University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh UNIVERSITY OF GHANA COLLEGE OF BASIC AND APPLIED SCIENCES MANAGEMENT AND USE OF NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS (NTFPs) AS CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION STRATEGY IN LAWRA DISTRICT, GHANA. BY ABDUL-KARIM SULEMANA (ID NO. 10337375) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY IN ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE INSTITUTE FOR ENVIRONMENT AND SANITATION STUDIES JULY, 2017 i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I hereby declare that this thesis comprises data that is based on my own research with steady guidance from my supervisors, and no part of this work except the references which have been accordingly acknowledged belongs to anybody. I also declare that no prior publications of parts or whole of this thesis has been made nor presented elsewhere for any award. ………………………….. ……………………… Abdul-Karim Sulemana Date …………………………. ……………………….. Dr. Benjamin Ofori Date (Principal Supervisor) ………………………… ………………………. Dr. Adelina Mensah Date (Co-Supervisor) i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to the late Mr. Adams Soale (former Health Officer, Ghana Cocoa Board) for his great advice and inspiration towards my academic life. May the Almighty Allah be pleased with his soul and grant him abundant mercies. You are missed! ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT I would first thank Allah Almighty, the Beneficent, the merciful; Owner of the day of judgment; He alone we worship and ask for help; Show us the straight path, the path of those whom You have favored not of those who earn Your anger nor of those who go astray. I wholeheartedly give my sincerest thanks to my thesis supervisors, Dr. Benjamin Ofori and Dr. Adelina Mensah of the IESS, University of Ghana, for their guidance; constructive criticism, immense knowledge and altruistic efforts in helping me achieve this piece of work. I must express my very profound gratitude to my late father, Mr. Sulemana Saaka; my Mother, Mankir Seidu Sulwu; my siblings and all the people of ‘Debre’ for providing me with unfailing support and continuous encouragement throughout my years of study. My special appreciation goes to all the people who contributed financially to the course of my study: Alhaji Amadu Seidu (former MP), Mr. Bankole Allibay (Consultant, World Bank Group), Mrs. Winefred Agyeman (EO, GRIDCo), and Mr. Daniel Abbrey (Consultant, IFC). Am also grateful to the ASSAR project for its contribution to sponsor work. Am most grateful to all the Research Fellows and the Technical Assistants on the ASSAR project. I would also humbly express my gratitude to the experts who were involved in the collection and processing of data for this thesis: Mr. Raymond Antwi, Mr. Eric Kaliebu (retired agriculturalist); Mr. Basilide E. Babasigna (Manager, Lawra DFSD); Mr. Dimah Fataw (Lawra District Planner), Mr. Williams Kpengnon, Mr. Joshua Wulemega and many more. To all my friends and comrades, including Akunfa Fuseini and Eliasu Braimah, I cannot express on paper the unflinching support and encouragement you provided me in the process of my academic endeavors. Thank you! iii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT Rural and deprived communities continue to face limited alternatives to supporting their livelihoods that are largely affected by climate change and variability. Non Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) have increasingly been promoted, especially in developing countries, as a sustainable livelihood option for forest resources dependent households. The current study sought to identify and assess the use and management practices of NTFPs as a climate change adaptation strategy in the Lawra District, in the Upper West Region of Ghana. The study adopted a case study design with a mixed method approach to data collection. A combination of various data sets including 155 household survey and 5 key-stakeholder interviews with key field observations were used to have firsthand knowledge on the relative spatial distribution of NTFPs. Also, regression, correlations, chi-squares and cross-tabulations were used to established statistical relationships among various variables. Themes were generated using the matrix technique in Microsoft Excel from the in-interviews. The research results showed that over the last 30 years in the Lawra district temperature has increased from 25˚C in 2007 to 30.1˚C in 2014 with rainfall amounts reducing from 1170.6mm in 2008 to 937mm in 2014. According to the residents, this has led to reduced total output from crops yields. Among the adaptation strategies used by residents, NTFPs collection (39.4%) was the highest. Regression analysis showed that both temperature and rainfall were poor predicators of the availability of NTFPs. About 76 NTFPs (Plant and Animal) were identified in the district with Adansonia digitata (baobab), Vitellaria paradoxa (shea), Parkia biglobosa (dawadawa), Physalis peruviana (yellow berries) and Gardenia ternifolia (kazuge) being the most harvested. NTFPs are generally distributed all over the district and designated into parklands at locations where substantial amount of a species is dominant. NTFPS contributes only 1% of the total household annual income but remains significant in the varied non-traded roles iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh including food supplement, medicine, employment, nutrition, and energy sources. Finally, the study established that the management of NTFPs included both formal and informal institutions, including participation of individual household members. The nascent NTFP industry in the Lawra district faces problems such as marketing and processing challenges and lack of specific policies on NTFPs management. The study recommends a collaborative effort from the government in ensuring local strategies are sustained and improved, increase education and sensitization programs on climate change whiles providing timely weather related information to farmers with agricultural inputs. Finally, the study calls for a nationwide consultation process to draft a national policy on NTFPs management which will provide strong basis for establishing a resilient value chain industry to support rural livelihoods against the impacts of climate change. v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................. i DEDICATION ................................................................................................................................ ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. iii ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................................... xi LIST OF TABLES ....................................................................................................................... xiii LIST OF PLATES ........................................................................................................................ xv LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................... xvi CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................. 1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background ........................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................ 4 1.3 General Objective ................................................................................................................. 6 1.4 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Hypothesis............................................................................................................................. 7 1.6 Justification of the Study ...................................................................................................... 7 CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 9 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................................................................... 9 2.1 Introduction to the Concept of Climate Change ................................................................... 9 2.3 Adaptation to Climate Change ............................................................................................ 10 2.4 Overview of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) .......................................................... 11 vi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.5 Spatial Distribution of NTFPs ............................................................................................ 13 2.6 Types of NTFPs .................................................................................................................. 15 2.7 General Sources of NTFPs.................................................................................................. 16 2.8 Importance of NTFPs to Household Livelihood ................................................................. 16 2.9 Use of NTFPs ...................................................................................................................... 18 2.10 Economic Benefits of NTFPs ........................................................................................... 18 2.11 Nexus between Climate Change and NTFPs .................................................................... 20 2.12 Use of NTFPs as Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Rural Areas ........................... 21 2.13 Threats to Sustainable Use of NTFPS .............................................................................. 23 2.14 Enablers of NTFPs ............................................................................................................ 24 2.15 Valuation of NTFPs .......................................................................................................... 25 2.16 Management of NTFPs ..................................................................................................... 27 2.17 State-led Management Approaches .................................................................................. 29 2.18 Participatory and Co-management Approaches................................................................ 30 2.19 Implications of NTFP Use and the Need for NTFP Farming ........................................... 31 2.20 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................... 32 CHAPTER THREE ...................................................................................................................... 35 MATERIALS AND METHODS .................................................................................................. 35 3.1 Study Area .......................................................................................................................... 35 3.1.1 Location ....................................................................................................................... 35 3.1.2 Vegetation and Climate................................................................................................ 35 3.1.3 Geology and Soils ........................................................................................................ 36 3.1.4 Relief and Drainage ..................................................................................................... 36 3.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 38 3.2.1 Research Design .......................................................................................................... 38 vii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.2 Data Sources ................................................................................................................ 38 3.2.3 Data Collection Instruments ........................................................................................ 39 3.2.4 Sample Size Determination .......................................................................................... 39 3.2.5 Sampling Technique ..................................................................................................... 41 3.2.6 Data Analysis ............................................................................................................... 42 CHAPTER FOUR ......................................................................................................................... 44 RESULTS ..................................................................................................................................... 44 4.2 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents ............................................................... 44 4.3 Perceptions on Climate Change and its Effects on Livelihood Activities .......................... 46 4.3.1 General Rainfall and Temperature Distribution in the Lawra District ....................... 48 4.3.2 Perceptions of respondents on the Causes and Effects of Climate Change on Livelihoods ............................................................................................................................................... 52 4.3.3 Adaptation Strategies by Local Populations................................................................ 54 4.4 Perceptions on the Availability and Usage of NTFPs ........................................................ 59 4.5 Identifying NTFPs in the Lawra District ............................................................................ 64 4.6 Spatial Distribution of NTFPs in the Lawra District .......................................................... 69 4.7 General Uses of the NTFPs in the study area ..................................................................... 70 4.8 Contribution of NTFPs to Household Livelihoods ............................................................. 72 4.9 Household Financial Benefits from Traded NTFPs ............................................................ 74 4.10 Valuation of Non-Traded NTFPs...................................................................................... 78 4.11 Management Strategies and Challenges of Managing the Use of NTFPS ................. 81 4.11.1 Local Authorities Involved in the Management of NTFPs ......................................... 81 4.12 Local Strategies in Managing NTFPs ............................................................................... 82 4.12.1 Adherence to Government Policies ............................................................................ 82 4.12.2 District Assembly By-Laws ........................................................................................ 85 viii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12.3 Community By-Laws .................................................................................................. 86 4.12.4 Reliance on Community Volunteers ........................................................................... 90 4.12.5 Moral Sanctions ......................................................................................................... 91 4.13 Role of Individuals in the Management of NTFPs ........................................................... 93 4.13.1 Pouring Libation to pacify gods ................................................................................ 94 4.13.2 Protection of Sacred Grooves .................................................................................... 95 4.13.3 Soothsaying to Unearth Impending Disaster ............................................................. 97 4.13.4 Assist Chief and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts ............................ 99 4.13.5 Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-Laws on Natural Resource .............................................................................................................................. 101 4.13.6 Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices on Natural Resource Management ........................................................................................................................ 103 4.13.7 Punish Offenders of Natural Resources Related by By-Laws .................................. 105 4.14 Sources of Resources for the Management of NTFPs .................................................... 107 4.14.1 Community Fines ..................................................................................................... 108 4.14.2 Funds from GOs and NGOs ..................................................................................... 109 4.15 Challenges Confronting Management and Use of NTFPs .............................................. 110 4.15.1 Climate Change Related challenges ........................................................................ 113 4.15.2 By-Laws.................................................................................................................... 114 4.15.3 Marketing Challenges .............................................................................................. 115 4.15.4 Harvesting and Processing of NTFPs...................................................................... 116 4.15.5 Animal and Plant Invasions ..................................................................................... 117 CHAPTER FIVE ........................................................................................................................ 118 DISCUSSION ............................................................................................................................. 118 5.3 The Financial Benefits of NTFPs and Its Contribution to Household Livelihood ........... 123 5.4 The Management of NTFPs and Challenges Faced .......................................................... 127 ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX ........................................................................................................................... 133 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 133 6.2 Summary of Key Findings ................................................................................................ 133 6.3 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 136 6.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................................. 137 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................... 139 APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRES .......................................................................................... 155 APPENDIX II: NTFPs AT COMMUNITY LEVEL.................................................................. 166 APPENDIX III: NTFPs IN NORTHEN SAVANNA ZONE ..................................................... 168 x University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Study ...................................................................... 34 Figure 4.1: Perceptions of respondent on Rainfall Pattern in the study area ....................... 46 Figure 4.2: Perceptions of respondents on Temperature Changes in the study area ........... 48 Figure 4.3: Rainfall Graph of the Lawra District (1984-2014) ............................................... 50 Figure 4.4: Temperature Distribution in the Lawra District (1984-2014) ............................ 51 Figure 4.5: Causes of Climate Change in the study area ........................................................ 52 Figure 4.6: Perception of respondents on Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Activities ....................................................................................................................................................... 53 Figure 4.7: Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change ............................................................. 56 Figure 4.8: Availability of NTFPs.............................................................................................. 59 Figure 4.9: Cross Tabulation: Community * NTFP Availability ........................................... 60 Figure 4.10: Perceptions on Role of NTFPs.............................................................................. 72 Figure 4.11: Annual Household Income of Respondents ....................................................... 75 Figure 4.12: Financial Returns from NTFP Sale in the study area........................................ 76 Figure 4.13: Perceptions on Cash Returns from Sale of NTFPs in the study area ............... 77 Figure 4.14: Non-Traded Benefits of NTFPs in the study area .............................................. 79 Figure 4.15: Local Authorities Managing NTFPs in the study area ...................................... 81 Figure 4.16: Adherence to Government Policies ...................................................................... 83 Figure: 4.17: Respondents’ perception about effectiveness of District Assembly By-Laws 85 Figure 4.18: Respondents’ perceptions about Community By-Law ...................................... 87 Figure 4.19: Communities Reliance on Community Volunteers ............................................ 90 Figure 4.20: Moral Sanctions ..................................................................................................... 92 xi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.21: Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-Laws on Natural Resource ..................................................................................................................................... 101 Figure 4.22: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-law on Natural Resource .......................................................................... 103 Figure 4.23: Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices .............................. 104 Figure 4.24: Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices .............................. 105 Figure 4.25: Punishment of Offenders of Natural Resource Related Laws ........................ 106 Figure 4.26: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Punish Offenders of Natural Resource Related Laws ............................................................................................................................. 107 Figure 4.27: Sources of Resources for NTFPs Management ................................................ 108 Figure 4.28: Challenges/Threats in the Management and Use of NTFPs ............................ 111 xii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Bio Data of Respondents from the Lawra District ................................................ 44 Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents (%) with reference to their perception of Adaptation Strategies across four communities ........................................................................................... 57 Table 4.3: Correlation between the Communities and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change ......................................................................................................................................... 58 Table 4.4: Correlation: Relationship between Community of Residence and Availability of NTFPs........................................................................................................................................... 61 Table 4.5: Relationship between the availability of NTFPs and observed changes in rainfall ....................................................................................................................................................... 63 Table 4.6: Coefficient – Relationship between the availability of NTFPs and changes in temperature conditions ............................................................................................................... 63 Table 4.7: Plant NTFPs in the Study Communities ................................................................. 64 Table 4.7a Plant NTFPs with no Scientific Names in the study communities ....................... 65 Table 4.7b Animal NTFPs in the study communities .............................................................. 66 Table 4.8: Five Major NTFPs Harvested in the study area .................................................... 66 Table 4.9: Uses of NTFPs in the study area .............................................................................. 71 Table 4.10: Cross Tabulation between the Communities and the Role of NTFPs ................ 