailed biographical information about Western composers like George Fredric Handel, Johann Sebastian Bach and Franz Joseph Haydn among others who were far older than Ghana’s first generation composers is available in all libraries of Ghana’s tertiary institutions. Their musical scores, audios and videos can easily be accessed on the internet and social media platforms. It is rather worrying that libraries in our universities and other tertiary institutions do not have enough documentation about indigenous art music composers. It then becomes frustrating when students and researchers are unable to get any or adequate information when assigned to work on certain personalities as I experienced when I was assigned to conduct one. This motivated and inspired me to conduct a research on these aforementioned composers to come out with this analytical study discovering their biographical details and compositional styles. The two choral or art music composers belonging to different compositional generations are excellent users of chromatics (chromaticism) with African elements notably syncopation in the case with Alfred Entsua-Mensah. The extensive usage of chromatics in their choral works exhibit clear distinction of their works from those of their contemporaries. Because Ghanaians are not used to the singing of songs with chromatics, and many choral composers have also refused to introduce them in their works, it becomes very difficult for most choirs to perform their creative works even to the extent that some choirmasters and music directors rarely include them in their repertoires. As a result, their works have been relegated and made unpopular comparing them to the works of Amu, Nayo, Amissah, Newlove Annan, Asare Bediako and many others. 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is widely known that choral/vocal music existed in Ghana and African in general before the coming of the Europeans and Christian missionaries but the intercultural atmosphere that existed between Ghanaians and the Europeans gave birth to a new breed of choral music through the amalgamation of traditional elements and Western harmonic principles. Agawu (1984:37) cited in Amuah (2012:3) confirms this point that, Ghanaian choral composition tradition and many African traditions are full of variety and mixture of both traditional and Western compositional materials. In other words, the Ghanaian art choral idiom makes use of motivic structures of the drum language, hybrid journal temperatures, dramatic cut-out of storytelling, bell patterns of traditional dances, traditional linguistic patterns observable in song forms as well as western conventional harmonic, melodic, formal and structural elements (Amuah 2012:3). As much as I believe in prioritization of the indigenous Ghanaians traditional practices including music, I as well believe in the assimilation of relevant foreign cultural aspects into our system addressing modernity since Ghana is not isolated but part of the globe. Our challenge as Ghanaians is that we now look down upon our traditional music. However, the hybridity of both traditional and Western elements in choral composition will be very much appreciated and patronized by majority of our population and foreigners as well. The popular adage and proverb of the Fante community which states Nam dodow nnsɛe nkwan meaning (Plenty fish never spoil soup) throws more light on and elaborates this idea of fusing two or more local and foreign music elements in creating new musical ideas or choral works. With this idea, I examine the choral works of these two great composers of different generations, namely Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. Priority is placed on the compositional technique and creativity of the two art music composers, their contribution to the growth and development of choral music in Ghana. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 Purpose of Study (Objectives) This thesis is aimed at examining the compositional traits and styles evident in the works of two of Ghana’s prolific and versatile choral music composers categorized under the first and third generations respectively. The compositions of these two composers are viewed as intercultural with regards to the hybridization of traditional music elements and Western harmonic principles in their art music compositions. Secondly, it is designed to popularize the personality and works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson since they have been neglected in Ghana’s choral music history both in their profiles and works. The study aims at assisting choirmasters, music directors and students to configure performances and interpretation of the pieces of the two composers to their choirs including my own choirs. The more my choirs and other choirs perform their choral works at functions, the more these works become popular, simpler and accessible to facilitate their regular performance and patronage by other choirs. It is to erase the perception surrounding the works of the two composers that they are too difficult and sophisticated to learn and perform. Furthermore, it is intended to disclose the compositional styles and techniques of the two composers to young and contemporary composers to imitate and incorporate them into their works. Composers will be motivated and inspired to explore and discover their own unique compositional styles and compose in that domain to vary the repertoire of choirs. 1.4 Justification of Choice of Topic and Composers My choice of composers for this thesis is based on numerous significant factors. Firstly, as a student and musician of the choral music industry myself, I have made few attempts myself in teaching choirs and band choral pieces composed by the two great Ghanaian 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh composers of this study. I2hardly hear other choirs and bands performing their choral works. Going through thesis and dissertations at the library of Music Department, University of Ghana, I only found out that Amuah (2012:37) had made a brief analysis on works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. Quite apart from that, no detailed research has been conducted on these two great choral/ art music composers. If there is any, I am yet to see. As I studied few pieces of the two composers, I realize that both share common characteristics and compositional philosophies with regards to elements employed in their works. These commonalities include the combination of African traditional music elements and Western harmonic conventions in their creative works differentiating them from works of their contemporaries. I again realize that getting information on some of Ghana’s prominent choral music composers is very difficult and challenging which Alfred Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson are no exception. This was experienced when Dr. Joshua Alfred Amuah, Head of Music Department of the University of Ghana, Legon and Theory and Composition lecturer, assigned me to conduct a biographical and analytical study of choral works of these two composers which I uncounted a lot of challenges. My motivation and inspiration to conduct a research on these two composers therefore emanated from the challenges I went through during the assignment to come out with this analytical study in discovering their biographical details and compositional styles. 1.5 Definition of Key Words To enhance a better understanding of the context within which this project operates, it is prudent therefore to define some terminologies and key words used in the title and other sections of this study. In this regard, terminologies defined include music composition, 2Intercultural is defined as something that occurs between people of different cultural background. Therefore intercultural music is the type in which elements from two or more cultures are integrated in its composition. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh traditional music, classical music, choral music, popular music, generation, asafo and ebibindwom. 1.6 Music Composition Music composition can be referred to as an original piece of music, a song or an instrumental music piece, the structure or nature of a musical piece, or the process of creating or writing a new song or piece of music. The Oxford Companion to Music (Arnold Whitall 2002:279-83) cited in Ampene (2005:7) defines composition as a “process of construction” and a “creative putting-together of an initial conception or inspiration”. Composition is carried out by people referred to as composers in classical music. In popular music and traditional music, the creators of new songs are usually called songwriters, and the individual who writes new words or text for a song is the lyricist since language plays a very significant role in music. “Composition” again can be described as the act or practice of creating a song or a piece of music. In many musical cultures worldwide including Western classical music, the act of composing usually includes the system of musical notation “scores”, which is then performed by the composer or other instrumental musicians or singers. In popular and traditional music, songwriting may involve the creation of a basic outline of the song called the lead sheet, which sets out the melody, lyrics and chord progression. In classical music, orchestration (choosing the instruments of a large music ensemble such as an orchestra which will play the different parts of music, such as the melody, accompaniment, countermelody, and baseline and so on) is typically done by the composer. But in the musical theatre and pop music, songwriters may hire an arranger to do the orchestration. In some cases, a pop or traditional songwriter may not use written notation at all, and instead compose the song in his or her mind and play, sing and/ or record it from memory. In jazz and popular music, noticeable sound recordings by 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh influential performers are given the weight that written or printed scores play in classical music (http://en.m.wikipedia.org. accessed on 20th October, 2016). Composition comprises two things, the first being the ordering and disposing of several sounds in such a way that their succession pleases the ear and this is called the melody. The second is the rendering audible of two or more simultaneous sounds in such a manner that their combination is pleasant to the listener. This is what is termed as harmony 1.7 Traditional Music Traditional music has been used severally in this thesis and it must be looked at to really know what it means and its significance. Traditional music which is usually applied to music of Africans is defined as a musical genre, songs and tunes that have been performed in a long period by the indigenous people of an area usually through oral tradition usually from one generation to another (www.traditionalmusic.co.uk accessed on 23rd July, 2017). This musical genre is usually applied to a classification of musical forms that is totally contrasting/ different from the classical music and popular music genres. Musical types performed by custom by a particular traditional area for a long period of time and also those that are related to remote African communities. In Ghana, adowa and kete of the Asante, asafo, adzewa and apatampa of the Fante, kolomashie, gome and kpanlogo of the Ga-Adangbe, gahu and agbadza of the Ewe, folk songs, lullabies, work and recreational songs are all examples even though some appear to be neo-traditional. To further explain, Nketia posits that, In Ghana, traditional music is the music of the indigenous institutions which developed in the pre-colonial period. It represents the artistic expression of Ghanaians in response to the needs and pressures of their environment. Examples of this music are work songs as those sung by the fishermen and craftsmen and farmers. They also include dirges, lullabies and the music that accompanies the celebration of such circumcision, puberty and marriage. (Nketia 1978:1) 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is really important therefore to examine how influential traditional music has been to the growth and development of choral music in Ghana taking into consideration its usage as pre-compositional material employed by both pioneering and contemporary composers. Recalling my childhood days, we used to gather and sing using stones as percussive instruments and exchanged them in a circular motion to accompany folk songs. We again cut bamboo stalks of different sizes and heights to produce different sounds and also used as percussion to accompany songs. This contributed in the creation of new songs in our traditional area. Of late it is very difficult to come by these musical types even in remotest communities in the country as a result of civilization, influence of education and modern technology, lack of appreciation for traditional music and taste for foreign and popular music genres. 1.8 Classical Music (Art Music) The Oxford Concise Dictionary of Music (fifth edition) defines classical music as (1) music composed roughly between 1750 and 1830, that is the post baroque and pre-romantic era which covers the development of the classical symphony and concerto. (2) Music of the orderly nature, with qualities of clarity and balance, and emphasizing formal beauty rather than emotional expression (which is not to say that emotion is lacking). (3) Music generally regarded as having permanent rather than ephemeral value and (4) “Classical music” is used as a generic term meaning the opposite of light or popular music. Clearly it has been explained that classical music evolved during the time of serious and prominent Western composers such as Mozart and Haydn who operated between 1750 and 1830 (Michael Kennedy and Joyce Kennedy 2007:153) Classical music of the West sometimes substituted for art music, cultivated music, serious music and many more, is a broad terminology that refers to musical traditions that imply advanced theoretical and structural considerations and as well belongs to a written musical tradition. This particular style of music comprises choral, solo and instrumental pieces. Classical music or art music is usually used to refer to all music that trace their origin to 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the Western world and a common definition used by many musicologists and scholars. The term “classical music”, “art music”, or “serious music” which are used interchangeably primarily evolved from the classical traditions as well as historical and contemporary musical forms. This type of music dwells mainly on formal structure, technical detailed construction and also demands uninterrupted attention from listeners or audiences. Classical or art music is notated in contrast with the orally transmitted ones such as folk music, traditional music and popular music. Below is how Kofi Agawu defines classical music, For lack of a better term, what I have called the “classical” tradition refers to the music of the educated composers. Because their works are directed towards a non-participating, rather than a participating audience, classical composers stand apart from their traditional counterparts. Furthermore, classical music belongs to a written tradition not an orally transmitted one. Composers such as Akin Euba, Fela Sowande and Sam Akpabot of Nigeria, Ephraim Amu and Kwabena Nketia of Ghana belong to this tradition. (Agawu 1984:38) Classical or art music of the European world is largely different from music of the non- Europeans and some popular musical forms. This distinction is created through its system of staff notation which has existed since sixteenth century. With the staff notation, a performer is able to interpret the compositional elements and techniques as used by the composer. Improvisation and ad libitum decorations frequently heard in non-European art music and popular musical styles like jazz, rhythm and blues etc. are given little prominence and priority. 1.9 Choral music (vocal) Choral music (vocal music) refers to music sung by a choir with two or more parts assigned to independent voices. In other words, choral music is basically polyphonic, usually consisting of two or more autonomous vocal lines or parts. It has a historical relationship with the European church music. Choral is something associated with or 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh connected to singing, or something composed to be sung by a choir. Any song or hymn which is composed for the church choir or any singing group to perform can be termed as choral music. “Choir” is a term that cannot be ignored when defining choral. Choir, also known as “chorale” or “chorus” is a group of singers or a body of singers who perform as a unified body. Choral music is therefore a type of music written specifically for a choir to perform. Choral used here as an adjective may be applied in general ways such as choral music, choral performance, choral technique etc. and in specific ways as Beethoven’s Choral Symphony and Choral Fantasia. 1.10 Popular Music Popular as used in this context means “peoples”. Popular music “peoples’ music” therefore refers to music produced and patronized by the poor and urban masses in contrast to the art music of the educated elites. Popular music and pop music are sometimes used interchangeably but they are not the same. Popular music is an umbrella term or parent to all music genres that originated from the Western world during the 1950s and 1960s which pop music is part. To have better understanding and uniformed viewpoint on popular music, Omojola explains, The term popular music reflected a class-oriented use that was concomitant with the stratified social structure of the Western world. It is a generic term for music throughout the ages which appeals to popular taste because of the means of dissemination…. In other words; it is a type of music that forms part of popular culture (Omojola, 2006:1). Unlike traditional music and art music (classical) where the musicians acquire formal or informal music training, popular music can be enjoyed and performed by people with little or no training. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Amuah (2012:10), voices out that “popular music is created by professionals, semi- professionals and informally trained musicians to be enjoyed by the masses, often in an urban setting. It is the most popular of all types of music and the most commercially accepted and promoted”. I argue that sometimes some art works and traditional pieces could be termed popular music because they are appreciated and patronized by the majority in society. Currently, some art compositions are parodied by pop musicians to serve other purposes while some popular tunes have been rearranged, notated and set to religious text (contra factum) and performed in churches. Typical examples include Menam na me tete and the most current and campaign song of the National Democratic Congress (NDC) titled Onaapo rearranged by Ohene Adu Nti. Popular music is usually danceable tunes created to address social, economic, religious and political problems and serve other satirical purposes in the society. It is usually disseminated through mass media and other social media platforms. 1.11 Asafo Music Asafo is ancient warrior organization that existed among all Akan societies of Ghana. It started as a force to combat aggression. The asafo societies function in a number of ways; political, military, social and religious. As a political unit of the society it has a right to enstool and destool a chief. In its social role, members of the institution organize themselves onto search parties and undertake communal labour to improve the community. The objective of any asafo in the past was the defense of society, of the aged, infirm, women, children, and of property. Among the Fantes this could be said to be the primary aim of their asafos; thus only strong and able- bodied men were obliged to join the institution (Turkson 1972:2). Asafo is a traditional war dance of the Akan states of the Gold Coast now Ghana. The term was derived from two Akan words “sa” meaning war, and “fo” referring to “people”, therefore asafo means warriors. The primary responsibility is the defense of the state in times of attacks by external forces. Aside that they perform other important functions such 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as enstoolment and distoolment of chiefs and search for missing persons. For prompt and effective response and organization of the group to perform a task, singing and drumming is used. This inspires, motivates and emboldens them as they render mandated services to their respective communities. Asafo songs function as satire in addressing political and social problems. Entsua-Mensah, a Fante man composed an instrumental music in 1960 titled “Invitation to Asafo” using elements of asafo especially with the rhythmic pattern. In the singing style of asafo, open voice quality and evenness or gradual decrease in breathe force towards the end of a long musical sentence are employed by the cantor. Other styles include ornamental devices in singing. Rising attack of phrase initials and falling release at terminals may also be noted. Cantors sing Sprechstimme. This is a special voice quality lying between singing voice and speaking voice. A singing voice may change to speaking voice on a syllables, particular words, or even phrases (Nketia 1963:31, Amuah 2012:36). The singing style of asafo ensemble follows the traditional call and response or cantor and chorus approach. The singers usually group behind the instrumentalists with the soloist among them or in front of the instrumentalists. Other equally talented and experienced singers occasionally perform the role of the cantor. Some of the songs performed are recitative in nature and usually sang in two or three part depending of the harmonic maturity and creativity of singers and sometimes done in a monotone. Asafo songs are mostly characterized by dissonances (discords) with special effects making performances more interesting and lively. A lot of transposions and modulations are created which most of the time result in discords or dissonances. These elements or features are seen in the art works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson through application of chromatics. Rhythmically, the instrumental patterns of asafo music are the aspect that makes it performance more difficult. This is manifested in their works as they employ 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh syncopations in their compositions with rests, ties and slurs. This traditional musical style influenced the evolution of ebibindwom and also functioned as a compositional material to the composers of this study. 1.12 Ebibindwom (African Song/Akan Sacred Lyrics) Ebibindwom, in other words African Music or Akan Sacred Lyrics came into existence as a result of European missionary activities and contacts with the people of Gold Coast now Ghana. It initially started in the Methodist Church and later spread and used by other indigenous religious denominations of the country. The indigenous Ghanaian churches that adopted ebibindwom as one of their modes and elements of worship include the Musama Disco Christo Church (MDCC), the African Faith Tabernacle Church (AFTC), the Twelve Apostles Church, the Saviour Church of Ghana and many more. Amuah describes ebibindwom (Akan Sacred Lyrics) as Traditional songs used in Christian worship, especially in the Methodist Church-Ghana. These songs were used because of the large number of illiterates, semi-literates and older women in the church, whose ability to sing the English Hymns or their translations were big challenge when the church transplanted in Ghana in 1835 by Rev. Joseph Rhodes Dunwell. When Rev. Dunwell died, Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman assumed leadership to see to the growth and development of the church in Cape Coast, Ghana, then Gold Coast (Amuah 2012:31). Turkson confirms Amuah’s explanation and highlights the meaning of ebibindwom saying, The lyrics as a musical type owe its development during the office of Rev. Thomas B. Freeman, by non-literate members of the church in Cape Coast in 1838. When Freemen realized that the non-literate members of the church did not participate in singing of the English Hymns he encouraged members to sing biblical text to traditional tunes (Turkson 1975:4). 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Each of the indigenous religious denominations that use ebibindwom for worship and other functions can be identified with unique characteristics in terms of style of presentation. Musama ebibindwom is similar to that of Methodist in terms of structure and mode of performance because of Musama’s heritage and evolution out of the Methodist Church. The only distinction is that Musama ebibindwom is vigorous and almost like asafo with accompaniment of local drums. Methodist initially never accompanied with drumming because the early European churches such as Catholic, Presbyterian, Anglican, and Methodist among others discouraged drumming and dancing during worship. Ebibindwom has elements and traits of asafo with regards to its creation, structure and performance and sometimes used to address social issues of the society as the asafo. It is one of the major precompositional materials of art composition in Ghana and is one area the pioneering art musicians explored to invent their own style of musical composition. Ebibindwom has same or similar performance pattern just like the asafo presented by two vocal groups; call and response or cantor and chorus, syncopations and usually composed in 6/8 time and most of the time sang in two or three parts. A talented soloist or singer is able to instantly pick a biblical text, create something meaningful and direct the choir as to how the response should go. It sometimes serves as incidental music to a sermon enhancing a particular feeling and atmosphere. Any competent soloist can intrude from nowhere to exhibit his or her creative skills upon inspiration from the group or the theme of the sermon. Williamson substantiates and expresses that; A competent ebibindwom singer usually picks up an aspect of Christian life and expresses and expands this in the recitative with great expertise, the congregation picking up the chorus at the close of the solo, which may run to a number of verses. The initial experience of having one’s sermon broken into by the striking up of a lyric just as he is in full stride is indeed, a compliment to the preacher, but at the same time a shattering experience (Williamson 1958:3-4). 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Of late ebibindwom is experiencing a new facelift from its oral tradition approach to a more civilized and written tradition. This has been necessitated by notating and transcribing some of the existing ebibindwom songs by some of Ghana’s contemporary art music composers usually belonging to the third and fourth generations respectively. Notable among them are C. W. K. Mereku, Joshua Alfred Amuah and Newlove Kojo Annan. Aside the written approach, video and audio recordings have been made available to promote and preserve them. 1.13 Generation and Amuah’s Categorization of Choral Music Composers of Ghana This thesis makes use of the term “Generation”, a key component of the project which plays a pivotal role in unraveling the main issues discussed. The work addressed and analyzed the works of composers belonging to two different generations according to Amuah’s classification of the Ghanaian art music composers. He grouped Ghanaian art composers into four generational divisions. The Oxford English Dictionary defines generation as “all of the people born and living at about the same time”. It further refers to it as “a group of people of similar age involved in an activity”. By this definition, Amuah therefore categorized Ghanaian art composers based on their period of birth and period in which their compositions thrived. Amuah then briefly explains that, The generation map of Ghanaian Choral music composers has been designed by these criteria: First, age, second, the period within which a group of composers were born and lived, and third, teacher and student relationship. It is possible to realize a teacher and his student or two composers of ten years difference in the same generation. This has been so because the categorization has not been too rigid and accurate in terms of criteria set for the following map. In the case of the first generation, Amu and his teacher and other older composers have been put together because Amu is said to have initiated choral art music through his predecessors and teachers when they were alive. In such an instance, Amu and his teachers as well as older composers have all been put in the same generation. In the second generation Nketia and his students have also been grouped so as not 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to create so many generations of choral music composers (Amuah 2012:205). The following are some of the pioneering art music composers of Ghana that belonged to the First Generation according to Amuah’s categorization. Ephraim Amu, Gaddiel Robert Acquaah, Isaac Daniel Riverson, Emmanuel Pappoe Thompson, Otto Boateng, Samuel M. H. B. Yarney, Oman Ghana Blankson, Percy Mensah, Charles Graves, Alfred Entsua-Mensah, Philip Gbeho, Williams Bessa Simons, Ernest Charles Bilson Snr.(Amuah 2012:205) Entsua-Mensah whose life and works is being discussed in this thesis was born in 4th November, 1906 and died in 1987. I call this particular group the “Revolutionary Generation” of Ghana’s Art Music due to the exemplary role they played with respect to identity development and creation which is being explored by the subsequent generation of composers till date. Most of the composers of this generation had their musical training from western institutions especially the Royal Academy of Music based in London, England. Each of the composers developed their unique style that distinguished their works from those of their contemporaries as Entsua-Mensah is identified with rhythmic complexities through syncopations, and decorative chromaticism. Another group of competent art musicians took over in a form of a transition as some of them understudied the first generation composers through formal and informal means. This is the second generation of art music composers of Ghana and they include, J. H. K. Nketia, Nicholas Z. Nayo, Michael K. Amissah, Adolphus Ato Turkson, Augustine Adu Safo, Walter Blege, Captain Tachie Menson, Alfred Doku, Yaw Alfred Kornu, Daniel F. Nzeh, George Ernest Akrofi, Atta Annan Mensah, J. T. Essuman, Felix Owona Sarfo, Robert Ndo, Ben Annin, George Hector Amonoo, Kwesi Baiden, Charles Ocansey, S. G. Boateng, R. O. Danso, W. E. Offei, Ernest Charles Bilson Jnr., G. R. A. Butler, Joseph S. Maison, Charles Bernard Wilson, Gustav Oware Twerefoo, Seth Dor, 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Anthony Otsiwa Quansah, James Yankey, C. K. Kudjodzie, Richard Naduna, Kofi Nyaku, Doe Williams, T. W. Kwami etc. (Amuah 2012:206). The above composers and many others carried out the visions and objectives of their predecessors and served the nation with admirable choral works for national programmes, religious services as well as serving social functions. Most of the composers of this generation did not have a direct contacts and interactions with the European merchants and missionaries but took inspirations and lesson from the first generation composers. Nketia for instance took lessons and advices from Ephraim Amu on how to gather compositional materials from his own society or local surrounding and create something out of them. Highlighting this expression, Nketia then discloses that; The syncretic alternative involves going to traditional music or music in oral or partly oral tradition for creative ideas, sources of sound, themes and procedures that may be used for expanding one’s modes of expression. In the hands of a mature composer, this is not a quest for the exotic, for flavour and nuance, but a search for new musical experiences that stretch the ears of a composer or broaden his imagination and understanding of concepts of music other than what he himself has inherited (Nketia 1982:8). N. Z. Nayo also understudied Amu but as Amu did not modulate using accidentals; Nayo was so much interested in chromatic music and wrote songs with chromatics and using hemiola in his works. Ernest Charles Bilson Jnr. definitely would imitate or understudy Ernest Charles Bilson Snr. without any hindrances. By this transition, the creative capabilities and compositional philosophies and ideas of the first generation in writing some of the finest choral works were intensified and promoted. People, who understudied certain composers explore their traits and styles, some admire the western style while others promote traditional elements and principles. Nketia for example is noted for his fallen fourth usually called the “Nketia Dominant Seventh chord which is common in most of his choral works and Monkamfo No is a classical example. The Late Captain James 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Hackman Tachie-Mensah also composed in the western vein and also noted for the use of chromatics to both decorate and modulate. Where is our God is an example of Tachie- Menson’s songs with exhibits of western conventions in his musical creations. The third generation comprises of another equally outstanding composers and performers whose works is a transition from the second generation composers and also influenced the spiritual lives of citizens of the Ghanaian society. This generation also has personalities such as the following; Kenn Kafui, George Worlasi Kwasi Dor, George W. Addo, Cosmas W. K. Mereku, Michael Ohene Okantah, Kweku Acquaah Harrison, J. De-Graft Simpson, Nicodemus Kofi Badu, Kweku Dwira Yeboa, Victor Agbenu, Alexander A. Agordoh, Godwin Adjei, Harvey Essilfie, S. K. Gyapong, Ekow Appiah Dadzie, Clement K. Adom, E. A. Quaye, Henry A. N. Quaye, Kow Arthur and John Gershom Koomson (Amuah 2012:206). This particular group is indeed made of music scholars. A large number of this generation is lecturers of some universities and renowned tertiary institutions both in Ghana and abroad. Because the musical foundation and identity had already been laid and defined, this group had the responsibility of building upon and exploring the existing products and also creates similar tunes and works. Cosmas Mereku for instance has a choral work written in ebibindwom setting that explores traditional compositional materials. Some composers of this generation understudied directly from relatives who belong to the second generation; George W. K. Dor seriously worked under his father Seth Dor. Ɔkɔtɔ nnwo anoma (a crab can never give birth to a bird) signifying the great connection and transition of traits of parents to children. Koomson admired Amu and Nketia as they extensively introduced indigenous compositional elements in their art works. He also studied under several renowned art musicians such as Herbert B. Sam, Daniel F. Nzeh and 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh finally Alfred Entsua-Mensah whose works have direct impact and resurface in Koomson’s art works. The fourth and last generation according to Amuah is another radical type which can be compared to composers of the romantic period of the Western music history with respect to their uniqueness and nationalistic elements. This group is what we are currently enjoying and patronizing their productive works at various functions in Ghana. This generation includes, Samuel Asare Bediako, Newlove Kojo Annan, James Tsemafo Arthur, Kras Arthur, Yaw Sekyi Baidoo, George Mensah Essilfie, Bright Amankwah, George Osei Tutu, Seth S. Yeboah, Willis K. M. Ampiaw, Daniel Ocran, Joshua Alfred Amuah, Samuel Kojo Ennimful, Kingsford Yaw Mensah, Divine K. Gbagbo, James Varrick Armaah, Ohene Adu Nti, Ato Goode, Joseph E. Nelson, Isaac Acquaye, Kwadwo Adusei, Benjamin Amakye Boateng, Mawuyram Quessie Adjahoe, Emmanuel Obed Acquah, John Anderson, Kwamena Arkorful, Richmond Yeboah-Norteye, Louis Eyiah, Emmanuel Esson, Mozart H. Adzoetse, Shine K. Nuworti, Martin Amlor, T. K. Ansah, Hilarius Wuaku, Charles Datsa, Ben Nixon Akroma, Ben Y. Tsey, Eric Henaku Aidoo etc. (2012:206-7). Most composers of this generation have established their own choirs with the support from some prominent personalities in their immediate society with the intention of promoting and projecting their works and other Ghanaian composers including their predecessors’ art works. The most vibrant and outstanding among them are the Winneba Youth Choir formed by George Mensah Essilfie and the Harmonious Chorale also formed by James Varrick Armaah formerly of the Winneba Youth Choir. This generation is characterized with parody songs and contra factum. They are experts in setting religious texts to popular tunes, folk tunes “jamma” songs and vice versa and these are made to fit into church services and other operations. Composers among this generation championing this agenda are George Mensah Essilfie and Ohene Adu Nti. Popular gospel songs are also rearranged 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and notated with very rich harmonies which is welcomed and accepted by the majority, both young and old. Generation as used in this thesis is not referring to the birth years of the generational composers but also referred to their productive period in which their art music flourished. The fourth generation for instance has composers who are relatively younger, almost fathers to their contemporaries. The first generation is the pathfinder whose works are expanded by the three generations. Some preferred the Africanist approach employed by earlier composers while others adored Western idioms even though they incorporated traditional materials. This is why this project discusses the works of Alfred Entsua- Mensah and John Gershom Koomson that have commonalities and similarities. Now Ghanaians can boast of benefiting from the achievements of the earliest Ghanaian art music composers who set the tone, tradition and direction which the younger ones follow. Like the Western world that experienced compositional generation periods like the renaissance period, baroque period, rococo period, classical period, romantic period and the twentieth and twenty-first century music that produced art music depending on levels, maturity and experiences of composers, Amuah’s categorization is a replica or Ghanaian version of the European classification. What the generations did was improving on existing musical products and forms and creating new compositional ideas and principles. 