i THE ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS AT THE GHANA EDUCATION SERVICE BY EDWARD SCOTT AGYEMANG (10876630) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE. JUNE, 2023 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION I firstly dedicate this work to the almighty God who has been my shield throughout my life and then to my mother who has been praying for me always. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My profound gratitude goes to my supervisor, Fr. Dominic Maximilian Ofori, PhD, for his guidance and counsel throughout this journey, then to all my research participants especially Madam Cassandra Twum Ampofo, head of public relations unit of the Ghana Education Service. I really appreciate the commitment level of all my research participants. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iv ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. viii CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.0 Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background to the Study .................................................................................................. 2 1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................... 6 1.3 Research Objectives .............................................................................................................. 9 1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................. 10 1.5 Significance of the Study ............................................................................................... 10 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms .................................................................................... 11 1.7 Organization of the Study .............................................................................................. 12 1.8 Chapter Summary ................................................................................................................ 12 CHAPTER TWO ........................................................................................................................ 13 LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................ 13 2.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 13 2.1 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 14 2.1.1 The Role of Public Relations ...................................................................................... 14 2.1.2 The Relationship between Public Relations and Education ....................................... 18 2.1.3 Public Relations in the Public Sector ......................................................................... 20 2.1.4 Public Relations and Organizational Image ............................................................... 22 2.1.5 Challenges of Public Relations Practice in the Educational Sector ................................. 23 2.1.6 Gap in the Literature ................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Theoretical Framework .................................................................................................. 26 2.2.1 Excellence Theory ...................................................................................................... 26 2.2.2 Relevance of the Excellence Theory to the Study ...................................................... 33 2.3 Chapter Summary ......................................................................................................... 346 CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................................... 35 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................. 35 3.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 35 3.1 Research Design ............................................................................................................. 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi 3.1.1 Population ................................................................................................................... 36 3.1.2 Sampling Technique and Sample Size ....................................................................... 37 3.2 Data Collection Methods ................................................................................................ 38 3.2.1 Data Collection Instruments ....................................................................................... 40 3.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 42 3.4 Ethical Concerns ............................................................................................................ 42 3.5 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER FOUR ....................................................................................................................... 44 PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................. 44 4.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 44 4.1 Presentation of Findings ...................................................................................................... 45 4.1.1 Demographical Information of Research Participants ..................................................... 45 4.1.2 The Contributions of Public Relations to the Realization of the Mission and the Vision of the GES ..................................................................................................................... 46 4.1.3 Hindrances to Public Relations Practice at the Ghana Education Service ................. 51 4.1.4 The Views of Stakeholder Publics on Public Relations Practices of the Ghana Education Service ....................................................................................................................................... 53 4.1.5 Improving the Practice of Public Relations at the Ghana Education Service ............ 61 4.2 Discussion of Findings ................................................................................................... 62 4.2.1 The Contributions of Public Relations to the Realization of the Mission and the Vision of the GES ..................................................................................................................... 62 4.2.3 The Views of Stakeholder Publics on the Practice of Public Relations at the GES ... 66 4.2.4 Improving the Practice of Public Relations at the GES.............................................. 68 4.3 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................... 69 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 70 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................... 70 5.0 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 70 5.1 Summary of Key Findings ............................................................................................. 70 5.3 Limitations ..................................................................................................................... 73 5.4 Recommendations .......................................................................................................... 74 References…………...…………………………………………………….........……………….76 APPENDIX A .............................................................................................................................. 83 Interview Guide for the Head of Public Relations Unit at the Ghana Education Service University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii APPENDIX B .............................................................................................................................. 84 Interview Guide for the Greater Accra Regional Public Relations Officer APPENDIX C .............................................................................................................................. 85 Interview Guide for the for the Metropolitan/Municipal/District public Relations Officers APPENDIX D .............................................................................................................................. 86 Discussion Guide for Teachers APPENDIX E .............................................................................................................................. 85 Discussion Guide for Parents/Guardians University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii ABSTRACT This study examined the role of public relations at the Ghana Education Service (GES). It focused on the activities of public relations, looked at how public relations can help to accomplish the mission and vision of GES and also examined factors which hinder the practice of public relations at the GES. Moreover, the study examined the views of stakeholder publics on the practice of public relations at the GES and how the GES factors the views of these stakeholder publics into its mission and vision. The study delved into what can be done in order to improve the practice of public relations at the GES. Excellence theory was the only theory that underpinned the study. The study adopted the qualitative research methodology and gathered data via in-depth interview with public relations practitioners at the GES and focus group discussions with stakeholder publics of GES. The study revealed that the common public relations activity at the GES is writing because all practitioners indicated they perform writing activities. Other activities undertaken by practitioners in GES were media engagement and crisis communication. The study found that at the GES not all public relations practitioners were regarded as management members. This situation hinders the public relations practice because some practitioners are not able to make their opinions known to management of the GES especially at the district level. Furthermore, practitioners at the GES are faced with the challenge of financial constraints and misinterpretation on the concept of public relations. This impedes the work of practitioners. The study was limited to the Greater Accra region; only public schools in the Greater Accra region were used so it recommended that future studies could look the other political administrative regions of the country. Future studies could also obtain responses from teachers and parents of private schools to help broaden the role that public relations plays at the GES. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Introduction The role played by public relations in managing communication between organizations and their strategic publics cannot be overemphasized. Organizations that put much premium on public relations tend to establish better relationships with their publics than organizations that belittle public relations (Anas & Batool, 2016). According to Kirat (2015), public relations offers organizations the opportunity to assess the attitudes of their publics, better understand those publics and further establish and maintain mutual relations with them. For Dozier and Broom (2006), public relations helps organizations to manage not only their external relations but also their internal relations. According to Khodarahmi (2009), public relations helps organizations to effectively keep their publics informed on vital issues and persuade them when and where necessary. To Gilaninia et al. (2013), public relations helps to build effective media relations to reduce the negative publicity that the media sometimes give to some organizations. In the words of Akuku (2012, p. 2), “whether an organization is perceived as rigid or flexible, strong or weak, open or closed may be dependent on its public relations unit.” To Siano et al. (2017), public relations provide organizations with the framework for determining how strong, how weak or how powerful they are and this helps to interact with the publics better. On the whole, the role of public relations contributes to organizational goals. The Ghana Education Service (GES) is among key organizations in Ghana that uses public relations to build and maintain relationships with publics. The management of the GES believes that the ability to build and maintain relationships with stakeholder publics would create a conducive University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 environment for not only the GES but also stakeholder publics. Moreover, the GES believes that adopting public relations would help to achieve its set mission and vision. In view of the above, this study sought to examine the role of public relations at the Ghana Education Service (GES). The study investigated the main functions and roles of public relations practitioners that contribute to achieving the mission and vision of the GES, determined the factors that hinder the practice of public relations and examined the views of stakeholder publics on the practice of public relations at the GES. The remaining sections in this chapter addressed the background to the study, the problem statement, the research objectives and the research questions. Significance of study as well as the operational definition of terms climax the chapter. 