73 Table 4.11: Correlation test between Communities and the Role of NTFPs ......................... 73 Table 4.12: Cross Tabulation between Communities and the Benefits of Non-Traded NTFPs ....................................................................................................................................................... 80 Table 4.13: Correlation between Communities and the benefits of Non-traded NTFPs ..... 81 xiii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.14 Cross Tabulation between Communities and their Adherence to Government Policies .......................................................................................................................................... 84 Table 4.15: Cross Tabulation: Community * District Assembly By-Law ............................. 86 Table 4.16: Cross Tabulation between Communities and Community By-Law .................. 88 Table 4.17: Cross Tabulation between Communities and Reliance on Community Volunteers ....................................................................................................................................................... 91 Table 4.18: Cross Tabulation: Community * Moral Sanctions .............................................. 92 Table 4.19: Cross Tabulation: Community * Pouring Libation to Pacify gods .................... 94 Table 4.20: Cross Tabulation between Religion and Perception about Pouring of Libation to pacify gods ................................................................................................................................... 95 Table 4.21: Cross Tabulation between Community and Protection of Grooves................... 95 Table 4.22: Cross Tabulation between Religion and Protection of Sacred Grooves ............ 96 Table 4.23: Cross Tabulation between Community andSoothsaying .................................... 97 Table 4.24: Cross Tabulation: Religion * Soothsaying to Unearth Impending Disaster ..... 98 Table 4.25: Cross tabulation between community and individual role in assisting Chief and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts ...................................................................... 99 Table 4.26 Cross Tabulation between Sex and Assist Chiefs and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts .................................................................................................................... 100 Table 4.27 Cross Tabulation between Community and Challenges of Management and Use of NTFPs .................................................................................................................................... 112 xiv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF PLATES Plate 1: Dawadawa Fruit Eaten Directly from Wild ..................................................................... 67 Source: Field Data, 2017............................................................................................................... 67 Plate 2: Shea Nut sold at Lawra Market ....................................................................................... 68 Plate 3: Freshly Harvested Baobab Fruit ...................................................................................... 68 Plate 4: Processed Baobab Leaves for Soup Preparation (Spice) ................................................. 69 xv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS NTFP - Non-timber Forest Product UNDP - United Nations Development Program GLSS - Ghana Living Standard Survey GSS - Ghana Statistical Service GSGDA - Ghana Shared Growth & Development Agenda FAO - Food and Agricultural Organization WFP - World Food Program IPCC - Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change OECD - Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development CBO - Community Based Organization CDA - Canadian International Development Agency IDRC - International Development Research Centre CIFOR - Centre for International Forestry Research ICUN - International Union for Conservation of Nature BSP - Biodiversity Support Program EPA - Environmental Protection Agency FSD - Forest Service Division MoFA - Ministry of Food and Agriculture DA - District Assembly NGO - Non-Governmental Organization GO - Government Organizations SPSS - Statistical Package for Social Sciences xvi University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Contemporarily, climate change has been widely accepted as a real phenomenon. Even though there are debates on the magnitude of its impact on rural economies amongst scientists, economists and policy makers, there is a general agreement that the world faces threats from global warming. Global warming is caused by the rising levels of green-house gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, chlorofluorocarbons, nitrous oxide, and other synthetic chemicals (Zaman et al., 2015) produced through natural and anthropogenic activities. Unimpeded green- house gases emission increases the earth’s temperature, which results in melting of glaciers, more precipitation or drought and other extreme weather events (Fentaye, 2009). In most parts of Africa, local temperature increase of 2°C and more above the late 20th century levels is projected to negatively impact production and cause general declines in subsistence crops like maize in Ghana; millet and sorghum in Sudan; and groundnuts in Gambia (Edenhofer et al., 2014). The impact of climate change on livelihoods in most African countries is increasingly becoming evident, with effects ranging from impoverishment, food insecurity, malnutrition, hunger and unemployment. Climate change may also pose problems for non-farm activities that are natural resource-based, such as hunting, fishing, gathering wild fruits for sale. Achieving food security under the unpredictable nature of the ever-changing climate requires substantial increases in food production and improved access to adequate and nutritious food, of which people in semi-arid areas are no exception (Fentaw, 2011). With increasing concerns on 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh finding sustainable sources of livelihood for forest dependent communities, non-timber forest products including fruits, flowers, tubers, leafy vegetables, bamboo shoots, honey and mushrooms have been noted to provide food security and other medicinal values in times of droughts. For example, in India over 8000 plant species are harvested for medicinal purposes (Basu, 2011), and in Tanzania, NTFPs is a major climate change adaptation strategy for the local people who were traditional rain-fed agriculture dependent, playing a key role in providing income for subsistence as well as providing a safety net for households (Msalilwa, 2013). According to the UNDP (2004), over 350 million people continue to depend on the benefits from NTFPs including food, nutrition and medicinal values in mostly developing countries. Globally, NTFPs have contributed to the provision of employment, subsistence and cash incomes for poor people and communities in adapting to climate change impacts (Shackleton et al., 2007: Gachathi and Eriksen, 2011: Schaafsma 2011). The works of Nkem (2010) further stresses on efficient utilization of NTFPs as an adaptive measure to climate change and variability. The sustainable management of Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can reduce the vulnerability of people to adverse effects of climate change. NTFPs encompass all goods of biological origin other than timber, which are extracted from forests for human use (De Beer and McDermott, 1989). They may include fruits and nuts, resins derived from plants and animals, game and medicinal plants obtained from tree barks, leaves and roots. NTFPs play important roles worldwide, especially in rural areas where animal and plant resources derived from forests remain central to subsistence and local economies. The relevance of NTFPs goes beyond meeting basic needs. They are also rapidly growing at the international market. A study by the Food and Agriculture 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Organization (FAO, 2014) suggests that at least 150 NTFPs are of major significance in international trade, including medicinal plants, mushrooms, snails, essential oils, tannin extracts, gums, nuts, rattans and bamboo. Wildlife (game/bush meat) as a greater part of NTFPs can provide good sources of animal protein as well as income to the surrounding communities (Anamayi et al., 2010). NTFPs directly or indirectly contribute to carbon sequestration. The fast growing NTFPs such as bamboo helps in reducing emissions and directly protects the forest system (Zaman et al., 2015). Generally, the range of usage of NTFPs have increased more than it used to be some three decades ago, despite the perceived decrease in availability (Msalilwa et al., 2013). NTFPs contribute to livelihoods of about 2 billion of the world’s poorest people in urban and rural settlements and are among the most valuable plant resources for present and future food security (Ahenkan and Boon, 2011). In northern Ghana which is a semi-arid region, climate is the most important determinant of the productivity of agriculture and natural resources. The mainstay of most rural economies is agriculture, particularly subsistence farming with heavy reliance on rainfall. As such, agriculture in these areas becomes vulnerable to changes in temperature and rainfall patterns. Drought has negative impacts on food production, human welfare and political stability (Sarr, 2012). Nevertheless, non-farm activities are likely to play an increasingly important role in household livelihoods in the future because they offer opportunities for diversification when agriculture becomes riskier (USDA Forest Service, 2011). Governments and private institutions or individuals have been trying to support the sustainable use of NTFPs but a lot still needs to be done to help develop its production, processing and marketing. 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.2 Problem Statement Globally, it is estimated that about 800 million people live on less than US$1.25 a day, and about 1 billion people are suffering from hunger. About 70% of these poor people are found in agrarian communities (World Bank, 2012). An estimated 24.2% of Ghanaians are considered poor (GLSS 6, 2013), and 5% of the poor population are also food insecure. At the national level about 34% of the poor population lives in the Upper West region of the country (WFP, 2009). According to the GSS (2014), 80% of the population in the Upper West region is engaged in subsistence agriculture, which significantly contributes to the people’s employment opportunities, income, food security, export earnings and source of livelihood at large. However, about 70.7% of the population in the Upper West region records the highest level of (GLSS 6, 2013). A major problem in the Northern savanna zone is the short duration and or irregularity of the rainy season, hampering the length of growing seasons and crop yield potential, particularly along the semi-arid areas. Late rains and intermittent droughts have become more common causing problems for rainfall-dependent farmers. In addition, existing environmental conditions such as poor soil fertility and increased incidences of pests and diseases hinder the success of agricultural production in the district (GSS, 2014). This affects food security and further exacerbates malnutrition among children in the district. In effect, most households experience food insecure periods spanning between 3 and 7 months (Quaye, 2008). In response, people resort to different coping strategies that are less positive and unsustainable agricultural practices among others that have adverse impacts on the environment. Typical examples are provided by the USDA Forest Service (2011) who identified bush burning before cultivation and wood harvest as practices that exposes the soil and reduces its fertility. 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh As posited by Adger et al., (2005), the ability of people to effectively adapt to climate change is largely influenced by their economic conditions. Therefore, to ensure sustainable livelihood, and to enhance resilience of communities in the savanna ecological zone, diversification of household livelihood activities has been identified as a means to sustainable livelihood (Losch et al., 2011). There is the need to consider other alternative adaptive strategies such as engaging in the extraction, processing and marketing of NTFPs which have the potential of ensuring sustainable adaptation and enhancing the resilience of both the ecosystem and the society to climate change/variability. Some specific and common NTFPs in the Savanna zone such as, shea nut/shea butter from the fruit of Vitellaria paradoxa; dawadawa from the fruit of Parka biglobosa tree; fruits and flowers from of baobab (Adansonia digitata); gum Arabic from acacia tree, bush meat, roots and fodder, are used by several communities for income diversification and also as safety nets in times of resource scarcity and disaster. Traditionally, NTFPs have served to secure the hunger season in rural areas of northern Ghana by ensuring both food and income security during drought periods (Yakubu and Yeboah, 2016). This has also been observed in other parts of Africa, such as the rural areas of Central and South Africa where gathering of wild fruits and other products constitutes an adaptive/coping strategy for unexpected flood and drought, and by households in Tanzania who use firewood, fruits, spices, fodder, traditional medicines and meat, and also harvest trees for the production of timber, charcoal and bricks sold mainly to the capital, Dares Salaam (Shackleton et al., 2007). There is, however, inadequate information about how NTFPs are managed and used for climate change adaptation in northern Ghana, particularly in the Lawra District, although it is amply 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh evident that a large number of people depend on them for livelihoods: providing food and income during crucial times of need (Solomon, 2016). Literature on NTFPs and livelihood has largely concentrated on the tropical forests zones in Ghana (Anokye and Adu, 2014; Manso-Howard, 2011, Amisah et al., 2009) with little information on its use and management in the savanna zones of Ghana. This research therefore seeks to fill this literature gap by assessing the use and management of NTFPs as an adaptation strategy to climate change. 1.3 General Objective The overall research objective is to identify and assess the use and the management practices of NTFPs as a climate change adaptation strategy in the Lawra District of Ghana. Specific Objectives The specific objectives are to:  Investigate local perceptions on climate change  Identify and document the relative spatial concentrations of NTFPs in the study communities  Estimate the Financial Income Potentials derived from NTFPs  Assess the contribution of NTFPs to the community and household livelihood in respect of its use as a climate change adaptation strategy.  Assess the challenges and opportunities for enhancing local level management practices of NTFPs toward their sustainable use in a climate change adaptation strategy. , 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.4 Research Questions Specific research questions are:  How does the local population perceive climate change?  What types of NTFPs are harvested and used and how are they spatially distributed in the Lawra District?  What level of income is obtained from NTFPs?  How does climate change and variability affect the availability of NTFPs for subsistence?  What is the contribution of NTFPs to household livelihood?  What is/are the NTFP management practices, the challenges faced and opportunities available? 1.5 Hypothesis H1 – There is no significant relationship between temperature/rainfall and the availability of NTFPs. Ho - There is a significant relationship between temperature/rainfall and the availability of NTFPs. 1.6 Justification of the Study Literature on the inventory and use of NTFPs in the savannah woodland remain scanty. According to Yabepone (2010), there is the need to conduct a household survey to list the type of NTFPs used domestically. The recommended method should be through a community participatory approach. He further noted that the problem is exacerbated by the void in national forest policy on NTFPs 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh management that retards the sustainable growth of the industry in the savannah woodland. Local level strategies for the management of NTFPs are not sufficiently documented. As a stepping stone to addressing the myriads of concern raised by Yabepone (2010), this study aims at providing an inventory on NTFPs, its spatial distribution and use, and local management strategies, including challenges confronting and opportunities for developing the nascent industry. The study will therefore contribute to existing literature on NTFPs in the savannah regions whiles increasing data needed towards the formation of national forest policy targeted at the management and use of NTFPs in Ghana. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction to the Concept of Climate Change Climate change is a phenomenon that has gained global attention over the past decades. Although there are varying perspectives on its level of impact across the world, there is nonetheless an agreement on all fronts of academic and social discourse that the phenomenon continues to pose threats to society in many capacities. Climate change has been defined by various scholars, thus there is an array of definitions. However, there have been various points of convergence in terms of key issues that define the concept. The term generally refers to a statistically substantial disparity in both the mean state of the climate or in its variability, continuing for a prolonged period typically decade or lengthier. Climate change has several causative factors and may be the outcome of natural processes or external forces, or continuous human induced changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land-use (IPCC TAR, 2001b). Lagos and Wirth (2009) opined that the increasing threat of climate change has become one of humanities greatest challenge, which affects both current and future generations. Simpson et al., (2008) noted that as a result of climate change, it is likely that extreme weather events such as extensive heat or heavy precipitations will be more frequent and rampant across the world. There are varying causes and effects of climate change across the globe, both temporally and spatially. OECD (2009), climate change scenarios for the West African region for instance include an anticipated increase in mean temperatures and increased evapo-transpiration. Notwithstanding the vast knowledge of work in terms of research on the issue of climate change, Christensen et al., (2007) notes that on a regional scale, the impact of climate change and the 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ability to predict the occurrence of such climate change related phenomenon such as drought is really hard due to uncertainties and changes in frequency of occurrence. 2.3 Adaptation to Climate Change The United Nations Development Programme (2005), noted that adaptation is the process by which the approaches to mitigate the adverse effects of climate change are developed and implemented. IPCC TAR (2001a) also expounded on the terminology as adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. Swart et al., (2009) notes that climate change adaptation encompass all responses and planned actions taken to mitigate or cope with the impacts of, or reduce vulnerability to, a challenging climate. Various forms of adaptation can be distinguished, including anticipatory and reactive adaptation strategies, private and public adaptation strategies, and autonomous and planned adaption (IPCC TAR, 2001a). There are many people that are dependent on natural resources for their livelihoods. With the occurrence of climate change phenomena which challenges the source of these resources, people are adapting by exploring other options to support their livelihoods such as the use of NTFPs. To reduce the impacts of climate change, a national policy response that is anticipatory, non- reactive, and anchored in a country`s economic development framework and sustainable development is needed (Lagos and Wirth, 2009), The involvement of all stakeholders from local 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh authorities to community based organizations (CBOs) in the design of adaptation strategies is necessary for operative adaptation. 2.4 Overview of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) Ingram and Schure (2010) opined that Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) also known as Non- Wood Forest Products (NWFPs) are spontaneous forest products of organic basis, other than timber, obtained from forests, and other wooded land and trees outside forests. Wong (2000) defines NTFP as all materials obtained from natural resources found on forest ecosystems excluding timber, fuel wood, or medicinal plants harvested in parts or in whole. NTFPs are used for survival needs and also for sale (Clark and Sunderland, 2004), often not subjected to any strict monitoring or coordination by authorities who are mandated to oversee such resource usage, and are thereafter traded on the local market, and sometimes internationally (Ingram and Schure, 2010). The value and quantum of NTFPs and trade circuits are not well known in precise figures. There is very little data on the values and quantities of NTFPs and often times, these data are incongruent both on a regional and national level. The need for nationalistic and international transboundary approaches to NTFPs management was given credence by the beginning of the decade. Whether the extraction of NTFPs is compatible with biodiversity conservation or not is widely debated. Ninan (2006) expounded that while some suggest that NTFP extraction is financially viable and ecologically sustainable, others point to its adverse social and ecological consequences. 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Though there is a quite substantial amount of documentary evidence on the importance and prospects of NTFPs` utilization and its role in poverty alleviation, livelihoods enhancement and ecological sustainability, a lot of misunderstanding is still linked to NTFPs semantics and terminologies (Ahenkan and Boon, 2011). Indeed it has been very difficult to aptly define NTFPs due to the unclear borders between timber and non-timber products, and the inherent difficulty in defining clearly what a forest is. The accumulation of vocabularies relating to a single term with a range of elucidations and none of which is unanimously recognized is at the core of the NTFP semantic confusion. Ahenkan and Boon (2011) further note that the increasing realization of the importance of all forest resources makes the dichotomization of forest resources into timber and non-timber overly simplistic. Notwithstanding the semantic confusion, there is converging view that the advancement of sustainable use of NTFPs could result in a win-win situation for poverty reduction and bio-diversity conservation (Shiva and Verma, 2002; Golam et al., 2008). According to Clendon (2001), this is due to the increasing recognition that NTFPs can contribute significantly to the livelihoods of forest dependent communities. Indeed the growing significance of NTFP use has brought on board the involvement of various stakeholders across the globe including governments, development partners, NGOs among others over the past two decades who are playing various roles in making sure that society in general use and benefit from NTFP in a sustainable way. Some of these actors Ahenkan and Boon (2011) identified as: the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), International Development Research Centre (IDRC), and Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and the Biodiversity Support 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Programme (BSP), among others. The concept of NTFPs has therefore become an economically acceptable ecological option of development. 