1.14 Scope of Study This study is characterized with various distinctive and significant features or attributes. It embodies biographical, historical and analytical approaches as well as intercultural elements of compositions of both composers. The study examines the compositional styles and traits evident in the choral compositions of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson who belong to the first and third generations respectively according to Amuah’s 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh categorization. The study limits itself to selected compositions that stress on the amalgamation of traditional music elements and Western harmonic conventions to create unique choral works very different from their contemporaries. Despite the theoretical and analytical nature of the study, it addresses the profiles and biographical details of the two composers of the study. Both composers have solo, instrumental and choral works with some emphasis on chromaticism and chords such as secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords and sophisticated African rhythms, a fusion of African and Western music elements. I again conducted a comparative study and analysis of choral compositions of the two composers to disclose the major differences and similarities existing between their choral works using a set of analytical parameters. These parameters include melodic organization, rhythmic structure and creativity, harmonic arrangement and the use of advanced chords and chromatics, source of text or lyrics, dynamic and tempo markings. 1.15 Significance of Study This work possesses a variety of significant properties. It addresses the genesis and historical details of choral music in Ghana. This thesis has a lot of branches since it employs theoretical and analytical methods, historical and biographical study approaches. It systematically examines and uncovers the various compositional elements both traditional and Western as used by Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson from selected compositions of theirs. The outcome of this study intends to serve as a guiding principles or directions to choral music composers. It exposes to choirmasters and music directors the aesthetics and creativity of merging traditional music elements and Western harmonic conventions in composing choral works. Western music elements such as chromatics and advanced 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chords create a lot of problems for Ghanaian choirs and other singing groups, and as championed by the two composers, the study seeks to address them. This is to encourage young composers to compose using these elements to enhance regular performance of pieces with such features by choirs and other singing groups. It serves an intercultural purpose and international patronage as Ghanaians/Africans, Westerners and other non-Ghanaians will patronize as a result of their hybridity of traditional and Western music elements. It also exposes some of the unpopular pieces of the two composers to choral music lovers and the public to foster regular performances. Furthermore, up and coming composers will be guided, motivated and inspired by the outcome to explore and discover their own distinctive compositional styles. Theory and composition students will be enriched in their field or area of specialization. 1.16 Theoretical Framework The framework for this study is based on the theory of interculturalism. Interculturalism in my opinion is the assimilation and appreciation of foreign cultural practices and values into one’s own culture. According to Sadoh, Nketia defines interculturalism as the “process of identifying with or sharing in the heritage of other cultures with the view of broadening one’s cultural horizon or one’s capacity to understand and appreciate differences in models of expression (Sadoh 2007:83). Ghanaian vocal music in the pre- colonial era was intercultural. It is important for all to note and accept that interculturalism was already taking place long before the coming of the Europeans because there was some level of inter-ethnic acculturation for so many years through migration, trade and wars. This level of cooperation and interactions among African nations continued to survive until the Western powers invaded and partitioned the African continent when they forcibly introduced their traditions to our forebears. 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Akin Euba describes music in which elements from two or more cultures are integrated as “intercultural music” (Euba 1989:116), as when materials from diverse cultures are combined into a single, contemporary composition. Akin Euba affirms that all known musical expressions in the world today are intercultural, be it African traditional music, Asian, Middle Eastern or European classical music (Sadoh 2004:636). Sadoh in explaining further puts, Experimental works by pioneering church organists and choirmasters produced compositions that were neither entirely Nigerian nor entirely Western. These works could be best described as intercultural music with the synthesis of Nigerian and Western musical idioms. Modern Nigerian composers of intercultural music include Fela Sowande, Ayo Bankole, Akin Euba, Samuel Akpabot, Lazarus Ekwueme, Okechukwu Ndubuisi, Bode Omojola, Joshua Uzoigwe and myself that is Godwin Sadoh. These composers have written for solo voice, chorus, piano, organ, chamber music, and orchestra by employing creative materials from European, Middle- Eastern, African American, and Nigerian traditional sources. They have successfully integrated musical resources from various cultures in their works (Sadoh 2004:635) Interculturation or interculturalism is been made popular and very common since Ghanaian pioneering art composers incorporated Western music elements in their compositions whether choral (vocal) or instrumental. Example of intercultural music is African Pianism where pieces meant to be played by African percussive instruments are composed for the piano. Musicians of popular music industry home and abroad are fusing compositional elements from diverse cultural backgrounds in their works which in effect are appreciated by majority of people. Composers who will ignore intercultural approach in their compositions are close to losing their relevance and patronage by their audiences. Ghana like any other country with numerous tribes and ethnic groups experiences intracultural interactions that also influence creative works of its composers. Sadoh (2004:636) identifies Akin Euba’s three levels of intercultural music as follows: 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1. Thematic intercultural activity, in which the composer of the music belongs to one of the cultures from which the elements are derived. 2. Domicile intercultural activity, in which the composer, writing in an idiom acquired from a culture other than his own, is involved in an intercultural activity, even though the music that he produces is not necessarily intercultural (Euba 1989:116). A good example of this second category would be an African composer employing European formal structures such as sonata allegro, binary or concerto forms in his music. 3. The third category of interculturalism postulated by Euba is at the performance level. In this situation, the performer and the music are from two different cultures. A good illustration would be the performance of Western art music by a Japanese, Chinese, or African musicians (Euba 1989:117). For musicians in this period the world is a borderless cultural space within which there are numerous possibilities for intercultural compositional and performance activities (Omojola 2008) Ghanaian choral music can be appreciated and patronized globally through the fusion of Western elements and African traditional music concept creating unique pieces of music. Early African cultural traditions including music were considered primitive by the Western world but the intercultural activities involved in the creation of African music of late have been assimilated to the extent that Western musicians now compose using African element such as syncopation and call and response which is evident in popular music genres like the American jazz, Jamaican reggae, rhythm and blues and many more. I believe the intercultural approaches to choral composition exhibited by the two composers, and addressed in this project will be very significant to future composers if they apply them in their creative works. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Tsir kor nnkɔ egyina, a popular Akan (Fante) proverb and wise saying which is translated (Two heads are better than one) further explains and deepens the importance of co- operation or integration of ideas. This is manifested in various aspects of the Ghanaian life including marriage, chieftaincy and music. The black and white keys of the keyboard also give indications of strength in unity as their combination blends more beautifully. Western music and elements have influenced choral works and other music genres of the Ghanaian society. I believe that compositions of a person of difference cultural background impact on others from different background when embraced. Bruno Nettl (1973) therefore believes that, “No culture can claim a body of music as its own without admitting that it shares many characteristics and probably many compositions with neighboring cultures”. In other words all music genres experience some influences from musical traditions of other cultures. It is today very common to see evidence of Western compositional techniques and principles in the works of great composers such as Handel, Mozart, and Haydn etc. being introduced and imitated by Ghanaian composers. Classical examples are Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson in this study that make use of chromatics and advanced chords for modulation and beautification of songs characterized by Africa compositional elements. Laz Ekwueme observes that, The ideal composer of African music needs to be multi-talented composer competent in language and linguistics with a sound knowledge of theory and composition. He further stated that, the new African art music is intercultural in the sense that it incorporates various aspects of African culture in contemplative and functional art music created and composed by Western trained musician in the form that may be performed by both Africans and non-Africans (Laz Ekwueme 1990:10). Of late contemporary choral and art musicians in Ghana and Africa compose classical choral and instrumental music using traditional idioms and folk tunes which are appreciated by Westerners. Ghana’s revolutionary and nationalist composers such as 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ephraim Amu, J. H. Kwabena Nketia, and Alfred Entsua-Mensah among others composed works that were nationalistic in nature even though they incorporated elements from the Western world in their original creations. Western romantic composers like Brahms and Wagner in the nineteenth century used folk idioms in their compositions for nationalistic purposes as Amu and several other pioneering art composers of Ghana created unique music of unique African style and identity. Annie Warburton believes that, European musical composition up to the end of the eighteenth century had been largely cosmopolitan and international. But racial and national characteristics had always been present in the folk dances and songs of the people; in the nineteenth century, came a consciousness of the national idioms and characteristics in folk music which could be applied to other kinds of music (Warburton 1959- 162). According to Warburton, romanticism can be defined as “the blending of strangeness with beauty”. Romantic music is characterized by chromatic harmonies and discords, more personal and emotional as well as being nationalistic and exhibition of great technical virtuosity. These characteristic elements found in romantic music are manifested in the art compositions of Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. This study discloses elements of unity and the relevance of borrowing ideas from experienced personalities and sources to solve a problem and or to introduce a new philosophy. Stylistic analysis method which focuses on formal structure of musical compositions is used in the examination and investigation. Selected choral compositions are broken down into analytical parameters such as tonal organization which include harmonic or vertical sonorities, melodic structures and rhythmic patterns. Other compositional elements comprise text, form, tempo and dynamics. This approach I employed enhanced the disclosure of the expected features and styles of selected compositions. It again facilitated in bringing out the differences and similarities evident in the choral art works of Entsua- 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Mensah and John Gershom Koomson which is obviously based on the theory of structuralism. 1.17 Literature Review The presence of the European merchants in the Gold Coast in the fifteenth century and the activities of the early Christian missionaries impacted on cultural traditions of the indigenous people. Even though the people of Gold Coast then had indigenous vocal tunes they cherished very much, but the missionaries succeeded in planting Western musical styles which gained dominance in terms of performance and patronage in the church. Ephraim Amu and his pioneering art composers even though liked and benefited from this phenomenon but institutionalized and popularized hybridized forms of choral music using traditional elements and Western harmonic principles. This reintroduces interculturalism that has been captured and explained as the framework for this thesis. Expressing more on intercultural music in Ghana, various types and degrees have been identified. Ghana as a sovereign nation has several ethnic groups with distinguished cultural traditions. There have been cultural integrations whereby all cultural traditions are treated with equal attention without any preferences or discriminations. During national ceremonies like thanksgiving service, and educational programmes such as inter-school music and cultural festivals, composers are tasked to compose in our local languages based on theme given by organizers and distributed among all schools across the country to learn and compete for the ultimate prize. This policy of the Education Ministry and Ghana Education Service creates a platform for cultural diversity and discourages ethnic or cultural discrimination. Ephraim Amu’s ‘Yen Ara Asaase Ni’ which addresses patriotism, nationalism and sense of belongingness and generally accepted as a national song is translated into various Ghanaian’ indigenous local languages for smooth and easy 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh performances by all Ghanaians during national ceremonies and other important social functions. This is purely intercultural music because Amu was an Ewe but due to his brilliant knowledge in Twi language and his bi-musical experience, most of his choral works were written in Twi to the extent that he expresses himself with proverbs. This song is patronized by almost every Ghanaian as it teaches patriotism. Ti Tum Tum Kpema (let us work hard) is another patriotic art song written in Dagbani and used for inter-schools choral competition in 2016 has intercultural features. The composer, Nicodemus Kofi Badu as a Fante from Agona Asafo in the Central Region of Ghana combined resources from the northern part of Ghana with western compositional materials to create a very meaningful music for use nationally. The use of western compositional elements and conventions makes another degree of interculturalism. Another level of interculturalism of the Ghanaian art music is the fusion of Ghanaian traditional music elements such as call and response, syncopation, speech tone and rhythm etc. and western harmonic principles like chords progression and conventional way of notating musical notes for performance based on expressions applied. All art music composers in the choral music industry are beneficiaries and this has indeed brought transformation and maturity into our choral music tradition. Some of the pioneering composers who began this intercultural development and fought against western monopolization of music in the Gold Coast faced a lot of challenges but their toil has yielded us the type of art compositions that we enjoy today. Interculturalism is practised in our formal educational institutions when courses are designed to address global problems and issues. A section of the Ghanaian art composers has had and continue to have music courses and interactions abroad where they are exposed to variety of choral works and compositional techniques. J. H. K. Nketia, George 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh W. K. Dor, Joshua A. Amuah, and Cosmas W. K. Mereku among others have all had experiences abroad and these experiences are manifested in their works. Majority also take courses organized by reputable foreign institutions with high standard facilities and credible certificates. This category is as well exposed to western compositional principles and styles as in the case of Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. Some write purely in the western vein throughout. In effect, since their training can be classified as intercultural, their compositions are also influenced by the kind and level of intercultural training they receive. Their choral works demonstrate another level of interculturalism. These training and intercultural experiences they had through western institutions and formal education clearly distinguishes their works from their contemporaries in terms of melodic, rhythmic and harmonic organizations which is also characterized by chromatic exploration and rhythmic complexities “Contemporary African art music/ Ghanaian choral music began as a legacy of colonialism and Christian missionary presence and activities. Consequently, the earliest composers who received Western-oriented music education based their works on Euro- American musical materials and procedures” (Konye 1997:1-22). According to him, Western music education and activities of the early missionaries have been the main contributing factor to art music in Africa and Ghana. Those who benefited from this environment combined both Western and African traditional music elements to produce hybridized musical forms of African identity. Omojola (1994) and Sador (2007) state that Christianity and colonial administration influenced musical traditions of Nigeria. According to them, Western musical instruments were introduced both in Nigeria and Ghana which benefited students, choir masters and composers. Andoh affirms this and states, “The missionary and the colonial education brought with it new concepts of musical traditions along with a new set of objectives based on a new music of a distinctive 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh kind, and much of it had no previous roots in the Ghanaian culture. The colonial era was dominated by a negative attitude to the traditional music and religious practices in Ghana (Andoh 2003:17) stated in (Agordoh 2011:38). Entsua-Mensah who lived during the colonial era was a beneficiary of the positives of European presence while J. G. Koomson, a post independence art music composer also benefiting from the earliest composers. Both had the opportunity to learn a Western musical instrument which fundamentally was the main architects leading to their rich compositional styles in art music. This facilitated in exploring the contributions of Western musical tradition to the training and development of the composers of this study with regard to their choral (vocal) works even though they have instrumental compositions as well. Ghanaian art choral music like that of Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia and many other sub- Saharan African countries, emerged from Western hymnody, which was introduced in the nineteenth century by European Christian missionaries and backed by the British colonial apparatus (Nketia 1974:13-20). Agordoh however reveals that “the development of African art music in Ghana owes a great deal to the church. Since the coming of Christianity, several new types of church music have developed in Ghana, some of which arose out of traditional music. Most of these new types also contain the imprints of European musical culture. These may include any vocal or instrumental work composed by a Ghanaian or non-Ghanaian who has some experience in traditional African music (Agordoh, 2011:58). This statement by Agordoh facilitates in accessing detailed and accurate historical accounts of choral music in Ghana. This historical information of choral music becomes a major source to this study as certain untouched areas are being addressed to inform and assist young scholars and composers. The result of this study adds to the existing literature 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh since it deals with biographical details and profiles of the two of Ghana’s most influential choral composer. Although Western music education started in some areas of West Africa as early as the 1520s, those early efforts were for a privileged few and, on the whole, remained insignificant until much later. In the nineteenth century the missionaries encouraged the teaching of Western music to their African converts and pupils. They established a number of institutions and ensured that Western education had a significant influence on the lives of their pupils, especially those attending their seminaries during the final decades of the century (Kwami 1994:554) The choral music industry and the whole of Ghana owe a great deal of gratitude to the Western political administration and early Christian missions for their immense contribution to its growth even though the traditional music genres were suppressed to the advantage of theirs. In the 1520s, accepting foreign cultural aspects such as music was very challenging since they were being introduced to it for the first time. With time when certain measures were put in place they became useful to the society and composers began to compose for churches and other singing groups in the nineteenth century. Although colonization and Christianization had their positive aspects, in terms of the preservation of indigenous identities the Westerners’ indiscriminate suppression of African culture in favour of Western systems is harder to appreciate. For the survival of certain indigenous African cultural practices, one must thank the steadfast traditionalists who had remained loyal to their heritages (Dor 2005:443). Dor continued Nevertheless, the valorization of Western music by missionaries in the church and school provided Africans with the opportunity to learn a style that later became crucial in the developmental history of African art music. While a number of gifted indigenous Africans acquired their skills of reading and writing music from parochial schools and academic institutions founded by colonial governments, the autodidacts drew on their experiences of long-term engagement 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh with church music to compose part-songs that were Western in style (Dor 2005:443). According to Dor the Westerners deliberately decided to westernize many aspects of the Ghanaian culture including music. This was spearheaded by the Christian missionaries through their religious operations, especially introducing their converts and pupils to European musical styles. Patriotic individuals and indigenes of Ghana who had had western oriented musical training stood firm and agitated against the indiscriminate suppression of African culture including music to maintain Ghanaian indigenous identity. Some talented Ghanaian individuals who benefited from both the churches and schools established by the Europeans such as Ephraim Amu, N. Z. Nayo, Entsua-Mensah, Nketia and many more composed works that depict African identity as well as hybridized idioms. Part singing had existed long before the Europeans came but the documentation or scoring the song was one of the legacies of Western interactions in Ghana. The standard of music especially choral music in Ghana can be credited to the hard work and patriotism shown by the pioneering composers and the positive effects of colonialism with regards to the introduction of Western education and erection of educational institutions. In effect this information helps to address the origin of choral or art music and its growth and development in Ghana. With the introduction of classical or art music in Ghana, Boamah discloses that, Before the socio-cultural interaction between Africa and Europe, Western classical music was neither known, performed nor appreciated by Africans. Africans therefore solely relied upon their native music for all spheres of life. Since the arrival of the Portuguese at Elmina in 1842, which marks the earliest European music among other cultural phenomena on the Gold Coast, now Ghana had been steadily and increasingly significant. On the part of missionaries, the introduction of Western Christian hymns which were sung by the converts and the type of music taught at the seminaries and other parochial institutions favoured the assimilation of Western musical styles by Africans. Western classical anthems and marches were 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh performed by school choirs, school and church bands. (Boamah 2007:12) He again continued that, At the turn of the nineteenth century, a class of Africans educated along European lines developed a taste for Western culture at the expense of African culture. Consequently, the earliest Ghanaian composers of art music sounded extremely Western. Apart from the texts being in Ghanaian languages, choral pieces had no other parameters that could be identified with the composer’s nationality. These early songs were similar to translated Western hymns and anthems. Composers did not only compose patriotic choral pieces, but also instrumental works that were deeply rooted in traditional African music. (Boamah 2007:12). In agreement with Boamah’s statement concentrating on his work based on African pianism using the works of Akin Euba, Nketia and Gyimah Labi, I believe language plays a very important role in African music especially choral. Language I believe was not the only compositional element that disclosed the identity and nationality of the compositions of pioneering Ghanaian composers as he stated but instead there were several other traditional or African elements. Speech rhythms and tones, call and response, syncopations and others introduced by Amu and his contemporaries are all African compositional elements. Of course, many also compose in Western style which is very difficult to relate or link to African composers. This is helpful in tracing the origin and development of choral music in Ghana when the need to address it arises. Dor (2005) and Agawu (1994) reveal that, What is currently labeled as Ghanaian art music is generally accredited to Ephraim Amu’s pioneering indigenization work dating back to the 1920s. Ephraim Amu revolutionalized choral features distinct from its precursor, Western hymns and anthems. Amu’s pioneering emphasis on the adoption of the simple duple time usually with triplets, for all his African works –his emphasis on speech rhythms; on the relative length of words and syllables as key determinants for the relative values of notes to which they are signed; and also on the construction of choral melodies as direct reflections 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of the speech contours of the songs-galvanized choral and classical compositions but also instrumental works, such as piano pieces that are composed with the intent to either reflect or accompany text. It is generally accepted in Ghana and beyond that Amu is the father of choral and art music in Ghana. He discovered the traditional music of his people in the late 1920s. Most of his contemporaries who pursued same agenda have been neglected and despised in terms of publicity and performance of choral works. In view of this, Entsua-Mensah who existed during Amu’s era, and J. G. Koomson of the third generation are projected. Merriam (1960) observes that “Our basic understanding of music of any people therefore depends on our understanding of that people’s culture, the place music plays in it and the ways in which its role is played. It is through this sort of understanding that we can approach on a firm foundation, our further understanding of what structure is and how music achieves aesthetic ends are sought”. I agree with Merriam and also think that one needs to understand the cultural background and personal experiences of a composer that informs and motivates him to compose. The state in which he or she finds him or herself positive or negative could be an inspiration and determinant of theme for composition. Accordingly, composers of multicultural and intercultural experiences will definitely compose to depict same dimension as in the case of Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson. With this in mindset, I examined the compositions of the two composers based on their cultural background and intercultural experience. Meyer quoted in Brown (1986) says “Chromaticism is almost by definition an alteration of, an interpolation in or deviation from this basic diatonic organization”, Chromaticism, a compositional technique is extensively used by Western choral and instrumental composers. As a result, it has been made popular and simpler as they constantly use them in their works to produce special effects and variations. This is one common element 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh found in the works of the composers of this study that distinguishes them from others. I am motivated and inspired to look into chromaticism as a compositional technique and extensively used by the two composers and the challenges Ghanaian choirs have when it comes to songs with chromatics. This is also revealed by Amuah (2012:52) and (2014:86) which goes, It has been the norm for highlife to be written without any modulation by most composers. Amu resisted modulations, always composing without them, because he believed that there are no modulations in African music. Some advanced composers, however, like Amissah and Entsua-Mensah modulated to the dominant and back to the tonic in their compositions. The extended forms of the highlife model of Entsua-Mensah made use of non-harmonic tones like passing notes, auxiliaries and their decorative figures as well as chromaticism. Amuah further noted that “the other version of the highlife, the slower version has Kwesi Baiden and Entsua-Mensah as renowned composers. In the current era, composers like John Gershom Koomson, Tsemafo Arthur, Yaw Sekyi Baidoo, Kras Arthur and George Mensah Essilfie among others have also written in this dimension (Amuah 2012:52 & 2014:86). Amuah’s revelations has been a pace setting ground that facilitates and influences the outcome of this thesis as I examine the choral compositions of these prominent and renowned art composers. Language is another important compositional element that plays a very significant role in most types of music in Ghana and Africa. “The Impact of Language on Musical Composition in Ghana” authored by Kofi Agawu talks about how music (choral composition) is influenced by language. Agawu states that “Ghanaian culture, like most West African cultures, contains an unusual variety of precompositional models. These include the structure of drum language, various dance forms, the musico-dramatic genre of storytelling, and most important of all, the structures that make up the spoken languages”, 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Agawu (1994:37). Agawu talks about Amu’s use of language in his choral works where he believes in speech tones and speech rhythms usually based on the syllabic contours of language or text used. Amu’s use of speech tones and rhythms have been assimilated by his contemporaries and those of the younger generations such as N. Z. Nayo, J. H. K. Nketia, Sam Asare Bediako, Newlove Annan and many more. Some few Ghanaian composers also ignored the use of speech tones and rhythms in their choral works even though their works possess several traditional elements. I therefore explore the influence of language as a precompositional material as used by the two composers of this study compared to their contemporaries. Amuah (2012) deliberated on the use of traditional music elements in contemporary Ghanaian choral music. According to him, several research works have been conducted on the use of traditional music elements in choral compositions of well-known and well established Ghanaian composers like Amu, Nayo and Nketia. He focused on the art works of relatively young composers namely George Worlasi Kwasi Dor, Nicodemus Kofi Badu and Newlove Kojo Annan who all incorporated traditional elements in the compositions. Dor (2005) investigates the use of indigenous music genres in Ghanaian choral art music from the works of Ephraim Amu, Walter Blege and himself. The works of these two musicologists impact on mine as they all addressed the use and influence of indigenous music elements in choral compositions. As analytic as their works are mine is not too different as I investigate similar analytic parameters they addressed. 