1.1 Background to the Study The background to this study sets the foundation by providing a discussion on public relations in the educational sector, the profile of the Ghana Education Service and public relations practice in the Ghana Education Service. 1.1.1 Public Relations in the Educational Sector The practice of public relations has become predominant among many organizations. One of the sectors where public relations has been considered effective is the educational sector (Agyapong et al., 2011). Scholars such as Newson and Carrel (2001) considered public relations practice as an art and science of analysing trends, predicting their consequences, counselling organization leaders and implementing planned programmes of action which serve the interest of both organizations and their publics. Description of public relations by Newson and Carrel (2001) is evident in the practice of public relations in the education sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Educational public relations is associated with the practice of public relations in education- oriented institutions such as schools, colleges, universities and other agencies that support education. The National School Public Relations Association (NSPRA, 2012), notes that educational public relations functions in decision making, management of schools, building and maintaining relationships with students and other stakeholders that contribute to the improvement of programmes and services of educational organizations. This view by NSPRA (2012) indicates that activities of educational public relations are a two-way affair involving communication between institutions and their stakeholder publics. According to Agyapong et al. (2013), officers of educational public relations in building and maintaining relationships assist students, work with parents and other interest groups. The responsibilities of educational public relations officers include the distribution of newsletters that contain information about events of educational institutions, addressing the concerns of students, parents, teachers, staff and stakeholders of the organization which all help to establish good relations between schools and all interest groups. For Lan (2009), educational public relations officers serve as information stations by providing information to students, employees, and the general public through mass media publications, leaflets and brochures on programmes of educational institutions. To throw more light on the practice of public relations in educational institutions, Odongo (2009) added that educational public relations forms part of the management and structural function that empowers educational institutions such as colleges and universities to establish and maintain effective communication among both internal and external publics. Effective communication through public relations enhances visibility and creates a good impression to the publics of the institutions. Another important feature of public relations in an educational institution is that it plays the role of controlling the activities of institutions and provides University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 management counselling meant to inform decisions based on the perceptions of publics. According to Jackson and Center (2002), in controlling activities and providing counselling, educational public relations practitioners see to it that institutions' internal and external conflicts are resolved, employees' welfare is promoted, and employee-employer and institution-public relationships are maintained. 1.1.2 Profile of the Ghana Education Service The Ghana Education Service is a major government agency that was established to supervise and manage all pre-tertiary educational institutions in Ghana (Owusu-Asante, 2015). In Antwi's (1992) account of education, society and development in Ghana which has been acknowledged by the GES, he stated that the Ghana Education Service was established to be a major government agency under the Ministry of Education in 1974 via the National Redemption Council Decree (NRCD) 247. With time, the decree was amended through NRCD 252, 357 and the Supreme Military Council Decree (SMCD) 63. In the Fourth Republican Constitution of Ghana, there have been amendments by acts of parliament, including the Education Act 506 (1994) and Education Act 778 (2008). The GES is governed by a fifteen-member council collectively referred to as the GES Council. Presently, the GES is headed by a director general who has two deputies, one in charge of management service, and the other in charge of quality and access. There are sixteen regional education offices, and two hundred and sixty metropolitan/municipal/district offices that help the director general and his deputies in managing all pre-tertiary educational institutions in Ghana. The vision of the Ghana Education Service as stated on its website is that it “seeks to create an enabling environment in all educational institutions and management positions that will University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 facilitate effective teaching and learning and efficiency in the management for the attainment of the goals of the Service” (Ghana Education Service, 2022). Again, from its website, the mission of the GES is to “ensure that all Ghanaian children of school-going age are provided with inclusive and equitable quality formal education and training through effective and efficient management of resources to make education delivery relevant to the manpower needs of the nation” (Ghana Education Service, 2022). The main functions of the GES include the provision of basic and secondary education, registration, supervision and inspection of private pre-tertiary educational institutions as well as the submission of recommendations to the Ministry of Education for educational policies, programmes and reforms in Ghana. 1.1.3 Public Relations at the Ghana Education Service Although public relations is important for organizations, it was not part of the management structure of the GES when it was established in 1974. The management of the GES at that time made little or no effort to ensure effective community engagement and effective relationship- building measures between the GES and stakeholders (Owusu-Asante, 2015). This exclusion of public relations from the management structure of the GES adversely affected the running of schools. Community members who were offended by the actions of some schools begrudged such schools and in some instances, schools had to be closed down (Owusu-Asante, 2015). The poor relationship between schools and communities confirms the assertion by Sarkhedi (2016) that managing schools without public relations leads to disjointed relationships between schools and communities. Fari (2016) also believed that when public relations is neglected in school management, the relationships between schools and their communities deteriorate. In 1992, the management of the GES realized there was the need to ensure a healthy relationship with not only its internal publics but also with external publics such as the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 communities in which schools were located. Public relations was therefore introduced into the GES in 1992. The introduction of public relations into the GES led to the establishment of public relations unit at the headquarters, and hence, was only visible at the national level (Owusu-Asante, 2015). Kugblenu (2021) found that to make it more visible and active, from the early 2000s to date, regional and district public relations officers have been appointed to undertake various public relations’ activities at the regional and district levels. The main task of public relations at the GES has been to manage all communications between the GES and its stakeholders, reduce negative publicity, disseminate adequate information to stakeholders on all educational policies and reforms, and help improve the organizational image of the GES. While practitioners at the national headquarters supervise and coordinate all regional public relations practitioners in the country, regional public relations officers oversee all district public relations officers in the regions (Owusu- Asante, 2015). 1.2 Problem Statement Current public relations scholarship has pointed to diverse ways in which public relations can be beneficial by helping organizations to manage and sustain relationships with their stakeholder publics. The roles played by public relations in organizations have been established by scholars such as Broom (1984) who proposed the four roles of public relations (that is, the expert prescriber, the communication facilitator, problem-solving process facilitator and communication technician roles) that have formed the basis of many studies into the role of public relations in many organizations. Researchers such as Dozier and Broom (1995) categorized these four roles into two which were communication managers and communication technicians. The basis for the two-way classification by these researchers was that public relations practitioners were found to perform either a managerial role or a technician role. The University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 two-way classification of the role of public relations was used by Ani et al. (2017) in determining the role of public relations in organizational structure and the impacts of roles and functions for educational, health and hospitality organizations. They found that practitioners indeed perform either a managerial role or a technician role. Since the late 1980s till present times, studies that have investigated the role that public relations plays in organizations have been using either the four-role, the two-role classification or both as a basis (Schwarzkopf, 2019). Studies that have been done with respect to the intersection between public relations and education in other jurisdictions have mainly focused on other aspects of public relations other than the relationship between public relations and the views of the stakeholder publics of educational organizations. Scholars such as Comcowich (2020) in his study on the intersection between public relations and education focused on how to use two-way communication in school management and found that the two-way communication strategy was the most appropriate in establishing relationships with stakeholders of schools. A study by Roosevelt (2015) focused on the planning of communication relationships between public schools and their stakeholder publics to improve the perception of public education system. Another study by Amon (2018) which was similar to that of Roosevelt (2015) also delved into the planning of communication relationships between educational establishments and stakeholders but did not ascertain the views