2.5 Spatial Distribution of NTFPs Although NTFP production and market studies normally discuss some spatial characteristics like distance, transport infrastructure, forest distribution, and population size, this is rarely formally incorporated into analysis (Perez et al., 2000). Thus most of the results from NTFP analysis tend to be non-spatial. A spatial analysis of the distribution of NTFPs is relevant to policy making regarding specific areas of specialization for communities in relation to the NTFP that is commonly extracted for livelihood benefits. Recent ecological work has considered spatial variables such as distribution of multiple NTFPs (Marshall and Newton, 2003; Straede et al., 2002), differential NTFP distribution across land cover and management types (Dalle et al., 2002; Miller, 2002), and varying NTFP use and management by spatially distinct resource users (Evans and Sengdala, 2002). The integration of spatio-temporal analysis into NTFP studies in addition to ecological studies allows communities, researchers and managers a more complete view of NTFPs and how they fit into complex biophysical, historical and cultural landscapes that are relevant for sustainability and management (Runk et al., 2004). On a larger spatial level, the tropical world with very dense and varied vegetation types offers more NTFPs. On a more micro scale, forest reserves generally are richer in NTFPs than open bushes and unprotected forests. Grenand (1992) and Phillips et al., (1994) noted that different rainforest types offer different arrays of NTFPs. Ndah et al., (2013) examined the spatial distribution of NTFPs in Takamanda National Park in Cameroon and noted that immature NTFPs 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh were more dominant (79.44%) than mature NTFPs (20.55%). This shows that the variation in distribution is not only along geographical lines, but also within the same geographic space, distribution of NTFPs do vary significantly in terms of the nature of NTFP material. It is also worthy to note that the distribution of NTFPs to a large extent links with the extent of extraction which is constrained by factors such as the nature of the terrain (e.g. steep slopes). Schaafsma (2011) noted that other factors can affect the decision to collect NTFPs including time and costs involved in collection, availability of labor, market access, demand, transportation options among others. Again, it can be deduced that geographic spaces that are experiencing rapid environmental degradation have lesser distribution of NTFPs than areas that least experience such environmental problems. NTFPs have played very valuable roles in sustaining livelihoods across various parts of the world including Latin America, Africa, and Asia. Rijsoort (2000) noted that variations are however obvious. The growth of huge volumes of the NTFPs in Latin America is characterized by a process of boom and dust, namely the speedy expansion of NTFP extraction followed by overexploitation as a result of growing demand and also a shift in the direction of plantations and substitutes. In Asia for example, colonial rulers have played a minor role in forest resource use and exploitation (Rijsoort, 2000). It is partially for this reason that knowledge of the use and management of NTFPs has been well preserved at all levels of society. However, the increasing population growth and pressure on resources meant that local forests use has grown in a more diversified manner. Rijsoort (2000) 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh further identified the variation in the domestication of NTFP as another factor that affects its spatial distribution. A proper assessment of the detailed historical development of NTFPs in various regions would make it possible to understand the spatial differences in NTFP distribution. 2.6 Types of NTFPs According to Shiva and Verma (2002), there is no globally applied standardized system of classifying NTFPs. NTFPs can be placed into categories including end use (medicine, food, drink), part used (roots, leaves and barks), or in harmony with main universal classification systems such as the Harmonized Community Description and Coding System developed under the auspices of the Customs Cooperation Council (Shiva and Verma, 2002). Ahenkan and Boon (2011) identified the following categories of plant NTFPs: food, fodder, medicines, perfumes and cosmetics, dying and tanning, utensils, handicrafts, construction materials, ornamentals, and exudates. They further identified the following categories of animal NTFPs: living animals, honey and beeswax, bush meat, other edible animal products, hides and skins, medicine, colorants, other nonedible animal products (bones used as tools). Adepoju and Salau (2007) noted that classifying NTFPs into categories is an important first step of understanding the NTFP industry. NTFPs according to Adepoju and Salau (2007) can be broadly classified into edibles and non-edibles. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.7 General Sources of NTFPs Unlike timber-based products, NTFPs come from a large variety of plant parts and are formed into a diverse set of products: leaves and twigs that may be component of decorative arrangements, food items such as fruits, fungi and juices, wood carved or woven into pieces of art or utilitarian objects and roots, leaves and bark processed into herbal remedies or medicines (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). Ibrahim et al., (2016) noted that whiles the forest or bush represents the major source of NTFPs for households, an equally significant percentage of households depend on markets to have access to NTFPs. Thus, although the primary source is the forest, challenges from steep landscapes, protection, predatory animals, and transportation, for example, limits household access to NTFPs from this primary source. Many households thus consider the market as their alternative or major source of NTFPs. 2.8 Importance of NTFPs to Household Livelihood Ingram and Schure (2010) elucidated that Non-Timber Forest Products play an important role in adding up to household income as well as national economy. The assemblage and trade of NTFPs offer an outlet for households to gain income, especially for the rural poor who live in the fringes of forest rich environments. Even though NTFPs offer lower export revenue compared to timber, they provide higher levels of employment. The most common NTFPs that provide significant revenues for harvesters, but also other actors in the value chain, include bush meat, fish, honey, palm wine, mushrooms, rattans, caterpillars, among others. Ninan (2006), opined that NTFPs are important from an economic, social, cultural and ecological viewpoint. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In addition to providing subsistence, income and employment to tribal and indigenous communities, NTFPs are also high value internationally traded products estimated at USD 11 billion a year (SCBD, 2001; Shanley et al., 2002). According to Adepoju and Salau (2007), NTFPs contributes significantly to local and regional economies, and with the current trend in the trade and use of NTFPs, it is bound to grow substantially over the next decades. Despite the relevance of NTFPs to livelihood security, Adepoju and Salau (2007) opined that it is a diminishing resource as a result of its dependency on land which is known to be under pressure of depletion from agriculture and development of public infrastructure. There is a historic importance of NTFPs to the livelihood of households which can be traced to the period of hunting and gathering. Apart from its economic significance, Cooks et al., (2003) notes that NTFPs may also have cultural significance and value to households. Charlie et al., (2004) looked into the role and importance of NTFPs in daily lives of rural people in South Africa and discovered that more than 85% household used products such as wild spinaches, fuel wood, wooden utensils and edible fruits. In Nigeria, food security for people dwelling in the countryside is enhanced by growing trees in the home gardens and on farms (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). Leaves, rattan, honey, sap, gums from the small scale industries are important sources of income (Okafor et al., 1994). Many households are able to meet their immediate household needs due to the many varieties and species of NTFPs obtainable by collecting these products from nearby forest, while other households engage in the marketing of these products to earn income. According to Adepoju and Salau (2007), 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh understanding of the magnitude and nature of the role of NTFPs is critical to making right decisions about the management of forests. 2.9 Use of NTFPs Several comprehensive studies have focused on specific uses of NTFPs such as fruits for food use (Ingram and Schure, 2010), medicinal uses (Vasisht and Kumar, 2004), tree use (Ingram and Schure, 2010), and socio-economic uses (Nlend, 2007). Food use of NTFPs includes using parts of plants for food particularly fruits, nuts, seeds, and animals. For medicinal purposes, NTFPs have served in several ways including those exported plants or plant parts used locally. NTFPs have also been used as tools and construction materials. Typically used ones include Rattan (Sunderland, 2001), Bamboo (Tieguhong et al., 2009) and Raphia (Ingram and Schure, 2010). These resources are used as poles in the putting up of buildings and to make various types of construction materials, utensils, and handicrafts. NTFPs have served in many dimensions as source of fuel or energy. Further, the use of flora and faunal resources for cultural purposes including ceremonies and religious events was highlighted by the FAO (1999) overview. The literature on medical plants according Olowokudejo et al., (2008) tends to pay much attention to the usefulness and value of species for traditional and western style medical use, rather than focusing on the prices and quantities, with a few notable exceptions. 2.10 Economic Benefits of NTFPs Whereas policy-makers have inclined to overestimating the occupational gains linked with timber harvests, the importance of employment and income as key economic indicators in the NTFPs 18 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sector was undervalued and continues to remain to a large extent incomprehensible even today. For many managers of forest reserves, NTFPs are still considered as minor forest products. Despite this seemingly unfair appreciation, NTFPs contribute, for example, about 50% of forest revenue and 70% of income through exports in India. Shiva (1993) noted that economically, the collection and sale of NTFPs in India contributes about 10 to 40% of income to the 50 million tribal households. Similarly, about 200-300 million villagers depend on NTFPs to varying degrees. Tien (1994) noted that there are more than 320,000 people involved in NTFP production in Vietnam. Furthermore, it is noted that about 200,000 people are employed in Indonesia rattan industry alone. These figures are impressive but are underrepresented by the number of forest dependent people and obscure the magnitude of contribution of forest based activities to total income of rural households which case studies have shown to be between 50 to 75%. In a recent study in India, Pandey et al., (2016) estimated that 275 million poor rural people in India depend on NTFPs for at least part of their subsistence and cash livelihoods. In Zimbabwe, 237,000 people worked on Non-Timber Forest Products in 1997, compared to 16,000 in industrial forestry (Anon, 2000) and most NTFPs are sold locally or in regional markets generating direct income to households. In Cameroon, Anon (2000) noted that sales of NTFPs are worth some million euros and outstrip domestic market requirements as market stalls in the cities of Douala and Yaoundé are full of such products as butter tree plums, groundnut tree nuts, Dika bread fruit and kola nut. 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The economic benefits of NTFPs are enormous and range from household employment and income to national level revenues. Kar and Jacobson (2012) elucidated that exploring the range and pattern of NTFPs` income support to livelihoods of people in fringe areas of forests and the related socio- economic variables is critical in planning any development and conservation initiative. 2.11 Nexus between Climate Change and NTFPs The nexus between climate change and NTFPs has gained more attention in literature over the past few decades especially with increasing climate change phenomenon that is putting livelihood stress on households especially in rural areas of the developing world. The impact of climate change on NTFPs is an area that requires greater attention from the research community (Easterling et al., 2007). According to Irland et al., (2001), the site specific nature of both climate change and the provision of NTFPs services complicate the understanding of climate change on these resources. Upendo (2013) noted that the general influences of climate change on NTFPs resources are more difficult to assess due to high ambiguity regarding ecological effects of climate change and also because of data on the current and projected future demand for these products which is incomplete at global, regional and national levels. Climate change can bring positive outcomes on NTFP collection on one hand, but on the other hand can lead to adverse consequences. For instance, high temperatures would increase the availability of fuel wood which households can harvest to meet their energy needs as well as sell to earn income. Rainy and humid conditions can favor the development and growth of fruits and seeds that can be collected for various uses. On the flip side however, very high temperatures as a result of climate change can pose the risks of fires, pests and pathogenic disease outbreaks, with negative consequences for food, fiber, and 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh forest production including NTFPs (Upendo, 2013). According to Arnold and Perez (2001), areas with high forest-dependent populations like Africa, expected decline in rainfall figures, and increased drought can exacerbate exploitation pressures on forest and agricultural lands. The linkage between climate change and NTFPs is not uni-directional, as uncontrolled harvesting of NTFPs can have damaging effects on forests through depletion of vegetation stock and reducing the ability of vegetation and other forest components to absorb carbon from the environment. This reduction in ability of forest ecosystems to absorb excess carbon dioxide from the atmosphere will inadvertently increase the warming of the lower atmosphere and add up to the growing case of climate change. NTFPs directly or indirectly contribute to carbon sequestration. The fast growing NTFPs such as bamboo contribute to reducing emissions and directly protects the forest system (Zaman et al., 2015), underscoring the role of NTFPs in regulating temperatures. Thus a careful understanding of climate and NTFP use is necessary to generate a win-win situation where people benefit from access of resources without necessarily exacerbating climate change phenomena. 2.12 Use of NTFPs as Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Rural Areas As posited by Adger et al., (2005), the ability of people to effectively adapt to climate change is largely influenced by their economic conditions. Therefore, to ensure sustainable livelihood, and to enhance resilience of communities in the savanna ecological zone, the diversification of household livelihood activities has been identified as a means to sustainable livelihood (Losch et al., 2011). There is the need to consider other alternative adaptive strategies such as engaging in the extraction, processing and marketing of NTFPs which have the potential of ensuring 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh sustainable adaptation and enhancing the resilience of both the ecosystem and the society to climate change/variability. Inter Academy Council (2004) reckoned that the agriculture and forest sectors offer job opportunities to people especially in sub-Saharan Africa. However, agriculture is extremely sensitive to climate change, and this has the possibility of altering food production, particularly in terms of patterns and productivity of crop and livestock systems (Vermeulen et al., 2012). In view of this growing challenge, the collection of NTFPs for various uses has been seen as a security for households to adapt to climate change. Arnold and Perez (2001) clearly underlined the significance of NTFP collection as a climate change adaptation measure stating that the sustainable management Non-Timber Forest Products presents a range of potential adaptation options particularly for rural people in developing countries in the wake of climate change effects on livelihoods. The work of Seppala et al., (2009) presents one of few global views on forest and climate change adaptation options with forestry providing diverse resources such as NTFPs which are drawn upon by the respective society for earning livelihoods and adaptation actions. Kalame (2011) highlights the view that the significance of forest resources such as NTFPs as an adaptation measure to climate change effects in rural areas has not received much projection in literature and by governments. Nonetheless, the significance of NTFPs as an adaptation strategy to climate change cannot be underestimated, as literature evidence points to the fact that NTFPs provide substantial inputs to 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the livelihoods of forest dependent communities, for example, in India where many have limited non-agricultural income opportunities (Chandrashekaran, 1994). Additionally, NTFPs are important because they can be harnessed under various atmospheric conditions, be it extremely wet or extremely dry conditions that are unfavorable for agriculture. Thus at a given period of climatic variations, households are able to obtain something that is worth enhancing their livelihoods. 2.13 Threats to Sustainable Use of NTFPS The extraction of NTFPs is regarded sustainable if its exploitation has no long-term disastrous impact on the regeneration of the extracted resource and when the yield remains more or less unchanged throughout the year (Cunningham, 2000). Compared to timber products, NTFPs have historically been neglected by governments. The capacity to promote sustainable use of NTFP and facilitate increased financial benefits to local users as incentives for forest conservation is consequently low (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). There seems to be a lack of adequate methodologies and strategies to ensure sustainable use of NTFPs and effectively regulate trade and policy development (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). In other words, policy development is still largely disconnected from field experience. The absence of such policies and sustainable management frameworks has led to the mismanagement of NTFPs across various protected and unprotected forests in a bid to derive livelihoods by indigenous people in such fringe communities of these reserves. 23 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rosyadi et al. (2003) noted that the misappropriation of forest resources due to the absence of decentralized forest management policy is considered a factor for depletion of NTFPs. Persistent logging practices, overgrazing, bushfires, and overexploitation of fuel wood among other human activities pose severe threats to the sustainability of NTFPs use. Although climate change phenomenon such as droughts and floods, and natural disasters pose some level of threats to the sustainability of forest resource access and use particularly in the case of NTFPs, it could be deduced that anthropogenic actions cause depletion at a larger scale and faster rate. 2.14 Enablers of NTFPs Despite several barriers to the extraction and use of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs), some enabling factors have been identified to promote the resource use as a sustainable livelihood option in forest resource areas. Schreckenberg et al., (2006) identified four key factors that promote the success of NTFP commercialization and use. Among these policies are innovation, collaboration, entrepreneurship, and conducive legislative and policy environment. According to the authors, innovation enables producers and traders to deal with risk and vulnerability, and overcome key constraints to NTFP commercialization. The existence of collaborative systems in communities, together with the application of local knowledge, enhances the production and marketing of NTFPs. They also noted that although entrepreneurs have been accused of exploiting producers in some cases, they have been influential in enabling NTFP use as a sustainable livelihood option for local people in forest areas. Typically, entrepreneurs help to bridge information gaps (on price, quality and quantity). Furthermore, entrepreneurs with good information on producer and consumer environments help to identify new 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh market niches which local people can explore. Other roles of entrepreneurs include training workshops for local people, and the advancement of capital to ensure consistent product supply. Schreckenberg et al., (2006) also noted that the conducive legislations enable formal and informal NTFP commercialization and resource use especially where permit or certification issues have been less difficult to acquire. Improvements in transport and communications infrastructure will ease market access and this will be important enabler for NTFP use (Marshall et al., 2006). Evariste and Bernard-Aloys (2016) in a study on sustainable assessment of NTFPs in South-Eastern Cameroon rainforests also pointed to the role of conducive legislative and policy environment in sustaining the use of NTFPs. They clarified that the simplification of NTFP exploitation policy through simplification of access to NTFPs, updating of the list of NTFPs, development of tracking systems for licenses and careful monitoring of quantities used, simplification of transport of different types for NTFPs, and revising taxation regimes is critical to enabling sustainable use of NTFPs. 2.15 Valuation of NTFPs The production and marketing of NTFPs and services gained prominence in forest management as their demand increased across the globe. However, as a result of absence of important data on the level of output of NTFPs, its economic significance was seldom accounted for in the valuation of forests (Mahapatra and Tewari, 2005). The valuation of NTFPs therefore now focuses on the whole range of activities and relations linked with production, exchange, transport and distribution of specific products (Jensen, 2009). 