1.18 Research Methodology The methods used for this study include the following: data collection, data processing (transliteration and transcription) and analysis and interpretation. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Data Collection: Data collection approaches I employed comprised information from both primary and secondary sources. For the primary data collection approach, I made a lot of travels to Alfred Entsua-Mensah’s house in Sekondi Takoradi, and to Kasoa to conduct interviews with Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah, the eldest child of Entsua-Mensah for first hand information since the composer himself is dead. My next point of call was an encounter with Madam Doris Entsua-Mensah in Kumasi for other vital information. With the help of whatsapp, I was able to contact Mr. John Entsua-Mensah from London for additional details. I again made several journey’s to interview J.G. Koomson at his residence. I contacted some friends, family members, choirs and choirmasters through interviews for relevant information about the composers of the study including their works. Photographing, video and audio recordings were employed to have a graphical representation of some important locations. In the secondary data collection approach, I consulted archival materials such as clips, voice notes and other documented materials relevant to the study. Library materials such as books, magazines, journals, thesis and dissertations played very significant role. Because of the analytic nature of the study, I contacted several personalities like choir masters, lecturers, music students, children and families of Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson himself for musical scores selected for the study. Social media platforms like facebook, telegram, youtube and whatsapp played important role as I put across questions for responses from all who had answers. I also relied heavily on the services of the internet for a lot of information. 1.19 Field Work Even though the core of the work is analytical in nature but other oral materials support it to be fully complete. I booked appointments with Mr. John Gershom Koomson and Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah to engage them for interviews at their residences at 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nyanyano and Kasoa respectively. I made a lot of journeys to contact Mr. Koomson for copies of his compositions both choral and instrumental. Because Entsua-Mensah is dead, I contacted Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah and her younger sister Grace Entsua-Mensah who made a journey with me to Sekondi Takoradi on 21st September, 2016 in search for their father’s original compositions which were handwritten in music manuscripts to add to the few published and well known scores. The journey to Takoradi was tiresome because most of his creative works were unfinished so selection for the completed works was challenging. Again to have a feel of compositions of the two composers of this study, I employed experiential approach to collect data. In this method I challenged myself in teaching my choirs and band that is, Charis Choir and Brass Band of the Presbyterian Church, New Fadama and Musama Disco Christo Church Choir, Gomoa Eshiem, to also experience the difficulties choristers and choir masters encounter in the teaching and learning of choral compositions of the two composers. 1.20 Data Processing In this project, I employed transliteration and transcription approaches to process data collected. I conducted a couple of interviews with children of Alfred Entsua-Mensah, Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah and Grace Entsua-Mensah, and Mr. John Gershom Koomson which I recorded on my cell phone and tablet. 1.21 Transliteration My first interview with Mr. J. G. Koomson took place at his residence at Nyanyanno near Kasoa on the 14th day of September, 2016 at around3:00 pm. There was a brief introduction since that was our first time of meeting. After briefed on my mission of visiting him, Mr. Koomson gave brief biographical information about himself and what 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh inspired him to do music at a very tender age. We communicated in Fante language which I recorded with my phone, the only available device I had with me. Because we met for the first time, we agreed to have a second meeting on a new date for detailed information and also to have access to some of his compositions. My second meeting was an interview with Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah, the oldest among the children of Mr. Alfred Entsua-Mensah at her residence at Kasoa. After a brief introduction of both of us, we decided to make a trip to Takoradi where Entsua-Mensah lived, to search for his musical scores and other important documents relevant to this project. We made the journey to Takoradi on the 21 st September, 2016 where I conducted an interview with Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah and her younger sister Grace on the biography of their father. It rained heavily that day and so we rescheduled another meeting. I recorded two folk tunes Pɛtɛ Pɛtɛ meaning (Vulture Vulture) and Woana na ɔmmpɛ nwaba meaning (Who does not like snails) created by Entsua-Mensah but parodied from existing traditional Akan tune. I transliterated all recorded communication from interviews conducted which were in Fante as well as the text of the parodied folk tunes. 1.22 Transcription of Scores In this approach of data processing, I consulted secondary materials precisely the musical scores of both Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. All the songs I selected for the project were already notated in staff but were hand written and very old especially those of Entsua-Mensah. With my knowledge in finale and assistance from colleagues who are also experts, I transcribed all the songs, old and handwritten scores with finale to enhance smooth interpretation and analysis. Some of the selected pieces that were re-scored into finale for the analysis comprised Entsua-Mensah’s Emer (Time), Ghana Wimu Hɛn (Ghana Airways), Enyigye Ntrado (Excessive Happiness) and John 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Gershom Koomson’s Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban (Give me the wings of faith) Nyame yɛ krɔnkrɔn (Holy is the Lord) and Aseda (Thanks). 1.23 Analysis and Interpretation Stylistic and formal analytic approach was the method employed. The selected musical scores of the two composers were analyzed and interpreted using various analytic parameters. These parameters include melodic organization, harmonic arrangement, formal and rhythmic structures. Other parameters are cadential examination, dynamics, tempo and text. 1.24 Summary This chapter of the thesis is purposely aimed at projecting the image and biographical details of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson. It is to enhance deeper and better understanding of the study of choral compositions of intercultural dimension through the incorporation of traditional music elements and Western compositional principles manifested or evident in the art works of the composers of the study. To supplement better understanding of the topic of this study, important key terminologies introduced have been explained. These terms are music composition, traditional music, classical music (art music), choral music, popular music, generation, asafo and ebibindwom. Some scholarly works have been referenced and acknowledged to aid a comprehensive understanding by audience and readers. This project has been designed to address significant issues or areas of choral music composition. It seeks to address the historical dimension/perspective of choral music, theoretical and analytical views of choral composition/choral music in Ghana. The result of this research will be very significant in the sense that it will promote the study of choral compositions that fuse traditional music elements and Western compositional techniques 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and principles. This practice of fusing Western and traditional music elements in choral music composition both identifies us as Africans and as well as enhancing wider performance by both Ghanaians and non-Ghanaians and to promote global patronage. The scope of the study has been limited to the choral works of the two art music writers. References have been made to other works with the intention of providing comprehensive information to complement the project and have been acknowledged. The study was based on the theory of interculturalism, a Fante philosophy and popular saying tsir kor nnkɔ egyina, a situation where two or more cultural aspects have been incorporated to produce a unified result or outcome. This theory has been championed and manifested in the compositions of various prolific and versatile composers such as Ephraim Amu, J. H. K. Nketia, Lazarus Ekwueme, George Worlasi Kwasi Dor, and N. Z. Nayo among others. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO Biography and Analysis of Works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah (1906-1987) 2.1 Preamble This chapter has been designed to cover two broad and significant areas. The first section addresses the biographical details of Alfred Entsua-Mensah while the second section focuses on the analysis of three selected choral works of the aforementioned composer. The biographical study intends to deal with information related to his early life, his life in the church, career details and finally his compositional style and creativity. The second section explores, discovers and examines the compositional traits and philosophies evident in his compositions. Some of the traits which include syncopation and advanced chords with emphasis on chromaticism take considerable attention. Selected choral pieces for the analysis are Per yɛ papa (Strive to do good), Asamanadwow a (A resting place for the dead) and Ndaase (Thanks). These works have been analyzed individually based on preferred analytical parameters into details after which a general analysis on the three selected songs were done to actually discover the uniqueness of his compositions against his contemporaries. Selection of pieces for analysis was based on the usage of both Western music elements and traditional African music elements commonly evident in the three scores. All the pieces contain elements such as syncopation, advanced chords and chromatics. Texts for the songs were coined from traditional wise sayings and proverbs of his immediate environment as well as his own matured linguistic and lyrical creativity. Apart from the Asamanadwow a see regular performances by choirs during wake-keeping of prominent and important personalities in various Akan societies, and Ndaase recorded by the Winneba Youth Choir, Per yɛ papa and many more have never seen light of the day. This is perhaps as a result of the persistent usage of chromatic chords and complex rhythmic 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh motifs making his works more difficult to perform. This discovery and exploratory exercise will aid regular performances of choral works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah. 2.2 Biography-His Early Life Born into a family of musicians, Alfred Entsua-Mensah was born at Elmina (Edina) in the Komenda-Edina-Eguafo-Abirem District of the Central Region of the Republic of Ghana. He was blessed to a married couple named Mr. Entsua-Mensah and Maame Mbo all of Nsuekyir-Elmina on November 4, 1906 and into the Methodist Church. Due to his exposure to music at a tender age by his father who was a choir master and church organist, and mother also a talented singer, he was motivated both intrinsically and extrinsically to follow his family traits and to develop his musical career even to the highest level. 2.3 His Elementary Education and Early Musical Life Alfred Entsua-Mensah began his elementary education at Elmina Methodist Primary School and continued at Sekondi Methodist Middle School. As a result of his musical heritage exposed to by his family, his passion for music as a discipline grew stronger and so started studying rudiments of music and elementary harmony from Mr. J. N. T. Yankah who was then his school teacher at Sekondi. He also had tutorials in theory of music and composition from Mr. E. F. Godwill to equip and broaden his knowledge in music. He continued his education at Tarkwa in the Western region of Ghana where his father was a church organist at Tarkwa Methodist. When Mr. Entsua-Mensah realized musical talents and potentials of his son, he encouraged him to take music as seriously as possible. His father’s advice motivated him to develop the interest in organ music. Mr. Entsua-Mensah gave him every encouragement 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he needed. He therefore developed interest in organ music (Amuah, Adum-Attah & Arthur 2004:94-95). 2.4 His Advanced Musical Life After Alfred Entsua-Mensah had laid a very solid and reputable foundation in music theory and composition, he seemed not to be satisfied at that level and so he sought to upgrade and update himself to a higher level. Alfred took correspondence courses in advanced harmony in order to equip himself for the music he had to direct and to improve his piano technique. This and initial courses he took gave him the advantage and experience to write another examination organized by the Royal Academy of Music which he successfully passed. Entsua-Mensah again studied for and obtained the Associate Diploma of Victoria College of Music also in London (Amuah, Adum-Attah & Arthur 2004:94). He never had access to study as a regular student in any tertiary institution both home and abroad but courses and examinations that he took and certificates he obtained awarded by recognized institutions in London are equally credible as those awarded by Ghanaian Universities. Complexities that are seen in his art works is a clear manifestation of Western imprints depicting quality of courses offered by these aforementioned reputable institutions. These accounted for his rich harmonic creativity characterized by Western harmonic principles fused with equally complex traditional element especially the rhythmic motifs found in traditional musical styles like asafo, apatampa, adzewa and ebibindwom. Application of his harmonic competence in creating a unique style of composing art works made him popular at the time. One significant revelation according to Madam Doris Entsua-Mensah his daughter is that, he was the only person who could teach his choral 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh works with ease due to how complicated his pieces were. His compositions portray dominance of western elements such as secondary dominant chords “unusual chords” and chromaticism due to his colonial and intercultural experience through personal interactions with the whites and European doctrines and educational policies implemented by the Christian Missions in the Gold Coast as well as courses taken from Music Schools in London. Entsua-Mensah is a master of chromatic harmony and syncopated music that makes him exceptional among his contemporaries. As influential as he was, only a few of his works are known by choirs and choirmasters because of the persistent use of chromatics and complex rhythms. Alfred Entsua-Mensah became a mentor and teacher to many musicians and composers. He worked hand in hand with Rev. Gaddiel Acquaah who was in the same compositional generation with him, to stage a lot of concerts and cantatas at Gyandu Cinema Hall at Sekondi Takoradi and other parts of the country. His advanced compositional innovations drew many composers and musicians closer to him. Daniel Amponsah, popularly known as Agya Koo Nimo, was his admirer and friend who with him shared ideas together due to his extreme knowledge and competence in composition, instrumental playing and teaching. As someone who offered courses in orchestration he formed his own band in Sekondi Takoradi Metropolis called Nanshamag Orchestra. For this band he composed, taught and trained them. He also led and directed them and as well performed with them. He composed music for plays to be performed by Joseph Ghartey (Agordoh 2010:95). Popular Ghanaian highlife musicians like Paapa Yankson, Jewel Ackah, C. K. Mann and many others had encounters with him due to his advisory role played, compositional creativity and virtuosity in instrumental playing. In 1923 he started work as a clerk in the Gold Coast Railways at Sekondi and retired in 1933. He then joined the Broadcasting Department 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh after leaving the Railways Department where he served in the Central and Western regions. His musical exploration and discoveries were fully utilized after his retirement from Ghana Railway Lines and Ghana Broadcasting Corporation from the 1940s and beyond. He worked and toured many parts of the country with his band. He was assisted and accompanied by Mr. C. T. Provincal, a navy officer of the Sekondi Naval Base and a vocalist of his band. He was always available to help all those who needed assistance in instrumental playing. Entsua-Mensah was a multi-disciplinary and talented personality with knowledge in several music aspects including teaching, composing, conducting, instrumental playing, orchestration, and technical advisory capabilities. His knowledge for the piano is showcased in his instrumental works titled Invitation to Asafo and This is GBC Calling, pieces composed with complex rhythmic patterns in 2/4 and 6/8 time respectively. 2.5 His Career Development In the early decades of the twentieth century, all school leavers who had successfully passed through the standard seven also known as the Middle School Leaving Certificate qualified to enter into the job market. In this regard, Alfred Entsua-Mensah who had successfully completed the standard seven was employed at a very tender age as a clerk in the Gold Coast Railways at Sekondi Takoradi in 1923. While working at the railways department, he managed to go through intensive studies in music under several scholars and music teachers including Mr. J. N. T. Yankah and Mr. E. F. Godwill in Sekondi Takoradi. As a clerk he was transferred to work and serve in several places including Tarkwa-Huni Valley in the Western region and Nsawam in the Eastern region. With the knowledge and passion he had for music, he taught it wise to upgrade himself, therefore he 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh took examination in music and passed the senior grade of the Royal Academy of Music based in London, England. Within that same period, he sat for the Associate Diploma of Victoria College of Music which he again passed. Ten years later, Alfred Entsua-Mensah left the Gold Coast Railway Lines and took a new appointment at the Broadcasting Department of the Gold Coast in 1933 during the era of the British imperialism. With his new appointment as a radio presenter and broadcaster, he worked diligently and served in both Central and Western regions of the Gold Coast. He used that opportunity and platform to promote his art works. With his rich musical background, he was so instrumental as he played a pivotal role in programmes related to music and other equally important programmes of the department. The Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) and Ghana Television (GTV) have made numerous recordings of Ghanaian art choral music over the last six decades. Among their programs devoted fully or partly to choral music are “Campus Melodies”, a radio program for student choirs, and “Church Service”, during which extended choral pieces can be heard. “Whereas “Sing Along” on GTV featured only choral music, “Music Makers” and “Talents” included Ghanaian art choral music (Dor 2005:445). After his retirement from the Broadcasting Department of the Gold Coast, he went back to Elmina his hometown to begin a new life. He opened a shop in which he was dealing in stationery and books of all kinds. At this juncture, he intensified his musical exploration and creativity and also tried to put what he had studied earlier to use. Many churches and choirs in and around Elmina were beneficiaries of his creative works as he taught them his compositions. His mother church the Methodist Church at Elmina where he served as an organist, the Catholic Church, the Musama Disco Christo Church and many more benefited from him. 51 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh His life at Elmina began to deteriorate economically after retirement from active work so he migrated to Sekondi Takoradi, a familiar ground where he had earlier stayed and worked as a clerk and a broadcaster respectively. There, he continued his musical explorations where he composed for church choirs and other singing groups. He handled people in instrumental playing and acted as a consultant and resource person to many of Ghana’s renowned highlife musicians. To keep him more active and economically sound, he formed his own dance band called Nanshamag Orchestra in Sekondi Takoradi with which he performed at several programmes. Working with Mr. Sey, a cultural expert and in collaboration with Rev. Gaddiel Acquaah he instituted a cultural group that performed at very important functions. In collaboration Rev. Acquaah he organized cantatas and other shows to entertain people and to gain income. Alfred Entsua-Mensah worked as a choirmaster organist of the Sekondi Methodist Church. He composed several folk songs using texts of existing folk tunes, modifying existing tunes and sometimes created his own texts. Woana na ɔmmpɛ nwaba and pɛtɛ pɛtɛ are examples of existing texts he composed with. Some of the properties of folk songs resurface in his choral works. 2.6 His Life in the Church As a boy at a very tender age and fortunate to be born into a family of talented musicians as well as gifted into the Methodist Church where music thrived, Alfred Entsua-Mensah spent most of his time in the church. The Methodist Church and other religious bodies benefited immensely from him in two folds. The first was the use of his body and time to teach songs, play the organ during church service, and conduct the choir and organizing other choral groups in the church and other equally important programmes. The second aspect of his relevance to the church boils up to the usage of his intellectual property in the area of his creation and composed choral art works. 52 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh He had a great passion for music so he always followed his father Mr. Entsua-Mensah who was a church organist to church and choral rehearsals. His senior brother Benjamin Entsua-Mensah was a chorister and a singing band master for Sekondi Methodist Church who taught them songs and organized them (singing band) for programmes. Alfred Entsua-Mensah joined his brother in the Sekondi Methodist choir and assisted him in handling the Singing Band. In effect, his desire to study music began in the church. When he grew and was working he kept serving in the capacity as choirmaster organist. After his retirement from the GBC, he went back to Elmina where he taught the Elmina Methodist Church Choir and other singing groups around. He even went extra mile to compose masses and other songs for services in the Catholic Church and Musama Disco Christo Church respectively. He served as a consultant and resource person at workshops organized by choral groups in and around Elmina. Alfred Entsua-Mensah continued his religious obligations as choirmaster organist in Sekondi Takoradi Metropolis after leaving Elmina. He handled the Sekondi Methodist Church Choir and served at the circuit and district levels. As a very competent musician, composer and choirmaster, he never hesitated to offer technical assistance to the various singing groups that approached him. He finally settled with the Effia-Kuma Methodist Church in Takoradi where he handled their choir and where his creative works climaxed. He was an executive member of the Association of Methodist Church Choirs, Sekondi District in the 1980s even when he was very old. Above all he composed a lot of additional hymn tunes from the Methodist Hymn Book to supplement the already existing tunes that were monopolized in terms of performance and patronage for church programmes. Danceable tunes popularly known by Ghanaians as highlife for the collection of offering and tithes were also created. His life in the church 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also encouraged and motivated the young ones to learn a lot from him and took charge in his absence. This ambivalence of the Europeans to early African popular music and dance is well exemplified in the case of the local brass band “Adaha” music that was created in the 1880’s by Fante musicians trained in the British colonial regimental bands of cape coast. During the 1890’s the missionaries, seeing the popularity of brass band music in Ghana and already using Christian marching bands in Europe, began to employ the brass bands format for so-called “heathen preaching” and for introducing Africans to the necessities of industrial time. However, by the 1920s and 1930s the missionaries in southern Ghana had become disillusioned with their intention of “uplifting” the Africans by way of the brass band music, as local church-trained musicians would simply syncopate and dance to this music (Collins 2004: 409). 2.7 His Compositional Style and Creativity Alfred Entsua-Mensah is noted for certain unique compositional traits and features characterized in his choral art works. Choral art music in Ghana emerged as a result of European interaction with the people of Gold Coast beginning from the fifteenth century. “The history of the Gold Coast, its towns and interior states, cannot be written without considering the long-term effects of the Portuguese arrival in 1471” (Feinberg 1989:27). Missionary work being one of main aims of coming to Africa, art music evolved from western hymnody and education. Choral art music in Ghana, like that in Nigeria, Uganda, Zambia and many other sub-Saharan African countries, emerged from Western hymnody which was introduced in the nineteenth country century by European Christian missionaries backed by the British colonial apparatus (Nketia 1974:13-20; Euba 1989:115-49). Having lived on the coast of Elmina and Cape Coast where the first Europeans settled, educated in mission schools, and as well exposed to European singing style in the form of hymns and anthems at his early stage, and having taken advanced musical courses from Western institutions and finally his knowledge and exposure to traditional musical styles, 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he concluded in fusing Western harmonic conventions with the African traditional styles and materials in creating his own unique art works. Because the practitioners of “classical” music are Western trained, their works reveal a strong dependence on fundamentally Western concepts of musical structure and syntax. This is a conscious choice on the part of the composers, for as the first part of this study shows, there were comparable precompositional models in traditional music. One cannot, of course, prescribe resources for composers, for the factors that ultimately determine the aesthetic quality and impact of a work of art, be it in a syncretic, “classical” or traditional system, are numerous and complex. However, it is worth drawing attention to traditional models here, for Amu was acutely aware of their existence and, although he adopted solutions to each compositional problem, there is a noticeable tendency towards reliance on traditional models, particularly those that derived from language (Agawu 1984:39). Even as he used traditional elements in his creative works, his compositions are dominated by Western compositional materials such as advanced chords like secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords, Neapolitan sixth chords and use of chromatics. He employs chromatics to modulate to both related and remote keys and other times used for embellishment to address the aesthetic beauty of his pieces. All these aforementioned elements of music have been manifested in his choral works which some have been selected for detailed analysis and examination in subsequent discussions. In Ghana Praise for instance, hymn tunes numbered from 62 to 72 are hymn tunes by Entsua-Mensah that reveal elements of Western harmonic principles and extensive usage of chromatics. Melodically, the usual traditional way of presenting the main theme is less emphasized by Entsua-Mensah. It is very common to hear and recognize melodic lines of choral works of many African/Ghanaian composers characterized by rise and fall of pitches depending on syllabic contour of texts used. This is popularly called speech tone which the father of art music in Ghana, Ephraim Amu championed. The syllabic contour is one element that has been a major procedure in creating melodies by many African composers of traditional, 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh popular and or art music. For Entsua-Mensah, it was not always necessary to follow speech tones and rhythms to create a melody. Studying the Methodist Hymns in Fante popularly known and called Christian Asɔr Ndwom (CAN), the issue of speech tone based on lyrics used has been ignored. This is because the melodic lines were created based on the foreign language (English) used. Furthermore, Fante language itself does not seem to follow the principle of strict speech tone system but is rather easier to modulate. One approach that can be employed to discredit the relevance of speech tone is the introduction of chromatics in the melodic lines and this changes the expected effect of the melody. Entsua-Mensah makes his melodies very difficult to identify and remember because they involve leaps rather than being scalic. Entsua-Mensah is one of Ghana’s profuse music composers, and organizer of orchestral and choral music. He served the Methodist Church as an organist and composed many fascinating highlife tunes. He also wrote incidental music for plays by Joseph Ghartey. He is an exponent of African rhythm, and his works are full of syncopated and chromatic notes, making them quite difficult to perform (Agordoh 2010:95) Another major characteristic trait evident in his choral works is his maturity in creating rhythms. This is virtually one aspect or element of his music that scares choirmasters and drives them away from teaching them because they are time consuming. Africans/Ghanaians are very familiar and used to the singing of syncopated notes or music but that is usually expressed in simple duple time (2/4) and occasionally in compound duple time (6/8). For Entsua-Mensah, his syncopations are applied in his 6/8 songs where he uses tie and slur to suspend or sustain sounds of subsequent notes. He also employs passing notes that are altered. I see no Ghanaian choral or art music composer with syncopated rhythms in Ghana’s choral music history than Alfred Entsua-Mensah, so anyone who handles or teaches his choral pieces must do so with care and maturity possibly study it before meeting the choir. It is only his hymn tunes that are devoid of 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh syncopation but the anthems in 6/8 time such as M’enyigye Nsunyiwa, Asamanadwow a, Per yɛ papa among others are full of syncopated notes and so they are those that are intercultural in nature. Language or lyrics is one major element of music that easily can disclose the true identity of any choral work. His lyrics are mostly his own creations usually in his mother tongue, Fante language. He most of the time sounds philosophical and proverbial in content of his texts which becomes difficult for the ordinary man to understand. This can be seen in titles of his pieces such as M’enyigye nsunyiwa, Per yɛ papa, Asamanadwow a etc. One cannot just sing his songs without relating or situating it to the general lifestyle of the people. As a Fante and matured composer, the daily lifestyle of people of the society is considered in his creative works to give advice and direction. His works usually needs someone with linguistic background to interpret the text for better assimilation and compliance. His choral works are mostly through-composed with some elements of call and response rarely introduced. Texture is homophonic as harmony is often chordal throughout with some passing notes. M’enyigye nsunyiwa for instance is strictly chordal with some elements of passing notes, and some melodic and harmonic motifs being repeated with few variations. Characteristically, his songs are not lengthy and usually ignore repetitions. Tempo markings are rarely introduced but the structure of the melody and harmony defines the tempo to be used but generally they are performed in a moderate speed. The same is applied to dynamics which is determined by the text, melody, harmony, pitch/range of voice and other compositional materials. His works are best understood and patronized by the older generation in the society. Entsua-Mensah’s works can be grouped into two thematic areas. The first is based on the Western harmonic conventions mainly used in his hymn tunes which some are found in 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana Praise from page 62 to 72. In his hymn tunes, traditional music elements are hardly seen apart from the lyrics which are often written in Fante language. In terms of the melody, harmony, texture, chord progression and all the other elements are Western oriented. The second has to do with the anthems that employ intercultural approach, using both Western and traditional music materials. This category of choral works make use of pre- compositional materials such as indigenous musical styles found in the central region like asafo, adzewa, apatampa, ebibindwom among others and elements like syncopation, call and response etc. His pieces titled Woewie (It is finished), Ghana Wimu Hɛn (Ghana Airways), Asamanadwow a (A resting place for the dead), and those already selected for analysis are examples of his pieces that exhibit both Western and traditional materials or elements. These form the most difficult aspect of his compositions due to the complexities of rhythms and extensive usage of chromatics. The hymns look simpler than the anthems written in the African vein. Analysis of Per Yɛ Papa (Strive to do good) 2.8 Preamble Per yɛ papa is one of the finest choral compositions written by Alfred Entsua-Mensah that incorporates both traditional music materials and elements, and Western oriented musical materials and harmonic principles. It was written to be performed by the four main voices of the choir (Soprano, Alto, Tenor and Bass). This piece of music has forty (40) measures in length as Entsua-Mensah is noted for writing very short but difficult and complicated choral works. The formal structure of this choral composition is through-composed as no section is repeated and or restated after a contrasting section. It is in a compound duple time (6/8) 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and usually performed in a solemn manner and at a moderate speed. It has no tempo and dynamic markings but the lyrics and harmonic structure gives a clear indication as to how it must be presented. As a Fante man his creativity and innovative ideas informed his choice of words for this composition which seeks to advise humanity to do good. Alfred Entsua-Mensah in this work explores the generally known rhythmic patterns that characterize indigenous and neo-traditional musical styles found among Fantes of the Central Region of Ghana which include asafo, adzewa, ɔmmpɛ, apatampa, ebibindwom etc. and employs syncopation to its fullest utilization in all parts. Figure 2.1: Excerpt on rhythmic patterns common in traditional songs The rhythmic pattern shown in figure 2.1 is a true reflection of rhythms used in traditional musical types usually written in 6/8 and 2/4 meters with syncopated notes. Its melody ignores the usual speech tone of the Ghanaian traditional musical styles which was explored and championed by Ephraim Amu and his contemporaries. Textural structure of the entire composition is homophonic, where chords have been provided to harmonize the main theme or melodic motif as demonstrated in figure 2.1. Some few areas have been decorated with non-harmonic notes or passing notes, and sometimes notes are altered and few silent notes for all parts are identified. This piece of work is characterized by the utilization of chords such as secondary dominant chords, 59 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh augmented sixth chords, and the use of chromatic chords to either modulate to related or remote keys, or to decorate the entire piece. 