of stakeholders on public relations practice in educational institutions. This study found that public relations officers make use of one-on-one communication strategies to reshape the image of public schools. Just like other jurisdictions, studies on the intersection between public relations and education in Ghana have also not delved deeper into the views of stakeholder publics on public University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 relations practice in educational institutions. In a study to determine public relations practices of private universities in Ghana, Agyapong (2011) put emphasis on the challenges facing public relations practice in private universities. A study by Adu-Oppong (2015) that researched into public relations and education focused on public relations as a management tool in tertiary educational institutions. Another study by Kyere-Duah (2021) examined public relations strategies and plans of technical universities and found that technical universities make use of radio programmes, social media and community relations in establishing relations with stakeholders. Anani-Bossmann (2022) also studied the nature of public relations management in Ghanaian educational institutions especially private and public tertiary institutions. This work found that public relations practice in educational institutions in Ghana focuses on technician role with little emphasis on managerial role. Despite the many studies on the intersection between public relations and educational institutions, issues surrounding the views of stakeholder publics on public relations practice of educational institutions have not been clearly established by scholarship. Furthermore, how public relations helps educational institutions to achieve their set missions and visions are hard to come by in literature. Yet, as Grunig (2001, p. 5) has put it, “organizations become effective when they choose and achieve goals that are important to their self-interest as well as to the interests of strategic publics in the environment.” In furtherance of his postulation, Grunig (2001) stated the mission and the vision of organizations should be inclusive of the desires of strategic publics and public relations should help organizations to achieve such missions and visions. The strategic publics of organizations have their wishes and goals which must be respected by organizations because failure to adhere to such goals and wishes may spell the doom of organizations. Although Grunig (2001) established the need to use public relations to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 achieve the missions and the visions of organizations, his work did not clearly establish how to achieve the missions and the visions with public relations. From the foregoing arguments, it is realized that public relations scholars have not given much attention to how stakeholders view educational institutions and how public relations help educational institutions to achieve their missions and visions, thereby creating gaps in the literature. Knowing the views of stakeholders on public relations practice and how public relations help educational institutions to achieve missions and visions would not only help to bridge the gaps in the literature but would also help to improve upon the public relations practices of educational institutions. In this regard, this study focused on closing these gaps in the literature by determining the views of stakeholder publics on public relations at the GES and how public relations help the GES to achieve its set mission and vision. 1.3 Research Objectives The general aim of the study is to examine the role of public relations at the GES, a major government agency under the Ministry of Education. The specific objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To ascertain the functions and roles of public relations at the Ghana Education Service and how these functions and roles contribute to the attainment of mission and vision of the Ghana Education Service. 2. To ascertain the views of stakeholder publics on the practice of public relations in the Ghana Education Service. 3. To determine how public relations can be strengthened in the Ghana Education Service. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 These objectives will help to have a holistic view of the role of public relations at the GES and will further help to make appropriate recommendations to help improve public relations practice at the GES. 1.4 Research Questions The study sought to find answers to the following research questions: 1. What public relations roles and functions do practitioners engage in to help the Ghana Education Service achieve its mission and vision? 2. What factors hinder the practice of public relations at the Ghana Education Service? 3. How do stakeholder publics view the practice of public relations at the Ghana Education Service? 4. In what ways can public relations practice be improved at the Ghana Education Service? By obtaining adequate responses to these research questions the overarching aim of the study which is to determine the role of public relations at the GES would be achieved. 1.5 Significance of the Study This study will augment the knowledge in public relations scholarship. Firstly, with regard to research, the study shows that the education sector with its multiple stakeholder publics provides a rich source of information. Researchers can gain a lot of insight by engaging management and publics in terms of how public relations can function effectively in society. For scholars, this study will broaden their knowledge as they seek to review literature pertaining to the relationship between public relations and education. With respect to practitioners, the study will guide them in coming up with strategies to interact with both internal and external stakeholder publics. Finally, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 the study will be significant to educational institutions as it will guide them in formulating appropriate policies to strengthen their public relations units. The formulation of better policies on how to use public relations in education will eventually help in establishing better relationships between management and educational institutions/schools. 1.6 Operational Definition of Terms Educational Establishments or Educational Institutions: These are physical institutions that are usually called schools or colleges that engage in teaching and learning activities. They offer education-related services or instructional-related services to people who are referred to as learners/pupils/students. Managers of Schools: These are the people who supervise, monitor, plan, organize, control and coordinate teaching and learning in schools. Public Relations Practitioners/Public Relations Officers: These are individuals with the requisite knowledge in public relations who are employed by organizations to help manage communication and also build and maintain positive relationships between organizations and their stakeholder publics. Stakeholder Publics: These are groups of people that have indirect or direct relations with an organization or an institution. Examples in this study are parents, teachers, traditional authorities, religious organizations and the general public. Stakeholders: These are parties that have an interest in an organization and are affected either positively or negatively by the happenings in the organization. Examples in this study are the government, teachers, parents, traditional authorities, religious organizations and the general public. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 1.7 Organization of the Study This study is organized in five chapters. Chapter One covers areas such as introduction to the study, background to the study, statement of the problem, research objectives, research questions and significance of the study and operational definition of terms. Chapter Two addresses a review of related literature and theoretical framework. Chapter Three discusses methodology. Methodological concerns here include research design, research population, sampling and sample size. Other vital issues include research methods, research instruments, data analysis and ethical concerns in the study. Chapter four will be used for the presentation of findings and discussions of the data collected whereas Chapter Five will address summaries, limitations, conclusions and recommendations of the study. 1.8 Chapter Summary The chapter set the foundation by introducing the study, discussed the background to the study with emphasis on public relations in the educational sector, the profile of the Ghana Education Service and public relations of the Ghana Education Service. The problem statement was presented. The objectives were outlined based on the research questions that were developed. The significance of the study, organization of study and definition of key terms were all captured in this chapter. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 2.0 Introduction Effective public relations helps educational managers to better manage communication with their stakeholder publics (Rowe, 2012). In the reports of Callahan (2012) as well as Gilaninia (2013), public relations plays an integral role in resolving the crisis in school management, helps educational institutions to effectively engage the media which leads to the establishment of better relations between schools and managers of schools. For Carlsmith and Railsback (2001), employing public relations in the management of educational establishments tends to strategically manage dicey situations which emanate between schools, parents and the larger community. To Lee (2010), to prevent communication challenges and problems in the public sector, government institutions and agencies need to employ the services of public relations practitioners. From the literature themes that emerged were the role of public relations in organizations, the relationship between public relations and education, public relations in the public sector. Other themes were challenges in public relations as well as public relations and organizational image. Although many public relations theories exist, the ones which have been employed in studies relating to the intersection between public relations and education are the systems theory and the excellence theory. Researching how public relations practitioners assisted schools to integrate both internal and external stakeholders into one unit, Roosevelt (2015) made use of systems theory and emphasized the need for all individual stakeholders to come together to help improve relationship building in school management. Another scholar, Comcowich (2020), also used excellence theory in his study that sought to determine the role of two-way communication University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 in school management and concluded that to establish better relationships between managers of schools and stakeholders, the two-way communication must be employed by public relations practitioners in education. The study adopted excellence theory to determine the role of public relations in education because its aim was similar to that of Comcowich (2020). The researcher also believed that the excellence theory would be the most appropriate theory considering the nature of the GES This chapter is organized into two main sections, which are a literature review and a theoretical framework. The review section delved into the key themes identified in reviewing existing literature that are related to this study. The framework section emphasized the excellence theory which was the main theory that underpinned the study. 2.1 Literature Review This section of the chapter discusses literature that relates to the study. The works of scholars are presented under various themes. 