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Whereas the value of timber products is well known that of NTFPs is hardly publicized and highly debated .There is the need for the objective of valuation exercises to be explicit, that is, to explain how choices are made by individual resource users, or how to maximize community well-being. Ingram and Bongers (2009) explained that many NTFP valuations to date lack quantitative data. This lack of data poses great challenge to the valuation of NTFPs. Explaining the relevance of valuation data on NTFPs, Tewari (2000) clarified that given the global diversity of NTFPs and their uses, data on NTFPs cannot be overlooked. Marshall et al., (2003) uphold similar view noting that the availability of quantitative data on valuation of NTFPs allows for comparisons and generalization of results across ecosystems. A generally accepted methodology for forest product valuation and analysis would eliminate such ambiguities that bedevil the system currently. Ingram and Bongers (2009) explained that when NTFPs move from subsistence use to commercial use, the socioeconomic livelihoods of producers, harvesters, processes, urban traders, and consumers become intertwined through demand and supply inter linkages that can lead to unsustainable exploitation. Thus having knowledge about the real value of NTFPs can be useful to facilitating managerial decisions in the source regions of these NTFPs (Tewari, 2000). Shaanker et al., (2003) held the view that the ecological consequence of NTFP extraction is very imperative when evaluating in futuristic terms the market value of NTFPs. Thus whiles focusing on the valuation of NTFPs, there is need for future studies to examine the value of the remaining forest ecosystem, so as to facilitate sustainable management interventions. A number of limitations have been identified in literature regarding valuation of NTFPs. Ingram and Bongers (2009) noted that varying nuances in meaning results in valuations not being able to 26 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh satisfy all those who seek to measure the worth of NTFPs. Furthermore, past and current studies have focused on a mono-disciplinary expertise when valuing a market chain, from either economic environmental or social perspectives. Harilal et al., (2006) clarified that a key setback in previous NTFP valuations is a focus on either a specific producer-based geographic setting, or a micro- or project-level, neglecting the broader context related to an NTFP market chain. Economic factors related to the NTFP market chain on a regional or national level are therefore not taken into account in many valuations of NTFPs. Hiremath (2004) explained that there is therefore a need for a holistic approach, taking into account sustainable development aspects when valuing NTFPs. 2.16 Management of NTFPs There is a prerequisite for baseline ecological data in forest management. Rijsoort (2000) upheld the view that native knowledge and management practices are essential in setting up a sustainable NTFP and broad forest management system. The cultural and religious significance of forests can also play a role in the management of such forest products. It is observed that NTFPs are considered from economic point of view, thus their cultural and spiritual values are often neglected. The lack of these considerations in the use of NTFPs could be debilitating to their sustainable management. Clark and Sunderland (2004) clarified that the management of NTFPs will gain much success if log extraction takes into account the biological, economic, social importance and needs of NTFPs and their consumers. Vaughan et al., (2013) in a study on forest product management in the United States elucidated that the marginalization of wild crafters (people involved in the harvest of NTFPs) have created a management problem where they are reticent to share information or to participate in government- 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh led initiatives in the management of NTFPs. Vaughan et al.,(2013) explains that the use of social networking and a synchronous communication via the internet and other means could improve collaboration between the two stakeholders and impact positively on NTFP management. Padoch and de Jong (1989) noted that managing NTFPs is cost prudent in traditional systems relatively due to its integrated nature with other land-use and labor activities. Yabepone (2010) further elucidated on this view that the literature on traditional management system reveals a wide range of intensity both within and among forest communities, where intensity varies along multiple axes of social, economic, geographic and ecological factors. These include the distance of the NTFP source from dwellings, proximity to market, the commercial value of the NTFP, the nature of ownership and access rights, and the natural productivity of a particular forest area (Bishop and Scoones, 1994). Anderson and Ions (1992) explicated that traditional approaches to management of NTFPs are cost effect because they are carried out in conjunction with other activities. For effective management of NTFPs, their integration with activities such as farming and hunting could be far reaching (Yabepone, 2010). The operationalization of state co-management policies on NTFPs has often resulted in improvement in the quality of ecosystems and their ecological resources (Yabepone, 2010). Most of the studies however indicate that partaking and benefit sharing with local forest communities has resulted in more careful management with a subsequent increase in forest cover and increased biodiversity. The socio-economic and environmental effects of co-management initiatives are less predictable with the system neglecting the interests of large portion of forest communities. In Sub- Saharan Africa, in terms of the distribution of social and economic benefits of NTFP management, 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh those initiatives that incorporate pre-existing institutions and organizations appear to have the most progressive results (Agyemang, 1994). Notwithstanding this, because of historical neglect, Siebert (1995) explicated that NTFPs in conventional scientific forest management has several information gaps. 2.17 State-led Management Approaches Until lately, many forestry agencies both governmental and non-governmental in the tropical regions were not actively managing for NTFP production, thus research has been limited in this area of study (Neumann and Hirsch, 2000). According to Tewari (1994) it is only after the International Timber Organization called for the study of NTFPs in 1988 that research interest gained impetus and management studies began to emerge. Neumann and Hirsch (2000) noted that there are currently very few areas that are managed by the state with an explicit NTFP emphasis. Particular commercially valuable NTFP species have been singled out as having potential for management on large scale state-owned reserves. Despite initiatives, NTFP utilization in national forests across the tropical world has by and large been ignored in forest management practices. Harvesting has often been allowed, sometimes through a permit system. In addition, commonly in state reserves, NTFP harvesting has been viewed as being in conflict with the goals of forest management, whether orienting towards protection or timber production. Agyemang (1994) noted that when the state allows access through permit systems, it can be an opportunity for corruption and bribery and the source of conflict between the government forest officers and local communities. Siebert (1995) points that access 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh to NTFPs has been prohibited in many forms of state reserves, yet it often continues illegally and unmanaged and the national parks of Sulawesi, Indonesia are classic examples. Gunatilake (1994) cited in Neumann and Hirsch (2000) suggests that a long term management plan of a protected forest should include programmes to reduce peripheral villager forest dependency, an approach that is to integrate local communities into the overall management of the forest by diverting demand. Instruments for achieving such state-led management approach include the creation of buffer zones, community-based management projects and community plantations (Neumann and Hirsch, 2000). 2.18 Participatory and Co-management Approaches The use of participatory approaches in forest management generally has gained momentum globally over the past two decades and it includes the interests and needs of all forest users, not just timber extractors. According to Neumann and Hirsch (2000), the approach calls for the participation of rural forest-dwelling agricultural communities in some form in the management of resources from state-owned or communal forests. Participatory management approach was introduced in response to the social and political pressures applied by disenfranchised customary forest users to state agencies. It is appropriate to expound that participation can range from giving some level of usufruct rights to local communities to the creation of state-owned forests by special agencies (Neumann and Hirsch, 2000). Almost by definition, participatory forest management integrates some level of NTFP extraction by local people in fringe communities of such forest rich areas. 30 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.19 Implications of NTFP Use and the Need for NTFP Farming Harvesting NTFPs do have major implications on the species concerned or on the forest ecosystem. Rijsoort (2000) notes that an understanding of ecological strategies of plants and animals is essential and that such an understanding of ecological strategies needs to form the basis for the construction of forest and NTFP management systems. Rijsoort (2000) further expounds that there is need for the development of short, simple, participatory methods based on native knowledge which is able to induce the knowledge necessary for taking management decisions. Looking at the socio-cultural aspects, Rijsoort (2000) noted that indigenous knowledge and management techniques are critical in putting up a sustainable forest management system. The cultural and religious significance of forests also play a role in forest management. Thus managerial actions need to examine broad ecological, social, cultural and spiritual issues as they are directly and indirectly linked to NTFP use and have implication on sustainability of the resource. Ahenkan and Boon (2011) noted that indigenous people are losing their access to valued flora and fauna species either through overexploitation and habitat destruction or through loss of access as past harvesting areas are included within protected areas. Marshall et al., (2005) explained that in accomplishing sustenance of NTFPs, harvest and forest conservation depend on the ability to reconcile ecosystem productivity with human exploitation. As a result of the recognition that the exploitation of NTFPs from natural forests has limited potential for improving household economies, there has been a paradigm shift in scholarly works that began to question whether the objective of enhancing livelihoods through forest based strategies like NTFPs harvesting could not be better fulfilled by optimizing NTFPs production through domestication (De Jong et al., 2002). 31 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Rajesh (2006) notes that intensified management and domestication of NTFPs may be an important means of improving livelihood of poor through higher yields. 2.20 Conceptual Framework According to Scoones (1998), sustainable rural livelihood has become a central debate theme in the literature of rural development. The Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) originally developed by DFID has been built on after discussions at the Institute of Development (IDS) in 1997. The major strength of the outcome framework is its ability to lend itself to various livelihood and assets contexts. The SLF responds to a number of key questions which include what the relevant outcome indicators of sustainable livelihoods are. What are the available livelihood resources, institutional processes and livelihood strategies which are important in enabling or constraining the achievements of sustainable livelihood for different groups of people? And what are the practical operational and policy implication of adopting a sustainable livelihood approach? The framework further holds that the key element should fundamentally respond to the following: “Given a particular context (of policy setting, politics, history, agro-ecology and socio-economic conditions), what combination of livelihood resources (different types of ‘capital’) result in the ability to follow what combination of livelihood strategies (intensive/extensive agriculture, livelihood diversification and migration) with what outcomes?” (Ibid) The framework also identifies the key role of institutions both formal and informal institutions that act as agents to mediate how the strategies will be carried out to achieve (or not) the intended outcomes. The framework can be applied at different levels of scale including the individual, household, household clusters among others. The framework has been adapted for this study, 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh which seeks to examine the role of farming and NTFPs in sustaining the rural livelihood of people in the Lawra district (Figure 2.1). The framework holds that in a given context of climate change, both temperature and rainfall become determinants of agriculture (farming) output, which is the major livelihood of the people in the Lawra district. With evidence of climate change in the district, the output of their traditional livelihood (farming) will be affected and will lead to households finding adaptive and alternative measures to sustain their livelihood. This could be done though instituting adaptive measures to improve agricultural yields or through the collection of NTFPs to complement the low yields from agriculture. Adopting the use of NTFPs as an adaptive strategy will be useful as these not heavily reliant on climate changes. However, in order to ensure maximum benefits from the collection of NTFPs, that will be dependent on the management strategies adopted by various institutions including formal and informal institutions. A positive outcome of the management strategies instituted is likely to lead to an addition to the various livelihood capitals including natural, physical, social, financial and human. Access to these will increase the resilience of households and individuals to climate change effects on their traditional source of income. In situations where the strategies adopted are ineffective through unsustainable environmental practices, this will increase the vulnerability of households as they are deprived of the various capitals needed to sustain their livelihood. This further increases their vulnerability; reduce their resilience to climate change variability. 33 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 2.1 Conceptual Framework of the Study Source: Adapted from Scoones (1998) Sustainable Livelihood Framework 34 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1 Study Area 3.1.1 Location The study was carried out in the Lawra District, located in the Upper West Region in Northern Ghana. It is one of the eleven districts that make up the Upper West Region. It lies in the north- western corner of the Upper West Region in Ghana. It is bounded to the north by Nandom District, to the east by Lambussie-Karni District, to the south-west and west by the Republic of Burkina Faso. It lies between latitude 10° 30′ 0″ N and longitude 2° 35′ 0″ W. The Lawra District has over 80 % of its inhabitants living in the rural areas. The population density of the district is 104.1 per square kilometer (GSS, 2014). 3.1.2 Vegetation and Climate The district lies within the Guinea Savanna Zone which is characterized by grass interspersed with woody plants. Common trees in the district are Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Dawadawa (Parkia biglobosa), Shea (Vitellaria paradoxa) and Acacia. The vegetation is very congenial for livestock production, which contributes significantly to household incomes in the district. The greatest influence on the vegetation is the prolonged dry season. During this period, the grass becomes dry and gets burnt which leaves the area patchy and mostly bare vegetation. Consequently, the torrential early rains cause excessive soil erosion. Bush burning reduces the vegetative cover and transpiration; and this affects the effectiveness of annual total rainfall resulting in low agricultural yields as farmers depend mostly on rain-fed agriculture (GSS, 2014). The climate of the district is the tropical continental type with mean annual temperature ranging between 27° C and 36° C. The 35 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh period between February and April is the hottest. Climatic changes of late, however affects the weather pattern. Between April and October, the Tropical Maritime air mass blows over the area which gives the only wet season in the year (GSS, 2014). 3.1.3 Geology and Soils The type of rock formation in the District is essentially Birimian with dotted outcrops of granite. The District mineral potential is largely unexplored. There are indications of the presence of minor deposits of manganese, traces of gold and diamond, iron ore and clay. As a result of a well- developed fracture pattern in the rocks, the potential for obtaining ground water in the district is very high which makes it suitable for all year-round farming (GSS, 2014). The soils in the district consist mostly of laterite soils. These are developed from the Birimian and granite rocks which underlie the area. The general nature of the soils, coupled with the traditional land use practices and the rainfall pattern, tend to have adverse effect on crop production resulting in persistent low in food production (GSS, 2014). 3.1.4 Relief and Drainage The district is gently rolling with a few hills ranging between 180 and 300 meters above sea level. It is drained by the White Volta River, to the west forming a boundary between the district and the Republic of Burkina Faso. The White Volta River has several tributaries in the district; notably amongst them are the Kamba/Dangbang, Nawer and Duodaa (GSS, 2014) 36 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 3.1: A Map of Lawra District showing the study area 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2 Methodology 3.2.1 Research Design The study adopted the mixed method approach to gather relevant data on NTFPs and climate change. Combining both quantitative and qualitative approaches provided a rather complete understanding of the problem investigated than either approach would have presented (Creswell, 2014). The quantitative data provided insights into changing climatic conditions and the implications on NTFPs availability, collection and management. The qualitative data on the other hand provided the respondents the opportunity to share their experiences about climate change effects on NTFPs collection and management at the community level. The triangulation of both data in the analysis ensured complementarity as well as overcoming the inherent weaknesses in either methods (Tashakkori and Teddlie 2010). 3.2.2 Data Sources The study used data from both primary and secondary sources. The primary data were gathered both quantitatively and qualitatively. The primary data included both qualitative and quantitative data from all the study communities on climate change and NTFPs collection and management. The secondary data included data from sources including documentary reports received from the Lawra district assembly, NGO groups as well as reports on climate change and agriculture from the Lawra Traditional council. Other secondary data included forest resource management plan from the District forestry service division, environmental protection policies from the Environmental Protection Agency and Demographic data from Ghana Statistical Services. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Finally, to establish historical trend and climate variability of the area, climatological data was obtained from the Ghana Meteorological Agency at Wa Regional Coordinating Council (RCC). This helped to validate the occurrence of climate variability and change in the district. The climatological data obtained is displayed in a chart showing the trend in annual rainfall and temperature for a minimum period of 30 years. 3.2.3 Data Collection Instruments The study adopted varying data collection instruments to cover all the approaches used. In gathering quantitative data, the study used questionnaires to gather information from residents of all four communities selected for the study. The household questionnaire was structured with both close ended and open ended questions. The household questionnaire however focused on the bio- data, observations, and practices of interviewees on climate change conditions as well as NTFPs collection and management in the study area. On the other hand, the study conducted key in-depth interviews with key stakeholders in the management of NTFPs and other forest resources. Additionally, qualitative data was also gathered through focus group discussions organized in the various communities of study. Experts from the forest division assisted in identifying, naming as well as grouping NTFPs through 2 weeks of intensive field observations with the researcher. 3.2.4 Sample Size Determination According to GSS (2014), a total number of 9,200 households were recorded in the Lawra district. If at least one member of a household engages in either the collection/gathering, processing and 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh marketing of NTFPs, such a household is qualified as NTFPs management household. The total household value of 9,200 will be used to represent the sample frame for the questionnaire administration. The sample size will then be obtained using the formula for determining sample size from a definite population (Puopiel, 2010). 𝑁 Formula: n = ; 1+𝑁(𝛼2) Where n= Sample size N= Sample frame (9,200) α= Margin of error (0.08/92 % confidence interval) 9,200 n = 1+9,200(0.082) n = 154.92 ~ 155 Therefore, the sample size for the survey will be 155. However, for the qualitative interviews conducted, a total of 5 respondents were selected for in- depth interviews. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.2.5 Sampling Technique The study adopted the multi-stage sampling technique due to the heterogeneous nature of the study area in order to give fair representation to all households in selected communities. The study at the first stage involved 4 communities including Tolibri, Berwong, Kanpouh and Oribili. These study areas were selected based on the fact that, they were major NTFP collection communities in the Lawra district as confirmed by reports retrieved from the District assembly and traditional council. Also, during reconnaissance survey, attempts were made to ask randomly on the views of people in the capital on communities where NTFP collection was prevalent. The selected four communities featured strongly again in the responses. The second stage of the sampling involved the division of the town into various clusters due to the scattered nature of most households. Within each of the four communities, there were 3 major block divisions using landmarks such as roads, market areas, schools and religious buildings. Further, the study at the next stage used the systematic sampling technique to reach out to households in the selected communities. A diagonal walk through each block division was undertaken to estimate the number of houses. This provided a sample frame that was further used to determine the number of households to be selected within each block. The same technique was applied throughout each block. At the final stage, household heads were selected purposively to respond to the questionnaires. However, in the absence of the household head, either the mother of the house or elderly persons available responded to the questionnaire. Geographic positioning data of locations were taken by using Geographic Positioning System. The attributes included, sampling points, major NTFPs and 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other attributes (concentration types, and location of most abundant NTFPs). The purposive sampling technique was also adopted to reach out to stakeholders such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Forest Service Division (FSD), Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), District Assembly (DA) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). Finally, the study also conducted focus group discussions with selected community members. In all a total of 8 focus group discussions were made from the four communities (at least two from each community). Taking into consideration the decision making and cultures the two groups created in each of the communities had the sexes separated. This was deliberately done to allow especially women to be able to fully express themselves and not be suppressed by their counterpart men in whose presence they cannot express themselves. 