2.9 Melodic Organization The music begins on the tonic chord of key G major and the theme starts on the mediant of the tonic chord. The opening melodic motif is in a scalic motion from the mediant, repeated subsequently and sequentially in ascending motion and end in the sixth measure. Figure 2.2: Melodic sequences in a descending motion As indicated earlier, Entsua-Mensah ignores speech rhythm and speech tone emanating from the syllabic contours of lyrics of the piece as he believed in the music of the West as well as creating his own style. Another melodic theme begins from measure 11 and runs through in a descending motion to measure 17. This melodic line is characterized by the introduction of chromatic notes decorating it. 60 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.3: Excerpt showing another melodic line with chromatics A lot of chromatic scales and notes are introduced throughout the melody with variations. Measure 19 and 26 also present another melodic motif when called by alto and tenor to respond from measure 18. The melody does not follow any particular format for easy identification and memorization. It keeps varying from measure to measure with ornamentation using chromatics and syncopation through application of ties and slurs. These melodic characteristics run through from the beginning of the piece to the end of the piece. Western principles and elements dominate except the rhythm, and language which defines the true identity of a particular piece. 2.10 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity The music is written in a compound duple time (6/8) a common rhythmic trait in Ghanaian choral composition which takes its source from traditional musical styles. Right from the first to fifth measure, the usual 6/8 time and rhythmic pattern is employed, in other words each and every note stands independently and unattached till the last notes of the fifth measure where all notes of the four parts are tied and or slurred against the first notes of the measure six. Figure 2.4: Excerpt showing application of syncopation 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Syncopated rhythmic motif which is commonly expressed in 2/4 time is however exhibited from one measure to another across bar lines. These syncopated rhythms can be seen between measures 5 and 6, 6 and 7, 9 and 10, 11 and 12, 14 and 15, 16 and 17, 18 and 19, 21 and 22, 23 and 24, and many more almost found between all measures through to the end. Figure 2.5: Another excerpt on syncopated notes with rests Few rest or silent notes were created for soprano and bass in measures 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, and 27. To conclude, rhythmically the song is characterized with syncopated notes that suspends or sustains the sounds to the nearest notes, a creative work that brings aesthetics in this choral work even though it is very difficult to perform by ordinary or inexperienced singing groups. Figure 2.6: Third excerpt on rhythmic creativity with syncopated notes 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The above excerpts illustrates how Entsua-Mensah expresses himself rhythmically with syncopated notes all over especially when he works in a compound duple time in his choral art compositions 2.11 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure The piece is composed in a homophonic texture because almost all the notes in the melody are vertically supported with notes harmonizing the melodic theme. The music begins on the tonic chord of G major and ends on the same chord. There are evidences of many unusual chords throughout the music some of which include secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords as well as introduction and application of chromatics to alter some of the notes. Entsua-Mensah uses both regular and irregular resolutions depending on his priority and interest. The first chord to be touched is the last chord of the second measure which is V7 of VI with D sharp in the alto resolving to II6. Last chord of measure 3 is also altered, 17 with raised root and lowered seventh resolving to VII with the root in alto lowered and the fifth found in bass also raised. The last chord in measure four is a secondary dominant seventh chord, in other words V7 of V with C sharp in alto but irregularly resolves to I6/4 with lowered third in the tenor. The entire work is full of chromatics and advanced chords found in almost all the measures. The first chord of measure 12 has a decorated chord V7 with the root, fifth and seventh all raised, progresses to chord II6 with raised third, returns to V7 with root and fifth raised and the seventh naturalized which also resolves to VII7. Last chord of measure 15 has V7 of III resolving to VI, then to V7 of VI to V7 of V, to I6/4 and finally to V in measure 16 and 17. 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A German sixth with solfa names law: doh: maw: fe is introduced in measure 38 which progressed to chord I with lowered third, proceeded to V7 and finally to home key to end the music at measure 40. Figure 2.7: An extract demonstrating a German Sixth chord and resolution In this piece of music, the chromatic notes introduced just added embellishment to the piece rather than playing modulatory roles. Usually chromatic notes are also meant to modulate to both related and remotes but in this piece, the modulation is shortly expressed and quickly resumes to the previous and home key. 2.12 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics The first musical phrase or cadence of this choral work occurs in measure 9, an imperfect cadence while the second also imperfect occurs in measures 16 and17. The next cadence which is perfect can be identified in measures 24 and 25, 32 and 33 had imperfect and finally measures 39 and40 have perfect cadence to ends the piece. Listening to the lyrics and examining the rhythms used, there are no tempo markings but it will be more interesting and appealing when done at a slower pace. Similarly, dynamic markings are nowhere on the score and therefore will be more appropriate to perform in a softer manner since the composer does not use high keys and pitches in his compositions which usually requires a lot of energy to sing. 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.13 Translation of Lyrics of Per Yɛ Papa Fante English Per yɛ papa aber nyinaa Strive to do good all the time Per yɛ papa w’akwan nyinam’ Per Strive to do good in all your ways Per O per O yɛ papa dabaa Strive O strive to do good always Hu dɛ nyimdzee nyina nnsɛ Know that all knowledge are not the same Ahom nyinaa so horaw All breathe also elapse Ntsi mma nnhwinhwin wɔ bi So do not murmur for somebody’s weakness n’esintɔ ho Tsempon kor a ɔda hɔ nye dɛ One major advice is that Obiara besi nketse dɛ mbrɛ n’ahom Everyone perseveres in order to accomplish bɔbua ano ma ɔaye ekodu the mission Nyimdzee nnyɛ fintsidua Knowledge is never an obstacle Hia so nnyɛ fintsidua Poverty as well is never an obstacle Nokwar kor a ɔda hɔ petee ma One obvious truth for every human being is that dasanyi biara nye dɛ Dwuma biara a wo nsa dze mun’ dzi Whatever work that you do, do it diligently dɛm dwuman’ yie 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Per o per o per yɛ papa dabaa Strive oh strive to do good always Asamanadwow a 2.14Preamble Asamanadwow a, a choral work of Alfred Entsua-Mensah is one of the most popular, most performed and patronized pieces apart from Amansuon due to its nationalistic and patriotic characteristics. Asamanadwow a is mostly liked by older generation usually in Fante communities due to influences it has through its lyrics and messages it puts across in informing humanity of death being inevitable. As a Ghanaian choral composition, it possesses musical elements and styles of the Ghanaian traditional society and Western compositional conventions which makes it intercultural in nature. The music is written for the four main parts of the choir namely soprano, alto, tenor and bass. It has just thirty-two measures and written in the key of B-flat major. It is a danceable work composed in a compound duple time (6/8) and usually performed slowly since it is without any tempo and dynamic markings. This piece of music has imprints of local compositional materials such as language (lyrics). The lyrics sound philosophical and proverbial with the complex African rhythmic patterns not forgetting the famous syncopation. In this music, the melodic line dwells on speech rhythm depending on the syllables of the lyrics and at some sections borrow the speech tone based on the contour of Fante language used. Melodically, this music looks more Ghanaian from other compositions of his because of the dominance of traditional compositional materials. The voice ranges or pitches used are manageable as the highest sound may be sung comfortably by all singing groups, even youth choirs. The highest pitch/sound for soprano is f1 while the lowest stands on the middle C. It is usually solemnly sung based on the 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh lyrics and the context within which the piece is presented. Pitches of all the voices are neither too high nor too low as audience usually sit quietly and meditate or join singers in performance especially at funerals. Asamanadwow a, is homophonic in texture where the melodic motif is supported with chords to vertically harmonized. Its sweet and beautiful melodic line is harmonically accompanied with primary chords dominating. Dominant seventh chords and introduction of chromatic chords beautify the piece in its entirety. 2.15 Melodic Organization This choral work has repetitions in the melody. The first melodic motif introduced in the first two measures is immediately repeated in the third and fourth measures. The music commences on the tonic chord of B-flat major and three parts except alto which sings the mediant (me) on d sing the tonic note (doh). The first four measures use the tonic and the dominant (first and fifth degrees-doh and soh) on B-flat and F. Figure 2.8: Opening melodic theme of Asamanadwow a Figure 2.9: Excerpt demonstrating a variation of the main melody shown in figure 2.8 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.10: Excerpt demonstrating leap/jump in the melody Entsua-Mensah occasionally introduces leap/jumps as shown in figure 2.10 above as one of his melodic characteristics and creativity. The notes rhythmically follow the speech rhythms of syllables of lyrics used in the music. However, speech tone is not dominantly felt even though melodically it sounds beautiful and interesting. Last note of measure 16 to 24 is exactly the restatement of the main theme, which is from measure 1 to 8. There are few chromatic notes introduced to embellish the melody which makes the music very interesting but slightly difficult to teach and learn. Examples of these chromatic notes can be found in measures 6, 10, 14, 15, 22, and 27. 2.16 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity Alfred Entsua-Mensah chose the meter/ time signature which is closely related to the rhythmic patterns usually demonstrated in the Ghanaian traditional musical styles, especially those found among Fantes. It is composed in a compound duple time 6/8 and follows the speech rhythm of texts used. Available in the music are syncopated notes which function through ties and slurs that sustain notes of subsequent measures. This create the already known off beats, a trait of African traditional music. Examples of syncopated rhythmic patterns evident in the piece can be found between the last note of measure 5 and the first note of measures 6. This appears severally from the beginning to the end of the music. This rhythmic exploration is a major feature and trait of African music and Alfred Entsua-Mensah is arguably the only Ghanaian composer who composed using syncopation more than any other art composer in Ghana. In spite of 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh numerous syncopations found in this work, the notes that are not affected by syncopations are strongly stressed and accented. Figure 2.11: Syncopation as presented by all four voices 2.17 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure Asamanadwow a arguably the most popular and widely performed choral work of Alfred Entsua-Mensah. It has a very admirable harmonic arrangement and could be one of the reasons for its patronage. It has a homophonic texture throughout. The melodic and harmonic motifs reveal an ABA1C as its form where A1 is a restatement but modified version of A. It begins on a tonic chord of B-flat major and interestingly the tonic chord runs through the first four measures with no other chord interrupting. Same theme is repeated from measures 17 to 20 with little modifications in the soprano and alto. There is evidence and usage of advanced chords (secondary dominant, dominant seventh chords) introduced to address the aesthetic creativity and beauty. Figure 2.12: Tonic chord of B-flat monopolizing the first four measures 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The fourth chord of measure five is V7 of VI, in other words dominant seventh of chord six which makes regular resolution to chord VI. The third chord of measure six has its root doubled in the bass and tenor, the third is naturalized while the fifth is also lowered (m: m: s: taw) and resolves to IV. Measure 9 has V9 with omitted fifth and raised root. The last chord of measure 10 and first chord of measure 11 have evidence of V7 of III with the root in the bass and makes a regular resolution to chord III with omitted fifth. A lot of these advanced chords and chromatics are manifested in this musical piece that beautifies it. 2.18 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics The piece has several short phrases where cadences can be identified. The first one identified is a plagal cadence and can be found and felt between the first and second notes of the seventh measure which extends to the eighth measure. Measures 16, 24, 28 all have imperfect cadences with measure 32 finally ending the music having a perfect cadence. The tempo for this particular choral work is not indicated by any marking but its lyrics, place and occasion of performance determines the speed and how solemn it is to be performed. Same approaches are used to check the intensity of sound (loudness and softness) of sound of this song. 2.19 Translation of lyrics of Asamanadwow a Fante English Ndɛ Asamanadwow a Today eternal resting place Ɔkyena Asamanadwow a Tomorrow eternal resting place Ɔkyena na mokɔ ɔhɔho Asamanadwow a Tomorrow I will be gone to eternity, stranger 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nyimpa ammbekyebo mber rokɔ no so rokɔ Man will not live forever, no time for man Wiadze mu fona nko ɔbra mu aper dzi dɔɔso Earthly toils and struggles grow large Adzekyee no mu asɛm Day and its related issues Anafua no mu mbusu Night/darkness and its related calamities Ne nyina etwa hɛn ho ehyia We are surrounded by these Yenntum mmfi nsa We cannot escape them Dabaa Asamanadwow a ɔhɔho Asamanadwow a All the time, issues of eternity stranger, eternity Ɔkyena na mokɔ ɔhɔho Asamanadwow a Tomorrow I will be gone to eternity, stranger Analysis of Ndaase (Thanks) 1950 2.20 Preamble Ndaase (Thanks) is among the finest hymn tunes composed by Alfred Entsua-Mensah in 1950. It is not popularly known and regularly performed by singing groups in Ghana. This particular song is suitable for various occasions and ceremonies due to its beauty in terms melody, harmony, rhythm, text/lyrics and other important elements of composition. Winneba Youth Choir has performed, recorded and made it accessible for lovers of choral music. This piece of music has 32 measures written to be performed by the four main voices of a choir (SATB). Uncharacteristically, this music looks very lively and appealing to all singing groups during its teaching and learning and performance. It is written and 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh presented in a strophic form, where the chorus is repeated after each stanza. Ndaase has only two stanzas which are followed by the chorus. It is written in 4/4 time and presented in a moderate speed and begins in an offbeat/anacrusis which is an element of syncopation. Tempo and dynamic markings are ignored giving opportunity to performers to interpret it with their own discretion. Lyrics used also indicate how the music is to be performed, for example it can be performed prayerfully, solemnly, joyfully and in a moderate speed since the main theme talks about thanksgiving and praise. Apart from the language (lyrics) which is in Fante, Entsua-Mensah explores the Western compositional elements and techniques. Rhythmically, there is a trait of speech rhythm which is African oriented but speech tone based on syllabic contour of text is ignored. This tune has one of the easiest and simplest rhythmic patterns among Entsua-Mensah’s choral works which combines note values such as minims, crotchets, dotted crotchets and quavers. Voice ranges/pitches are considerably presented in a way that favours singing groups. There are few melodic repetitions with others modified. Advanced chords such as secondary dominant chords have been prominently featured and exploited with chromaticism which is an aesthetic device being employed to decorate the music and as well modulate to other related keys. 2.21 Melodic Organization The main melodic motif of Ndaase begins on the first degree of A-flat major. The melody is built on a particular rhythmic pattern which is repeated at different pitch levels. Figure 2 13: Excerpt showing melodic repetition of measure 1 by measure 3 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The figure above represents the first four measures of the music exhibiting and illustrating repetition of some rhythmic motifs. The third measure is the restatement of the theme in measure 1. The second melodic theme from measure 5 to 7 is repeated from measure 13 to 15 without any modifications with both being scalic in ascending and descending order. Figure 2.14: Excerpt depicting scales in ascending and descending motions in Ndaase Figure 2.15: An extract showing scales and leaps There are several scalic elements with few leaps from measure 28 where the first note is found on c1 to f and goes back to c1 again in measure 29. Another leap also occurs in measure 32 from E-flat to an octave above. The figure above illustrates and indicates where the scale and leaps are found. Ornamentation of the melodic lines has been effectively utilized through the usual approach by his use of chromatics which beautifies the piece. There is a modulation that has its preparatory chord from the second note of measure 22 which is B-flat modulating to E-flat. Another modulation occurs in measure 25 and 26 from E-flat to B-flat then finally goes back to A-flat in measure 27. 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.16: Use of chromatics in the melody for modulation The piece follows speech tone system at some points which is a common compositional trait of Ghanaian and African composers like Ephraim Amu while other sections also ignore it and follow the European system of melodic composition where language is not the main element considered. Figure 2.17: Demonstration of speech tone in melody (traditional) Figure 2.18: Excerpt depicting Western melodic tone Considering the two melodic lines, it is obvious that the first one, that is figure 2.17 is traditionally influenced depending on the text as it follows the contours for its melody even though not entirely tonal. The other one labeled 2.18 is a clear manifestation of a Western melodic system as some of the notes are altered and embellished with chromatics. 2.22 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity Ndaase as a creative work of an African composer follows the Western oriented rhythmic patterns. As a Methodist, Alfred Entsua-Mensah exploited the common rhythmic patterns 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of hymns introduced by the early Christian missionaries and set Fante lyrics to them. This music is written in 4/4 time and commences on a weak beat/offbeat (anacrusis). Ndaase does not contain any complex and complicated rhythms like his other songs that usually scare and drive away some music directors and choristers. It uses notes such as minims, dotted crotchets, crotchets and quavers that make it simpler and easier for all to patronize and enjoy. The usual syncopated notes that characterize Entsua-Mensah’s compositions are totally absent. The rhythmic theme of the music is repeated and restated after contrasting ideas are introduced. Apart from the beginning that falls on a weak beat, all the notes with accents are recognized and observed accordingly throughout the music. Figure 2.19: Excerpt showing the rhythm of Ndaase 2.23 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure Ndaase, a choral composition of Entsua-Mensah has a beautiful harmonic arrangement in a homophonic texture where its harmony is chordal and begins on a tonic chord of A-flat major with the bass and soprano singing the root, alto singing the third while the tenor also takes the fifth. The first measure is made up of chord 1 throughout. The second measure has elements of chords VII9, VII (d: d: t: f), VII9 with the ninth in the bass while the third is omitted. First chord of measure 4 has I7having the third in the bass with the seventh lowered and resolves to IV. The last chord of measure 5 is a demonstration of V of II which resolves to chord II. There are several other similar and interesting chords in the piece. The first chord of measure 12 has V7 of VI and resolves to chord IV and again to V of II and makes a regular resolution to chord II which can also be identified as a tonic 75 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chord of B-flat. Measure 16 has V7 of V identified in the first chord, progresses to V, to I64 to V again in measure 17 where the organ comes in with the interlude. Figure 2.20: Organ interlude and chorus with evidence of secondary dominant seventh chords Figure 2.21: Excerpt showing some modulations in Ndaase Measure 18 has a dominant seventh of five, in other words V7 of V resolving to 164 and proceeds to chord 1 in measure 19. V7 of V is the first chord of measure 21 which resolves to V in measures 21 and 22. The second chord of measure 22 functions as a preparatory chord for modulation from A-flat to E-flat in measure 23. Another modulation occurs in 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measure 24, then V7 of II in A-flat or chord V in tonic of B-flat occurring in measures 25 and 26, then to E-flat in measure 27 and finally comes back to the home key from the second chord in measure 27 through to the end. These harmonic elements introduced in the piece makes it very beautiful and simple as it attracts choirs and other singing groups. Figure 2.22: Excerpt on restoration to home key 2.24 Summary Alfred Entsua-Mensah who was born into a family of talented musicians and having been exposed to instrumental playing, singing and composition at a very tender age, saw the need to develop in him the musical heritage of his family to a higher level. His efforts in music took him to several places where his services were needed which majority of it took place in the church. His creative works in the area of composition of art music and other musical styles gave him a national recognition at various functions especially where his compositions are performed. 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh His creativity, capability and intelligence have been expressed in his art and skills in instrumental playing, choral direction and conducting, instrumental teaching, guest speaker at workshops, as well as composing fascinating choral anthems and hymn tunes. He has immensely contributed to the creative industry and to the propagation of the gospel through his music. The social and economic lives of Ghanaian citizens have also been affected. A study into his life and works in this chapter became necessary as information about him was difficult to come by and also his creative works that were not widely known have now been made available for all to have access to them and perform them. Examples of such compositions available now include M’enyigye Nsunyiwa, Bɔm Nantsew, Mayɛ Dza Mobotum, Bentuma, Bekoe Dan Nyame, Amansuon, Woewie and many others. This study through the analysis of three of his works namely Per yɛ papa, Asamanadwow a, and Ndaase has really discovered the major characteristics and traits of his compositions. The intercultural position of incorporating traditional music elements with the Western harmonics for his compositions has been embraced by many. Elements of composition such as syncopation, advanced chords and chromaticism, his maturity in setting texts to music and his harmonic discoveries are some areas addressed in this work. This work when fully utilized and patronized by theory and composition students, they will be guided in developing their own compositional philosophy and techniques and also create their own identity that they will be identified with. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE Biography and Analysis of Choral Compositions of John Gershom Koomson (1954- 2017) 3.1 Preamble This chapter has been designed to address two broad sections. The first section of the chapter centres on the biographical details of John Gershom Koomson while the second has been earmarked to focus on the analytical study of three choral compositions of the aforementioned composer. The biographical study deals with his background and general musical life, his discoveries and creativity. The second section investigates and examines the unique compositional traits and styles exhibited in his choral works especially with respect to the incorporation of traditional and Western music elements into his compositions. Overview of the analysis of the three selected works will be carried out before the main and detailed analysis proceeds. The three pieces selected for the analysis comprised Aseda (Thanks), Ma me Gyidi Ntaban (Give me the Wings of Faith), and Aheman Fɛɛfɛw (Beautiful Kingdom). These three choral pieces were chosen based on the exhibition of common compositional elements of both traditional and Western heritage and characteristics. Speech tone and rhythm, call and response technique of the African society and advanced chords and chromaticism also of the Western world are major areas and materials of concentration as they characterize these works. The amalgamation of traditional elements and their Western counterparts in choral works such as those of John Gershom Koomson is very much appreciated by many church choirs in the country especially the European churches like the Methodist Church of Ghana. His pieces contain some harmonic progressions admired by many people with inspirational texts usually chosen from the Holy Bible and sometimes from the Methodist Hymn Book (MHB) popularly known and called by Fantes 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Christian Asɔr Ndwom (CAN), and creating additional tunes to supplement existing ones. The element and technique known as chromaticism which sometimes makes his pieces relatively difficult to perform because of the overdependence on non-chromatic music by Ghanaian choirs is addressed. 3.2 Biography-His Early Life John Gershom Koomson was born on the 9th of December 1954 into the Asona Clan of Elmina in the Central Region of the Republic of Ghana. He was actually born in Sekondi in the Western Region to Mr. John Emmanuel Koomson and Madam Juliana Aikins, both citizens of Elmina (Edina). He was the third born out of the nine children of his parents and the eldest male among them. His mother Madam Juliana was a petty trader who was dealing in foodstuffs and textiles at Sekondi, Tarkwa and Kumasi accompanying her husband wherever he worked upon transfers. She was a chorister and a talented singer. His father John Emmanuel Koomson was also a chorister at Sekondi Methodist Church where he assisted Ernest Charles Bilson Snr. The Ghana Railways and Ports where he was working transferred him to Tarkwa in the 1960s and all this while John G. Koomson was with them. At Tarkwa he became organist at Tarkwa Methodist where John Gershom Koomson followed him to choir rehearsals and church services when the father played and performed with the choir. His father had a harmonium and so he developed interest in the instrument and music as a discipline at the very tender age of nine (9) years. At this point, his father had been transferred to Kumasi Railways Department and so he began to solve simple problems in music himself. In Kumasi his family was affiliated to the Asawase Methodist Church where he worked tirelessly to learn hymn playing. According to Koomson, the MHB 626 was the earliest hymn he played at church during service. Being fortunate to have been born into a family of talented musicians and singers, his father encouraged him to take music seriously as an academic discipline even though he was not 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh an accomplished musician but rather understudied some known musicians such as H. B. Sam, Gershom Koomson and Entsua-Mensah. 3.3 His Elementary Education and Early Musical Life John Gershom Koomson began his elementary education at Kenianko Local Authority at Asawase in Kumasi in the Ashanti Region of Ghana in the early 1960s. He continued at Amakom Abrutia Middle School where he sat for the Common Entrance Examination when he was in form two. After successfully passing the Common Entrance Examinations, he gained admission to the Technology Secondary School (KNUST) the then University of Science and Technology in Kumasi in 1971 where he successfully completed and passed the GCE Ordinary Level. One of the subjects he took at the O Level Examination was music. Maturing and gradually growing confident in music, he started playing the harmonium at a tender age at De Graft Memorial Methodist Church, Kumasi. In his teens he went through a routine of waking up at night to jot down fragments of tunes and in his own way tried to add parts to develop them on the harmonium. The need to learn the rules of harmony gave him the impetus to move heaven and earth in search for assistance to acquire knowledge in theory and composition and to develop those fragments of tunes he created. By divine providence and intervention, a man with God given talent in music by name Abraham X. Hagan came Koomson’s way and assisted him to improve on his knowledge of rudiment and theory of music. Between 1976 and 1983, Mr. Hagan took Koomson through advanced composition techniques as well as handling him in orchestration and counterpoint. At Wesley Methodist Church Adum Kumasi, he was fortunate to meet another great musician in the person of Mr. Daniel Francis Nzeh who was the choir master and organist 81 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh then. Mr. Nzeh took him through compositional techniques and also helped him in mastering the skills in organ playing. He again benefited from Herbert B. Sam who was a family member and an accomplished musician. John Gershom Koomson’s maturity and creativity in music was as a result of encounters and cumulative experiences he gathered from the numerous experienced composers and musicians. As a young and vibrant composer, he took inspirations from Alfred Entsua-Mensah as he took him as his role model and understudied him including his works. He occasionally visited Entsua-Mensah at Elmina and Sekondi. In effect these aforementioned great composers played significant roles in the development of Koomson’s musical career. 