2.1.1 The Role of Public Relations The first theme that emerged was the role of public relations in organizations. Public relations plays an integral role in developing, establishing and maintaining relationships with all stakeholder publics. The literature identified four roles that public relations plays in organizations. These four roles are the expert prescriber role, communication facilitator role, problem-solving (problem-solving process facilitator) and communication technician role. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 The expert prescriber is someone with a deep and broad understanding of public relations or someone who has adequate knowledge and competence in public relations. Expert prescribers possess problem-solving skills and can work on their own. According to Ani et al. (2017, p. 31), the expert prescriber “has the ability to define problems, construct plans, make programmes and be responsible for the planned programmes.” For Anyijuka (2016, p. 18), “the expert prescriber role is where the practitioner has the responsibility to describe and solve problems of public relations independently.” Expert prescribers are seen as people who have in-depth knowledge of public relations and build effective relationships between organizations and their stakeholder publics. In their research that sought to determine the roles of public relations practitioners and the consequences of those roles for organizations, Hogg and Doolan (1999) opined that the expert prescriber conducts research, tries to define problems, develops programmes and plays the leading role in the implementation of those programmes. Their research made use of both quantitative and qualitative research methods as they conducted both interviews and focus group discussions with public relations practitioners and also administered questionnaires to all local authorities in Scotland. They found that although the expert prescriber role is important in public relations, only 6% of practitioners in local Scottish local authorities play the expert prescriber role. To this end, they concluded that many public relations practitioners do not undertake the role of the expert prescriber. The second role is the communication facilitator role. The communication facilitator role is where practitioners act as liaison officers between organizations and their stakeholder publics. Practitioners act as mediators and settle issues between organizations and both internal and external stakeholders. According to Ani (2017, p. 31), the communication facilitator “has the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 responsibility to maintain two-way communication quality and quantity between an organization and its public. This kind of public relations plays as interpreter and mediator which have to erase communication boundaries.” Communication facilitators also work with the assumption that a two-way communication network enhances the quality of decisions which are made by organizations and their publics. Such decisions may be on actions of mutual trust, procedures and most importantly policies (Anyijuka, 2016). The research by Ani et al. (2017) sought to analyze the position of public relations in organizational structure and the impacts of roles and functions for organizations. The authors made use of a qualitative methodology and conducted interviews with eight public relations officers of hospitals, schools and hotels. They found that practitioners in the role of communication facilitation impact hospitals, schools and hotels by offering both management and publics the needed information for making informed decisions which may lead to mutual trust. The third role is the problem-solving process facilitator role. The problem-solving process facilitator role is a situation where practitioners devise appropriate means to solve communication and relationship-building problems between organizations and their stakeholder publics. According to Ani et al. (2017), practitioners in the role of problem-solving process facilitator work in collaboration with other managers in defining and solving communication problems to establish better relations with all stakeholders. In a study by Hogg and Doolan (1999) that employed the mixed methods approach to determine the roles of public relations practitioners and the consequences of those roles for organizations, they found that practitioners who are not part of top management hardly play the role of problem-solving process facilitator as such roles are usually left in the hands of top University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 managers. They concluded that few public relations practitioners are in the role of problem-solving process facilitator. The last and final role is of public relations identified in the literature was the communication technician role. The communication technician role is the basic role among all the roles of public relations and it is a common for all beginning practitioners. A typical example is report writing. According to Grunig et al. (2002), the communication technician role is where the practitioner works as a technical service provider and generates the needed materials for implementing a communication or public relations programme. For Dida et al. (2017), any public relations practitioner who takes orders from superiors to write reports and articles, edit press statements, issue annual reports, design speeches and launches official websites is referred to as a communication technician. To establish the main role of communication technicians in maintaining the image of schools, Zu and Purwanti (2021) conducted interviews with three public relations officers of schools, analyzed digital and printed documents and also observed ten public relations officers. They found that aside from writing reports, press releases and speeches, communication technicians in the education sector have the added responsibility of managing the social media channels of schools. Their research revealed that at the height of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, public relations practitioners in the role of communication technicians became social media managers. To this end, they communicated with the stakeholders of schools via various social media channels as the owners/managers of schools authorized them to do so. Furthermore, the qualitative research by Ani et al. (2017) that determined the position of public relations in hospitals, education and hotel organizations revealed that communication technicians have skills in journalism as such practitioners can write and edit news articles. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Further research on the four roles showed that the first three are similar in the sense that the expert prescriber is more likely to perform the roles of communication facilitator and problem- solving process facilitator. Researchers such as Dozier and Broom (1995) categorized the roles of public relations into two which are communication managers and communication technicians. The two-way classification of the role of public relations was used by Ani et al. (2017) in determining the role of public relations in organizational structure and the impacts of roles and functions for organizations which included educational institutions as part of its sample. 2.1.2 The Relationship between Public Relations and Education Another theme that emerged from the literature is that of the relationship between public relations and education. Education touches the lives of almost every individual and this explains why all over the world, it is extensively perceived as an important building block in the human and economic development and a vital tool for reducing poverty (Carlsmith & Railsback, 2001). Similarly, Quaye (2021, p. 1) noted that “the importance of education can never be overemphasized as it touches the lives of not only humans but also their communities.” These views give the indication that a nation that prioritizes its educational system tend to develop more than a nation that belittles education. Despite the immeasurable importance of education in the community, the goals of education in a particular community may not be accomplished if stringent measures are not taken to handle issues which arise between educational establishments and their strategic publics. This depicts that the services of public relations practitioners will form integral part in advancing educational agenda of communities and school managers must endeavour to seek the services of public relation practitioners. The intersection between public relations and education refers to the adoption of public relations in managing educational institutions to help improve and build better relations between University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 managers of schools and all their stakeholder publics. When organizations adopt public relations, there will be an effective relationship between schools as well as all internal and external stakeholders. According to Sarkhedi (2016), adopting public relations in education means using public relations to strengthen communication between schools, parents and the general public. For Callahan (2012), public relations helps in tackling natural disasters and unpredictable occurrences which affect school management. According to Fari (2016), public relations helps to ensure effective engagement with the community and community engagement leads to the acceptance of education-related programmes by members of the community; there is community cooperation in matters relating to educational reforms. In a study that had the main objective of determining the opinions of principals of schools on public relations practice, Coruk (2018) adopted a qualitative research methodology and purposively sampled 13 principals of primary, middle and high schools. The overarching theme that emerged from the interviews with these principals was expert communication. Out of the 13 principals, 12 viewed public relations practitioners in schools as expert communication officers. To these 12 principals, in terms of school management, the services of public relations practitioners help to adequately communicate with all stakeholders of schools. The responses from the 13 respondents indicated that public relations officers are able to better handle media relations and better manage websites of schools. Furthermore, in a study to ascertain the planning of communication relationships between public schools and their stakeholder publics to improve the perception of public education, Amon (2018) used case study research and sampled 29 participants from four schools in Oklahoma, United States. The study found that public relations officers make use of one-on-one communication strategies to uplift or reshape the image of public schools. The study further found University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 that “it is important for schools to engage in accurate, timely, and consistent communication with their stakeholders to create a mutual trust between the school and the stakeholders (Amon, 2018, p. 117).” 