3.2.6 Data Analysis Data were analyzed by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS V.20). The following statistical test were performed: cross tabulation, chi-square test of independence, correlation and regression analyses. Results were represented in tables and graphical forms such as histogram, pie chart and bar chart. Again, all interviews conducted (Key informant and focus group discussions) were transcribed manually onto paper from audio recordings. The transcripts were then used to generate a matrix for the purposes of analysis. The matrix shows various themes generated through the objectives of the study against the 4 locations. The individual responses were then captured under each of the 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh broad themes representing the objectives of the study. These themes generated were used to support the quantitative results of the study. 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents Table 4.1 shows the bio data of the respondent. From the Table, male population is 38.4% whiles the female population is 65.2%. The variation is due to the population differences in the sex composition. Again, Table 4.1 reveals that 37.4% of the respondents were between the ages of 31-40 years. Those in the age cohort of 20-25 constituted 23.9% and 41-50 years making up 23.7% of respondents. Table 4.1: Bio Data of Respondents from the Lawra District Question Variable Frequency of responses (%) Gender Male 54 (38.4) Female 101 (65.2) Age 20-25 37 (23.9) 26-30 2 (1.3) 31-40 58 (37.4) 41-50 37 (23.9) 51-60 21 (13.5) Religion Christian 101 (65.2) Islam 6 (3.9) Traditional 48 (31) 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Household Size 1-5 38 (24.5) 6-10 86 (55.5) 11 and above 31 (20) Length of Stay Less than 5years 2 (1.3) 5-10 years 24 (15.5) 11-20 years 27 (17.4) 21-30 years 57 (36.8) Above 30 years 45 (29) Source: Field Data, 2017 The size of households of respondents was assessed to provide background to the demand and pressure on household heads and families in their management strategies adopted. More than half of the total respondents had an average household size of about 6-10 members (55.5%), with. 1-5 members and above 10 members constituting 24.5 and 20 percent, respectively. Majority of households were made up of Christians (65.2%), followed by traditionalists (31%). Islam however accounted for only 3.9% of the population (See Table 4.1). Again, respondents had stayed between 21-30 years (36.8%) and over 30 years (29%) in their respective communities. Those who stayed in the community between 5-10 years and 11-20 years accounted for 15.5 and 17.4 percent, respectively. However, only 1.3 percent of respondents spent less than 5 years in their respective communities. 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3 Perceptions on Climate Change and its Effects on Livelihood Activities Climate plays a major role in communities whose livelihoods are dependent on climate related factors including rainfall and temperature. Changing climatic conditions therefore will have direct implications for local people’s livelihood sustainability. The perceptions of local people in the Lawra District on climate change were assessed to determine their views and experiences, which are vital in any effort to mitigate the effects of climate change. The study first established that all respondents were aware of the climate change phenomenon. 43.9 Shorter Rain Period 54.2 Rainfall Heavy Storms Late Rainy Season 0.6 1.3 Figure 4.1: Perceptions of respondent on Rainfall Pattern in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 They indicated the various ways they perceived climate change over the years. Figure 4.1 shows that majority of residents noted that the pattern of rainfall had changed over the years. Key among their observations is that the rainfall period had become shorter (54.2%) over the years and others confirmed that the rains arrived very late in recent years (43.9%) and highly unpredictable. The remaining 1.3 percent and 0.6 percent observed heavy rainfall and heavy storms as changes in the 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh recent past. They noted that the unpredictable and short rainfall period had affected their farming activities. During focus group discussions at Oribili, a 68 years old farmer noted that, “We have observed so many changes over the last 15 years or so. Rainfall patterns have become so uncertain, shorter durations, heavy winds and storms that used not to be the case. Is this not the climate change?” Similar views were expressed across all study communities on the signs and changing patterns in rainfall regimes. Perception of respondents on temperature changes in the study area is shown in figure 4.2. From the figure 99.4% stated that temperature conditions over the recent past had followed a rising trend and becoming unbearable. However, 0.6% of the population noted that temperatures were rather decreasing. The Focus group discussions confirmed the views of the people on temperature rise. The participants were certain that temperature had not decreased at any point in time and that the heat produced in recent times was getting so unbearable. A female participant expressed her view on temperature rise, noting that, “Temperature has risen and is having severe and unbearable effect on us, our activities and everything we do. This days before you are up from bed the sun has already shown up in the sky. By mid-morning we now begin greeting each other good afternoon, thinking the day is far gone due to the heat. This has been the situation over some years now and it doesn’t look reversing in the shortest possible time” 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There was a quick reaction however to the concluding statement of the previous speaker from a young farmer, who indicated that, “Not in the shortest possible time, probably forever, since all the things we do now is what is responsible for the situation. If we don’t change, the situation will become worse than now” .6 Rising Decreasing 99.4 Figure 4.2: Perceptions of respondents on Temperature Changes in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 4.3.1 General Rainfall and Temperature Distribution in the Lawra District Figure 4.3 shows the rainfall pattern for the last 30 years in the Lawra District. Generally, the rainfall pattern has continuously fluctuated for the period between 1984 and 2014. The highest amount of rainfall was recorded in the year 2000 (1274.1 mm) and the least recorded in 2004 (565.5 mm). 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Temperature patterns in the Lawra District for the periods spanning 1984 -2014 (30 years) were also analyzed as shown in Figure 4.4. Data was however not available for certain periods in the 30 years span, i.e.1986, 1987, 2005, 2006 and 2008. Temperature in the Lawra District in recent times therefore has increased, confirming earlier observations made by residents of the study areas who stated that temperatures continue to rise over the period and has some impacts on their productivity. The past 30 years under study has shown a steady increase in temperature. The maximum temperature (31.6˚C) recorded was in 1996 with the lowest figure of 28.3˚C recorded in 1997. 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 Year Figure 4.3: Rainfall Graph of the Lawra District (1984-2014) Source: GMet, 2017 50 Rainfall Totals (mm) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32.0 31.0 30.0 29.0 28.0 27.0 26.0 25.0 Year Figure 4.4: Temperature Distribution in the Lawra District (1984-2014) Source: GMet, 2017 51 Temperature (°C) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.2 Perceptions of respondents on the Causes and Effects of Climate Change on Livelihoods The views of local residents on the causes of climate change were assessed. There were varied views expressed by respondents with majority noting that the major causes were poor agricultural practices (25.2%), bush burning (23.9%) and cutting down of trees (18.7%). Other factors included natural phenomenon (18.1%) God’s reaction to human sin (9%), as well as God’s reaction to human sins (1.3%). However, 3.9 percent of the respondents had no idea about the causes of climate change in the area (Figure 4.5). 30.0 25.2 23.9 25.0 18.1 18.7 20.0 15.0 9.0 10.0 3.9 5.0 1.3 0.0 Causes of Climate Change Figure 4.5: Causes of Climate Change in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 Figure 4.6 shows respondents’ perception on the effects of climate change on livelihood. From the figure 87.7% indicated that the major effect is reduction in crop harvest. 52 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh They indicated that the total yields from their farms had declined continually over the past years and in certain cases, farmers do not substantially gain from the farms. At Oribili, during FGDs, a farmer recounted some of the effects of climate change on the livelihood of his household. He stated that, “low crop yields, destruction of NTFPs, damages to houses are some of the effects of climate change on the livelihood activities of my family” Similarly in Berwong community during a focus group discussion, a 63 years old farmer indicated that, “Climate change affects our crop and animal production as well as some of the NTFPs in the bush”. 1.3 11.0 Reduced Harvest Migration of family members 87.7 Health Effects Figure 4.6: Perception of respondents on Effects of Climate Change on Livelihood Activities Source: Field Data, 2017 53 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.3 Adaptation Strategies by Local Populations Respondents in all study communities noted that climate change had affected their major source of livelihood, farming, mostly in the form of reduced farm yields and this was having significant effect on their families. The study also examined the adaptation strategies used by the residents to cope with the climate change effects. Majority of the respondents who are farmers noted that to adapt to the changing climate condition, they engaged in various strategies to support family livelihood demands of which NTFP collection (39.4%) has become a vital sector. A 56 years old farmer explaining the shift to the use of NTFPs in the District noted that, “NTFPs have always been available but many people were not interested since farming was doing ok, but now several types of NTFPs are being collected on daily and seasonal basis either for sale or to be used by families as food supplements” During the focus group discussions, 38 years old female Trader noted that “On daily basis I try to get some form of NTFPs to sell, I do go and collect dawadawa and shea nuts myself and I also buy and sell again. This I have been doing for the past 3 years. My husband decided that I should do this whiles he also try to focus on agriculture. At the end, the NTFPs supports us on a daily basis before the farm yields comes in” A total of 25.2 percent of residents identified trading and business as other adaptation strategies. They noted that trades such as carvings, petty trading, weaving and also ‘by-day’ (daily wage works) works were also used to support farming returns. Other strategies included, reducing negative environmental practices (indiscriminate cutting of trees and pollution) (17.4%), use of 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh fertilizers and improved seedlings (9.7%), fertilizer use (7.7%) and storing food for the lean period (0.6%). During FGDs, most of the residents engaged in more than one of these adaptation strategies since there is much demand to foster growth in the family. Notwithstanding the multiple sources of deriving income, it was also reported that adaptation strategies in certain cases was a household affair. The household is deliberately divided into groups to engage in specific types of activities so as to ensure some cash is drawn from every opportunity available. Households saw men engaged in agriculture and other petty businesses whiles women picked and sell NTFPs among others. The low response to irrigation is due to the fact that, only Oribili among the study communities, was close to the White Volta where some farmers engaged in irrigation for the production of vegetables mainly. According to the ‘Tindana’ (Chief Priest) of Oribili, “The community adopts adaptation strategies such as, dry season farming of vegetables (okra, onion, pepper, garden eggs, carrot, tomatoes, cassava leaves) along the White Volta which we here are blessed with. Most of the other communities are so far away from this water resource and so do not have access”. 55 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39.4 40.0 35.0 30.0 25.2 25.0 17.4 20.0 15.0 7.7 9.7 10.0 .6 5.0 0.0 Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Figure 4.7: Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Source: Field Data, 2017 The table 4.2 shows the percentage distribution of respondents with reference to their percentage of adaptation strategies across the four communities. In Tolibri majority of the respondents indicated the collection of NTFPs (43.6%) as an adaptation strategy. Other key strategies adopted in Tolibri include the use of fertilizers and improved seeds (20.5%), reducing negative environmental impacts (15.4%) as well as trading/business (10.3%). Again, some 5.6 percent and 4.7 percent of respondents engage in storage and irrigation strategies respectively. In Berwong, 43.6 percent of respondents engage in the collection of NTFPs, 23.1 percent in reducing negative environmental impacts and another 20.5 percent in trading and business. In Kanpouh the collection of NTFPs again dominates with 64.9 percent. Trading and business as well reducing negative environmental impacts constituted 18.9% and 13.5 percent respectively in Kanpouh. 56 Percentages University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh It is worth noting however that, information from the District Assembly indicates that the first three communities benefit from a project scheme targeted at protecting and conserving the environment. The environmental restoration and conservation project led by a number of NGOs as well as the District Assembly does not cover Oribili, which necessitated that they institute their own environmental conservation methods. In Oribili, the collection of NTFPs still is the major adaptation strategy to climate change (42.5%). Reducing negative environmental impacts, use of fertilizers and improved seeds as well as trading and business recorded 15.5 percent, 15 percent and 15 percent respectively. In Oribiri, 10 percent of respondents indicated irrigation as an adaptation strategy. Unlike all other three communities where irrigation is not a critical strategy due to the absence of water body (few dug out wells), Oribili stands out with its location close to the White Volta. Table 4.2: Distribution of respondents (%) with reference to their perception of Adaptation Strategies across four communities Adaptation Strategies Communities Irrigation NTFPs Reducing Neg. Use of Fertilizers and Storage Trading/ Collection Envt. Impacts improved seeds business Tolibri 4.7 43.6 15.4 20.5 5.6 10.3 Berwong 3.3 43.6 23.1 2.6 7 20.5 Kanpouh 0.7 64.9 13.5 1 1 18.9 Oribili 10 42.5 15.5 15 2 15 Source: Field Data, 2017 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A correlation test between the community of residence of respondents and the adoption of adaptation strategies to climate change was calculated. The test was to ascertain whether the adoption of a particular strategy was dependent on the community one resided in. The test reveals that the correlation between the two variables stood at -0.009. The value shows a no/weak negative correlation between the two variables. However, the test again indicates that the significance of this weak negative correlation between community and adaptation strategy to climate change is insignificant (P-value = 0.909 > 0.05). This further shows that the community of resident of respondents is independent of the adaptation strategies adopted for climate change mitigation (See Table 4.3) Table 4.3: Correlation between the Communities and Adaptation Strategies to Climate Change Correlations Community Name Adaptation Strategies Pearson Correlation 1 -.009 Community Name Sig. (2-tailed) .909 N 155 155 Pearson Correlation -.009 1 Adaptation Strategies Sig. (2-tailed) P-Value .909 N 155 155 Source: Field Data, 2017 58 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Perceptions on the Availability and Usage of NTFPs The availability of NTFPs was assessed to ascertain whether NTFPs were increasingly becoming available to households or decreasing. Figure 4.8 shows that residents in the study communities emphatically noted that NTFPs in their communities have seen an increase (81.3%) in availability while 18.1 percent do not see any increase in the availability of NTFPs. According to a Tindana at Oribili, “There is increase availability of NTFPs in the bush and around homes and because of the shift to harvest of such resources; people do all manner of things to protect their lands with NTFPs from other people harvesting them. But such NTFPs as baobab and shea are more a common and community resource” 81.3 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 18.1 30.0 20.0 .6 10.0 0.0 Increasing Decreasing Indifferent NTFPs Availability Figure 4.8: Availability of NTFPs Source: Field Data, 2017 59 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study also examined the community variations in the availability of NTFPs. It was revealed that all communities indicated an increase in the availability of NTFPs. In Tolibri and Berwong, over 84 percent of respondents noted that NTFPs have increased over the years. In Kanpouh however all respondents (100%) observed an increase in NTFPs. The case of Oribili was however unique as responses were quite close in nature, as a total of 57 percent (114) of respondents noted an increase in NTFPs whereas over 40 percent of them observed a decrease (see figure 4.9) 100 100 84.6 84.6 90 80 70 57.5 60 40.6 Increasing 50 40 Decreasing 30 15.4 Indifferent 20 15.4 10 0 0 0 2.5 0 Tolibri Berwong Kanpouh Oribili Communities Figure 4.9: Cross Tabulation: Community * NTFP Availability Source: Field Data, 2017 The level of correlation between the community of residence and the availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District was measured. Table 4.4 shows that the correlation between the two variables (.208) is a positively weak correlation as the value approaches zero (0) which shows no correlation. Although, there is a positive weak correlation between the variables, the level of significance indicates that the correlation between community of residence and the availability of NTFPs is 60 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh significant at .010. This reveals that the availability of NTFPs relies on the community of residence. NTFPs however are perceived to be increasing across all study communities and the variations in this increase are dependent on the community’s environmental practices as well as the concerns on protecting and conserving NTFPs. The study therefore has established that, NTFPs availability is increasing across all communities and its sustainability is further dependent on a myriad of factors including changes in temperature and rainfall conditions. Table 4.4: Correlation: Relationship between Community of Residence and Availability of NTFPs Correlation Community of Availability of Residence NTFPs Pearson Correlation 1 .208 Community Sig. (2-tailed) 0.010 N 155 155 Pearson Correlations .208 1 Availability of NTFPs Sig. (2-tailed) 0.010 N 155 155 Source: Field Data, 2017 The study sought to explore NTFPs as a sustainable adaptation strategy used by communities in mitigating the effects and impacts of climate change on community livelihoods. In doing so, there is the need to establish that NTFPs availability is sustainable with or without changes in climate 61 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conditions. This will make local residents shift to the harvesting of NTFPs in periods of poor farming yields due to unconducive climate conditions. Two different regression model test is set up to ascertain whether climate is a predictor of the availability of NTFPs. Climate factors (Rainfall and Temperature) were used as predictor variables (independent) against NTFP availability which is the outcome variable (dependent). The test results are shown in Tables 4.5 and 4.6. From Table 4.5 which shows the regression model results for NTFP availability and rainfall, the coefficient table reveals that the correlation between NTFP availability and changes in rainfall is 0.008 as shown in standardized coefficient (Beta) value session. The result indicates a positive weak correlation between the two variables as the r =0.008 approaches zero (0). Also, the unstandardized coefficient (B) shows that variations in rainfall pattern will lead to only 0.002 changes in the availability of NTFPs. Further, the significance of the model is shown in the Sig. column which shows that the P-value of 0.923 is not significant. In other words, the availability of NTFPs is not dependent on the changes in rainfall conditions. Secondly, the regression model for temperature changes and NTFP availability is also set up to examine the relationship between the two. The regression table of coefficient (table 4.6), the standardized coefficient (Beta) value of -0.038 show a negatively weak correlation between the availability of NTFPs and temperature changes. It also shows a weak inverse relation between the variables, indicating that as one variable gets larger the other gets smaller. However, this inverse relation is a weak one with the value (-0.038) approaches zero. Again, the model holds that there is a statistically insignificant relation between the availability of NTFPs and temperature changes 62 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh as indicated by the test result of 0.639. This also clearly shows that changes in temperature have very insignificant effect on the availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District. Table 4.5: Relationship between the availability of NTFPs and observed changes in rainfall Regression Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 1.188 .062 19.091 .000 Observed Changes in Rainfall .002 .022 .008 .097 .923 a. Dependent Variable: Availability of NTFPs Table 4.6: Coefficient – Relationship between the availability of NTFPs and changes in temperature conditions Regression Model Unstandardized Standardized t Sig. Coefficients Coefficients B+ Std. Error Beta 1 (Constant) 1.390 .419 3.318 .001 Changes in Temperature Conditions -.195 .415 -.038 -.470 .639 a. Dependent Variable: Availability of NTFPs 63 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5 Identifying NTFPs in the Lawra District Tables 4.7a and 4.7b show the types of NTFPs that are commonly used in the communities of the study area as well as those with no scientific names respectively. A total of sixty one (61) plants were identified through focus group discussions, interviews as well as direct field observations led by an expert from the Forestry Division. Table 4.7c shows animal NTFPs identified in the communities through focus group discussions. Thirteen (15) animal species were identified. Table 4.7a: Plant NTFPs in the Study Communities S/N LOCAL NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAMES MAIN USES 1 Taame Vitellaria paradoxa Food, medicine, spices, pomade, fuel 2 Dooro Parkia biglobosa Food, spices, medicine 3 Suge/ Suga Lannea acida Food 4 Ore Physalis peruviana Medicine, food 5 Gaa Diospyros crassiflora Food, medicine 6 Kazuge Gardenia ternifolia Food, medicine 7 Tokpara/Tou-tee Adansonia digitata Food, medicine, spices 8 Goue Ceiba pentandra Food, medicine 9 Kalezur Gardenia temitolia Medicine 10 Gogoh Acacia nilotica Medicine 11 Gozang Acacia albida Medicine, soil conditioning 12 Gopula Acacia sp Medicine 13 Golezie Acacia hockii Medicine, fodder 