3.4 His Advanced Music Life Having taken elementary courses in music at a very tender age and understudying various scholars of music and being very passionate in the discipline decided to broaden and extend his tentacles. With very good foundation, knowledge and experiences gained in music, he sat for the Associated Board of Royal Schools of Music (ABRSM), London for Grade Five (5) Practical. After successfully passing the Grade (5), he again sat for the Grade Eight (8) and was again successful. With his Ordinary Level (“O” Level) Certificate and ABRSM Certificate available, he gained admission into the University of Ghana Legon, to pursue a Diploma Programme in Music from 1983-6. At the University of Ghana, he majored in piano. He experimented with some African drumming rhythmic idioms which he tried to incorporate in his compositions, both choral and instrumental. Examples of his instrumental compositions in which he incorporated African rhythms include Ring the Bells, Moonlight, Relaxation, Morning Sacrifice and many more. Some of his choral works with African and Western traits and characteristics include Ao bra composed in1985, Aheman Fɛɛfɛw also composed in 1988. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Having successfully graduated from the University of Ghana with a Diploma Certificate in Music, he proceeded to do the Fellowship from Victoria College of Music, London. The certificate obtained from the Victoria College of Music served as a requirement that facilitated his admission into the University of Ghana once again to pursue a Master of Philosophy Degree Programme in Music (MPhil). He specialized in Theory and Composition as well as majoring in piano where he became successful. Having risen to this level academically gave him several opportunities to work in various noble institutions and to explore further to discover new compositional ideologies in art music. 3.5 His Career Development After completing the Technology Secondary School and awarded an “O” Level Certificate in 1976 with vast experience and knowledge in music, he was employed by State Insurance Company (SIC) Kumasi between 1978 and 1983. His main responsibility was to serve as Music Director for the company. Even though he was appointed to be the music director for the institution, he was additionally tasked to work at the claims department. According to J. G. Koomson he noticed that he was not destined to work in that organization because any time he received letters he wrote solfa and staff notations and other musical elements on the letters and envelopes. As a result, he decided to leave the company to further his education at a higher level at the University of Ghana upon advice from a co-worker by name Derek F. Amoah. As he worked with the State Insurance Company, he was concurrently leading the Okomfo Anokye Teaching Hospital Choir in Kumasi. Apart from the SIC and Okomfo Anokye Hospital Choirs which Koomson led, several choirs formed by both private and public institutions sprang up with the intention of promoting their products and to entertain themselves. To affirm and support this statement Dor writes, 83 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Since 1980s, urban factories and industries, especially in Accra and Tema, have also formed their own choral groups that advertise their goods and services on radio and television. ”Industrial choir” as they popularly called in Ghana, also perform during celebrations involving their institution choir members or other co-workers. Fire Service, Valco, Internal Revenue, Ghana Textile Products (GTP), and Ministries have all produced good industrial choirs. Certain choirs that do not belong to the church, school or work place have all distinguished themselves nationally, including the Winneba Youth Choir, Western Melodic Singers of Effiekuma in Takoradi in the Western Region, Datus Dwenesie of Accra, and Celestial Singers of Kpando in the Volta Region (Dor2005:445). After his Diploma programme in music he was assigned to do his National Service at the Centre for Cultural Studies at the then University of Science and Technology (UST) now Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) from 1987 to 1989, as a Research Assistant. “At the Centre for Cultural Studies at the University of Kumasi there has been successful research into and production of African instruments. The centre is also addressing a problem of standardizing the instruments and providing them at competitive prices” (Kwami 1994:553) During his national service era he had several encounters with Asare Bediako also a great composer who was working at the Centre for National Culture (CNC), Kumasi. While he served at the University, he was contracted by the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Kumasi, to serve as a guest artist. His main duty at the GBC was to write extensively for the programme titled “At the Keyboard” using traditional folk and highlife tunes for the keyboard/piano. This was purely an instrumental programme. The piano pieces that were derived out of this radio programme were about 30 which 25 has been published as piano pedagogical materials for piano students. In 1988, he was invited by a certain Mr. Quaicoo to Liberia. There he was appointed an Assistant Headmaster at the Ministry of Hope School where he was in charge of keyboard skills. When he returned from Liberia, he was appointed to manage the Freeman School of Music which was established by the Methodist Church in Kumasi when Kras Arthur and 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh few other musicians who were managing it had left to academically upgrade themselves. Alfred Patrick Addaquaye, a great composer and organist in Ghana now was a product of the school that passed through the hands of Koomson. A chunk of his instrumental works was composed when he was the head of Freeman School of Music where he spent almost two years. He again had an experience in Cote d’Ivoire upon invitation. The language barrier facilitated his quick return to Ghana when he was invited to honor a scholarship to Canada but never materialized because he was denied a visa. Advices from family members and loved ones made him enroll into a theological seminary to be trained as a Minister of God but quickly withdrew because he felt it was so huge for him. He then settled at Gomoa Nyanyano near Kasoa and reunited with his music career. His passion for the teaching profession took him to Silicon Valley International School to serve as a tutor from 2005 to 2006. In 2004, Koomson joined the Good Shepherd Methodist Church at Bubuashie in Accra where he was chosen as their principal organist and Professor Yaw Sekyi Baidoo who he met there as their choirmaster. He again taught the Youth Choir and trained some youth to play the organ. He was at the Good Shepherd Methodist where he finally was appointed a lecturer at the Methodist University College of Ghana in 2006. 3.6 His Life in the Church John Gershom Koomson’s life in the church began when he followed his father to choir rehearsals and church service at Wesley Cathedral in Kumasi when he was very young. The love for the service of God and the propagation of the gospel through music became his focal point in his musical pursuit. He was inspired and encouraged to come out with compositions meant to praise and worship his maker God Almighty, in whom he lived and trusted. Koomson was born a Methodist and started his service at Asawase Branch. He left Asawase to Bantama Methodist in 1978. Several church choirs in Kumasi benefited from 85 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh his service and notable amongst them was Wesley Methodist where he was in charge of their junior choir. He was more interested in the playing of the pipe organ which was readily available at Wesley Methodist, so he played first service there and back to continue the second service at Asawase. He also continued to assist the Bantama Methodist till he left Ghana to Liberia. He taught and directed Saint Cyprians Anglican Cathedral also in Kumasi especially when they had television programmes as well as any other important programmes. J. G. Koomson performed with the St. Cyprians Anglican Cathedral Choir at the burial/funeral service of His Majesty the Late Otumfuo Opoku Ware II on the 4th of March, 1999 in Kumasi. As a result, he became very popular in Kumasi as he was always ready to assist all who approached him for his service. When Koomson returned from Liberia, he settled at Nyanyano in 1991 where he joined the Ebenezer Methodist Church and served as a choirmaster organist. He tutored some interested youth of the choir rudiments and theory of music. He left Ebenezer Methodist for Good Shepherd Methodist, Bubuashie where he characteristically took bold decision to train young choristers to play the organ. Few among those who excelled in his musical exploration include Noble Bentum, Ebenezer Sackey, Ebo Prah, Joseph K. Arhin Jnr., Theophilus Arthur and Moses Arkoh. He was instrumental in the formation and inauguration of the Good Shepherd Junior Choir where most of the songs taught and sang were his. Kasoa Circuit of the Association of Methodist Church Choirs-Ghana (GHAMECC) benefited immensely from the exploits and the creative works of J. G. Koomson. He fully participated when GHAMECC of the Winneba Diocese held a Biennial Diocesan Delegates Conference at Apam in August 2005. When Kasoa gained Circuit status in 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2005, he was unanimously appointed to be their music consultant. The maiden appearance of Kasoa Circuit at a Diocesan Conference held at Bawjiase in 2007 under the directorship of J. G. Koomson, Kasoa Circuit carried home the most valuable and enviable position, 1st and a trophy in the singing competition. He again prepared same Circuit Choir for the Diocesan Conferences held at Ekumfi Otuam and Gomoa Tarkwa in 2009 and 2011 respectively. In the early part of 2013, the Kasoa Bethel Methodist Society contacted him to take the position of organist for the society which he rather agreed to be a guest organist. In the propagation of the gospel, Koomson contributed his quota as he availed himself to all congregations that needed him not forgetting that most of the services he rendered were sacrificial. 3.7 His Life at the Methodist University College-Ghana The Methodist University College organized a programme which J. G. Koomson was in attendance with the Good Shepherd Choir when they were invited to perform. At the programme, he was approached by Dr. Arthur Quartey who told him he wanted to work with him at the University. Awaiting his certificate from Victoria School of Music, he enquired whether he could be allowed to work with his Diploma. He was appointed in 2006 as a Teaching Assistant and given a grace period to pursue a Master of Philosophy Degree Programme (MPhil) at the University of Ghana. Mr. Timothy E. Andoh, a lecturer at the Music Department of the University of Ghana was one of the main personalities who advised and facilitated Koomson’s admission to pursue the MPhil Programme in Music. In 2012, he was elevated to the position of a full lecturer through the aid of Dr. Sagoe and Mr. Anthony Nyanful. As a lecturer, he handled keyboard musicianship and other practically related courses. He assisted in the teaching of songs and other operations of the University Choir, but the Department of Music Choir was under his supervision and directorship. He spearheaded 87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the arrangement and harmonization of the University Anthem after Dr. Arthur Quartey had already created the melodic pattern. The Methodist University College will forever remember him for his great works and legacy. 3.8 His Published and Recorded Works John Gershom Koomson has fed the religious society and choral industry with his God given talent and creative works. He has preserved and recorded some of his choral and instrumental compositions. Moonlight and Relaxation are examples of his instrumental works including the 25 pieces he composed for the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation programme “At the Keyboard”. His choral pieces include Aman Wura Nyame, Ewuradze Bɛgye W’aseda, Fa Gyidzi Bisa Nyame and selected hymns from the Methodist Hymn Book that he composed additional tunes to include MHB50/CAN 14, MHB 321/CAN 94, MHB 615/CAN 203 and many others. As a musician, composer, director and teacher, he taught it wise to record some of his works to advertise his personality, his songs and assist consumers who patronized them for meditation and worship. He has Hɛn so yɛ bɛyɛ dɛn (What shall we also do) a Gospel recording, and a choral album titled Holy is the Lord. Most of his choral compositions have been codified into a single document titled Music for the Realms. He was one of the main editors responsible for the compilation of the Methodist Church Choirs in 2008. He has positively contributed to the transformation of lives of his choristers and singers economically through his Gospel Recording and album Holy is the Lord. To recognize his immense contribution to the choral music and the propagation of the gospel, on Friday 25th of March 2011, he and one Mr. James Ato Scott Bennin were celebrated and honoured at Kama Conference Centre Labone which was organized by the Salt and Light Ministries under the supervision of Dr. Joyce R. Aryee. Choral 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh compositions of J. G. Koomson and Ato Scott Bennin were performed by the Harmonious Chorale and the Methodist University College Choir. Koomson’s compositions performed that day to celebrate him were What a Friend, Holy is the Lord, I Need Thee, Hymn of Adoration, Ma me Gyidi Ntaban, Aseda, Medzi Nyim Daa and Minsi Dɛn. 3.9 Compositional Style and Creativity Choral works of Koomson are characterized by several compositional elements and materials that make them very unique, outstanding and appreciated by choral music lovers and church choirs. Having studied under several competent and talented musicians such as D. F. Nzeh, Herbert B. Sam, Anthony X. Hagan including his father, he became influenced by these composers. His encounters with these prolific musicians and courses he took from foreign institutions as well as from the University of Ghana exposed him to several Western and African compositions and compositional styles. Koomson has a lot of hymns tunes, anthems and danceable pieces usually referred to as choral highlife by Ghanaians to his credit. These choral compositions are characterized by the amalgamation of compositional elements and materials from both Western and African communities. The African traditional elements evident in his choral works include speech rhythm and speech tone that was championed by Ephraim Amu and his contemporaries. Even though he believed in the idea of speech tones used in the African traditional choral styles but he sometimes ignores it and creates his own thing. An example is the song titled Aman Wura Nyame where Aman (A-man) with two syllables which supposed to have began on a low note for A, instead begins on a higher tone to a lower tone. Western compositional elements and materials including chords such as secondary dominant seventh chords, augmented sixth chords as well as chromaticism are used extensively in his choral compositions. This chromatics introduced in his works are meant 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to both beautify the pieces and to facilitate in modulating to different keys. These elements can be found in the selected pieces for this study which are Aseda, Ma me Gyidi Ntaban, Aheman Fɛɛfɛw for detailed examination. The most popular singing style of the African traditional society called the “call and response” or “cantor and chorus” exhibited in indigenous and neo-traditional dances such as asafo, apatampa, adowa and ebibindwom among others is represented in his choral works. His melodic lines have a lot of scales, repetitions and sequences. There are as well evidences of leaps and syncopations and all these elements blended with other artistic creativity in performance promote the aesthetic beauty that is appreciated by audience. His rhythmic patterns are usually interesting as he introduces speech rhythms. His works occasionally look polyrhythmic showing evidence of African drumming rhythmic idioms. Aheman Fɛɛfɛw and Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban are classical examples. There are occasionally elements of syncopated notes in his pieces that challenge some choirmasters and teachers. Again Aheman Fɛɛfɛw attests to this assertion and Nyame Ye written in 2/4 time reveals a lot of syncopated notes usually facilitated by the use of slur, tie and silent notes (rests). The languages used for his choral works is English, (Akan) with Fante language dominating despite living in Kumasi from childhood. He usually relied upon the use of biblical and religious texts. Some of his choral works were captioned (tune names) with names of certain personalities of his family. For example, MHB 353 (Just as I am) is named Aba Nyamehen, MHB 615/CAN 203 is named Sekyi-Gaise, MHB 478/CAN 155 also as Bennyin and many others. Texts of the Methodist Hymn Book and the Christian Asor Ndwom (CAN) are used to create additional tunes for diversification or offer alternatives to existing tunes. In his additional tunes he sometimes ignores speech tones; example being CAN 203/MHB615 that he composed did not follow this African system of 90 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh melody writing. The messages carried by these hymns with different tunes still carry the messages inherent in them. Koomson’s choral works are usually very short in length but interesting and wonderful. The formal structures are most of the time very clear to identify as some sections are repeated and restated after contrasting themes. Aseda for instance has AA1BB1 which is binary in nature with both A and B sections repeated immediately. Several others of his compositions have similar formal characteristics especially with his hymn tunes. He rarely introduces tempo markings to regulate the speed of the pieces during performance and so it is left to the performer to interpret using his own discretion. Same applies to dynamics when language or texts as well as pitches used play crucial role in determining the loudness and softness of the songs. This is effectively interpreted by matured and experienced music directors and choirmasters. The choral compositions of J. G. Koomson reflect his personality and lifestyle as someone who is very calm, humble and religious. Analysis of Aseda(Thanks) 3.10 Preamble Aseda (Thanks) happens to be one of the finest, popular and regularly performed choral pieces of John Gershom Koomson composed in 2002. It has intercultural characteristics in its creation because it employed the fusion of traditional music elements and Western compositional conventions with organ introduction. Aseda is a composition for soprano, alto, tenor and bass (SATB). It is composed in the key of E-flat major and has only forty measures including the introduction by the organ. Even though it is short but its formal structure and harmonic arrangement makes it beautiful, inspiring and admirable affirming the popular Akan (Fante) saying that goes “Asɛmpa yɛ tsia” meaning (Every pleasant message is short). It has a formal structure of AA1BB1 where both sections are repeated, homophonic in nature with chords provided to vertically harmonize the melody. 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are no dynamic markings on the piece and therefore it could be interpreted based on the performer’s maturity and experience but usually performed prayerfully. Again the pitches, chord progressions and lyrics determine how loud or soft some sections of the piece are to be interpreted and presented. This choral work is written in a compound duple time (6/8) but tempo markings to control and manage the speed of the music are absent on the score and so the structure and elements used indicate as to how it must be performed. Rhythmically, values of notes employed makes it simpler for every choirmaster to interpret it. These include dotted minims, minims, dotted crotchets, crotchets and quavers. It employs speech rhythms based on syllables of the texts used, and sounds almost like a hymn. The melodic line is based on the speech tone technique manifested in various traditional African musical creativity which dwell much on contours of syllables of texts used. The word Aseda for instance has three syllables a-se-da so in speech a and se fall on same contour or level while da goes up and therefore the speech tone system was implemented as the language is being spoken. Melodic repetitions/sequences are commonly found in both ascending and descending motions. It has evidence of attractive and brilliant harmonic progressions with unusual chords and chromaticism with few passing notes to beautify it. Cadences found in it are perfect and imperfect which end the various phrases and the end of the piece. 3.11 Melodic Organization This choral piece titled Aseda has a very interesting and recognizable melodic line which is not too difficult to be interpreted even by inexperienced choirmasters. Aseda begins with eight measure organ prelude on the main theme of the piece after which the choir is invited commence in. The melody commences on the dominant of the home key E-flat. 92 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The Melodic motif is repeated in an ascending motion sequentially from measure 8 to 16 and ends the phrase in the eighth measure completing the first section. This section is immediately repeated from 17th to the 24th measure. Figure 3.1: Melodic theme of Aseda which begins from measure 8 to16 Figure 3.2: Combination of the first and second phrases demonstrating melodic repetition In the melodic creativity of this piece, the famous melodic technique of the African traditional society popularly called the speech tone and speech rhythm based on the syllabic contour of language and structure is represented in the melody signifying his commitment to portray Africanism in his choral works as it was championed by Ephraim Amu of the first generation of Ghana’s art music composers. The second melodic theme commences with as melodic sequence in an ascending order occurring from measure 25 to 28. This section sounds European melodically as it does not strictly follow the contour of the lyrics. Few scales are identified from measures 14 to 15, 22 to 23, 29 to 30 and 38 to39 all in a descending motion. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.3: Second melodic themes with sequences Few chromatic notes have been introduced to aesthetically decorate the piece. The last altered note of measure 15 introduces a new key, that is B-flat and the dominant of E-flat in measure 16. Similar modulation to B-flat through introduction of a natural sign and as well some ornamentation occurring from measure 27 and 28 then to C in 29. These Western music elements like modulation fused with the traditional counterparts exhibited in the choral works of J. G. Koomson makes in interesting and intercultural. 3.12 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity This composition has a very simple rhythmic pattern composed in 3/4 time. The rhythms reflect a Western oriented hymn tune. The main rhythmic motif is expressed by organ introduction in the first eight measures before the choir begins. Speech rhythm based on the syllables of lyrics of the piece is prominently utilized. Several rhythmic repetitions occur throughout the entire choral work making teaching and learning not too difficult but accommodating. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.4: Excerpt on rhythmic repetition and as well addressing speech rhythms From the ninth to the twentieth measure, soprano and tenor use the same rhythmic pattern while alto and bass also follow a different rhythmic motif with introduction of passing notes. Measure 25 to 40 has a common rhythmic structure for all parts. This piece does not introduce any complex and convoluted rhythms that scare choirmasters but rather a rhythmic motif that can be interpreted by many if not all. Figure 3. 5: Common rhythmic patterns for all voices From the figure 3.5 above it is clearly manifested that all the voices are singing or presenting same rhythmic idea at the same time, not even a passing note in found in any of 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the voices. This rhythmic monotone is easily assimilated by all during rehearsal unlike those with polyrhythmic structure which calls for rhythmic alternation or call and response. 3.13 Harmonic Arrangement of Aseda Aseda begins with a harmonic introduction by the organ expressed in the first 8 measures that brings out the main melodic and harmonic themes of the piece. It is polyphonic in nature with chords provided to vertically harmonize the melodic themes. The organ introduction starts with a dominant seventh chord (V7) in measure 1 and progresses to 16 in the second measure. Measure 3 has chord II with the third in the bass progressing to VI then I7 with raised fifth in the bass progressing to VI. Measure 5 begins with chord I7 with the third in the bass and lowered seventh in tenor progressing to II and to I7 again with lowered seventh and raised root in the bass. Measure 6 has II-I6-V and resolves to chord I in measures 7 and 8 before the vocal section commences from measure 9. Figure 3.6: Organ introduction of the harmonic theme 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh This piece employs several advanced chords such as secondary dominant chords and chromatics but not complex to discourage choirmasters and their choristers. The first note from measure 9 introducing the choral section is B-flat on the dominant of E-flat by all voices in a unison, then progresses to V7 with the root tripled in the bass, tenor and soprano, seventh note sang by alto but third and fifth omitted which progresses to I in measure 10. Another unison in measure 11 is sounded on the mediant to chord VI and progresses to chord V7 in measure 13. The progression in measure 14 is chord I7 with the third in the bass and seventh lowered, chord VII7 with the third in the bass resolving to I7 where the root in the bass is raised and seventh lowered (de: m: s: ta). In measure 15 the first chord is II with raised third, to III7 and progresses to V7 of V which makes a regular resolution to chord V in measure 16 to end the first section. Measure 17 to 24 is the repetition of measure 9 to 16 but 24 ends in a tonic chord and perfect cadence V-I. The second section which begins from measure 25 introduces chord V7 with the seventh in the bass to I11 with the eleventh in the bass progressing to V7 again with the seventh in bass to I6 in measure 26. Measure 27 opens with V7 of III to III9-V7of III then makes a regular resolution to III with raised third in the bass. Measure 28 has chord III with raised third in the base and doubled fifth occurring in soprano and tenor and progresses to chord VI in measures 29. Chord VI from measure 29 progresses to chord V with the third doubled in the bass and soprano, and resolves to VI-V-VI in measure 30. Last chord of measure 31 shows V7 of V which resolves to I with the third omitted. Measure 33 has V7- I64-V with the root raised to modulate to C minor in measure 34. Measure 35 has V 7 of VI as its first chord and makes a regular resolution to VI in Measure 36. Measure 38 to 40 is a restatement of measure 22 to 24 which ends the piece. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.7: Excerpt of Aseda on chords progressions 3.14 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics The organ introduces the main theme both melodic and harmonic themes ending the phrase from the sixth measure to the seventh and eighth on a perfect cadence (V7 –I). Measures 15 and 16 exhibit an imperfect cadence from chord V7 of V to V and V7 to I from measure 23 to 24 making a perfect cadence to end the first section of the piece A and A1. The second section is divided into mini phrases where cadential effects are recognized, and the first occurs from measure 25 to 26 with V7 to I where the seventh is found in the bass resolving to the third of the tonic chord. V7 of III resolving to III from measure 27 to 28 being an imperfect cadence, 31 and 32 discloses another imperfect cadence from V7 of V to V. Measure 33 and 34 shows a deceptive/interrupted cadence while measures 35 and 36 exhibit imperfect cadence at a lower tone, and a perfect cadence at 39th measure from V7 to I ending the piece. There are no tempo markings to direct performers on the speed of the music, however, reflecting on the lyrics which talks about thanksgiving, performing the piece in a moderate speed would actually portray and carry the true message of the music. Again there is a total absence of dynamic markings on this piece of music. The various sequences and repetitions of the music determine its loudness and softness during performance. From measure 9 to 24 where the melodic and harmonic sequences are on descending order also 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh affects the intensity of sound. The interpretation of the piece with respect to dynamics is dependent on the discretion of the performer. 3.15 Translation of Lyrics of Aseda Fante English Aseda se Wo You are worthy of thanks Aseda sɛ Wo You are worthy of thanks Aseda nka Nyame wɔ sor Thanks be to God on high Ayeyi nye ntonton sɛ wo You deserve praise and magnification Abɔso Nyame, Eyɛ kɛse Mighty God You are Great Wo nsa ano ndwuma dzi andanse Your handy works testify Dɛ Eyɛ Nyame ayɛ som wo a ɔfata That You are God who deserves to be worshipped Analysis of Aheman Fɛɛfɛw (Beautiful Kingdom) 3.16 Preamble Aheman Fɛɛfɛw, an art work by Koomson is another interesting composition with several unique characteristics but has not been widely performed by choirs and singing groups. It was composed in the in the year 1988 to be performed in the four voices of a choir (SATB). It is a hybridity of traditional music elements of the Ghanaian society and compositional conventions and elements of the Western world. This choral piece has 58 measures in length and written in the key of E-flat major. It was also composed in the common African meter, 6/8 also called compound duple time. Its formal structure is binary having two distinctive sections with the first section repeated immediately. This 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh choral work characteristically is without both tempo and dynamic markings on the face of the score. Koomson is the type of composer who leaves the interpretation of his pieces to the performer. However, studying the piece I realized performing it in a lively manner with spirit will be more appropriate and warmly embraced by audience. Melodically, the known African speech tone approach found in most of Koomson’s choral works is ignored in this piece as the contour of language and lyrics used is not utilized. Despite the neglect of the speech tone, the import of the message is communicated clearly to the audience. There are a lot of melodic sequences both in ascending and descending motions as well as scalic motifs. It has a very sweet rhythmic patterns based on the speech rhythm system of the African society. Note values used include dotted minims, dotted crotchets, crotchets, quavers and some few silent notes (rests). This piece has a lot of syncopated notes throughout; almost every measure has syncopated rhythmic motifs which could trouble inexperienced choirmasters and choirs. It has a homophonic texture where the main melodic line is supported or harmonized with chords, but some few sections exhibit polyphonic characteristics. There are again few elements of call and response system that brings into fore its African identity. Aheman Fɛɛfɛw combines both elementary chords and advanced chords in the harmonic. Secondary dominant chords and the introduction of chromaticism to alter some notes as a decorative mechanism as well as modulatory elements make it more interesting. This approach of cultural balance through the promotion and introduction of Western and African musical elements and materials by J. G. Koomson makes his pieces intercultural and globally accepted despite the lyrics in Fante language which favours Akans. As a Fanteman, even though he lived in Kumasi for greater parts of his lifetime but Fante was the principal language through which he promoted his compositions including Aheman Fɛɛfɛw. 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.17 Melodic Organization The melodic line of Aheman Fɛɛfɛw commences on an off-beat (anacrusis) on the dominant of E-flat major, which is B-flat. There is a melodic sequence from the first to the fourth measure in an ascending motion. Another sequential element in a descending motion occurs from measure 8 and ends in measure 15 and repeated immediately. This repetition is built on a particular recognized melodic theme supported by syncopation. The last note of measure 18 introduces another sequential motif to measure 22 followed by a contrasting theme to end the first section with a restatement of measure 8 to 18. Figure 3.8: Excerpt on melodic sequence in Aheman fɛɛfɛw Figure 3.9: Another melodic sequence in descending motion The second section which begins from measure 27 to 28 and 29 to 30 introduces another melodic pattern with a different rhythmic structure. It occurs in scalic manner and in an ascending order. Measure 35 to 36 and 37 to 38 discloses another sequence in a descending motion. 101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3. 