2.1.3 Public Relations in the Public Sector The third theme that emerged from the literature was public relations in the public sector. Practicing public relations in the public sector means engaging the services of public relations practitioners in government agencies and institutions to help manage communication and eventually build and maintain relationships with all stakeholders of government institutions. By engaging the services of public relations practitioners in the public sector, government agencies can devise appropriate communication strategies to communicate government policies to all stakeholder publics. For Marion (2018, p. 38), using “public relations at the public sector means using public relations to project the image of public institutions and establishing communication links with various publics.” According to Harris and Fleisher (2016), the communication of public policies must not be in the hands of politicians alone but those of well-trained public relations practitioners. They continued that allowing only politicians to communicate government policies would not allow the citizens or the general public to appreciate such policies due to the political biases on the part of politicians. In a quantitative study that was aimed at establishing the relevance of public relations in public institutions, Marion (2018) sampled 100 stakeholder publics of public institutions with public relations practitioners and 100 stakeholder publics of public institutions without public relations practitioners. The findings showed that public institutions without public relations practitioners were more likely to suffer from negative publicity which leads to a negative public image than public institutions with public relations practitioners. 77% of respondents of public University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 institutions without public relations practitioners answered that their public institutions suffered from negative publicity as opposed to 39% of public institutions with public relations practitioners. In another study that sought to determine the role of public relations in the public sector, Lopez (2019) used a qualitative methodology and interviewed 40 public relations practitioners in public institutions. Findings from the study showed that public relations practitioners in the public sector were mandated to reduce negative publicity of their institutions. In the quest of public relations practitioners to reduce negative publicity, the study found that there were crisis communication teams in many public institutions that had public relations units. These crisis communication teams would always develop crisis communication plans and make use of such plans whenever there was crisis in their organizations. Furthermore, qualitative research by Dane (2020) that aimed at exploring the role of public relations in public institutions sampled 30 public relations practitioners. The study found that in public institutions, public relations performs activities such as propagating government policies, programmes and achievements. The study further found that to effectively communicate government policies, public relations practitioners in public institutions must have good communication skills as well as good publicity techniques. Finally, they must have direct access to the chief executive officer or the overall boss of government institutions. The study concluded that when public relations practitioners do not get access to the person wielding authority in an organization, it becomes difficult to effectively communicate government policies to the general public or the citizenry. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 2.1.4 Public Relations and Organizational Image The fourth theme that came up from the literature was public relations and organizational image because literature revealed that public relations would not be relevant in its quest to establish and maintain relationships with strategic publics if it failed to raise the image of organizations. Raising the image of organizations means devising means or strategies to create positive perceptions or impressions in the minds of stakeholder publics about organizations. According to Frandsen (2017), organizational image is how both internal and external stakeholder publics perceive organizations. For Oparaugo (2021, p. 26), “public relations is a veritable tool of corporate image building and sustenance because it helps in shaping the way publics of an organization see or perceive the organization.” For Grunig (2001), practitioners of public relations can help create positive images and perceptions of their organizations when they deem it vital to give good counsel to organizations to conduct themselves in ways that the public desire. In the quest of organizations to build or raise the image of an organization, Celebi (2021) explained that public relations practitioners use press releases and press conferences to interact with publics. These scholarly works depict that indeed public relations has the potential to raise the image of organizations and in this regard, organizations need to prioritize public relations. In a quantitative study that sought to determine the role of public relations in building a sustainable organizational image, Owizy (2019) surveyed 100 public relations officers from different organizations. From the findings, 94% of the total sample answered that public relations was important for creating organizational image. The study tested the hypothesis "There is a significant relationship between public relations and corporate image" via Chi-square test of association. The responses from the public relations officers gave a significant value of 0.038 (3.8%). The research hypothesis was therefore accepted because a significant value of 0.038 is less University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 than 5% meaning there is a relationship between public relations and organizational image. The study recommended that organizations must make adequate efforts to make their public relations departments vibrant to enhance a good organizational image. To establish how public relations can be used to enhance the corporate image of organizations, Sharma et al. (2013) conducted secondary research and reviewed 35 articles on public relations and corporate image. This secondary research showed that to use public relations to enhance an organizational image, public relations practitioners establish and broaden their network with publics through proper information dissemination. A major recommendation in this study was that public relations practitioners should adopt more two-way communication strategies in their interactions with stakeholder publics. 2.1.5 Challenges of Public Relations Practice in the Educational Sector The final theme that emerged in the literature was the challenges of public relations practice in the educational sector. Challenges are associated with the core function of public relations which is to build and maintain relationships between organizations and their stakeholder publics (Odongo, 2009). The challenges are peculiar to each organization and sector where public relations is practiced. Several studies have indicated diverse challenges of public relations practices that exist in the educational sector. The challenges cut across educational institutions such as universities, colleges, secondary schools and other education-oriented organizations. Writing on the challenges and problems facing the practice of public relations, Fari (2016), opined that public relations as a discipline is largely misunderstood and intentionally misinterpreted to suit pejorative purposes and to associate it with propaganda. Teresa (2017), stated that many organizations do not regard public relations as a vital management function which can vehemently build relations with strategic publics. To Stroh (2007), several University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 organizations only recognize the paramount importance of public relations when they are hit by a crisis. These issue becomes a great challenge to the discipline and practice of public relations and prevents public relations practitioners from accomplishing their responsibilities creditably. In 2018, Gezihagne assessed the practices and challenges of public relations in 13 government universities in Ethiopia. The study adopted mixed methods approach where both qualitative and quantitative data were collected and analysed. Interview guides and questionnaires were employed as data collection instruments to gather data from public relations officers from the selected universities. After the analysis of collected data, it was revealed that professional public relations practices were in a difficult condition because public relations offices were not professionally and structurally organized. Most of the officers did not understand the concept of public relations as a management function that creates a mutual understanding between internal and external publics. Other challenges that were uncovered in the study were lack of professional skilled human power, minimal attitudes, lack of empowerment, absence of adequate capacity- building training, lack of infrastructure, and inadequate assistance from the concerned leaders. To overcome these challenges, Gezihagne (2018) found that universities should appropriately empower public relations and also make the needed efforts to provide the requisite logistics and infrastructure or resources for public relations practitioners. Furthermore, Singh (2019) studied the issues that engulfed public relations practice by focusing on the Education Ministry of India. The researcher gathered and analyzed secondary data on the state of public relations. Data analysis revealed that low application of technology in the practice, lack of better strategies, daily social and political issues, lack of proper organization of public relations structure in terms of practitioners’ responsibilities and cooperation among University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 practitioners, low motivation, and poor gathering of information were the major issues associated with the practice of public relations in the educational sector. Moreover, a study by Nurhanifah (2018) found that in public relations, practitioners encounter a lot of challenges. Nurhanifah (2018) examined the challenges of effective public relations by using the State Islamic University of North Sumatera in Indonesia as a case study. After the analysis of data that were collected through interviews, it was revealed that lack of funds, qualified personnel and inadequate facilities were the key challenges faced by practitioners in the practice of public relations in the university. In another study on the practices of public relations in private universities in Ghana, Agyapong (2011) discovered that inadequate resources such as financial support, lack of qualified personnel, absence of recognition (little or no appreciation of the work of practitioners), lack of logistics and resources were the major challenges of some of the private universities. The study was qualitative in nature and employed in-depth interviews with the help of interview guides to collect data from public relations practitioners of private universities. This study recommended that in order to improve public relations practice in educational institutions especially at universities, efforts must be made to provide the needed resources for practitioners and organizations should endeavour to appreciate the work public relations practitioners. 2.1.6 Gap in the Literature This review of related literature delved into five main themes or key ideas which were the role of public relations in organizations, the relationship between public relations and education, public relations in public institutions, the intersection between public relations and organizational image and lastly, challenges of public relations practice in the educational sector. The body of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 literature reviewed in this study extensively established that public relations plays an imperative role in organizations. However, how stakeholder publics view the practice of public relations in organizations was not clearly established especially in the defined geographical location of the research. Additionally, how public relations helps organizations to achieve their missions and visions was not established. Scholars such as Grunig (2001) stated that organizations need to factor the missions and visions of stakeholder publics into their decisions. Nevertheless, the literature reviewed did not clearly establish how organizations could include the views of stakeholder publics into their missions and visions. To this end, this study intended to fill the gaps of how stakeholder publics view the practice of public relations in organizations and how public relations help organizations to achieve their missions and visions. 