14 Kakala Afzelia africana Medicine 15 Kakyelleh Danniella oliveri Food, medicine, alcohol 16 Ob-nyukuo/zangala Moringa oleifera Food, medicine 17 Kakang Ficus anaphelocerfa Medicine 18 Kakankyikya Ficus capensis Medicine 19 Kyira Blighia sapida medicine 20 Vega Bambox bounopezense Medicine 21 Kpagra Detarium microcarpum Food, medicine 22 Saal-tie Burkea africana Dye, medicine, fodder 23 Seetug-le Lannea barteri Medicine 24 Susug-le Lannea acacia Food, medicine, gum 64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh S/N LOCAL NAMES SCIENTIFIC NAMES MAIN USES 25 Togbo Cardiac senegalensis Medicine 26 Lieme Ximema americana Medicine, food 27 Gbongkira Ceiba pentandra Fiber, medicine 28 Sansan Balanites aegygyptiaca Medicine, food 29 Veega Bambox costatum Food, fodder, shelter 30 Puretia Tamarindus indica Food, medicine 31 Bere Hibiscus esculentus Medicine 32 Swaka Vernonia amygdalina Food, medicine 33 Pom pon Sterculia setigera Fiber, medicine, food, fuel 34 Ang-a Vitex doniana Medicine/food 35 Kalgbog-la Nauclea latifolia Medicine, food 36 Youva Telfairia occidentalis Food, medicine Sorce: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.7b Plant NTFPs with no Scientific Names in the study communities S/N LOCAL S/N LOCAL NAMES NAMES 37 Gbeme 54 Ben-ora 38 Malere 55 Bang-na 39 Gyamgboro 56 Aara 40 Torvaar 57 Vaar 41 Kolemakou/pou 58 Nmaaasugeh kale 42 Baarigbe 59 Mgbeme 43 Dunkum 60 Dakune 44 Gbaara 61 Naapuro 45 Tuvaa 46 Bere 47 Gyangboro 48 Mgmene 49 Koko 50 Saalupela 51 Saalung lellaa 52 Segboro 53 Nminmiirakoler Source: Field Data, 2017 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.7c Animal NTFPs in the study communities S/N LOCAL NAMES Latin/Scientific names USES 1 Onsagra Bush mouse Food 2 Kur Partridge Food 3 Kyera Togo hare/ Lepus capensis Food 4 Zupon Hedgehoge/atelerix spp. Food/medicine 5 Derbaa Giant rat/ Cricetomys Food gambianus 6 Ong Mouse Food 7 Kure Stone partridge / Food Ptilopachus petrosus 8 Woula Red flanked duiker/ Food/income/medicine Cephalophus natalensis 9 Song Rabbit Food 10 Sansire Grass cutter Food/income 11 Korenye Bush guinea fowl Food 12 Derbaa Cricetomys gambianus Food 13 Kyei Flying squirrel / Food/medicine Animalurus spp. 14 Mhaare Monkey Food 15 Baa-ore Cattle egret/ Ardeola ibis Food Source: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.8 shows the five most harvested NTFPs in each study community. The arrangement however is not in any order of importance. The Dawadawa and shea tree were common to all the four communities. Table 4.8: Five Major NTFPs Harvested in the study area Community NTFPs Oribili Baobab Shea tree Dawadawa Yellow berry Suge Kanpouh Shea tree Dawadawa Baobab Suge Kazuge Brewong Dawadawa Shea tree Baobab Moringa Sansan Tolibri Dawadawa Shea tree Moringa Yellow berry Suge Source: Field Data, 2017 66 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 1: Dawadawa Fruit Eaten Directly from Wild Source: Field Data, 2017 67 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 2: Shea Nut sold at Lawra Market Source: Field Data, 2017 Plate 3: Freshly Harvested Baobab Fruit Source: Field Data, 2017 68 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Plate 4: Processed Baobab Leaves for Soup Preparation (Spice) Source: Field Data, 2017 4.6 Spatial Distribution of NTFPs in the Lawra District The distribution of NTFPs in the Lawra District does not follow any observable pattern. NTFPs are spatially distributed across the whole District. They are mostly located in the open bushes, forest areas (protected and free range) and within communities. Most of the protected forest areas have a cluster of plant NTFPs and are designated as parklands. The parklands are very different from the open bushes. Both have an assemblage of the same types of NTFPs occurring in large numbers over some extended space. However, in unprotected areas (open bushes) there are mixes of NTFPs accessible by anyone. As a result, access to most of these NTFPs is unrestricted under various jurisdictions. However, there are community boundaries in the access to NTFPs. Communities are prohibited from venturing into other communities to access NTFPs. In certain cases, there are some established parklands of NTFPs that are found at borders or boundaries of 69 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh two or more communities. In such situations there is a mutual agreement on access to such parklands of NTFPs. Direct field observations (Transect walk) and oral history shows that locations of major NTFPs in the study communities form large parklands. Some of the common tree species making up parklands included dawadawa, shea trees, baobab, Kazuge and yellow berry. The parklands were mostly located in each community, except for the dawadawa tree. The dawadawa is widely scattered across the District but major parklands were found in Kanpouh. Shea parklands were also found between Tolibri and Berwong. Baobab parklands were also found in Tolibri, Berwong and Oribili except in Kanpouh. The interviews conducted also revealed that these parks have existed for many years with new ones been formed 4.7 General Uses of the NTFPs in the Study Area Table 4.9 shows a list of plant and animal NTFPs. The plant NTFPs are mostly used for food, medicine and as an income source. Their fruits, nuts, bark and leaves constitute the parts of the plant that are used. For animal NTFPs, the whole animal is prepared for food and also sold out for income in most cases. Not much is known about animal NTFPs beyond these two uses. Also, some parts of animals in few cases are used to prepare various medicines for ailments. For example the intestines of Kyei (squirrel) are used by many local people to prepare medicine for certain ailments in the local area. Also, Kolemakou/Poukale is also used as food as well as medicine. 70 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.9: Uses of NTFPs in the study area NTFP Part Used Uses Taame (Shea tree) Nut, fruit, bark, root, shell Food, medicine, spices, pomade and leaves Dooro (Dawadawa) Nut, fruit, bark, leaves, Food, spices, medicine Tokpara (Baobab) Leaves, fruits Food, medicine, spices Suge/Suga Leaves, fruit Food Ore (Yellow Berry) Fruit, bark Food, medicine Gaa (Ebony tree) Fruit, branch sticks, wood Food, Medicine Kazuge Fruit , roots Food, medicine Sansire (Grass Cutter) Whole Food, Income Korenye (Bush Guinea Whole Food, Income Fowl) Kyei (Squirrel) Whole Food, Income, Medicine 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.8 Contribution of NTFPs to Household Livelihoods Figure 4.10 shows percentage contribution of NTFPs to household livelihoods in the communities. To majority of the respondents NTFPs is seen as food supplement (49.7%) with 29.7 percent of the respondents noting NTFPs as a source of income. Equally important are the 20.6 percent of respondents who identified NTFPs as a source of medicine. 20.60% 49.70% Food Supplement 29.70% Economic Gains Medicine Figure 4.10: Perceptions on Role of NTFPs Source: Field Data, 2017 The study further sought to understand whether the views expressed on the role of NTFPs varied among communities in terms of its importance. A cross tabulation and chi-square test of independence was conducted to ascertain this view. From Table 4.10, all respondents across all four communities maintained that NTFPs were collected as a food supplement. Also, economic gains appeared the second most important reason for collecting NTFPs even though the figures 72 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh change slightly in Tolibri where, economic gains accounted for 4.5 percent and Medicine 5.8 percent. Table 4.10: Cross Tabulation between the Communities and the Role of NTFPs Role of NTFPs Community Food Supplement Economic Gain Medicine Tolibri 14.8% 4.5% 5.8% Berwong 12.9% 8.4% 3.9% Kanpouh 11% 8.4% 4.5% Oribili 11% 8.4% 6..5% Source: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.11: Correlation test between Communities and the Role of NTFPs Correlations Community Role of NTFPs Pearson Correlation 1 .092 Community Name Sig. (-2tailed) .255 N 155 155 Pearson Correlation .092 1 Role of NTFPs Sig. (2-tailed) .255 N 155 155 Source: Field Data, 2017 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh That notwithstanding the correlation results for community of residents and respondents perceived role of NTFPs reveal a correlation of .092 (r) which shows a strong positive correlation between the two variables as (0.092(r) approaches 1). Despite the strong correlation between community of residence and perceived role of NTFPs, the table again reveals that the correlation is not significant (.255 > 0.05). In other words the test reveals that the perceived role of NTFPs does not depend on the community of residence (Table 4.11). 4.9 Household Financial Benefits from Traded NTFPs Figure 4.11 shows the average annual income of households. Respondents who have a total annual household income averaging GH₵100-1000 constitute the majority, making up 56.8 percent. The second income group of GH₵ 1001-2000 constitutes approximately 20 percent of the total respondents. The income groups of GH₵ 2001-3000 and above GH₵ 3000 however make up 12.2 and 11 percent of the respondents respectively. “We sell some of the NTFPs for cash like those common ones, shea nuts, dawadawa, Kazuge, baobab, yellow berries and some bush animals (meat). The rest have very limited uses and mostly in the open for anybody to harvest. Some are also taken fresh without preparing them. Those ones you don’t even take to the market because no one will buy” (FGD, 53 years old Farmer and NTFP trader, 2017) 74 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56.8 60 50 40 30 20 20 12.2 11 10 0 100-1000 1001-2000 2001-3000 3001 and above Annual Household Income (%) Mean = GH₵ 1759.48 Min = GH₵ 100 Max = GH₵ 10900 Figure 4.11: Annual Household Income of Respondents Source: Field Data, 2017 The data however shows that those who have a total average annual household income over GH₵ 2000 rather constitute the minority of the population. The figure 4.11 show the percentages of annual household income incrementally. It reveals however that majority of respondents have income levels between 100 Cedis to 1000 Cedis. Higher income earners however becomes fewer with increase in household income. However, the mean value of the average annual income stands at GH₵ 1759.48 with the minimum and maximum values at GH₵ 100 and GH₵ 10900 respectively. This has further implication on income distribution as majority of the population receives average annual income far below the mean value. This indicates however high income disparities in the household annual income. 75 Percentages University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.12 shows the income returns made from the sale of NTFPs by the households. Majority of population make between GH₵ 101-199 (23.2%) and GH₵ 300-499 Cedis (21.3%) respectively. Only 7.7% and 9.0% of respondents receive below GH₵ 100 and above GH₵ 1000 Cedis respectively in the lower income bracket. The data however indicates that, average returns realized on the sale of NTFPs is extremely low as the amounts reduces to almost nothing if spread across the entire 12 months period. A dawadawa trader in the market stated that, “From these sales I make on this dawadawa spices and leaves, I am able to raise some cash to support the family. I usually will buy some food stuffs after sales to the house. But if am unable to realize any cash, I go back home, hoping my husband will bring in some money. This is not the situation all the time, sometimes I also buy on food stuffs on credit just to feed the home.” 23.2 25.0 21.3 20.0 15.5 15.0 11.6 11.6 9.0 10.0 7.7 5.0 0.0 Average Annual Sales of NTFP (GH₵) Figure 4.12: Financial Returns from NTFP Sale in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 76 Percentage of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The view that the amount received on the sale of NTFPs is low was however confirmed by residents. Figure 4.13 shows respondents’ perception about the cash returns of NTFPs. 71% of the respondents indicated that the amount received from the sale of NTFPs is not enough to take care of their household needs. A female respondent during focus group discussion at Oribili stated that the amounts paid for various forms of NTFPs were extremely low and that accounts for the low returns they make “for the shea nuts/fruits (taame), we collect them from April to May and the current price for a bowl is GH₵4.50; dawadawa (dooro) and suge are also mostly harvested from March to April and the current prince of a bowl is GH₵9.00; yellow berry (ore) is harvested from April to May and the current price for a bowl is GH₵1.00” 1.9 10.3 16.1 Enough Moderately Enough 71.6 Not Enough Can Save Figure 4.13: Perceptions on Cash Returns from Sale of NTFPs in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 77 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Other respondents also noted that the cash return on the sale of NTFP is moderately enough (16.1%) and 10.3% indicating that the cash is enough. However, very small number of respondents making up only 1.9% noted that the cash is enough and they are able to make some savings. This finding again reveals the perception of residents on the financial valuation of NTFPs in the Lawra District. Majority of residents still believe that in the future NTFP can become a more earner if only there are clear strategies to market the product, discover new uses and increase demands beyond the District to other regions. A female dawadawa trader during informal conversations made the point that “the dawadawa I sell here, the cost used to be nothing, 2 years ago, we sold a bowl around 3 Cedis. As I speak to you a bowl cost 9 Cedis. I believe this is as a result of its marketing that has increased its demand. Demand for it goes beyond the local demand, its bought by people and sent to Accra, Kumasi for sale in the major markets as well. That is contributing to the change in price at the local market here”. 4.10 Valuation of Non-Traded NTFPs Figure 4.14 shows non-traded benefits of NTFPs. Majority of collectors (34.8%) are for the medicinal values. Again, 32.9 percent of respondents use non-traded NTFPs as food supplement at homes. Further 18.7 percent, 12.3 percent and 1.3 percent represents NTFPs used for nutrition, employment and energy respectively. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.3 34.8 32.9 Food Employment Nutrition 12.3 Medicine 18.7 Energy Figure 4.14: Non-Traded Benefits of NTFPs in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.12 shows benefits of non-traded NTFPs in the four communities. In Tolibri, majority of respondents (41%) use non-traded NTFPs mainly for medicines and 38.5 percent for food. A total of 17.9 percent of respondents in Tolibri also noted that non-traded NTFPs serve nutritional values. In Berwong, 43.6 percent and 30.8 percent of respondents noted medicinal and food respectively as benefits. In Kanpouh however, most residents indicated that food (29.7%) and nutrition (29.7%) were the major benefits from non-traded NTFPs, followed by medicine (27%). In Oribili community, residents stated that the benefits of non-traded NTFPs included food (32%), medicine (27.5%), employment (20%) and nutrition (17.5%). 79 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.12: Cross Tabulation between Communities and the Benefits of Non-Traded NTFPs Benefits of Non-Traded NTFPs Community Food Employment Nutrition Medicine Energy Tolibri 38.5 2.6 17.9 41 0 Berwong 30.8 12.8 10.3 43.6 2.6 Kanpouh 29.7 13.5 29.7 27 - Oribili 32.5 20 17.5 27.5 2.5 A correlation test was conducted to explain the variations observed in the responses among communities on the benefits of non-traded NTFPs. It was to ascertain whether benefits from non- traded NTFPs was dependent on a particular community. A negative weak correlation was observed with r approaching zero (0) (r = -0.05). The test further shows that the relationship is not a significant one at 0.501. That implies, the benefits of non-traded NTFPs do not vary much among communities, so residents’ community does not influence in anyway the benefits derived from non-traded NTFPs. This results further relates with the views of the chief of Oribili who posited that, “Majority of NTFPs used are not sold at all, we consume most of them. The known ones that are sold are the same in our area and other villages. It is the same thing with the non-traded ones; we all have the same uses for them whether here or in the villages close to the White Volta, it is same uses” 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.13: Correlation between Communities and the benefits of Non-traded NTFPs Correlations Community Non-traded Benefits Pearson Correlation 1 -.054 Community Name Sig. (-2tailed) .501 N 155 155 Pearson Correlation -.054 1 Non Traded Benefits Sig. (2-tailed) .501 N 155 155 Source: Field Data, 2017 4.11 Management Strategies and Challenges of Managing the Use of NTFPS 4.11.1 Local Authorities Involved in the Management of NTFPs 35.0 31.0 32.9 30.0 21.9 25.0 20.0 12.3 15.0 10.0 1.9 5.0 0.0 Local Authorities In Managing NTFP Figure 4.15: Local Authorities Managing NTFPs in the study area Source: Field Data, 2017 81 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 14.15 shows the local authorities in the management of NTFPs. Family/Clan heads (32%) are seen as the leading authorities in the management of NTFPs, closely followed by the chiefs (31%) who usually are responsible for resolving all boundary issues related to NTFPs among Clans and Families. Others including traditional healers, Tindanas and youth groups at a lower level are perceived as authorities managing NTFPs (see table 4.15). According to a millet farmer in Kanpouh during key informant interviews: “the management of NTFPs has been decentralized and left in the hands of various community leaders who together ensure that, there are strict regulations determined communally and punishments are meted out to offenders” 4.12 Local Strategies in Managing NTFPs Various strategies have been adopted at the local level to ensure the protection and conservation of the ecosystem as well as efficiently harvesting NTFPs in a sustainable manner. The study made efforts to understand the management strategies adopted at the community level as the first users of all NTFPs. Residents were therefore asked to state the effectiveness of various strategies used to enforce the management of NTFPs. The strategies included, adherence to government policies (through the Ghana Environmental Management Project which address drought and desertification, bush burning, timber resource management and water pollution), use of District Assembly by-laws, use of community by-laws, rely on community volunteer groups and moral sanctions. 4.12.1 Adherence to Government Policies Figure 4.16, shows percentage distribution of respondents to adherence to government policies. 82 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh From the figure, majority of respondents noted that adherence to government policies across the various communities was effective (32.9%). Government policies that were adhered to included practices to reverse land degradation and desertification trends through sustainable land use and vegetative cover management and biodiversity and wildlife and water resource management. Also, 27.7 percent of residents were of the view that the adherence to government policies in the management of NTFPs in the Lawra District was moderately effective. Further, only 14.2 percent noted that they adhere to government policies. However, 22.6 percent and 2.6 percent of respondents thought that the adherence to government policies in their various communities was rather ineffective and not applicable respectively. It is however clear that majority of residents across all communities agree that government policies play a role in managing NTFP at the local level. 32.9 35.0 27.7 30.0 22.6 25.0 20.0 14.2 15.0 10.0 2.6 5.0 0.0 Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Not Effective Effective Applicable Perception about Adherence to Government Policies Figure 4.16: Adherence to Government Policies Source: Field Data, 2017 83 Percentage of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study also sought to assess the variations in community perceptions on the effectiveness of adherence to government policies in the management of NTFPs. A cross tabulation and chi square test of independence was performed to understand the community variations in adherence to government policies and the relationship between community of residence and adherence to government policies in managing NTFPs. Kanpouh community considered government polices to be moderately effective (45.9%) and effective (43.2%). Also, in Oribiri 30% of respondents indicated those government policies were very effective compared to other communities like Tolibri and Berwong where 30.8% of respondents noted government policies to be ineffective. A chi-square test conducted revealed that the relationship between community of residence and the effectiveness of government policies in managing NTFPs was significant at a chi square value of 36.432 at 12 degrees of freedom and P-value of 0.000 less than the test significant level of 0.05. Table 4.14 Cross Tabulation between Communities and their Adherence to Government Policies Level of effectiveness of Adherence to Government Policies Community Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Not Effective Effective Applicable Tolibri 10.3% 41% 17.9% 30.8% 0.0% Berwong 10.3% 35.9% 20.5% 30.8% 2.6% Kanpouh 5.4% 43.2% 45.9% 5.4% 0.0% Oribiri 30% 12.5% 27.5% 22.5% 7.5% X2= 36.423 df = 12 P-Value = 0.000 Source: Field Data, 2017 84 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.12.2 District Assembly By-Laws Figure 4.17 reveals that majority of residents in all four communities are of the view that the District Assembly by-law is moderately effective (39.4%) in the management of NTFPs in the respective communities. Also, a significant number of residents making up 36.1 percent also noted that the District Assembly by-laws were effective in managing NTFPs. Table 4.15 shows variations in the responses of residents across all communities. Majority of respondents in Kanpouh and Berwong making up 51 percent and 56 percent of respondents in the communities indicated that District Assembly by-laws were moderately effective in the management of NTFPs respectively. In Tolibri however, 43.6 percent of respondents indicated that the District Assembly by-laws were effective as compared to Oribili where the views of respondents were varied. 39.4 40.0 36.1 35.0 30.0 25.0 20.0 14.8 15.0 9.7 10.0 5.0 0.0 Very Effective Effective Moderately Inffective Effective District Assembly By-Laws Figure: 4.17: Respondents’ perception about effectiveness of District Assembly By-Laws Source: Field Data, 2017 85 Percentage of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.15: Cross Tabulation: Community * District Assembly By-Law Level of effectiveness of District Assembly By-Law Community Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Effective Tolibri 7.7% 43.6% 23.1% 25.6% Berwong 7.7% 28.2% 51.3% 12.8% Kanpouh 2.7% 40.5% 56.8% 0.0% Oribili 20% 32.5% 27.5% 20.0% X2= 25.899 df = 9 P-Value = 0.002 Source: Field Data, 2017 4.12.3 Community By-Laws Community by-laws constitute an important management strategy used in the Lawra District. According to the survey communities enact their by-laws; a number of communities were selected for direct inputs in preparing by-laws to conserve the environment as well as protect and manage NTFPs. The participatory approach adopted has seen community members themselves define all activities including bush burning, cutting of fruit trees, firewood production, and sale of wild fruits in market among others and also determined appropriate penalties for offenders. Figure 4.18 reveals that majority of residents across all four communities were of the view that the use of community by-laws in managing NTFPs has been effective (63.9%) and also another 20 percent noting the by-laws to be very effective. 