10: Scales from measure 27 to 30 Figure 3.11: Excerpt on repetition in a descending motion from 35 to 38 Figure 3.12: Melodic patterns from measure 27 to 42 on scales and sequences The melodic structure from measure 43 to 58 is a slightly modified version of the theme from measure 27 to 42 but with different lyrics. Speech tone approach in musical creativity championed by Ephraim Amu is utilized at certain sections and as well ignored at other sections. Aheman for instance is supposed to have a contour of down-down-up depending on the syllables but is interpreted otherwise, that is up-up-down. Same is applied to Fɛɛfɛw which has similar contour runs throughout the piece. Few notes are altered with chromatics to both decorate and modulate and a clear example of a modulation is found in measure 33 and 34 to the dominant B-flat. 102 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.18 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity This piece has a very interesting rhythmic pattern that makes it exciting and fascinating in performance. It has imprints of rhythmic features of indigenous traditional choral dances of the Ghanaian society. It is written in a compound duple time and in an anthem style. The rhythmic pattern created and expressed based on the spoken text of syllables of the language used termed as speech rhythms. In the first section A, the main rhythmic motif found in the first two measures which begins on an anacrusis is repeated severally by the soprano and alto voices through to the sixteenth measure. The bass and the tenor, also from the first measure to the thirteenth measure follow a different rhythmic pattern alternating the two high voices, soprano and alto. Figure 3.13: Rhythmic alternations between high and low voices Figure 3.14 Rhythmic alternations between high and low voices with syncopations 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Measure 19 to 23 exhibit a polyphonic rhythmic motif where all voices independently move on their own rhythmic patterns. There are syncopated notes in all the three parts as well as rests creating a rhythmic beauty. Figure 3.15: Excerpt on polyphonic rhythmic motif with syncopations in Aheman fɛɛfɛw The soprano and alto voices right from the commencement of the music introduce a lot of syncopated notes to the eighteenth measure and this makes it sound very attractive, beautiful and admirable. These syncopations most of the time extend their sounds from previous notes to notes of subsequent measures which can trouble many choirmasters when not studied carefully. From measure 27 to 58, simple rhythms made up of dotted minims, dotted crotchets, crotchets and few quavers as well as few rests and passing notes are exhibited. 3.19 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure This choral piece is beautifully arranged harmonically with various harmonic elements and conventions which has been a clear and identifiable compositional trait of John Gershom Koomson. This piece begins on a duet by soprano and alto with quavers in an anacrusis exhibiting a call and response approach of traditional singing style when the tenor and bass also answer immediately on the main accent in the very first measure on a tonic chord. The second and third measures have chords V to V7 then to chord I in measure 4. Chord VI7 has doubled root in bass and tenor, and omitted third beginning the fifth 104 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh measure followed by F-sharp and A-natural in alto and soprano respectively (re: fe: l: l), that is chord II with raised root and third doubling the fifth. Measure 7 has chord VII with raised fifth proceeding to V7 of V with the root raised in bass resolving to V in measure 8. The first section from measure 1 to 18 has characteristics of counterpoint as well as call and response features between the high and low voices. The bass and tenor provide chords to harmonize and to support the soprano and alto. A tonic chord begins the ninth measure and proceeds to V7 of VI then to V in measure 10. Measure 19 to 23 exhibit some features of a polyphonic texture where all four voices sound independently of one another. The second section which is entirely chordal and homophonic begins from measure 27 to the 58th measure which ends the piece. The progression from 27 to 28 is chord I-V7 to I64 with the third in bass. Measure 29 and 30 has chord progression of IV9-V7 with the seventh found in the bass and resolves to I6. Measure 31 commences with chord V with the third doubled in soprano and bass which conventionally is not allowed. The fifth of this chord is as well omitted and progresses to V7 of V to III, proceeds to chord V7 of II with the root doubled in the bass and soprano. This again progresses to V7 of V and finally resolves to the dominant chord, which is V. Measure 35 has a chord progression of I7 with the seventh flattened proceeding to chord IV to V7 of II to I7 with raised root in bass and lowered seventh in tenor resolving to chord II from measure 37 to 38. The last chord in measure 40 is V7 of V which makes a regular resolution to chord V then to the tonic chord in 42.The harmonic structure from measure 43 to 58 is a replica of measure 27 to 42. 3.20 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics The first cadence of the music is an imperfect cadence from chord II to V and can be identified from measure 7 to 8. This is followed by another imperfect cadence occurring between measures 15 and 16 with chord V7, the seventh is found in the bass resolving to I6 105 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and then to chord V in the first time. The second time marks a repetition from measure 8 and ends with a perfect cadence from measure 17 to 18. Measures 24 and 25, and 33 and 34 reveal perfect cadences. Another perfect cadence is found at measure 42 from 41, 49 and 50 shows an imperfect cadence and finally ends in a perfect one from V7 to I occurring between measures 57 and58. Figure 3.16: Some cadences found in the piece Tempo and Dynamic Markings It has been a usual norm and practice on the part of J. G. Koomson to compose beautiful choral pieces but leaves them to the performers to interpret both the speed and the sound volume of the compositions based on their own discretion and analytical capabilities. There are no tempo markings but studying it, the first section looks vigorous and lively and so may be performed as such. The second section which starts from measure 27 and ends in 58 which are chordal and hymn like will sound interesting when presented in a moderate speed. The same system and approach can be employed to interpret the dynamics 106 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.21 Translation of Lyrics of Aheman Fɛɛfɛw Fante English Aheman Fɛɛfɛw Beautiful Kingdom Aheman Fɛɛfɛw Beautiful Kingdom Aheman Fɛɛfɛw Beautiful Kingdom Sɛ yɛ yɛ dze a ɔtsen a If we do what is righteous Ono ye be nya ho kwan We will have access there Obiara per hwehwɛ akɔ Everybody strives to go there Aheman Fɛɛfɛw (3 times) Beautiful Kingdom (3 times) Obiara per hwehwɛ Everybody strives to seek Onua per hwehwɛ mo nua Strive to seek, my brother Per dew mapa bɛ yɛw’ dze a Strive for extreme joy will be yours Den ntsi soɛr, soɛr mo nua Therefore rise, rise my brother Soɛr na mber ny’na rokɔo Rise for the time keeps going Ao mo nua, ao mo nua Ao my brother, ao my brother Rotwɛɔn akosi da bɛn Until when do you like to wait Bɔ mbɔdzen na som som pa a Try to render a good service Ɔbɔsɔ wo W’ra n’enyi That will please your Master Dɛm nkotoo, dɛm nkotoo Only that, only that Na obenya hɔ kwan Will permit you there. 107 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Analysis of Ma me Gyidi Ntaban (Give me the Wings of Faith) 3.22 Preamble Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban translated into English as (Give me the wings of faith) is equally as interesting as the other compositions of Koomson and was considered for this study due to its characteristics. It was composed on June 25, 1993 for soprano, alto, tenor and bass (SATB) of the choir. This choral work is interculturally characterized by the hybridization of indigenous musical elements and conventions of Western musical composition. It is written in the key of B-flat major and in a compound duple time (6/8). As noted in the earlier two compositions of this study, this piece is as very short in length with 32 measures. According to John G. Koomson, lengthy songs are most of the time very difficult to learn and sing within a few days as various congregations demand that their church choirs perform new and fascinating pieces always. Again learning songs with characteristics such as his and those of Entsua-Mensah where syncopations and chromatics are seen in almost every measure becomes difficult and challenging to both choirmasters and choristers and time consuming as well. The short pieces are however embraced and welcomed by all. There are no dynamic and tempo markings as usual to regulate its performance and so performers are left to interpret it themselves. Rhythmic structure and creativity has been simply arranged to favour all choirs and masters despite few rhythmic complexities through the employment of syncopations. This choral work has been melodically composed based on the African speech tone system determined by the contour of lyrics used. As an Akan and precisely a Fante who spent most of his productive years in Kumasi, his bilingual experience aided him to compose this piece in Twi language and as a result strictly followed speech tone and rhythm. 108 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The song has a homophonic texture and harmonized with combination of both elementary and advanced chords such as secondary dominant seventh and beautiful progressions including the application of chromatic notes to decorate. Formally, the piece has three main sections ABB1CC1as a laid down order of performance where the C exhibits a monophonic style and call and response introduced by tenor and responded by all parts. These compositional elements and techniques employed in this piece of choral work makes it very unique and appreciative. 3.23 Melodic Organization The melodic motif of this beautiful choral piece starts on f, the dominant of the home key of B-flat with interesting lines from the first to the second measure and immediately repeated on a higher pitch in measures 3 and 4. It employs speech rhythm of the lyrics just as the language is being spoken. It again uses speech tone but not expressed and utilized completely. Measure 5 for instance should have maintained a single tone to depict and represent the true contour of the lyrics. Similar characteristics can be found in measure 11 and 12. However, it is understandable that good laws are sometimes flexible so as to address certain pressing and critical issues. Rigidly following the speech tone will sometimes make the piece boring. Figure 3.17: Melodic patterns of the first four measures on repetition Figure 3.18: Melodic line ignoring speech tone from measure11 to 12 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The third section which is introduced by bass beginning from measure 17 to 20 does not present the exact contour of the text. The bass is given the opportunity to invite the other voices with a melody to bring variation into the music. This portion as well introduces the traditional call and response singing style practised by the indigenous Ghanaian people, one of the elements from which Ghana’s choral composition style evolved. Figure 3.19: Melody introduced by the bass from measure 17 to 20 Mɛkɔ Heaven in measure 17 which has been sounded on one note should have had the second syllable of heaven lowered (Hea-up, and ven-down) to depict the actual sound produced when spoken. In measure 21, Mɛkɔ Heaven has been modified to represent the exact contour of the word. A melodic sequence in a descending motion is found in measures 25 and 26. Some few notes have been altered as decoration while the rhythmic creativity also adds beauty to the melodic motif. 3.24 Rhythmic Structure and Creativity Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban is written in 6/8 time (compound duple) but not too difficult to interpret. The rhythmic pattern hugely utilizes the African compositional technique and element called speech rhythm usually dependent on the way the language is being spoken. The first four measures which use the lyrics Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban correspond exactly to the notation as to how the language is spoken rhythmically. When the principle of speech rhythm is effectively applied, it enhances the smooth teaching and learning of the song with regards to the interpretation of the rhythms. 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.20: Rhythmic patterns that begin the piece by all voices Figure 3.21: Soprano’s rhythmic imitation of melodic line introduced by bass Note values with which the piece is composed are familiar and simple and comprised of dotted minims as longest notes, minims, dotted crotchets, crotchets and quavers which make the piece less difficult and complicated. There are few sections where syncopations are found, the only element that makes the rhythmic interpretation a little challenging. In measure 23, the last note or chord has been tied to the first quaver note of the 24th measure and between measures 31 and 32 is a similar syncopated element. With same measures as well, syncopations are recorded and instances are found in measures 25, 26, 27, 29, 30 and 32.Some areas that record syncopations as a result of the introduction of silent notes (rests) include elements in measures 25 and 26 where tenor and bass have crotchet rests. Figure 3.22: Excerpt from Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban on syncopation 111 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.25 Harmonic Arrangement and Textural Structure Textural structure of the piece can be categorized as homophonic due to its chordal organization. A monophonic texture is as well exhibited in the bass from measure 17 to 20 which gives a clear indication of a call and response element, a traditional compositional practice of the Ghanaian society. The piece commences on the tonic chord of B-flat with bass and tenor taking the root leaving the alto and soprano with the third and fifth respectively. The last chord of the first measure has been altered with B in alto sharpened and E-flat naturalized which can be classified as chord II7 with doubled seventh and the fifth omitted. The last chord of measure 3 is similar to that of measure 1 which could also serve as a decorative mechanism. The third of chord V has been doubled in soprano and bass in the first two chords of measure 6 even though conventionally it is not allowed. The third chord of measure 7 is a dominant seventh chord which resolves to V7 with the seventh note found in the bass to complete the first section. Figure 3.23: Extract from Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban showing progression of chords All chords in measure 9 which begins the second section are chord V with inversions progresses to chord IV with the fifth in bass and resolve to chord I occurring in measure 10. Measure 11 has its last two chords as I7 with raised root found in tenor, and the third in bass resolves to II6 in measure 12. Almost all the chords found in measures 13, 14 and first 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh three chords of 15 are chord II with inversions. They resolve to chord V7 then to chord I to end the second section. The third section starts with a melody by the bass from measure 17 to 20 after which the other three voices join in harmony in the tonic chord from measure 21. Measure 22 begins with II7 with the seventh in bass which progresses to VI6. V7 of VI as first chord of measure 23 makes a regular resolution to VI with the third raised to V7 of V with omitted fifth resolving to chord V in measure 24. Measure 25 has I7 with raised root and lowered seventh in alto progressing to II in an alternating manner. Measure 27 exhibits V7 of V as its last chord and resolves to I6 and V7 with the seventh in bass resolving to I7b. Measure 30 has chord II6 to V and progresses to cadential 6/4 to chord V 7 and finally resolves to the home key of B-flat to end the music. 3.26 Cadence, Tempo and Dynamics Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban has its first cadence as imperfect from chord V7 of V to V occurring between measures 7 and 8 to end the first phrase and section. The second cadence can be recorded between measures 15 and 16 from chord V7 to I, which demonstrate a perfect cadence to conclude the second section. The last and final cadence ends the piece on a perfect cadence from chord V7 to I which occurs between measures 31 and 32. Tempo markings are totally absent on the score and also the performer or choirmaster has to employ his competence and interpretative maturity in analyzing it. The first and second sections call for a moderate tempo taking into consideration the rhythmic structure used. The third section may be a little aggressive considering once again the rhythmic structure. There are no dynamics markings as well, and so the lyrics and pitches are best elements to determine and regulate the dynamics. Looking at the song, the beginning is on a lower tone while the third measure has the same theme and text but on a higher pitch. This 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh signifies that themes with lower pitches are usually sung on a softer tone while the other goes the opposite way. In this case measures 1 and 2 can best be presented in a softer manner as compared to measures 3 and 4 which have higher pitches and needs some level of aggression. 3.27 Translation of Lyrics of Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban Twi English Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban Give me the wings of faith Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban Give me the wings of faith Me mfa ntu nkɔ soro nkɔhwɛ To fly into the skies to see M’agyenkwa anim fɛɛfɛw The handsome face of my savior Ɛhɔ ara na mani hwɛ That is exactly where my eyes watch Mede Gyidi bɛkɔ hɔ With faith I will go there Bɛkɔ adom nsu a efri Nyame hɔ I will go to the fountain of Grace of God Na me kra hwehwɛ ɔnom My soul seeks to drink Mɛkɔ Heaven hɔ akodi dɛ a enni awieɛ I will go to Heaven to enjoy eternal happiness Mɛkɔ, mɛkɔ, mɛkɔ Heaven I will go to Heaven Heaven yɛ asomdwee man mapa Heaven is indeed a peaceful nation Mɛkɔo, mɛkɔ Heaven yɛ asomdwee man I will, I will go, Heaven is a peaceful nation Mɛkɔo, mɛkɔ Heaven akodi dɛ I will go to Heaven to enjoy. 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.28 Summary John Gershom Koomson’s inspiration and motivation in the study of music as a discipline at a very tender age as he chose to understudy several composers/musicians has impacted and reflected in his art compositions of which three have been analyzed in this study. His maturity and excellence in creating brilliant choral works is as a result of courses he took in tertiary institutions both internally (University of Ghana) and externally (Victoria College of Music-London, ABRSM-London). His biography which was not publicly known is been disclosed for public consumption. As a Ghanaian, his music toes an intercultural dimension through the use of traditional music elements and materials and Western compositional principles. He has forms and styles of compositions such as choral, instrumental, solo works as well as gospel works and most of his works are modified and notated versions of the Ghanaian indigenous/folk tunes. This chapter as well has been able to reveal the compositional traits of John Gershom Koomson through analysis of selected pieces. It is clearly disclosed that he never used rhythms that were complex to scare choirmasters and singers but rather makes them simple to be comfortably interpreted by the majority. Aseda, Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban and Aheman Fɛɛfɛw all have very simple rhythmic motifs, comfortable voice ranges for all parts, very rich harmonic structure with both elementary and advanced chords such as secondary dominant, augmented sixth chords and chromaticism to decorate and occasionally modulate. It has been established in this chapter that John Gershom Koomson never liked the use of both tempo and dynamic markings to regulate the performance of his choral pieces but left them into the hands of the performers This work will play a very important role in helping young musicians to know his legacy and also project his works as most of his compositions have been made available. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR A Study of the Choral Styles of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson 4.1 Preamble This chapter of the study has been designed to address the summary of biographies and comparative analysis of choral compositions of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, two of Ghana’s prolific art composers of the twentieth century. Ghana has a lot of choral music composers but for the purpose of this study, the aforementioned composers were chosen to fulfill and address particular ideologies and techniques that had been thoroughly examined in the previous chapters. This chapter seeks to use the analysis done in the previous chapters to disclose the commonalities, similarities and differences between the choral compositions of the two composers. Belonging to two different compositional generations as categorized in Amuah 2012:205-7, their choral works seem to have similar compositional traits and that I intend comparing and contrasting the works of these two great men in discovering their similarities and differences. The various factors that account for the limited or non performance of their works will be investigated for redress. The areas of concentration from the analytical parameters for this chapter comprise their personality traits and the various elements of choral music composition. These include their rhythmic creativity, melodic structures, harmonic arrangements with emphasis on chord structure, progression, the use of unusual chords as well as chromaticism. Other parameters of equal importance for this analysis and discussion include formal and textural structures, tempo and dynamics analysis, and language (texts/lyrics) use in their compositions. The two composers touched on the need for interculturalism as various elements in their works attest to this assertion. This interculturalist approach exercised by the two composers has influenced the patronage and performance of their works by 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghanaians in a negative perspective. Even though their compositions infuse in them several traditional and indigenous materials but they are patronized and audienced by the few music elites of the Ghanaian population due to the excessive usage of western compositional materials. However, as difficult as their songs are, they have contributed immensely to the growth of choral music in Ghana. Their compositions have been used extensively by churches especially those that they thought and directed like the Good Shepherd Methodist, Bubuashie handled by J. G. Koomson and Effia Kuma Methodist also handled by Entsua-Mensah. Schools, students and singing groups nationwide have explored and patronized their music in promoting music as a discipline and as a medium for wealth creation. This chapter reveals and establishes the teacher and student relationship and or master and servant phenomena in our daily life cycle as every student directly or indirectly exhibits whole or partial traits of his or her master/teacher. 4.2 Comparative Analysis of Choral Works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson To begin with, these two equally outstanding and versatile art composers of Ghana’s history were all citizens of Elmina in the Central Region where the first European merchants (Portuguese) landed and settled. Alfred Entsua-Mensah, the older between the two was born at Elmina in the early 1900s and so tasted a little bit of the European presence on the Ghanaian coast during the colonial days. During that period, most of the educational institutions were established and owned by Western Christian churches such as Methodist, Anglican, Presbyterian and Catholic churches which introduced the Western educational system and promoted Western hymn singing and compositional style. Having lived in the early part of the twentieth century and received Western type of education both home and abroad before the independence, Entsua-Mensah gathered a lot of information from the Western communities and his own Fante environment. These 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh intercultural experiences from the two environments and atmospheres had impact on his compositions. For John Gershom Koomson who also belonged to another compositional generation, and a native of Elmina but born in Sekondi has also created a lot of art compositions with characteristics similar to those of Entsua-Mensah. Koomson lived in Kumasi for greater part of his lifetime and understudied several brilliant Ghanaian art composers. He sat examinations organized by some reputable institutions in the United Kingdom as well as the University of Ghana for his Diploma and Master of Philosophy Programme in Music. Comparatively, they both had musical training at higher levels from where most of their knowledge and compositional brilliance were gathered creating similar art works irrespective of their age and generational disparities. They tried to make their presence felt with their music wherever they went and lived. 4.3 Melodic Comparison Both composers have very interesting melodic lines that are appealing to the choral music industry and the general public. As a horizontal representation of pitches, the two composers sometimes believe in a common pattern while in other times they share divergent views. John Gershom Koomson strongly believed the idea of speech tone and speech rhythm as championed by the early art composers of Ghana such as Ephraim Amu, N. Z. Nayo, and J. H. K. Nketia. Based on the contour of syllables of the Ghanaian languages used in choral compositions, melodies are created. This system has existed among Ghanaians for a very long time and manifested in almost all indigenous Ghanaian musical genres. This was what Amu and his contemporaries preached and now have been assimilated by majority of the younger generation of composers including John Gershom Koomson. Aseda and Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban all by Koomson attest to and confirm the use of speech tone and rhythm. Despite his strong belief in the melodic philosophies of the earlier composers, there are some other sections of his works in which the melodies 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sometimes ignore speech tone and rhythm system. The figure below illustrates the speech tone system as used by Koomson in his music Aseda. Figure 4.1: Excerpt from Aseda on speech tone system of melody For Alfred Entsua-Mensah, he disregards the speech tone and rhythm system that his co- generation composer Ephraim Amu helped to spread through his compositions. He instead fuses several compositional elements and materials from both traditional environment and the Western world to create his own unique melodic lines. He introduces leaps that make his melodies usually jumpy both ascending and descending including the use of chromatics. As Ghanaians see chromatic music as strange and unfriendly, choristers and even some music directors become scared any time they are confronted with songs with such features. Pieces such as Bentuma, Bethel, Bekoe and Dunwell all found in Ghana Praise from page 47 to 49 and Per yɛ papa, Mayɛ dza mobotum among others speak in support to this fact. Figure 4.2: Excerpt on jumps/leaps and chromatics in Bekoe 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4. 3: Another excerpt on jumps/leaps and chromatics in Bentuma His melodic creativity is influenced by experiences gained from his interactions with the Europeans on the coast and courses he took from foreign institutions and again his affiliation to the Methodist Church and schools who used to sing western hymn tunes. In this regard, Entsua-Mensah’s melodic patterns look Western despite being a Ghanaian while John Gershom Koomson has his dominated by traditional elements even though occasionally he sounds Western. From the figures shown above, it is obvious that the melody by Koomson is easier to perform or interpret whereas those of Entsua-Mensah look disjointed as a result of their jumpy nature. What makes them scarier is the introduction of chromatics that troubles the singers and or performers in producing exact and accurate pitches. Figure 4.4: Excerpt from The Great Jehovah showing scales and repetitions 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.5: Melodic line of Bethel showing jumps/leaps The two figures above are excerpts from hymn tunes of the two composers disclosing some characteristic features of their melodic lines. Comparing them, it is very obvious that Koomson’s melody is smoother than that of Entsua-Mensah. It looks scalic in a sequential order including repetitions while Bethel by Entsua-Mensah is jumpy, disjointed both ascending and descending and very difficult to perform. Voice ranges used by the two are usually very normal and comfortable for soprano singers. 4.4 Rhythmic Comparison Both Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson are phenomenal with regards to rhythmic creativity. They compose in duple, triple, and quadruple meters for their hymn tunes and compound duple for their anthems. Entsua-Mensah usually uses 4/2 signature in writing his hymns and examples include tunes titled Bethel, Bentuma, Fitz, Bekoe, all found in the Ghana Praise. Koomson presents his work in simple rhythmic motifs easy to interpret by almost all masters including the inexperienced especially with those in 6/8. His 2/4 compositions are dominated with syncopated notes that commonly characterize African traditional music genres that usually attract dance steps in appreciation. Works composed by Entsua-Mensah have very convoluted and sophisticated rhythmic patterns not easy at all in terms of interpretation. He does not strictly follow or acknowledge the speech rhythm system that takes its source from syllabic movements of 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh spoken languages or lyrics with which his choral works are composed. Some of his songs when studied carefully have evidences of speech rhythm and an example is Per yɛ papa. He uses his syncopated notes to defeat speech rhythm system. Comparing Aheman Fɛɛfɛw with Per yɛ papa, you can identify speech rhythm features in Aheman Fɛɛfɛw by Koomson more than Per yɛ papa also by Entsua-Mensah even though some sections of Per yɛ papa especially the introductory part of the first four measures have its melodic pattern based on syllabic movement of the lyrics. Figure 4.6: Excerpt on rhythmic creativity with syncopation Figure 4.7: Rhythmic creativity with syncopation in Per yɛ papa 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the two compositions above, it is clearly seen that Per yɛ papa right from the beginning employs speech rhythm. The rhythm is created such that it corresponds to the motion in which the syllables of the language are presented. Both Per yɛ papa and Ma ye dza mobotum extensively use syncopation even though they were written in different meters. Figure 4.8: Heaven Man on rhythmic creativity with syncopation 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.9: Excerpt from Aheman Fɛɛfɛw on rhythmic creativity The above compositions of the two composers have similar characteristics as they portray the features and elements of both traditional and Western environments. The rhythmic patterns and creativity exhibited in the works of Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson especially with use of syncopation show their maturity and class. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Harmonic Comparison Studying the choral works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, it was clearly established that both composers share and believe in a common harmonic principle and philosophy. The verticalization of pitches (harmony) in their choral works is purely based on Western harmonic conventions but in some sections of their works violation of certain rules was identified. Both Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson allowed consecutives at certain sections of their works. Notable examples in Entsua-Mensah’s works is a consecutive 5th found in his piece titled Per yɛ papa in measure 29 occurring in the last two notes between bass and tenor. Bɔm Nantsew also has a consecutive 5th found in measure 2 and occurring between soprano and alto in the 3rd and 4th chords. In Ɔbɛyɛ by Koomson, a consecutive 5th is found between the 11th and 12th measure which also occurs between soprano and alto. Both art music composers employed the use of dominant seventh chords, secondary dominants seventh chords, augmented sixth chords and other “unusual chords”. Some of these chords sometimes sound very harsh and discordant (dissonance) when introduced. They brilliantly and beautifully make resolutions which make their works very interesting and attractive to the music elites. Dor then affirms this by saying, The organization of vertical sonorities is a variable that can be counted upon assessing the degree of individualism in a composer’s works. The choice of chords, the speed of harmonic rhythm, cadences and modulations are among parameters under concurrent pitch organization that can collaborate and represent a distinct trait of composer’s vocabulary (Dor 1992:97. The figures below illustrate some of the chords and their progressions disclosing recognizable harmonic traits of the two composers. 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.10: Exhibit on chords and progression from M’enyigye Nsunyiwa Figure 4.11: Another excerpt on chords and progression by Koomson The two figures above, one for each reveal examples of chords like secondary dominant seventh, augmented sixth chords and primary chords. Both Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson resorted to the use of block chords that are usually sounded simultaneously especially with their hymn tunes while their anthems occasionally take characteristics of counterpoint. 