2.2 Theoretical Framework This section of the chapter presents the theoretical framework of the study. The section gives an account of the excellence theory, its relevance and how it was used in the study. 2.2.1 The Excellence Theory Based on the gap in the literature and the nature of the problem at hand, the study employed the excellence theory of public relations. The excellence theory refers to “a general theory of public relations that resulted from a 15-year study of best practices in communication management funded by the International Association of Business Communicators (IABC) Research Foundation” (Grunig, 2002, p. 8). The theory states that the worth of public relations is dependent upon the relations between organizations and their publics. The use of "excellence" in the excellence theory means a contribution to organizational effectiveness. Organizational effectiveness occurs when an organization attains goals that are important not only for the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 organization but also for all strategic constituencies; that is, goals that serve the interests of both the organization and all strategic publics. Excellent public relations is the one that builds quality and long-term relationships with all strategic publics or constituencies (Grunig et al, 1992). The excellence theory was propounded by six researchers who were leading researchers at the IABC research foundation. These researchers were J. Grunig, L. Grunig, Dozier, Ehling, White and Repper. The development of the excellence theory started in 1984 and lasted for fifteen years (Grunig, 2008). The researchers sought to answer “how, why, and to what extent communication affects the achievement of organizational objectives” (Grunig et al., 2002, p. 10). The theory was developed through survey research with chief executive officers, heads of public relations units and employees in three hundred and twenty-seven organizations (non-profit organizations, government agencies, corporations and associations). The survey research was followed by interviews with heads of public relations units, other public relations practitioners and chief executive officers in twenty-five organizations in the United States, Canada and the United Kingdom (Grunig, 2002). The theory argues that for an organization to be effective “it must behave in ways that solve the problems and satisfy the goals of stakeholders as well as of management” (Grunig, 1992, p. 5). The theory explains that failure on the part of organizations to meet the goals of stakeholders will allow stakeholders to oppose organizations in ways which will bring about risks and costs to organizational decisions and policies. To behave in socially acceptable ways, "organizations must scan their environment to identify publics who are affected by potential organizational decisions or who want organizations to make decisions to solve problems that are important to them" (Grunig, 2008, p. 8). Good relationships between organizations and their strategic publics help to develop and accomplish the goals of organizations and their publics, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 reduce harmful publicity and raise profits by providing goods and services that are needed by stakeholders (Grunig et al. 2002). According to Grunig (2002), the theory identifies features of effective public relations in four main areas, namely, empowerment of public relations functions, communicator roles, organization of the communication function and its relationship to other management functions. The last one is model of public relations. Empowerment of public relations functions is the first feature of effective public relations. Empowering public relations means giving public relations practitioners high authority and power to carry out managerial roles in an organization. According to Grunig et al. (2002), empowerment of public relations functions means that for public relations to contribute to organizational effectiveness, it must be made a crucial management function. To this end, senior public relations executives must be involved in strategic communication programmes and strategic management of the organization. The senior public relations executive or the head of public relations unit should be “a member of the dominant coalition of the organization or has a direct reporting relationship to senior managers who are part of the dominant coalition” (Grunig, 2002, p. 335). The second feature of effective public relations is the communicator role. The communicator role means that the head of public relations unit must be a manager and not a technician because communication managers possess some skills which communication technicians may not possess. According to Grunig et al., research in public relations has brought about two major roles that are played by communicators and these roles are the manager and technician roles. In an instance where the senior communicator is not a manager, public relations finds it difficult to function effectively. Therefore, to enhance effectiveness in an organization “the senior public relations executive or others in the public relations unit must have the knowledge needed for the manager” ( Grunig et al., 2002, p. 336). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 The third feature of effective public relations is the organization of the communication function and its relationship to other management functions. Organizing communication functions means integrating all communication activities in an organization into one. Public relations must be a function that is separate from other functions in an organization. According to Grunig et al., public relations must be an integrated communication function. They explained that integrated communication function means “an excellent public relations function integrates all public relations programmes into a single department or provides a mechanism for coordinating programmes managed by different departments” (p. 337). They continued that for public relations to be effective, it must not be put in a department whose basic obligation is any other function other than a communication function. Even though the public relations function is integrated into an excellent organization, the function should not be placed in another department whose primary responsibility is a management function other than communication. In the words of Grunig (2002, p. 337), when public relations is made a subsidiary function it becomes difficult to manage it strategically because it cannot move resources meant for communication from one public to another public. The last feature of effective public relations is models of public relations. According to Grunig et al., research suggests that excellent public relations units base their communication programmes on a two-way communication model rather than on the press agentry (emphasizing only favourable publicity), public information (disclosing accurate information but engaging in no research or other form of two-way communication), or two-way asymmetrical models (emphasizing only the interests of the organization and not the interests of publics. The two-way communication model helps to resolve conflicts. It also helps to build long term relations with University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 strategic publics. Therefore, “to be effective, excellent public relations needs to adopt a two-way communication model” (Grunig, et al., 2002, p. 339). Aside from the four major areas, Grunig et al. (2008), said that further research also resulted in fourteen generic principles which were later reduced to ten. The ten generic principles were involvement of public relations in strategic management, empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition or a direct reporting relationship to senior management, integrated public relations function, public relations as a management function separate from other functions. Other generic principles were public relations units should be headed by a manager and not a technician, two-way symmetrical model of public relations, a symmetrical system of internal communication. The last three were knowledge potential for a managerial role and symmetrical public relations, diversity embodied in all roles and lastly, organizational context for excellence. Involvement of public relations in strategic management. Involving public relations in strategic management means that to ensure effectiveness, public relations practitioners should form an integral part of major decision-making in an organization. According to Grunig et al. (2002), involving public relations in strategic management ensures all-encompassing decision- making, and leads to the formulation of better organizational policies which is inclusive of the views of both internal and external stakeholders. The second generic principle is empowerment of public relations in the dominant coalition or a direct reporting relationship to senior management. To ensure effectiveness, the senior public relations executive should either be part of the senior management team or should have access to all senior managers. According to Grunig et al., (2002), the head of the public relations unit in an organization should be empowered to give a direct report to the chief executive officer or anyone University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 occupying the topmost position in an organization in order to give good counsel on matters relating to stakeholder publics, ethical decision making and values. Thirdly, integrated public relations function. Excellent public relations must integrate all public relations functions into one department because integrated systems make it possible for public relations to come up with communication programmes for the benefit of all stakeholders. According to Grunig et al., (2002), an integrated public relations function has access to all authorities in an organization and it is not put under any department which ensures autonomy and can formulate policies which are in the interest of all stakeholders. The next generic principle is that public relations is a management function separate from other functions. Public relations should not be added to other functions such as marketing or human resource. Adding public relations to other functions makes it difficult in developing its policies to serve the interests of all stakeholders. According to Grunig et al., (2002), when public relations is sublimated or added to other functions it leads to encroachment and cannot function effectively as an integrated function. The fifth generic principle is that public relations units are headed by a manager and not a technician. Technicians have skills in writing and other technical works but do not usually have management training so ensure a manager should be the head of a public relations unit. According to Grunig et al., (2002), communication technicians undertake the day-to-day activities in communication but may not be better managers so to have excellence in public relations, public relations departments should have a manager as the head. The sixth generic principle is a two-way symmetrical model of public relations. It is significant for public relations to adopt a two-way symmetrical model because in most instances University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 dialogue is more effective in preventing