86 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63.9 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 20.0 15.5 20.0 10.0 .6 0.0 Very Effective Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Perception about Community By-Laws Figure 4.18: Respondents’ perceptions about Community By-Law Source: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.16 shows the level of effectiveness of community by-laws in managing NTFPs in the communities. In Tolibri majority of respondents noted that the community by-laws were effective in managing NTFPs. In Berwong, 53.8 percent and 23.1 percent noted that community by-laws are effective and very effective respectively. In Kanpouh 83.8 percent stated that the use of by- laws was effective in managing NTFPs. In Oribili, 45 percent and 40 percent of the respondents stated that community by-laws were effective and very effective respectively in conserving and managing NTFPs. The chi-square test of independence reveals a significant correlation between community and the use of community by-laws in managing NTFPs. 87 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.16: Cross Tabulation between Communities and Community By-Law Level of effectiveness of Community By-Law Community Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Effective Tolibri 15.4% 74.4% 10.3% 0.0% Berwong 23.1% 53.8% 20.5% 2.6% Kanpouh 0.0% 83.8% 16.2% 0.0% Oribili 40% 45% 15% 0.0% X2= 26.131 df = 9 P-Value = 0.002 Source: Field Data, 2017 Further, interviews conducted with various institutions revealed that, at the community level, the participatory methods used in the preparation of the community by-laws contributed to its effectiveness as a managing tool. According to a coordinator of Tisong-taa Foundation (NGO) he noted that communities and traditional institutions form part of the management team of the various communities and District. The community members make up the major conservation groups including, community fire volunteer squad, afforestation committee and soil fertility improvement committee. Also, the Coordinator of Tisong-taa noted that, “All trained communities have their own community environmental by-laws which have circulated to the traditional authorities in neighboring communities, the police, the GNFS, for implementation and these by-laws spell out specific charges either in cash or in kind depending on the offence”. 88 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Quite similar to his view is that expressed by HR Manager of the Forest Service Division of FC who also stated that, “The communities and their traditional institutions are part of forest management processes in the District, through the formation of five volunteer squads; Community Forest Management Committees (CFMC); and formation of forest management clubs in basic and secondary schools to train students to educate their parents about environmental best practices”. The case of Oribili is however unique in the sense that, they are not part of the communities selected for the pilot management program activities in the District unlike the other three communities. The community has historically used undocumented traditional regulations to protect their forests and NTFPs. According to oral information gathered, there are strong traditional laws, taboos and strategies applied by individuals and society to ensure the conservation of NTFPs. A young man indicated that, “In our community, trees such as Kazuge, Nieea and Gaa are used as traps to protect farmlands and NTFPs. The Kazuge and Nieea are mostly used during harvesting periods. The Nieea for example is like a ‘rain god’ or ‘thunder’ which will strike intruders on our farmlands or NTFP parklands. This has worked in this village and no one from our village will see this on any farm and still venture to enter” Again SEKAF Ghana limited (a local processing Industry) has supported the village in the protection of shea parklands. This is done to ensure that these areas remain green all year round and to protect such parks from overharvesting and indiscriminate destruction from community 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh members. This was noted by community to account for the increase availability of NTFPs especially shea trees in the community. 4.12.4 Reliance on Community Volunteers Figure 4.19 shows the level of effectiveness of reliance on community volunteers to manage NTFPs. 1.9 percent of total respondents noted that relying on community volunteers to manage NTFPs was inefficient. All remaining respondents constituting 58.1 percent, 24.5 percent and 15.5 percent noted that community volunteering to manage NTFPs is effective, moderately effective and very effective, respectively. Table 4.17 shows the cross tabulation of community and reliance on community volunteers. In Tolibri, majority of the respondents (76.9%) noted that the reliance on community volunteers for the management of NTFPs is effective. 58.1 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 24.5 15.5 20.0 10.0 1.9 0.0 Very Effective Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Perception about Community Volunteers Figure 4.19: Communities Reliance on Community Volunteers Source: Field Data, 2017 90 Percentage of respondents University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In Berwong, 43.6 percent and 38.5% of respondent noted that the strategy was moderately effective and effective and 15.4% indicating that the practice was very effective in managing NTFPs in the community. Table 4.17: Cross Tabulation between Communities and Reliance on Community Volunteers Level of effectiveness of community volunteers Community Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Effective Tolibri 12.8% 76.9% 10.3% 0.0% Berwong 15.4% 38.5% 43.6% 0.6% Kanpouh 8.1% 59.5% 29.7% 2.7% Oribili 25% 57.5% 15% 2.5% x2= 20.725 df = 9 P-Value = 0.014 Source: Field Data, 2017 The situation in Kanpouh and Oribili was quite similar as residents making up 59.5 percent and 57 percent indicated that the strategy is an effective one. Also, 29.7 percent and 25 percent of respondents in Kanpouh and Oribili saw reliance on community volunteers as moderately effective and very effective respectively. The chi-square result also shows that the relationship between community and reliance on community volunteers is significant. 4.12.5 Moral Sanctions The study further assessed the perception of respondents on the effectiveness of moral sanctions in the regulation and management of NTFPs across study communities. Moral sanctions in the study communities were determined by the local authorities and meted out on offenders. From 91 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh figure 4.20 majority of respondents expressed that moral sanctions is effective (58.7%). 58.7 60.0 50.0 40.0 32.9 30.0 20.0 7.7 10.0 .6 0.0 Very Effective Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Moral Sanctions Figure 4.20: Moral Sanctions Source: Field Data, 2017 Also from figure 4.20, a total of 32.9 percent of respondents noted that such practice aids in the management of NTFPs. Table 4.18: Cross Tabulation: Community * Moral Sanctions Community Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Effective Effective Tolibri 25.6% 66.7% 7.7% 00% Berwong 28.2% 59% 10.3% 2.6% Kanpouh 18.9% 73% 8.1% 0.0% 92 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Oribili 57.5% 37.5% 5% 0.0% X2= 18.897 df = 9 P-Value = 0.026 Source: Field Data, 2017 Table 4.18 shows the cross tabulation between community and moral sanctions. Most of the respondents indicated that moral sanctions is effective in managing NTFPs in their respective communities. In Oribili, 57.5% respondents noted that moral sanction is very effective in managing NTFPs. The chi-square test of independence with P-value of 0.026 (less than 0.05 test significant level), showed that there is a significant relationship between the community of residence and the perception on the effectiveness of moral sanctions in managing NTFPs. 4.13 Role of Individuals in the Management of NTFPs This study also sought to establish the role local residents play in the conservation of the environment, natural resources sustainably using NTFPs. The role of locals is as key as that of all formal and local authorities as they remain the first in contact with the environment. This is also necessary as locals resort to NTFPs as a climate adaptation strategy to support their livelihood and again doubling up as conservationist. To assess the role of local residents in managing NTFPs, respondents were asked to indicate their activeness in specific management strategies including pouring libation to pacify gods when a sacrilege is committed, protection of sacred grooves, soothsaying to unearth impending disaster, assist chief and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts and to facilitate the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource. 93 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.13.1 Pouring Libation to pacify gods Table 4.19 represents cross tabulation between community and pouring libation to pacify gods. From the table 87.2%, 82.1%, 73% and82.5% of respondents in Tolibri, Brewong, Kanpouh and Oribili respectively, stated that pouring libation to pacify gods does not play any role in managing NTFPs. Table 4.19: Cross Tabulation: Community * Pouring Libation to Pacify gods Effectiveness of pouring of libation Community Very Active Active Dormant Not applicable Tolibri 0 10.3% 2.6% 87.2% Berwong 2.6% 2.6% 12.8% 82.1% Kanpouh 2.7% 21.6% 2.7% 73% Oribili 0 12.5% 5% 82.5% Source: Field Data, 2017 The study however sought to find out if the religious background of respondents influenced their decision to associate with such role viewed differently by varying religious beliefs. Table 4.20show 95 percent of Christians indicated they play no role in the pouring of libation to pacify gods during periods when a sacrilege is committed. Similarly, all residents who follow the Islamic religion also stated no role at all with such practice. However, 33.3 percent and 4.2 percent of traditionalists noted that they were active and very active respectively in such activities. A chi- square test of independence showed that there was a significant relationship between religious affiliation of residents and the role of pouring libation to pacify gods when a sacrilege is committed. 94 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Table 4.20: Cross Tabulation between Religion and Perception about Pouring of Libation to pacify gods Perception about pouring of libation Religion Very Active Active Dormant Not applicable Christian 0 2% 3% 95% Islam 0 0 0 100% Traditionalist 4.2% 33.3% 12.5% 50% X2 = 46.568 df = 6 P-value = 0.000 4.13.2 Protection of Sacred Grooves Sacred grooves are usually reserved forests in communities that have significant religious connotations and are therefore protected from any form of human destruction. The study therefore sought to assess the role of residents in the protection of such sacred grooves in the study communities. Table 4.21: Cross Tabulation between Community and Protection of Grooves Perception about protection of sacred groves Community Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Tolibri 0 20.5% 15.4% 64.1% Berwong 0 12.8% 28.2% 59% Kanpouh 0 29.7% 13.5% 56.8% Oribili 2.5% 40% 10% 47.7% Source: Field Data, 2017 95 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Majority of respondents indicated that they do not play any role in the protection of sacred grooves. In Tolibri, 20.5 percent of respondents indicated they play active roles in the protection of sacred grooves. Similarly, 29 percent and 40 percent of the respondents in Kanpouh and Oribili communities respectively (see Table 4.21). Protection of sacred groves is also linked with religious connotations and so resident’s choice to play a role in its protection is likely to be influenced by their religious affiliations. A cross tabulation of religion and protection of sacred grooves was conducted together with a chi-square test of independence to ascertain the significance of the relationship. From table 5.9, majority of Christians (63%) played no role at all in the protection of sacred grooves. Table 4.22: Cross Tabulation between Religion and Protection of Sacred Grooves Religion Perception about protection of sacred groves Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Christian 0 16.8% 19.8% 63.4% Islamic 0 0 16.7% 83.3% Traditionalist 2.1% 47.9% 10.4% 39.6% X2 = 21.748 df = 6 P-value = 0.000 Source: Field Data, 2017 A few Christians making up 16.8 percent were active in performing various roles in the protection of sacred grooves. For those practicing Islam, 83.3 percent and 16.7 percent indicated that the protection of sacred grooves was not applicable to them or they were dormant respectively. On the 96 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh other hand, traditionalists (47.9%) played active roles in the protection of sacred grooves. However, 39.6 percent of them also noted that it was not applicable to them. The chi square test reveals that, the relationship between religion and the protection of sacred grooves is significant. 4.13.3 Soothsaying to Unearth Impending Disaster A contingency table between community and soothsaying is presented in Table 4.23.In Tolibri, 84.6 percent of respondents indicated that soothsaying does not play any role as. Similarly, in Berwong, Kanpouh and Oribili 74.4 percent 67.6 percent and 75 percent respondents indicated that soothsaying does not play any role, respectively. Table 4.23: Cross Tabulation between Community and Soothsaying Perception about soothsaying Community Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Tolibri 0 12.8% 2.6% 84.6% Berwong 0 10.3% 15.4% 74.4% Kanpouh 8.1% 10.8% 13.5% 67.6% Oribili 2.5% 10% 12.5% 75% Source: Field Data, 2017 However, about 12 percent in Tolibri and 10 percent each in the other three communities also noted that soothsaying played an active role in NTFPs management activities. In Kanpouh however, 8 percent of the residents stated that they are very active in soothsaying to unearth impending disasters on their community. 97 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The study further made efforts to establish the relation between soothsaying and religious background as such activity as stated has strong links with religious affiliations of individuals. According to table 4.24, Christians making up 89.1 percent were of the view that they do not play any role at all when it comes to soothsaying. Again, all Islamic residents constituting 100% of them also stated that such soothsaying practice was not applicable to them. With the traditionalist on the other hand, 29.2 percent and 6.2 percent of them indicated they play active roles and very active roles respectively in soothsaying. Such practice however has strong linkages with the traditionalists than the other religious denominations. Table 4.24: Cross Tabulation: Religion * Soothsaying to Unearth Impending Disaster Community Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Christian 1% 3% 6.9% 89.1% Islamic 0 0 0 100% Traditionalist 6.2% 29.2% 20.8% 43.8% X2 = 40.476 df = 6 P-value = 0.000 Source: Field Data, 2017 The chi-square test of independence sought to establish if the relationship between religion and soothsaying was significant. At a chi-square value of 40.476 at 6 degree of freedom, the P-value is 0.000 which is less than the test significant level of 0.005. Also, the chi-square result, there is a significant relationship between religion and soothsaying to unearth impending disasters (see table 5.11) 98 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.13.4 Assist Chief and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts Many local level conflicts have been caused by limited access to natural resources or excessive power play among local people. Several sanctions and ways of finding amicable solutions are used by local authorities to resolve such conflicts. Again, participation of local people in the resolution of natural resource conflicts has the tendency to increase their commitment to protecting these resources. Table 4.25 showed that across all communities there was a participatory approach used in the resolution of natural resource conflicts with many residents playing roles in the process. In Tolibri, 51.3 percent of respondents played active roles in resource conflict resolutions. In Berwong, Kanpouh and Oribili, 64.1 percent, 64.9 percent and 37.5 percent of respondents indicated that they were active in assisting local authorities in the resolution of natural resource conflict, respectively. Again, in Oribili, 32.5 percent of respondents indicated they played very active roles in natural resource conflict resolution in the community. Table 4.25: Cross tabulation between community and individual role in assisting Chief and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts Perception about assisting Chief and Elders in Resolving Natural Community Resource Conflicts Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Tolibri 5.1% 51.3% 12.8% 30.8% Berwong 5.1% 64.1% 12.8% 17.9% Kanpouh 2.7% 64.9% 8.1% 24.3% Oribili 32.5% 37.5% 17.5% 12.5% Source: Field Data, 2017 99 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Nonetheless, the decision making process at the local has always been accused of biasness towards the male sex. There are increased calls for the participation of females in all decision making process from the local level to the national level and beyond. The study examined whether sex plays a significant relation to people’s decision to assist the chief and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts. Table 4.26 showed the effectiveness of male and female in assisting chiefs and elders in resolving natural resource conflict. 18.5 percent and 68.5 percent of males play very active and active roles respectively in assisting elders and chiefs to resolve natural resource conflicts, while 7.9 percent and 46.5 percent of female respondents indicated very active and active assistance in natural resource conflict resolution, respectively. 31.7% of female played no role at all. The chi-square test conducted showed that there is significant relationship between sex and assisting chiefs and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts. Table 4.26 Cross Tabulation between Sex and Assist Chiefs and Elders in Resolving Natural Resource Conflicts Perception about assisting chief and elder in Resolving Natural Sex Resource Conflicts Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Male 18.5% 68.5% 11.1% 1.9% Female 7.9% 46.5% 13.9% 31.7% X2 = 21.455 df = 3 P-value = 0.000 Source: Field Data, 2017 100 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.13.5 Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-Laws on Natural Resource A common participatory strategy used in natural resource management is allowing community residents to partake in the drafting and formulation of community by-laws to protect their own resources. Such is deemed more successful as the local people define the law to protect their own environment and so will ensure its implementation to the latter. Across all study communities, residents participate in the formulation of community by laws. The number of participants in each community forms the majority and this is good for the governance of the local resources. 69.2 70 60 53.8 52.5 50 51.4 40 30.8 Tolibri 27.5 30 24.3 Berwong 12.8 20 13.5 10.8 10.3 12.5 Kanpouh 5.1 7.510 Oribiri2.6 15.4 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Perception about Community by-laws on Natural Resource Figure 4.21: Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-Laws on Natural Resource Source: Field Data, 2017 Figure 4.22 showed the perception about community by-laws. In Tolibri and Berwong, 53.8 percent and 69.2 percent of respondents were active in the formulation of community by-laws, 101 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh respectively. Further, 13.5 percent and 51.4 percent respondents in Kanpouh, and 27.5 percent and 52.5 percent in Oribili very actively and actively facilitated the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resources, respectively. Further, there were variations in the participation of both men and women in facilitating the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource. Figure 4.22 showed 72.2 percent and 14.8 percent of males play active and very active roles in facilitating the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource management, respectively, whereas 48.5 percent and 10.9 percent of female participated in such community activities. Only 1.9 percent of males indicated they played no role compared to 31.7 percent of females in the communities. The chi-square test of independence further reveals that there is a significant relationship between sex and facilitating the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource. 80 72.2 70 60 48.5 50 40 30.7 30 Male 14.8 20 10.9 11.1 9.9 Female 10 1.9 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Sex * Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-law on Natural Resource X2 = 18.152 df = 3 P-value = 0.000 102 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Figure 4.22: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Facilitate the Formulation and Enforcement of Community By-law on Natural Resource Source: Field Data, 2017 4.13.6 Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices on Natural Resource Management The enforcement of traditional norms and beliefs are in many cases left in the hands of local authorities. Through participatory approaches, residents are similarly obliged to ensure that such norms and beliefs protecting natural resources are enforced at all times. The study there sought to assess the role of community members in the enforcement of traditional norms, beliefs and practices in protecting the natural resource base of the communities. The figure 4.23 shows that in all study communities, residents play an enforcement role in ensuring that traditional norms and beliefs were practiced to protect the natural resources. In Tolibri and Berwong, 56.4 percent and 61.5 percent of respondents noted they play active roles in this respect. In Kanpouh, 56.8 percent play active roles. In Oribili however 45 percent and 32.5 percent play very active and active roles respectively in enforcing traditional norms, beliefs and practices to protect natural resource management. 103 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 61.5 60 56.4 56.8 50 45 40 32.5 Tolibri 30 25.6 24.3 Berwong 20 12.8 12.8 12.8 10 12.5 Kanpouh 10 5.1 12.8 8.1 10.8 Oribiri 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices on Natural Resource Management Figure 4.23: Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices Source: Field Data, 2017 According to the best millet farmer in in Kanpouh, “communities have adopted various strategies to manage NTFPs including no trespassing of neighboring communities, pruning of old trees for new shoots, using traditional traps, taboos in the management process as well as announcing bad practices with bell, whiles the culprit is charged as well as pay for all additional expenses in pursuing the case of the offender”. The cross tabulation conducted reveals that there are variations in the participation of male and female sexes in the enforcement of this role. A total of 27.8 percent and 61.1 percent of males indicated they play very active and active roles in the enforcement of traditional norms, beliefs and practices. On the other hand, 15.8 percent and 46.5 percent of females are very active and active in such roles respectively. Nonetheless, a significant 27.7 percent of females do not partake 104 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in such roles at all (See figure 4.24). 70 61.1 60 46.5 50 40 27.8 27.7 30 15.8 Male 20 9.3 9.9 Female 10 1.9 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable sex * Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices on Natural Resource Management X2 = 16.558 df = 3 P-value = 0.001 Figure 4.24: Enforcement of Traditional Norms, Beliefs and Practices Source: Field Data, 2017 However, the chi-square test conducted further revealed that there is a significant relationship between sex and the enforcement of traditional norms, beliefs and practices on natural resource management. The chi-square value is 16.558 at 3 degree of freedom and a P-value of 0.00. 