4.6 Use of Chromaticism in their Choral Compositions Chromaticism is a very important aspect or element that plays very significant role in the art works of Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson. Chromaticism as a compositional technique which is usually associated with music of the Western world is very influential in the choral compositions of the two art music composers. Ghanaians, except the few music elites that appreciate and admire chromatic music feel uncomfortable with 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh chromatic music. The “unusual chords” identified in the selected songs analyzed and several others are usually chords that have some notes altered through the use of accidentals which are the main elements of chromaticism. Hymn tunes titled Dunwell, Fitz, Nyankah, all composed by Entsua-Mensah and Aman Wura Nyame, Just as I am, Even me (MHB 321-CAN 94) among others by Koomson give testimony to this assertion. Entsua-Mensah for instance who took intensive courses in advanced harmony always wanted to explore further in applying chromatics in almost every measure of his compositions. Per yɛ papa for example has 40 measures out of which 32 are compact with chromatic notes, sometimes more than two notes altered in a single measure. Figure 4.12: Excerpt from Per yɛ papa on the use of chromatics 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.13: Chromaticism being used in Fitz by Entsua-Mensah Songs such as Per yɛ papa, Asamanadwow a, M’enyigye Nsunyiwa as well as hymn tunes like Bekoe, Bentuma, Bethel, Amansuon among others possess unlimited number of chromatic notes as demonstrated in the excerpts above. This could possibly make the teaching and learning of the songs very challenging for both choristers and masters and could also lead to their exclusion into choirs’ repertoires. This makes me think that he never considered the audience, performers and consumers of his compositions as his daughter Doris Entsua-Mensah confirms this assertion when I met her in Kumasi. She 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh again said many people/choristers did not like his songs as a result of their complexities. Sadoh explains this dimension of the patronage of such types of music stating that, The art music of Nigeria represents a departure from and re-ordering of traditional creative procedures. Moreover, it implies the development of new social contexts for music-making, such as concert auditoriums. The music is syncretic, new to the cultural experience in Nigeria because of its European influence. We may then ask; who are the patrons that constitute the audience for this music? The targeted audience belongs to certain segments of the Nigerian elite: upper-middle-class, intellectuals, students, business tycoons and the affluent. It would seem that Western classical music is not generally accepted by the larger society (Sadoh 2009:83-84) John Gershom Koomson on the other hand believed in the harmonic principles and philosophies of Alfred Entsua-Mensah as he also employed the use of accidentals (chromatics) to alter some notes in his works. Unlike Entsua-Mensah, he took the audience and performers/choirs into consideration as he made his works less chromatic and less difficult; he made them sound interesting and attractive for all singing groups. Aman Wura Nyame, Ao Bra, Aseda, and Just as I am are few that attest to this information. Figure 4.14: Excerpt from Ao bra on the use of chromatics 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.15: Chromatics as used in Just as I am by Koomson Looking at them carefully, it is so obvious that in spite of the numerous chromatic notes used, the songs still sound simpler than those of Entsua-Mensah that scare almost everybody. Knowing the main functions of chromatics as mechanisms for ornamentation and modulation, I can conclude that both Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson use them for the purpose of ornamentation, modulation as well as creating very special effects based on the composers’ taste. 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh When notes are altered, they introduce a new key but these two composers usually do not work in the new keys and even if they do, they are done shortly and briefly. Entsua- Mensah’s Amansuon and Ndaase have little bit of modulations. They have modulations to the dominant and work in the new keys in about two measures and quickly returns to the home key to continue. Characteristically, the rest of the accidentals or chromatics was for beautification. Figure 4.16: Excerpt of Amansuon showing modulation through chromatics 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.17: Excerpt from Ndaase on modulation In Amansuon, the major modulation occurs from the last chord of measure 7, which is F- major to C-major in the eighth measure and resolves back to F-major from the last chord of measure 8. In the case of Ndaase, the new key is introduced from measure 27 to E-flat major, then to B-flat from measure 29 to the first chord of 30. Then from measure 30 again the music resumes to the home key and end in measure 34. Both Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson compose in a homophonic texture but occasionally introduce monophonic patterns when single voices or parts sing some portions for variations. They both do not compose lengthy pieces perhaps due to the 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh various compositional elements they employ making their art works complex and difficult to perform. The length of their songs perhaps serves as a motivational factor to choirmasters and choristers to patronize them. Some few sections of their works sound polyphonic where all voices independently take their individual melodic lines. 4.7 Formal Structures of their Works The two composers have diverse ways of approaching the plan and architectural layout (formal structure) of their choral works. Alfred Entsua-Mensah avoids repetitions and restatements of themes and sections that usually constitute the formal framework of choral art works. Almost all his compositions are arranged in a through-composed (non-repetitive music) structure as his pieces usually do not have repetition of themes and sections. His songs look continuous with introduction of new ideas and themes. Compositions such as Woewie, Per yɛ papa, and M’enyigye Nsunyiwa among others attest this assertion. However, his pieces with strophic (hymn like tunes with stanzas and choruses) characteristics such as Ndaase, Amansuon etc. have sections that are repeated after each stanza. Same applies to his hymn tunes created from the Methodist Hymn Book (MHB) and or the Christian Asɔr Ndwom (CAN). John Gershom Koomson on the other hand usually writes in Binary (AB), Ternary (ABA), and ABC, Rondo and sometimes in a through-composed. Aseda and Aheman Fɛɛfɛw are both composed in a binary form (AB) while Ma Me Gyidi Ntaban is also written in ABC with his hymn tunes also strophic in nature just like Entsua-Mensah. In effect, Entsua- Mensah strictly sticks to through-composed for his choral anthems and remains strophic with his hymns while Koomson explores various forms. 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Dynamics and Tempo Markings To add aesthetic beauty to a musical work, ornaments and expressive elements need to be introduced in order to interpret and perform accordingly. What is so surprising is that both Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson never introduced any dynamics and tempo markings on their pieces and therefore becomes the responsibility of choirmasters, directors, and experienced choristers and performers to use their intertextual capabilities to interpret them. In the absence of the expressive elements, texts and pitch ranges become determinants in addressing volume of sound and sometimes the tempo. This becomes difficult for the inexperienced to interpret and perform them accordingly. This statement is clearly affirmed and expressed by Bregman saying, The range of pitches in a piece of music has been found to influence listeners’ perception of emotion in music. Pieces in a wider range may be perceived as unpredictable, therefore producing a higher level of arousal. Music that contains a more narrow distribution of pitches may be easier to process, perhaps because the pitches can be processed in one auditory stream (Bregman 1990, Moore 2013:19). Tempo and dynamics of a piece of music could also be determined by the mode in which the musical piece is written and this could also affect the emotions of performers and audience. Compositions of both composers have very solemn and meditative characteristics as a result of chords introduced and other materials employed. They usually use major mode and occasionally resort to the minor mode. Again both composers do not introduce any expressive elements and so rhythm, mode, text, pitch and level of performers determine the speed and sound volumes of their pieces, An influential study on the emotional character of major and minor modes in music, Hevner (1935) attempted to empirically evaluate the traditional assumption that there are differences in the effective qualities of the major and minor modes. She states that major modes have been associated with dynamic force, expression of joy and excitement, and have connotations of hope, strength, and happiness. Minor modes have been traditionally said to be considered passive, 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh weighty, and likely to express feeling of sorrow, grief, mystery, and calmness. Hevner investigated the effects of the two modes wherein the musical material used consisted of two versions of the same composition, one written in major key, and one in the minor key. The result of her experience led her to conclude that the above stated historically assumed characteristics of major and minor modes were confirmed (Moore 2013:20). 4.9 The Use of Language (Text/Lyrics) Both Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson agree and disagree on different issues when it comes to the use of language as a major component of choral music composition. Both composers have written their choral works in Fante language leaving few that are written in Twi and English. Most languages in Ghana including Akan are tonal and this statement is supported by a declaration Nketia made which goes, Both Ewe and Twi are tone languages. This means that “tone is phonemic, or serves to distinguish words in much the same way as do vowels and consonants” (Nketia 1974:184 and Agawu 1982:39). Majority of choral works of Koomson is centered on speech tone system practiced in musical genres of the Ghanaian traditional set up. According to Koomson he believed in the ideologies of Ephraim Amu and his pioneering contemporaries who revolutionalized and Africanized Ghana’s choral music through the use of traditional music elements and materials. Based on this belief, he composed several choral works for the church in the African vein using traditional elements dominated by language which is the best and clearest means of communication especially to a targeted audience. To further throw more light on this, Euba therefore elucidates that, If traditional music is so highly text-oriented, it is reasonable to conclude that texts are crucial to the understanding of music in African society. Modern composers who seek to communicate with African audiences are there well advised to consider text as one of their most valuable means of doing so. In Ghana and southeastern Nigeria and other parts of Africa south of Sahara, neo-African idioms of choral music in four parts based on the European harmonic system 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and using African language are not widely cultivated but are exceedingly popular with grassroots audiences. (Euba 2001:121). Koomson relied on language that his audience and consumers understood without any linguistic interpretation by professionals. He used religious texts especially biblical quotations and messages as well as texts selected from the Methodist Hymn Book (MHB)/Christian Asor Ndwom to create his music. Entsua-Mensah on the other side of the coin is very mature and linguistically creative as he sounds proverbial and philosophical regarding the use of text in his choral compositions. Compared to Koomson, Entsua-Mensah goes strictly to the Western compositional style and system as he ignores the Africanism in melody creation using the Fante language as one of the main compositional and communicative tools. With songs like Mayɛ dza mobotum, Amansuon, Per yɛ papa, among others Entsua-Mensah is able to communicate the message to the intended audience. In support to this, Akin Euba has this to say, In order to make an impact in Africa, composers need first to develop a voice that speaks to Africans, and this leads to the question of creativity. Creating an identity for music, whether is based on race, nationality, ethnicity, or self, is something that has engaged the attention of Western composers. Originality is one of the principles of Western composition and a competent composer is expected to have a voice that distinguishes him or her from others (Euba 2001:119) Like Koomson, Entsua-Mensah apart from creatively developing his lyrics for his choral works, relied on religious texts as well as setting additional tunes to several hymns from the Methodist Hymn Book. As a Methodist himself, he was very much aware and familiar with the role the early Christian missionaries played in the Africanization of the Western hymn through translation into the local languages, When Christian missionaries first came to West Africa in the mid- nineteenth century, they translated European hymn texts into local 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh languages for use in West African churches. This method was not too satisfactory. For one thing, the pre-existing European tunes conflicted with the linguistic intonations of African texts, thereby upsetting the tone language culture. Secondly, the texts of European hymns often carried ideas pertaining to European cultures, geography, atmospheric conditions, and so forth that were irrelevant, unknown, or otherwise meaningless to Africans. It became apparent that the Christian message would not have its full impact on Africans unless the texts of liturgical music were directly relevant to African cultures. This suggests that signals are meaningful inasmuch as their receivers understand the code used in transmitting the signals (Euba 2001:121). The lyrics in Entsua-Mensah’s compositions demand a lot of reflection as he often uses “big” Fante terms while Koomson uses words that are friendly and easily understood by both young and old. 4.10 Findings from the Comparative Analysis Regarding the findings from the analysis of the choral compositions of Alfred Entsua- Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, it has been obviously revealed that Entsua-Mensah was the mentor upon whose art/choral works inspired Koomson to similarly compose in that vein. This is the philosophy behind the topic of this study “Generation of Inspiration and Aspiration in the Choral Composition: Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson” with Generation of Inspiration and Aspiration being the key words. Entsua- Mensah who somehow related to John Gershom Koomson experienced European hymnody and singing style and also studied and wrote examinations organized by Western institutions. Being African and having had bi-cultural experience thought of composing art works that incorporated both Western and traditional music elements and materials distinguishing his works from his contemporaries whose works were dominated by African elements. His compositions became unique and outstanding due to certain elements and compositional techniques he introduced in addition to the available materials at his disposal found in his immediate environment. Chromaticism and syncopation which 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh are the dominant and prominently used elements in his works caught the eyes and mind of John Gershom Koomson. Koomson also aspired to compose in the style of Entsua-Mensah who had been his mentor and who happened to listen to his art/choral works on the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation every night. The findings of the analysis show that Koomson was a disciple and student of Entsua-Mensah because he shared common views on almost all the analytic parameters discussed in chapters two and three which comprised melodic structure, rhythmic creativity, harmonic arrangement, chord progression, chromaticism, texture and many more. There are also a few areas in their art work that they have divergent views. For example, Entsua-Mensah composed in a through-composed structure while Koomson presents his in several formal structures such as binary, ternary, rondo, strophic and sometimes in through-composed. Again his rhythms are a little bit friendly and attractive to many singing groups. The other element that creates problems for choirs and even choirmasters called chromaticism which features prominently in this thesis is simplified and modified in Koomson’s music making them more flexible and friendly to all singing groups and other audiences. Koomson focused on and promoted traditional music elements and materials for composition as he admired and believed in the compositional philosophies of Ephraim Amu even though his works have imprints of Alfred Entsua- Mensah compositional traits. To conclude on these findings, John Gershom Koomson applied the ideas and philosophies of Alfred Entsua-Mensah with few changes to favour consumers/audiences. What is surprising is the underutilization of the choral works of the two established composers by Ghanaian choirs and other singing groups. This is a subject for discussion in the subsequent minutes to unravel the factors that impeded regular performance of their choral works. 138 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.11 Reasons for the Underutilization of their Choral Compositions Several choral composers have throughout their compositions transformed the lives of many Ghanaians religiously, morally and economically. Popular composers like Ephraim Amu, N. Z. Nayo, Pappoe Thompson, I. D. Riverson, and J. H. K. Nketia among others have all contributed in nation building through their compositions which are available across the length and breadth of the country especially in the churches. However, very good and influential composers like Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson have their choral works not being performed regularly by choirs and other singing groups including bands. They wrote a lot of fascinating musical tunes such as patriotic songs, religious songs and songs that address social issues. But a chunk of these compositions are relatively unknown to choral music lovers and the general public due to certain factors which I bring up for discussion. One major factor revealed is the low publicity of the choral works of the two. Of late, recordings of choral songs composed by Ghanaians that are played on radio and television and the availability of music studios to record songs on CDs were not the same years gone by. As a broadcaster in the 1930s, Alfred Entsua-Mensah promoted few of his art compositions which inspired Koomson to develop interest in his style. He later popularized his songs through his choirs, band and others singing groups when he left GBC. Koomson also had problem of publicity. However, as guest performer at the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation Kumasi, he utilized the opportunity given him in promoting some of his works especially with his instrumental music. He, like Entsua-Mensah made his choral compositions known through choirs that he taught and directed and recorded few leaving greater part undisclosed to the choral community and the general public. People usually develop interest in musical works when they listen to or watch the videos of the pieces and rush for copies after analyzing and reflecting on the impact they have on 139 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh their lives. Unlike these days that dissemination of information and promotion of songs and composers is easier; songs of these two composers were neglected due to limited access to electronic and social media platforms like radio, internet, facebook, whatsapp, youtube and telegram. Another factor is their inability to avail their compositions to the choral music users such as the church choirs. Alfred Entsua-Mensah for instance has a lot of works, both completed and uncompleted in his files which are undisputedly not known to the public except the few that we already patronize, that is Ndaase, Amansuon and Asamanadwow a. For Koomson he told me that he was a very shy person initially, therefore giving his pieces out to choirs during workshops and conferences was a challenge hence keeping them to himself and to the few that were closer to him. Both composers considered music as a hobby rather than using it to amass wealth and to promote economic stability. This position made them develop a great interest and passion for music. Their works in the church as well was considered sacrificial rather than being business oriented for wealth acquisition. The absence of technology when they were at their peak impeded the accessibility and availability of scores. Software and equipments like finale and printers which facilitate speedy and efficient compositional works seen at many offices recently were not available. As a result, it was a very difficult task for their choral works to be accessed to foster quick spread and patronage of their musical scores. Family members also saw music as non lucrative and therefore discouraged rather than encouraging them to do more. For Entsua-Mensah, there was no one to promote his works after his death because his only son John Entsua-Mensah who studied under him travelled abroad leaving his sisters who knew nothing about art composition and did not know much about their father’s 140 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh choral works. These women could only give oral accounts of their father’s life history with regards to his works. On a journey to Takoradi with Madam Agnes Entsua-Mensah and Grace Entsua-Mensah to search for Entsua-Mensah’s choral works, I saw a lot of uncompleted art/choral works which I took the opportunity to select some of the few unpopular pieces that were completed which I have included in the scores codified in this thesis project. Another important factor for the low performance and underutilization of the choral compositions of the two composers especially Entsua-Mensah is the complications and complexities that characterize them. This is as a result of the Westernization of their vocal works as against wholly Africanizing compositional elements. Even though there are a lot of traditional elements that give their works true African identity but the organization and structure sometimes disguise the Ghanaian identity. Syncopation as usual is an element that prominently features in choral works of the two as they use both simple and compound meters. This rhythmic brilliance and creativity is one element that brings a lot of troubles to choirs and choirmasters at choir practice. John G. Koomson also uses complex rhythms employing the services of syncopation but not too many times in his compound metered compositions. It is true that [modern African] composers have even attempted to Africanize their works by using African tunes and rhythms, but, in their preoccupation with Western forms, such borrowings have been quite minimal and their works must be regarded as extensions of Western art music rather than a continuation of African tradition in music (Euba 1997:52-3). Chromaticism which is centrally featured in the choral works of Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson is the main compositional technique and element that creates the problems for choirs, performers and choirmasters as Ghanaians in general do not usually appreciate them. Traditionally, vocal music such as the asafo, apatampa among others do not usually 141 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh contain chromatics and that Ghanaians do not feel comfortable with chromatic music as composers only use them when they modulate to other keys. For a piece to have more than two or three chromatic notes in almost all measures looks abnormal to a Ghanaian choir, and this is the trade mark of these two composers. Few choral groups in Ghana such as the Harmonious Chorale, the Winneba Youth Choir etc. and departmental choirs of the music departments of the various universities and other tertiary institutions are those that can perform especially Entsua-Mensah’s choral works with ease. As special and experienced groups that command respect from majority of Ghanaians, they try as much as possible to perform all songs. They are not selective of songs to perform. John Gershom Koomson and Alfred Entsua-Mensah dwell on syncopation and chromaticism. However, they have established themselves as renowned art composers with same elements even though they are difficult to perform by majority of Ghanaian choirs. My personal views on the choral compositions of Alfred Entsua-Mensah will be based on the elements on which the analysis of the works were based namely rhythmic structure, harmonic arrangement with extensive introduction of chromatics to modulate and embellish his art works. Melodically, sometimes his progressions do not follow any recognizable order as it becomes difficult for the inexperienced and sometimes the experienced to predict his progressions as a result of his extensive application of chromatics. Pitching for choristers to follow and sing is a difficult task. This I experienced when I tried teaching his song titled Amansuon which to me is one of the easiest and fascinating song, patriotic and nationalistic in nature among his choral works. I spent months on it in teaching but the choir could not sing the song smoothly and convincingly till now. As indigenous songs like folk tunes, traditional songs and elements like call and response among others are used as pre-compositional elements for Ghanaian choral composition, Entsua-Mensah’s works are chordal with very rich western harmonic 142 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conventions like the use of secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords. I refer to Entsua-Mensah’s chromatic utilization as “Decorative Chromaticism” and also refer him master of chromatic music. Unlike the indigenous vocal music styles that were practised through oral tradition, change of key or modulation are major elements that characterize Entsua-Mensah’s works. These elements usually create dissonances/discords in his music to the ordinary man. His rhythmic expositions are mainly derived from the rich rhythmic patterns of the Ghanaian traditional and neo-traditional music genres like asafo, apatampa, adzewa, ebibindwom but make them more complicated with syncopation. Syncopation is a traditional trait of the African society that features in most of our indigenous music; however, Entsua-Mensah’s usage of it surpasses the usual syncopation found in our traditional songs and folk tunes. I further tried to make corrections in the harmony of Asamanadwow a but the choristers who knew the song already continued to sing the old patterns that were convenient and pleased their ears. Nana Jeesa-Mica Forson who was my teacher at the Musama School of Music and a renowned musician and composer of the Musama Church saw the script of Asamanadwow a and as he started studying he asked “Is this how the harmony of this song is, so all this while we have been singing the wrong harmony”. This tells how challenging the teaching and learning of Per yɛ papa, Woewie, and M’enyigye Nsunyiwa will be since almost every measure of the aforementioned pieces are full of chromatics. On rehearsal ground of the Departmental Brass Band Ensemble of the University of Ghana, Entsua- Mensah’s hymn tunes titled Bentuma, Bekoe, Bethel and Dunwell found in Ghana Praise were learnt which I was part, and in fact it was not easy with pitching even with instruments. A student also performed Mayɛ Dza Mobotum on the saxophone and it was a challenging moment even though that was my first time of hearing it so I requested from 143 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the student a copy of the song after the performance to examine the compositional elements. These are the elements and principles of Entsua-Mensah’s art works that resurface in the choral compositions of John Gershom Koomson as he was intrinsically motivated and inspired. For me as well, I find the works of Entsua-Mensah in particular very unique to other choral works because of his rhythmic creativity, chord types and progressions and use of chromatics that can be used for teaching theory and composition in Ghana. 4.12 Summary Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, both citizens of Elmina and art composers have promoted a particular compositional technique. They have traits in their works which are unique from those of the typically African composers. The dominance of western compositional elements over their traditional counterparts is the fundamental reason for the underutilization and low performances of their choral works. Since the two composers have similar characteristics with regards to their choral works, this chapter has disclosed the various sections they agree unanimously, sections they share common and similar opinions and areas where they share diverse views based on the very significant analytical parameters used. Melodic lines of choral compositions have been dully examined to uncover the commonalities, similarities and differences. The analysis brought to light the elements that make their choral works difficult to remember and the various elements that reveal the beauty and maturity between the works of the two giving examples of songs to confirm those claims. This comparison was done using their hymn tunes and anthems. Rhythmic comparison of works of the two prominent composers was made but based on their hymn tunes and anthems. Note values employed by both composers are simple note devoid of syncopations, and simple meters especially for their hymn tunes depicting western 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hymnody while the 6/8 and complex syncopated notes are prominent compositional element associated with Entsua-Mensah. The analysis obviously revealed that syncopated rhythms created by Entsua-Mensah results in difficulty in interpretation when performed by the ordinary and inexperienced as against the rhythmic works of Koomson. Few examples mentioned include Aheman Fɛɛfɛw by Koomson and Bɔm Nantsew, Per yɛ papa, both composed by Entsua-Mensah. Harmonic arrangement is another aspect of their works compared and it was discovered that they almost share the same principle and idea. Secondary dominant chords, augmented sixth chords and chromaticism being the main challenging elements scary in their choral works were examined; element that create inconveniences and dissonance to the lay person’s perspective were considered. Formal structure was revealed as they have diverse views but common characteristics in allowing performers to interpret scores based on their own discretion when both fail to introduce dynamic and tempo markings (expressive elements). Last and final item discussed was language (text) which carry the main message of African music. Entsua- Mensah has absolute control of the Fante language in his compositions. He composed with powerful texts that are thought provoking and usually proverbial in nature and not easily understood by ordinary persons while Koomson carves his texts very easy to be understood and interpreted by majority. It was further disclosed that language played very significant role in their melodic creativity as it helps the promotion of speech rhythm and tone system. I had personal experiences and remarks on works of the two personalities as a choirmaster and a band director. On the field, I involved myself in teaching some of their choral works especially Aseda by Koomson and Asamanadwow a and Amansuon by Entsua-Mensah. The response was not a positive one but discouraging. The main motive for my involvement was to get first hand information as to why choirmasters, choirs and other singing groups do not include songs such as those mentioned in this study in their 145 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh repertoires. The difficulty I uncounted during the exercise was a clear manifestation and confirmation of complexities that characterize the art works of the two composers. Findings from the analysis confirmed that the two composers deserve to be declared father and son or teacher and student in composition. 146 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE Summary, Conclusion and Recommendations 5.1 Preamble This chapter of the thesis outlines the summary of all the significant topics and aspects discussed in the earlier chapters and finally ends with the conclusion and recommendations. It addresses three very important components of the project. Firstly, it focuses on the general overview of the thesis in the first segment which examines distinctions between the choral works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson and how different they are from compositions of their contemporaries in the art/choral music industry. The second touches on the conclusions uncovering the influence of interculturalism on works of African art music composers like Entsua-Mensah and Koomson and their compositions, the unique features that characterize their works and my personal views. The third and final section outlines recommendations based on the information and findings deduced from the work. 5.2 Summary The study in its introduction addressed the problems and methodological approaches and arrangement to critically investigate and examine all issues raised. Ghana has a problem of proper documentation of important events and personalities. This problem of lack of documentation regarding biographies of great composers of Ghana like Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson is one of the main reasons for this study. Again, reasons for the low performance and patronage of their choral works are another contributing factor. This thesis has purposefully and explicitly examined and uncovered the unique compositional traits exhibited in the choral works of the two composers belonging to the first and third generations respectively. 