problems, resolving conflicts and sustaining relationships with strategic publics. According to Grunig et al., (2002), research indicates that the two-way symmetrical model is more effective in resolving conflicts among all stakeholder publics than other models of public relations and should be used most often by excellent public relations departments. The next one is a symmetrical system of internal communication. Any excellent public relations unit must have the requisite knowledge needed for managing public relations symmetrically. Excellent public relations should be able to research to understand the views of the publics. According to Grunig (2008, p. 37) “excellent public relations have symmetrical systems of internal communication with strategic publics that increases job satisfaction because the goals of publics are incorporated into the organizational mission.” The eight generic principle is knowledge potential for a managerial role and symmetrical public relations. Excellent public relations units must have people with deep knowledge of communication and public relations as staff. According to Grunig et al., (2002), to ensure effectiveness in an organization people who have received education in public relations or professionals in public relations who are active members of professional associations should work in public relations units. The penultimate generic principle is diversity embodied in all roles. People from diverse backgrounds must work in excellent public relations units. According to Grunig (2008, p. 37), “excellent public relations includes both men and women in all roles, as well as practitioners of different racial, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds.” The last generic principle is organizational context for excellence. To be effective, participation should be seen in excellent public relations units. According to Grunig (2008, p. 38), University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 “excellent public relations departments are nourished by participative rather than authoritarian cultures, activist pressure from the environment, and organic rather than mechanical management structures.” 2.2.12 Relevance of the Excellence Theory to the Study The excellence theory has been used by several scholars to underpin studies on the practice of public relations by different organizations. To cite a few, scholars such as Van Heerden (2004) conducted a study to describe the practice of public relations in Africa. By employing the excellence theory as one of the theories that underpinned his study, it was found that the practice of public relations in Africa is strategic, and practitioners function at a very influential strategic level within organizations. Moreover, Dornyo and Adiku (2015) employed the excellence theory as a reference point to assess the practice of public relations at Valley View University and Islamic University College in Ghana. The study revealed that public relations practitioners failed in the strategic management of communications in both institutions. The over-emphasis on media relations compelled public relations managers to adopt a one-way public information model in the process of communication. The adoption of the one-way model caused a hindrance to accept the two-way symmetrical model which is the ideal model for any communication process. Lastly, the theory guided Adjei (2021) to assess the role of public relations as a strategic management function that contributed to the growth and success of RLG, a telecommunication organization. The study revealed that RLG’s public relations department played a strategic managerial role that impacted the overall strategy of the organization. The department, therefore, contributed to organizational excellence and effectiveness. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 The aforementioned studies were guided by the excellence theory to reveal the practices of public relations in different organizations. Hence, this study also looked at the practice of public relations in the educational sector with a focus on the Ghana Education Service. The excellence theory guided this study through framing of questions in the interview and discussion guides; the researcher took into consideration the tenets of the theory in framing the questions in the interview and discussion guides whilst paying attention to the main aim of the study. 2.3 Chapter Summary This chapter presented a discussion of the literature and the theory that underpinned this study. In the literature review, themes included the role of public relations in an organization, the relationship between public relations and education, practicing public relations in the public sector, the intersection between public relations and organizational image, and the challenges of public relations practices in the educational sector were elaborated. The literature review was concluded by identifying the gap in literature the study sought to fill. The chapter also provided a detailed account of the excellence theory which is the only theory that guided the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction Qualitative research approach was adopted in this study. The researcher deemed qualitative research approach appropriate because the study did not intend to generalize the research findings. The study intended to use the subjective views of research participants in determining the role of public relations at the GES. The selection of qualitative research was premised on a recommendation by Denzin and Lincoln (2011) that qualitative research is the most appropriate research in a study that intends to interpret the subjective opinions or views of research participants in explaining or describing a research problem or finding appropriate answers to research questions. The chapter describes the research design which will talk about the research population, sampling technique as well as sample size, research methods and research instruments. The chapter will also talk about data analysis and ethical issues raised in the study. 3.1 Research Design The qualitative research design was used in the study and all methodological issues followed a qualitative approach. Data were collected using in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The use of qualitative research design made it possible to collect rich and in-depth data in determining the role of public relations at the GES. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 3.1.1 Population The study consisted of three (3) target populations which were public relations officers at the GES, parents/guardians as well as teachers in public schools. The population was drawn from the Greater Accra Region because prior discussions between the researcher and the head of public relations unit at the GES in 2020 showed that it is the only region that has the highest number of public relations officers who are members of a professional body (Institute of Public Relations, Ghana). Furthermore, the head of public relations at the GES said Greater Accra is the only region that organizes regular meetings (every three months) on how to improve the practice of public relations at the GES. Public relations practitioners in the Greater Accra region formed the first target population. The second target population was parents/guardians and the third target population was teachers. Both the parents/guardians and teachers were all selected from the Greater Accra region. In all, there are 29 metropolitan/municipal/district public relations officers in the Greater Accra region. Adding the regional public relations officer and the head of the public relations unit makes the population 31. The three schools used had a total teacher population of 56. Of this number, 15 were from Kokomlemle Two Basic School, 28 from Kotobabi Three Basic School and 13 from Alajo One Basic School. The learner/pupil population was 435, 819 and 439 for Kokomlemle Two, Kotobabi Three and Alajo One Basic Schools respectively, giving a total of 1,693. With respect to the actual population of parents/guardians, the researcher did not get a concrete figure but at least each learner/pupil has at least someone who attends PTA meetings on his or her behalf so it was assumed that the number of parents/guardians was around the number of pupils/learners. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 3.1.2 Sampling Technique and Sample Size The study adopted a purposive sampling technique in selecting the schools and all research participants. The use of purposive sampling was based on the recommendation by Opoku Amankwa and Graham (2009) that in purposive sampling, participants are selected because they possess certain characteristics or qualities that meet the requirements of the study. The schools sampled were Kokomlemle Two Basic School, Kotobabi Three Basic School and Alajo One Basic School. The selection of these schools was premised on the fact that the researcher had easy access to them. These schools also had enough parents/guardians and teachers who were familiar with public relations practice. The sampled metropolitan/municipal/district public relations officers in the Greater Accra region, who are members of the institute of public relations (IPR), Ghana had also practiced for at least five years. The researcher was of the opinion that such practitioners had enough experience and knowledge to help determine the role of public relations at the GES. Parents/guardians who regularly attend PTA meetings and were familiar with how schools build relationships with parents/guardians were selected because they were the ones who could give appropriate responses to the stated research questions. The sample size for the public relations practitioners was eight. This sample included the head of the public relations unit, the Greater Accra regional public relations officer and six district public relations officers. According to Dworkin (2012), a sample size ranging from six to 50 is enough for qualitative research; therefore, eight public relations officers were deemed enough for the study. The researcher reached saturation after interviewing the eight public relations officers so there was no need to conduct another interview. According to Fusch and Ness (2015), saturation in research is a point where no new information is acquired in a study, as University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 the researcher at this point gets no new information. Fusch and Ness (2015) further stated that saturation point determines a sample size for research because it indicates that adequate data which can help to achieve the stated objectives have been found. For the parents/guardians, seven were sampled from each of the three schools to participate in the focus group discussion. Three focus group discussions were therefore conducted in the study. According to Krueger (2017), seven to ten participants are enough for a focus group discussion. Similarly, seven teachers were selected from each school to participate in the focus group discussions. After conducting the three discussions for parents/guardians and the three for teachers, there was saturation and no new data were sought again. 3.2 Data Collection Methods The study used two main data methods which were in-depth interviews and focus group discussions in gathering data from the research participants. The in-depth interviews were conducted with the eight public relations officers who were sampled from the first target population. The focus group discussions were conducted with the sampled parents and teachers who formed the second and third targets respectively. The use of in-depth interviews was based on a proposition by Denzin and Lincoln (2011) that using an in-depth interview in qualitative research allows the researcher to ascertain into detail the views of research participants. The selection of in-depth interviews was also premised on a proposition by Wimmer and Dominick (2011) that in-depth makes it possible to probe into the opinions and experiences of research participants. The researcher intended to delve deeper into the views and experiences of public relations officers in finding answers to some of the research questions so it became important to use in-depth interview. Focus group discussion also became appropriate in soliciting the views of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 stakeholder publics because data from focus group discussions are rich also contain many ideas or views of research participants. According to Krueger (2017), a major reason for using focus group discussion is that its data are rich and includes many views of participants. The public relations officers were contacted prior to the interviews and the aim of the study was explained to them. Interviews were conducted on Zoom video conferencing due to COVID- 19 restrictions and also the distance between the researcher and all participants. During the interview, there was no internet/network breakage as the researcher gave all participants money to purchase a high-speed internet bundle that was stable. All interviews were conducted in March 2022 and each interview lasted for approximately 35 minutes. Each interview was recorded using a Huawei Y9 smartphone with a high-quality sound recording system. The researcher took notes amidst each recording. The researcher then transcribed the data, coded them and also put them into themes before analysing them. Focus group discussions were conducted with the parents and teachers. Three focus discussions were conducted with the parents and three were conducted with the teachers. There were seven participants in each of the focus groups. The researcher used to attend PTA meetings and was familiar with parents/guardians who were conversant with the relationship between schools and parents/guardians in each of the selected schools. It was therefore easy for him to identify such parents/guardians to participate in the study. Similarly, the researcher who used to organize programmes for all teachers in the selected schools knew of teachers who were conversant with the relationship building between the GES and its teachers. Due to COVID-19 restrictions and the distance between the researcher and the participants, each of the six focus groups was done via Zoom video conferencing. During these online discussions, there was no University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 internet/network breakage as the researcher provided each participant with a high-speed internet bundle that is stable. There were six sessions, one for each of the focus groups and each session lasted for about 90 minutes. The researcher moderated each session and two assistants helped in taking notes. There were audio recordings of the sessions using Huawei Y9 smartphone which were later transcribed. The discussions in each group were directed by the moderator, who allowed the discussions to flow in order not to include his influence on the outcome of the research. The discussions made room to gather views that were more concrete as each participant had time to express his or her opinion on the questions which were stated in the discussion guides. In some instances, follow-up questions were asked and participants reacted and that also aided the research. The recorded data from each of the sessions were transcribed, coded and themes were derived before analysing them. 3.2.1 Data Collection Instruments The study made use of two data collection tools or instruments. Precisely, interview guides and discussion guides were used in the in-depth interview and focus group discussions respectively. The interview guides were used during the interview with the participants from the first target population whereas the discussion guides were used in the discussions with participants from the second and third target populations. 3.2.1.1 Interview Guide Three semi-structured interview guides were designed and used in eliciting data in this study. One was for the head of public relations unit at the headquarters of GES, one for the regional public relations officer of the Greater Accra region and the last one was for the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41 metropolitan/municipal/district public relations officers who were sampled in the study. The use of semi-structured interview guides helped the researcher to ask follow-up questions that were in line with the aim of the study; flexibility was enhanced and that is in tandem with an assertion by Mason (2002), that the defining characteristic of a semi-structured interview is that it has a flexible and fluid structure that allows researchers to ask follow up questions. The public relations officers were asked questions that would help to determine the role of public relations at the GES. Precisely, questions on the main responsibilities of public relations officers, factors hindering their work and whether or not public relations officers at the GES are part of management or not were asked. Other questions were on how public relations helps the GES to accomplish its mission and vision. All questions were informed by relevant literature and the theoretical framework. 3.2.1.2 Discussion Guide Two discussion guides were designed and were used in eliciting answers from teachers and parents on their views on the role of public relations in the Ghana Education Service. Follow-up questions were also asked in instances where an answer from one respondent necessitated a follow- up question. All seven participants gave their responses to a question before the next question was asked. Open and free discussions among participants culminated in the generation of novel ideas which were extremely useful in ascertaining the views of both the teachers and the parents. All questions in the discussions aimed at ascertaining how the GES factors the views of stakeholder publics into its mission, vision and its decisions. All questions were informed by literature and the theoretical framework. All participants in each of the six focus groups were contacted prior to the discussions. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 3.3 Data Analysis The researcher transcribed the collected data that were gathered using the interview and the discussion guides. The transcribed data were organized and coded according to themes which were in line with the research questions of the study. Analyses were carried out thematically to meet the objectives and also to find answers to the stated research questions. Some themes that emerged were activities of public relations the GES, factors hindering the work of public relations practitioners and ways of improving public relations at the GES. Other themes were the views of stakeholder publics on the practice of public relations at the GES. 3.4 Ethical Concerns The researcher obtained permission from the School of Graduate Studies through the Department of Communication Studies, University of Ghana before collecting data. Permission was also obtained from the sampled schools, public relations officers, teachers and parents before the interviews/discussions were conducted. In the course of the interviews/discussions, permission was obtained before recordings were taken. Information given by research participants was kept confidential and the names of all participants were not mentioned in the study. Furthermore, all outside sources used were duly acknowledged. 3.5 Chapter Summary This chapter has described the methodological approach adopted for the present study. Conducted in the Greater Accra Region of the country, the study sought the views of educational public relations officers, teachers and parents, through in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. To ensure ethical compliance, the researcher first obtained permission from the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 University, then sought permission from prospective participants before engaging them and committed to keeping participants' views confidential. Finally, the chapter explained how the data gathered were analysed. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 CHAPTER FOUR PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.0 Introduction The present qualitative study sought to investigate role of public relations at the Ghana Education Service. It sought the views of participants on the functions and roles of public relations in contribution to the achievement of the mission and the vision of the GES, challenges of public relations practices at the GES, the relationship that exists between the GES and stakeholder publics and the ways of strengthening public relations at the GES. In-depth interviews and focus group discussions were employed as data collection methods to gather data from the study’s participants. With the help of interview guides, in-depth interviews were conducted for the head of public relations unit at the GES Headquarters, Regional Public Relations Officer at the Greater Accra Regional Office of the GES, and six public relations officers at the municipal offices of the GES. The focus group discussions with the employment of discussion guides were organized for seven teachers and seven parents that were selected from the three basic schools. The data gathered were coded and analyzed thematically to address the research questions that were raised in the study. Overall, four themes emerged, namely, public relations activities at the GES, hindrances of public relations practice at the GES, the views of stakeholder publics on public relations practice of the GES and ways of improving the practice of public relations at the GES. This chapter is made up of two main sections: findings and discussions. In the findings section, four main findings are presented. Then in the discussion section, the main findings of the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 study are discussed in relation to the findings of previous studies and the theory that underpinned the study. 4.1 Presentation of Findings This section provides information regarding the demographics of the research participants and the four themes that were generated from the collected data. 4.1.1 Demographical Information of Research Participants The study focused on gathering data from three groups of participants. The first group was that of public relations practitioners from the Ghana Education Service (GES). Among the eight practitioners who were interviewed, two were males, whilst six were females. The age range of the practitioners was between 34 to 43 years. The highest qualification of the practitioners was a master’s degree whilst the lowest qualification is a bachelor’s degree. For a working experience as public relations practitioners, participants had been working between five and 11 years. The second group of the study's participants were teachers. Within this group, there were three categories of teachers. The first category consisted of seven teachers from Kotobabi Three Basic School. Among the teachers, three were males whilst four were females. The oldest teacher was 56 years old whilst the youngest was 31 years old. The highest qualification was a master's degree whilst the lowest was a bachelor's degree. Participants here had been working between three and eleven years. The second category of teachers was from the Kokomlemle Two Basic School. The oldest teacher was 55 years old whilst the youngest was 29 years old. The highest qualification was a master's degree whilst the lowest was a bachelor's degree. Participants here had been working between three and twelve years. The third category of teachers was from Alajo One Basic School. The oldest teacher was 47 years old, whilst the youngest was 29 years old. The