147 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Alfred Entsua-Mensah was chosen for this study based on the intercultural dimension and advancement exhibited in his choral works through the incorporation of both Western compositional materials and the traditional music elements. His selection for this project became necessary and justified when an exercise was given me by Dr. Joshua Alfred Amuah in Music Theory and Composition class to search for information about his general lifestyle and art works which resulted in a very difficult experience before I could gather very scanty information. Similarly, John Gershom Koomson who also admired and imitated Entsua-Mensah’s works both choral and instrumental was not captured anywhere. Documentation on his general life was totally unavailable while his works that were available lacked publicity. The common compositional elements found in the works of the two composers including the intercultural dimensions they portrayed made consumers nervous due to their complexities, a situation which became very necessary and relevant to fine answers to, hence my motivation to formulate this topic for the research work. The philosophy of the Fante proverb tsir kor nnkɔ egyina (two heads are better than one) that expresses and elaborates on the significance of hybridity to unify and strengthen institutions have been made prominent as far as choral music composition is concerned. Various key terminologies have been broken down and explained in an attempt to support and broaden the understanding of readers and other consumers of this work. In support, music composition is referred to as an original piece of music or the process of creating or writing a new song. The term choral composition therefore becomes extremely relevant since the work is centered on new musical creations of these two important Ghanaian composers. Since their choral works traced parts of their roots to the traditional music genres of the African society, it has been explained with several examples. The important terms that were explained include classical music which owns its heritage to the Western 148 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh world and to the written classical tradition, choral music, traditional music, popular music, asafo, ebibindwom and generation. Traditional music as used here is the main skeleton and precompositional materials that gave birth to the Ghanaian choral music. Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson, both Fantes who were exposed to the traditional music genres of their immediate environments brilliantly introduced and promoted these traits into their works. They sometimes extracted themes from already existing tunes (folk tunes) and created their own vocal and instrumental musical pieces from them. Influences from the Western European powers through Western education and activities of the early Christian missionaries have been addressed when in the 1920s Ephraim Amu, Gaddiel Acquaah among other pioneered the africanization of Ghanaian choral music using conventional harmonic principles. Ephraim Amu, J. H. K Nketia among others in the promotion of intercultural music composed several instrumental and solo works using traditional tunes and themes to be performed on the piano. Nketia’s Wo nya amane (When you have trouble) for voice accompanied by the piano and Amu’s Bonwere Kente (Bonwere Kente Weaving) for the piano are key examples. This project is also committed to treat a biographical study of the man Alfred Entsua- Mensah which is totally missing from Ghana’s choral music history. It is therefore devoted to the background study of Entsua-Mensah and his musical creativity especially with regards to vocal music. Alfred Entsua-Mensah belonged to the first generation as Amu and Acquaah but little has been documented on his life and creative works. As a Ghanaian he promoted traditional music and compositional elements as he used them as pre-compositional materials, but also had a great belief and regard for Western harmonic principles and elements. In effect, he promoted bi-cultural, bi-musical and intercultural approaches through his art works by fusing elements from various traditional societies and 149 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh cultures. He promoted interculturalism but his works are dominated by Western compositional elements. As a Ghanaian, he also promoted the indigenous music elements of his own tradition and environment. In his hymn tunes, the only obviously recognizable African compositional element is the language which is usually in Fante. Tunes such as Bekoe, Fitz, Bentuma, and Ndaase among others are key examples which almost are monocultural or Western oriented. However, his anthems in compound duple and simple meters like Asamanadwow a, Woewie, Mayɛ dza mobotum, Per yɛ papa among others possess intercultural features with regards to the compositional elements evident in them. This chapter again uncovers his early life development, educational background elementary and advanced levels, career development, life in the church and musical creativity. The creativity in his choral compositions is so unique but complex such that they cannot be performed easily without encountering any challenges. He was an exponent of Ghanaian traditional rhythms as he dwelt so much on the use of syncopation in almost all his 6/8 choral works. One can then say that his main priority perhaps was to make his pieces very difficult and challenging in order to assess choirs and choirmasters’ level of intelligence regarding the interpretation of scores. Because to handle Entsua-Mensah’s choral works, one need to be very good and exceptional in rhythmic interpretation, chromaticism and pitching. Syncopation happens to be one of the traditional elements he over utilized and exploited which deter singing groups, consumers and other audiences. Compared to his contemporaries, he arguably was the only Ghanaian art composer who made syncopation his rhythmic priority and very significant element prominently used in his choral anthems/tunes that were composed in the African perspective. His compositions in compound meters analyzed manifest this except those in simple duple (2/4) and simple 150 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh quadruple (4/2, 4/4) which are semblance of Western hymnody which are simpler and more accommodating. The analysis of his works addressed many issues based on the parameters examined where his true compositional characteristics have been uncovered. With the analysis, I he created and developed his compositional identity such that anyone who hears his choral works could easily identify and relate it to him accordingly. It was again established that his tunes with simple meters have Western identity as a result of his experiences from Western hymn singing style introduced by the early Christian missionaries while his compositions with compound meters expose the sense of belongingness as an African. Apart from these, all his songs are treated with similar compositional styles and elements. For example, melody, harmony, rhythm and chromaticism are the main elements on which his creativity and brilliant compositional works are centered. The study again is dedicated to the life and choral works of John Gershom Koomson in which the biographical accounts had been discussed. Born in the mid-twentieth century to a family of Christians and into the Methodist Church, he contributed to the service of his maker through his choral compositions. Koomson’s work addressed the need to embrace the hybridization of Western and traditional music elements in creating art works both vocal and instrumental. His instrumental work entitled Moonlight is a parodied and developed version of a popular Ga folk tune written to be performed on the piano. Harold Richter is a classic example of pianists who have performed this instrumental work on the piano which can even be accessed on youtube.com. This is one of his pieces used as a pedagogical material for piano students and as well one of his contributions to music education in Ghana. He cherished the African traditional elements of music instituted and promoted by the earlier art composers upon which he bases his compositional philosophies. He also promoted elements like speech tone, speech rhythm, syncopation 151 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and sometimes call and response approach that have always been the most used compositional and performance techniques of most African music genres. As a Methodist, he was very familiar with ebibindwom which was institutionalized by illiterate Fante women of the Methodist Church using their Fante language under the ministry and stewardship of Rev. Thomas Birch Freeman. Ebibindwom significantly influenced his compositional style especially with his choral anthems. His compositions are in two folds and they are, tunes composed in African vein and those that are Western oriented. John Gershom Koomson showed interest in the compositional style of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and so most of his choral works looks almost like those of Entsua-Mensah particularly with the use of chromatics and unusual chords such as secondary dominant seventh chords and augmented sixth chords. Several analytical parameters were considered in the examination of his compositional style. Melodically, his pieces are easy to recognize and recall as he demonstrate the traditional speech tone and rhythm system. Aseda, Ma me Gyidi Ntaban and Aheman Fɛɛfɛw analyzed in chapter three are examples his songs with simple melodic lines. He uses matured and conventional harmonic progressions with brilliant and perfect resolutions. Almost all his choral works exhibit similar features that disclose his uniqueness in art composition and geared towards creating his own compositional identity and traits. He dominantly dwells on religious texts in his choral compositions as most of them are quotes from religious books especially the Holy Bible and the Methodist Hymn Book. It was revealed that, in spite of recognizing and acknowledging traditional elements and materials in his art works, he most of the time sounds Western as he shares similar and common traits with Entsua-Mensah who also created his own unique style by which he is identified with. Aheman Fɛɛfɛw follows speech rhythm according to its syllabic divisions of texts used but ignores speech tone in its melodic line. 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Characteristics of the choral compositions of Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson have been uncovered through a comparative study. It has been manifested that both composers shared common ideas and principles in creating musical pieces that are used for various occasions. Apart from the rhythmic complexities that characterize works of Entsua-Mensah, their works are semblances of each other when they both employ similar techniques in their compositions. As they belonged to different compositional generations of Ghana and have had contacts with the Western world through the study of Western art compositions, they embraced the intercultural approach in their art compositions infusing Western and traditional elements. This promotes and enhances the performance and listenership of their works by both Westerners and Ghanaians. Chromatics as used by both composers is compositional techniques that create problems for performers. This is an element which is prominently featured in Western art music and introduced in the Gold Coast as a result of the early Christian missionary activities that succeeded in imposing western cultural traditions on indigenes. Through-composed structure monopolizes the choral works of Entsua-Mensah whereas John Gershom Koomson encourages and exploits several formal structures in his creative art works. The two composers are noted for composing choral pieces of short length perhaps with the intention of arousing and awakening the interest of church choirs and other singing groups in patronizing them. 5.3 Conclusion In examining and analyzing the choral compositions of Alfred Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson, the analytical parameters I employed exposed the main traits and characteristics of their works. The elements used in their compositions exposed the interculturalist approach and aspect as a result of their encounters with foreign nationals and their exposure to Western type of education from elementary through to the advanced 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh level including their musical training. This thesis addresses the shift from complete African traditional phenomenon to an era of interculturation and bi-cultural advancement in bringing people from various cultural backgrounds together. This assimilation of Western cultural practices embraced by early Ghanaian choral composers is what is being practised by the young composers currently which have also attracted global attention. In effect it confirms the popular Fante proverb tsir kor nnkɔ egyina which indicates that there is absolute strength through unity and cooperation. The incorporation of Western and traditional African/Ghanaian elements materialized or became necessary due to its easy facilitation through the activities of the Christian missionaries which needed the utilization of materials from both cultural traditions. One of the main purposes of this study stated in the first chapter is the lack of proper documentation of biographical information and general life of some prominent Ghanaian art music composers which Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson are no exception. As a result, both composers have been made known in this study by making available documentations covering their general lifestyle. Their art works that were as well overshadowed by works of their contemporaries and even those of the younger generations have also been brought into the limelight. The contribution of these two great composers to the choral music industry in Ghana has been great and enormous as their choral works have been used nationwide for several important programmes such as religious, political, educational, national and other social functions. Their popularity was intensified as they took charge in teaching and directing many choral and singing groups in Ghana where they taught them the fascinating tunes they composed. A lot of musicians/composers and organists we see in Ghana today are their handiworks and achievements. 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Like any other musician, both Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson are noted for composing in a particular compositional style in which they can be identified. Writing choral music using both traditional and western elements, some of the compositional elements dominate in almost all their choral works. Entsua-Mensah is noted for writing complex rhythmic patterns through the use of syncopation, an element of his song that frightens and scares choristers and even some directors. Syncopation is as well used by John Gershom Koomson in composing fascinating tunes but his is a little modified and simplified. The two composers all use syncopations but one contrasting viewpoint is that Koomson usually employs speech rhythm while Entsua-Mensah in most of his songs ignores. Scores or pieces selected for the study are full of chromatic notes which are uncharacteristic of Ghanaian composers and choirmasters, another element that scares singing groups especially when used for modulation. Entsua-Mensah disregarded speech tone as he altered notes in both the melody and harmony as and when he wanted. He never allowed syllabic contours of the texts decided for him or determined his melodic lines. Parameters such as dynamics and tempi as examined in the selected pieces are usually determined by the text/language and pitches since both composers never liked using expressive materials (dynamic and tempo markings) forte, piano, allegro, moderato as the composers of the Western world use to have in their music. They both compose in a homophonic texture with sounds vertically arranged and sounded simultaneously, however on few occasions they employed monophonic texture where any of the voices independently takes a melody. The similarities and differences between the choral works of the two composers have been examined and it has been proven that apart from certain few areas which they share divergent opinions per the parameters used, there is a clear confirmation that the latter was inspired by the works of the former hence aspired to imitate his compositional style, 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh philosophy and creativity. Clearly, Koomson modifies his works to be a little difficult as he takes into consideration the choirs and audience. In the fourth chapter, the various factors that impeded the regular performance of their choral works were outlined to facilitate in resolving those problems as well as promoting their songs. Examining the outcome of the analysis of their choral works, it became obviously clear that the combined use of syncopation and chromatics are the main elements that create the complexities in their works and for which their identity is based. This makes their songs very unique and interesting from those of their colleagues despite how convoluted the songs look. The Fante language/texts used have been translated to English to enhance and facilitate a smooth understanding of the songs. Choosing Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson from the lot and unveiling their biographies and general life as well as analyzing their choral works will make choirs, music students and the general choral music society appreciate intercultural music with amalgamated music materials from both Western and African traditional societies. The up and coming composers will be enlightened and motivated to apply these elements in their own compositions which will in turn arouse the interest of many singing groups to regularly perform them. It is very important to also conclude by talking and identity development which is one of the major factors that necessitated this study and also to highlight works, approaches and identities of some bi-musical and intercultural African composers. A lot of composers in Ghana and other parts of Africa have created and developed for themselves unique identity through elements and principles they believe and employ in their compositions. The uniqueness of their works is sometimes influenced by their bi-musical and intercultural experiences gathered throughout their musical lives. It is unanimously agreed that Ephraim Amu began the creation and development of the Ghanaian choral identity when most of his colleagues were addicted to the western compositional system. He also ended 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh up creating an identity for himself through the fusion of traditional compositional elements and western compositional principles. The African elements that dominated his works such as the speech tone, speech rhythm, and his bi-lingual experience as well as the use of hemiola contributed immensely towards his popularity both locally and internationally. Akin Euba and J. H. K. Nketia, both composers are also noted for the introduction and promotion of African pianism, a piano music which employs styles and techniques used in performing African traditional instrumental music. Nketia once again is recognized for his introduction and usage of a dominant chord named after him called the Nketia dominant seventh found in most of his compositions with Monkamfo No as an example. Nicodemus Kofi Badu (Ɔkwabran) has created for himself an identity through the use of Fante appellations and attributes usually for the glorification of God. His appellations sometimes are very difficult to interpret and understand. Kenn Kafui has to his credit a creative instrumental works composed from the pentatonic scale to be performed on the piano. Kenn Kafui named this creative work the Pentanata. All the aforementioned composers have bi-musical and intercultural experiences and are able to incorporate in their music aspects from different cultural backgrounds. Indeed, everybody has talent that results in creating personal identity but it usually depends on the individual’s attitude and hard work in realizing, developing and polishing it. Again all musicians have their philosophies, visions and priorities that guide them in their music business and these values are usually applied in their art works. The composers of this study had particular principles that guided them in accomplishing the objectives they set for themselves. Comparing songs of the Entsua-Mensah and Gershom Koomson, it appeared clearly they had common compositional principles and those principles resulted in the commonalities and similarities seen in their art works. This suggests to me that they were promoting a particular unique compositional principle and philosophy in bringing diversity and 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh variation in Ghanaian choral composition. Entsua-Mensah’s decorative chromaticism is a special compositional technique and principle that John Gershom Koomson identified in his art works and which became an inspirational tool as he followed in producing art works of similar attributes. 5.4 Recommendations Throughout this work I have deliberated on the use and importance of combining both African and Western compositional materials in the choral works of many Ghanaian composers that was necessitated by pioneering composers such as Ephraim Amu, N. Z. Nayo, J. H. K. Nketia, I. D. Riverson and continued by the younger generation. This addresses the significance of intercultural approach in art composition introduced and employed by Nketia and Akin Euba. By this approach it is always very difficult to give a musical piece of a Ghanaian composer a definite identity if language is never taken into consideration. Ghanaian composers especially the younger generation must try all possible means in making their compositions very attractive and appreciative to both Westerners and Ghanaians. The foundation has already been laid in Ghana by the early art music composers through the influences of western missionaries and education type. When intercultural music is promoted, the products go international as musicians, students and other audiences from various countries access and use them without any challenges. Some of Ghana’s choral composers have carved their personal compositional identity with resources available to them whether their compositions promote the Ghanaian culture or the Western tradition. Kofi Badu for instance is identified by his usage of appellations and attributes of God with the Fante language, Osei Boateng identified by his biblical and textual exploration including his rich harmonic progressions, Nketia with his dominant seventh chord while Amu’s works have attributes of speech tone and rhythm as well as hemiola portraying Africanism and individualism. In the first chapter, I made a statement 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of encouraging up and coming composers to try and explore all possible means of creating their compositional styles with which they will be identified. I therefore depending on this work recommend that students of music and young composers develop their own compositional and creative styles after reading this work as Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson did when they decided not to follow their contemporaries but created their own style and identity. The Government of Ghana through Ghana Education Service pretends promoting music in the education sector by instituting music and cultural competitions/festivals among basic and second cycle schools when in reality the theoretical aspect of music is ignored except few secondary schools that do pure music and even that, it is subject to headmasters’ recommendation and approval. As a result, the ordinary way of singing popular hymns are encouraged by the few musically inclined teachers instead of instituting a more organized singing groups and teaching them songs in parts that are intercultural in nature with various compositional materials which can prepare them into the future musically. There is therefore the need to generally introduce music at the basic school level to motivate and prepare students to develop the interest in music as a discipline and to pursue it to the highest level which in turn will create employment opportunities for them in future. Retrieving or accessing biographical information of certain prominent personalities of our society is always a challenging task almost everywhere in Ghana. A lot of composers both young and old have no detailed background information about themselves as well as proper documentation of their art works. It becomes very difficult even for their families to produce credible information about them in their absence. I therefore urge music scholars and researchers to try their best to document biographies of all known and established art music composers including their works, codify them into single documents or booklets and possibly make them available in shops. A website could also be created 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh where important information about renowned art composers could be posted for easy access by all without hindrances. I again advise that all art composers alive try their possible best to prepare their autobiographies and electronically generated recordings and keep them in their libraries where scholars, students, researchers as well as family members can access them any time any day. Ghanaians have relied on traditional way of composing and singing for a long time and it is about time we drastically modified it. Studying works of legends of Ghana’s choral music such as Amu and Nketia, compositional technique like chromaticism that dominates the works of Entsua-Mensah and John Gershom Koomson are however not prominently utilized in their works. This technique is one of the main aspects that are used by Western art composers such as Handel, Haydn, and Beethoven etc. in their oratorios. As a result, any encounter made by any Ghanaian choir with songs full of chromatics is seen and received with a passive intention and thought. To address the problems associated with chromaticism as Koomson and Entsua-Mensah promoted in their works, chromatic harmony must be intensified in our universities and other tertiary institutions so as to produce composers who will write chromatic music for choirs of all standards to perform. When choirmasters begin to include chromatic musical pieces in their repertoires, the perception and fear of being intimidated by chromatic music will be erased hence enhancing their regular performance. I recommend that the few experienced and semi- professional choirs like Harmonious Chorale, Winneba Youth Choir, Tema Youth Choir and departmental choirs of the various universities and tertiary institutions begin to seriously appreciate and prioritize chromatic music through performances and recordings to encourage and inspire the less experienced choirs. In the fourth chapter, several reasons and factors leading to the limited performances of works of the two composers of this study were enumerated with one being the complex 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh nature and unfamiliarity of certain elements of composition used. As a composer, it will be prudent to factor your audience and other stakeholders in your creative works since they are the principal actors of that field. Disregarding the level and maturity of singing groups and other audiences when composing will possibly result in low patronage and even keep your songs indoors for your own consumption as experienced by Entsua-Mensah whose works scare people. University of Ghana through the Department of Music assisted by Professor Emeritus J. H. Kwabena Nketia, has over the years entered into a partnership agreement with The Royal Hague Conservatory of Music, Holland to annually organize Composers’ Workshop on Intercultural Music Project after which all participants are awarded certificates. This workshop which focuses on intercultural music exposes students and composers both young and old to various types of music and compositional styles from the traditional set up and those of the West. This as well introduces composers to various techniques of composition with introduction of dissonances and rhythmic creations in the view of highlighting and promoting interculturalism. With experiences gathered during the workshop, participants are required to compose their own music infusing western and traditional elements which look unique and possess intercultural characteristics. The interesting aspect is that all participants perform their compositions accompanied by instrumentalist brought from Holland. I therefore recommend this laudable programme to all universities and other tertiary institutions in Ghana to also embrace and even improve upon it to promote intercultural music that will be highly appreciated by both Ghanaians and Westerners. Art compositions with unusual characteristics such as those composed by Entsua-Mensah and J. G. Koomson will be useful pedagogical tool for exercises in chromatic harmony for university students to polish up their analytical and musical skills. Already in chapter three it was made known that John Gershom Koomson composed 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh instrumental music for a programme on the radio out of which twenty-five were used as a pedagogical tool for students in the second cycle schools. Choirmasters and music directors must try and select songs with several complex and challenging compositional principles and materials like the complicated rhythmic creations as Entsua-Mensah does with syncopation almost in all his 6/8 pieces and chromaticism as exhibited in the choral compositions selected for this study. Ghanaians are so familiar with syncopation but the way and manner Entsua-Mensah brilliantly creates his rhythms using syncopation and the other compositional elements is amazing. This is what I entreat audience to give it a considerable attention. Churches must also begin to tolerate and accept songs that sound harsh and discordant and encourage their choirs and singing groups to perform more of such songs. 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh BIBLIOGRAPHY Agawu, K. (2003). Representing African Music. London: London Routledge. Agawu, K. (1984). The Impact of Language on Musical Composition in Ghana: An Introduction of the Musical Style of Ephraim Amu, Ethnomusicology, 28(1), 37- 73. Agordoh, A.A. (2010). The Development of Church Music in Ghana: Accra Sundel Services. Amuah, I. R., Adum-Attah, K., & Arthur, K. (2004) Music and Dance for Colleges of Education, Kramad Publishers Limited, Cape Coast-Revised Edition. Amuah, J. A. (2013). A Survey of Choral Art Music Performance Scenes in Ghana, International Journal of Arts and Humanities, 2(10), 242-247 Accessed on 3/4/2017. Amuah, J. A. (2012). 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Accessed on 23rd July, 2017. 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDICES Appendix A: Choral Scores of Alfred Entsua-Mensah 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 170 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 171 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 172 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 173 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 174 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 175 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 176 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 177 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 178 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 179 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 180 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 181 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 182 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 183 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 184 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 185 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 186 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 187 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 188 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 189 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 190 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix B: Choral Scores of John Gershom Koomson 191 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 192 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 193 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 194 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 195 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 196 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 197 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 198 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 199 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 200 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 201 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 202 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 203 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 204 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 205 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 206 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 207 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 208 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 209 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 210 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 211 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 212 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 213 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 214 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 215 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 216 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 217 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 218 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 219 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 220 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 221 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 222 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 223 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 224 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 225 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 226 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 227 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 228 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 229 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Appendix C: Persons Interviewed 1. Amoah Derek. F. (09/16) Interview on the life of John Gershom Koomson. 2. Entsua-Mensah, A. & Entsua-Mensah, G. (20/09/16)Personal communication in Takoradi on the life and works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah. 3. Entsua-Mensah, J. (5/10/16 & 21/12/16) London, whatsapp communication on the life and works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah. 4. Entsua-Mensah, D. (13/01/17) Personal communication in Kumasi on the life and works of Alfred Entsua-Mensah. 5. Koomson, J. G. (25/11/2016) Personal communication at Nyanyano-Kasoa on his biography, life and choral works. 6. Okyere Ernest (January, 2017) Personal communication of the works of J. G. Koomson. 230