4.13.7 Punish Offenders of Natural Resources Related by By-Laws Community members were again assessed on the roles in the punishment of offenders of natural resource related by-laws in their communities. The pronouncement of such punishments were the reserve of authorities nonetheless, community members are seen to play key roles in this regard. The study results in Figure 4.25 shows that community members play active roles in the 105 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh punishment of offenders of natural resource related by-laws. Over 66 percent of respondents in Tolibri play active roles where as in Berwong, members play both very active (15.4%) and active (59%) roles. In Kanpouh locals indicated that they play very active roles (10.8%) and active roles (62.2%) respectively. 70 66.7 62.2 60 50 59 47.5 37.5 40 Tolibri 30 25.6 24.3 Berwong 20 15.4 12.8 12.8 12.5 Kanpouh 10 5.1 10.8 2.6 2.72.5 Oribiri 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Punishment of Offenders of Natural Resource Related By-Laws Figure 4.25: Punishment of Offenders of Natural Resource Related Laws Source: Field Data, 2017 In Oribili however, a total of 37.7 percent of respondents play very active roles and 47.5 percent actively are engaged in the punishment of offenders of natural resources related laws. The sex distribution similarly noted that more males were engage in this practice than females. A total of 18.5 percent and 74.1 percent of men play very active and active roles respectively. The female respondents on the other hand indicated that they 16.8 percent and 50.5 percent of play very active and active roles respectively. The chi-square test of independence however showed that at value of 16.002 at a 3 degree of freedom and a P-value of 0.001, there is a significant relationship between sex and punishment of offenders of natural resource related laws (see figure 106 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.26). 80 74.1 70 60 50.5 50 40 27.7 Male 30 18.516.8 Female 20 5.6 5 10 1.9 0 Very Active Active Dormant Not Applicable Sex * Punish Offenders of Natural Resource Related by-law X2 = 16.002 df = 3 P-value = 0.001 Figure 4.26: Cross Tabulation between Sex and Punish Offenders of Natural Resource Related Laws Source: Field Data, 2017 4.14 Sources of Resources for the Management of NTFPs Resources are needed to ensure that the various management practices in the local communities remain key in successfully implementation of all management practices. Figure 4.27 shows sources of resources for the management of NTFPs. From the figure, 61.3% indicated that the major source of resources is from community fines, 19.4% and 19.4 percent mentioned government organizations and NGOs, and contributions from community members, respectively as the sources for resources for the management of NTFPs. 107 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61.3 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 19.4 19.4 30.0 20.0 10.0 0.0 Fine GOs and NGOs Community Contribution Perceptions about Sources of Resources for NTFPs Management Figure 4.27: Sources of Resources for NTFPs Management Source: Field Data, 2017 4.14.1 Community Fines Community fines are seen as a major source of resource for the management of NTFPs in all communities. Such fines are defined by local community members in the process of formulating by-laws for the protection and conservation of environment as well us sustainable use of NTFPs. According to documents from the local community on the Enactment of community By-laws and Regulations against bush fires and deforestation, they noted that various communities were involved in the formulation process. The resultant by-laws included all participating communities as well as the penalties or fines defined at two levels for every community. Penalties have been leveled for an offender who is a member of the community and also for an outsider. In Kanpouh community, a fine of 40cedis was imposed on an offender who was a community member whereas for an outsider, 100 Cedis for bush burning offence and tree cutting, 40 Cedis for hunting, 60 Cedis for sale of fruits as well as 100 Cedis for cutting grass. In Tolibri, an offender from the community 108 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh payed a fine of 20 Cedis, whereas an outsider was fined with a three year old ram, a cock and four fowl and additional 20 Cedis were taken as total penalty. In Berwong however, the penalties appears heavier than the other two communities, with an insider paying 200 Cedis and three fowl whereas an outsider pays 200 Cedis, a fowl and a sheep. The fines were determined by the community members themselves and have not been influenced by any single person or institutions. The cash and penalties were used in restoring the environment as well as supporting NTFP management practices. 4.14.2 Funds from GOs and NGOs The study also found out that a number of assistance and support were given to various communities on their role in ensuring the management of NTFPs as well as protecting the environment. The major government institution is the Lawra District Assembly through whom all forms of government supports are sent through. Various NGOs were also noted to be operating in the District with specific objectives and targets which defines their areas of support to the various communities. Tisong-taa Foundation is an NGO group interested in the management of bush fires, environmental protection on communal lands as well as natural regeneration and tree management and protection. They engage communities through sensitization, education and training programs. According to the Co-coordinator of the Tisong-taa Foundation, “land and water resources management projects that organizations execute and it involves managing bush fires, application of soil and water conservation practices on farms (i.e. ridging across sloping lands, stone lining on contours and gunging) and application of soil fertility improvement practices e.g. Compost making and application, crop rotation, 109 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh legume/cereal intercropping which all leads to a 100% increase in crop yields” Another one is the Forest Service Division of the Forestry Commission which engages in the management of forests, NTFPs and wildlife resources. According to the Human Resource manager, “We run sustainable program through education and sensitization, encourage people to plant more trees, train individuals to engage in environmentally sound livelihood activities such as bee keeping and livestock rearing among others. We have also made efforts at supporting climate change adaptations in the District, with District climate change platform that seek to educate communities and individuals on best practices. Other stuffs include the CIRS (SARI) platform to train farmers on new planting techniques, FSD for education on forest related issues such as bush fires, and tree planting”. According to the 2014 best millet farmer in Kanpouh, MoFA has also engaged communities in training them on erosion control using available materials such as boulders, and terracing. “Planting of seeds on flatlands instead of raising mounds, producing organic manure from plant residues and household organic wastes, farming equipment for planting, including shea nut processing mills”. 4.15 Challenges Confronting Management and Use of NTFPs The management of NTFPs and conservation of the ecosystem is necessary for the sustainability of local livelihoods. The management process, availability and use of NTFPs are however faced with numerous challenges that are grouped under 5 broad categories. Figure 4.29 shows respondents views on the challenges face in the management and use of NTFPs. 23.9% indicated by-laws as the major challenge, followed by harvesting and processing challenges (21.3%) and 110 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh climate change (20.6%). Also, 18.7% and 15.5% noted animal and plant invasion, and marketing, respectively as challenges they confronted in their management and use of NTFPs. 23.9 25.0 20.6 21.3 18.7 20.0 15.5 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 Climate BY-Laws Marketing Harvesting Animal and Change and Plant Processing Invasions Perception about Challenges in the Management and Use of NTFPs Figure 4.28: Challenges/Threats in the Management and Use of NTFPs Source: Field Data, 2017 The study made efforts at examining the spatial variations in community perceptions on what constitutes the challenges faced in the management and use of NTFPs. Table 4.28 shows community level variations observed across the study area. In Tolibri, majority of respondents indicated harvesting and processing challenges (33.3%), followed by animal and plant invasions (30.8%) as well as marketing (23.1%) as main challenges. In Berwong, majority of the respondents noted challenges with the by-laws (38.5%), climate change (23.1%) and harvesting and processing as main challenges faced by the community. Similarly, 29.7%, 24.3%, 16.2% and 16.2% respondents in Kanpouh identified by-laws, climate change, Marketing, and harvesting and processing as challenges, respectively. In Oribili however, climate change and by-laws were indicated as top most challenges making up 25 percent and 25 percent respectively. Also, 111 Percentage University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh harvesting and processing and animal and plant invasion (20%) are the other two challenges noted. Table 4.27 Cross Tabulation between Community and Challenges of Management and Use of NTFPs Challenges Climate By-Laws Marketing Harvesting Animal and Communities Change and Plant Processing Invasions Tolibri 10.3% 2.6% 23.1% 33.3% 30.8% Berwong 23.1% 38.5% 12.8% 15.4% 10.3% Kanpouh 24.3% 29.7% 16.2% 16.2% 13.5% Oribili 25% 25% 10% 20% 20% Source: Field Data, 2017 In the light of the varied community level responses the study conducted a chi-square test of independence to ascertain whether the challenges faced by respondents were dependent on the community of residence. The test reveals a chi-square value of 25.495 at 12 degree of freedom and a P-value of 0.013. This indicates a significant relationship between the community of residences and challenges faced with the management and use of NTFPs. In other words, the challenges faced by residents in the management and use of NTFPs are dependent on the community of residence. 112 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.15.1 Climate Change Related challenges Climate change related challenges were identified as a major challenge to the management and use of NTFPs in all communities and the District at large. Also, various activities such as reduced harvest due to shorter rainfall seasons and high temperatures, rain and wind storms and bush fires were notable climatic factors that affect the management and use of NTFPS in the District. According to a farmer at Kanpouh, “Although we have seen an increase in the number of tree species, the yields are usually low due to erratic rainfall and heavy storms that destroy and disperse the trees and fruits”. Also, during FGDs, a 45 years old male farmer stated that, “As the rains become more erratic, the temperatures are increasing and the heat affects most of the plants during the flowering period, thereby reducing their potential to bear fruits”. In many cases, bush fires have also been cited as climate related factor as during the dry season, most of the fires are caused by natural factors. The cause of bush fires are widely known to be either natural or anthropogenic. Even though most residents admitted people do set fire, they noted the natural cause as the main factor. According to a female NTFP harvester, she replied that, “The bush fires are just too much. Today you harvest fruits here, the next day you can have the whole area burnt including the trees. This is mostly in the dry season with high temperatures”. Another female NTFP harvester during the FGD at Tolibri shared her experience with rain and wind storms, noting that, 113 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “Somewhere early this year, March into April, there was a heavy wind storm that pulled down most of the trees where I usually harvest fruits. We tried supporting some young plants back but the next night saw a heavier storm destroyed completely these plants. The climate change thing is getting harder and harder”. 4.15.2 By-Laws Despite lauding the enactment of by-laws by communities, its implementation however faces a number of challenges. The by-laws currently do not cover all villages and communities as some of them are yet to come out with their own by-laws. The Co-coordinator of the Tisong-taa Foundation noted that, “High percentage of the communities in the District are yet to come out with their by- laws. Even with those who have theirs ready, it must go through the District assembly for approval and adoption before they can be used. However, the Assembly is yet to adopt and pass these community by-laws to cover the entire District.” He further stated that the by-laws must be allowed to work and must be left in the hands of the traditional leaders rather than paramount chiefs and others, “The local traditional leaders need to be more empowered to handle the environmental issues at all village levels. This way the by-laws will become more efficient in tackling the many management and use challenges of NTFPs in the District” In Oribili, farmers expressed similar views on the difficulties in implementing the by-laws to the later. They noted that, the coming into force of the by-law has brought some change but until they tighten the implementation, the effectiveness will be rather slower than thought. 114 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “See, people are still cutting down trees indiscriminately and at will because the laws are not applied sometimes equally to all persons. Bush burning is still been done by some bad people for their own gains mostly for certain games. But this can only be stopped when you apply the by-law to all persons equally” The farmers view at Oribili was confirmed in a key informant interview with a farmer and youth leader in the same community, who stated that, “The community cannot implement the by-laws effectively, because it has little right to the land. The paramount chief interferes and doesn’t allow the community to enforce the by-laws especially on bare/fallow lands” “Restrictions placed on neighboring communities and colleague farmers from collecting NTFPs on their land sometimes results in resource conflicts and fights” 4.15.3 Marketing Challenges Poor pricing has been noted as a major challenge in the marketing of NTFPs in the study communities. Sales are usually made from either selling to individuals or to middlemen. The pricing for individuals is considered lower by most people noting that the quantities sold by individuals are usually not enough and so despite the difficulties in the gathering and preparation of these fruits to the market, the cash returns do not make up for the stresses gone through. During focus group discussions at Oribili, a 62 year old woman explained that, “when you sell a bowl of shea nut, on a good day you will make about GH₵4.50 pesewas, dawadawa goes for about GH₵ 9.00 for a bowl. Yellow berry is bought at GH₵1.00 per bowl. The prices are not good at all if you are selling directly in the market. But it will be different for middlemen who buy from different places and have it 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh in stock before selling; they are able to make good cash us who struggle under the sun” Again, some people were concerned about the market size, they believe that if some of these fruits and products are placed on the bigger markets for people to access, demand will increase and that increase the cost for the poor farmer to have some benefit. A farmer in Berwong also stated that, “there could be huge potentials for these NTFPs beyond our local areas here but because people don’t know about them, the market base is small. See if you understand the nutritional values of some of these products like the shea nut, dawadawa and others you can tell people about it. Government and the NGOs too can take it up and market them during different programs, then we will commit much time and energy into managing and sustaining their availability” 4.15.4 Harvesting and Processing of NTFPs The harvesting and processing of NTFPs is noted to be laborious and demanding task involving various steps. It also varies with the type of product been harvested or animal hunted for. For most of the plant NTFPs, it is noted by many as a daunting task in its harvesting and processing usually done through unsustainable harvesting measures. During the FGDs, in Berwong, a 32 years old lady noted that, “the methods we use in harvesting most of the NTFPs is so unsustainable. We sometimes break sticks and use for harvesting some fruits or using the hand to pluck fruits”. Another female reported that, “it is not easy harvesting at all, going through the harsh sunlight all day just in search of fruits on the trees affects us badly. But that is what we have to do since our farms are not 116 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh helping us again. The processing of some of these NTFPs also takes very long periods especially the processing of dawadawa and the shea nut” 4.15.5 Animal and Plant Invasions Certain plant and animal species are also noted for causing huge destruction to NTFPs. Some of the animals also feed on the NTFPs as food whereas others in the process end up destroying more than they actually need to feed on. It is a cause of worry even though this is noted to be a low level. Information gathered from the local people points to the fact that various animals attack the NTFPs and destroy them. Some of the people during FGDs shared their experiences. “In the bush, there are these monkey species called ‘taaweal’ that enjoy eating fresh dawadawa, so during growth periods, the more you abandon the farm, the likely it is that this monkeys will come and eat your fresh dawadawa” (48 years old farmer and hunter). “There are also different bird species that feeds on NTFPs in the bush. We have a local bird we usually called ‘dakyea’, they are noted to feed on different fruits and the flowers sweet nectar. They end up destroying the flowering and so reducing the potential fruit production of the plant” (45 years Old NTFP harvester). 117 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Socio-Demographic Characteristics The socio-demographic characteristics of respondents provides very important information on various aspects of the population and gives further indication on the changing nature of characteristics of the population compared with the regional or national figures. From the study results many more females were selected that the male population. The wide variation in the male and female population is reflected in the population distribution at the District level. The 2010 population census of the Lawra District reveals that female population constituted 52 percent while that of male accounted for 48 percent of the total population. The population of the Lawra District is also noted to be highly youthful with the active population making about 48 percent and the dependency population constituting about 52 percent. Further, the ages of respondents varied among different cohorts. The varied age cohorts however added to the richness of responses received. The experiences with climate change and its effects on NTFPs in the Lawra District were in-depth as different age groups provided unique responses over their period of stay in their respective communities. The results on the household sizes shows that in the study communities, majority of respondents noted that the average household size varied between 6-10 members. This particularly important as the size of the households will have significant effect on the access to and distribution of household resources. Majority of households had a size between 6-10 members, which is either equal or above the District average of 6 persons per household (GSS, 2010). 118 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Also, the religious background of respondents were varied. Majority in the study area were Christians and that was followed by traditionalists. The findings of the study relates with the District level data which shows that Christians dominate the population (61%), and traditionalists (26.3%) and Islam make up only 6.6 percent of population (GSS, 2010). Finally, the study also assessed the length of stay of respondents. Most respondents have stayed in their respective communities for 21-30 years and over 30 years. The length of stay of respondents in their respective communities fundamentally contributed to the richness in their experiences of the changing climatic conditions and the effect on the use and availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District. 5.2 NTFPs as a Climate Change Adaptation Strategy Worldwide climatic variations have continued to change with its effects experienced differently across regions. According to USDA Forest Service, (2011), Ghana is among countries in Africa that is among the most vulnerable to climate change effects as a result of its large population still dependent on climate controlled agriculture. This observation on Ghana falls in line with the research findings that indicates that rainfall in the Lawra District has been fluctuating greatly over the entire 30 years period even though the recent years have recorded lower values, showing a decreasing pattern of rainfall. However, over the 30 year period, the mean rainfall value was 85.3mm. The minimum and maximum values over the same period were 58.36 mm and 107 mm respectively. 119 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The data provided supports the views of residents in the study areas who noted that rainfall patterns have remained highly unpredictable, declining and shorter periods of rain over the last decade. Similarly, observations by residents confirms temperature changes in the district which shows that, over the past 30years there has been a study increase in temperature. Average temperatures since 2007 has hovered around 290C and 30.10C. With declining and unpredictable patterns of rainfall, and increasing in surface temperatures, the traditional livelihood of residents in the Lawra District is affected with many looking for alternative sources to support and complement household livelihood demands for sustainable growth. According to the GSGDA (2010-13), various climate change vulnerability assessments on Ghana show that the country suffers from adverse effects of climate change as the economy is dependent on sectors predominantly dependent on climate. This has resulted in widespread poverty and vulnerability to climate stress. A USDA Forest Service (2011) report on Ghana indicates that the climate of Ghana is warmer compared to previous years with the rate of increase about 1.00C affecting mostly the northern part of the country than the south. This supports the research findings that temperature continues to rise while rainfall declines of the past years in the Lawra District. In the study area, residents’ perceptions on climate change and climate data shows changing climate conditions that are affecting agricultural livelihoods in the Lawra District. The changing climatic conditions have severe consequences on sustainable development and on various sectors of growth including agriculture, food security and forest ecosystems (IPCC, 2007). This affects more climate dependent community livelihoods that depend on farming. Similarly, Chia et al., (2013) posited that climate change extremes have devastating impacts on the poor. Several studies, including those of Gain et al., (2012), Huq et al., (2015), and Auerbach et al., 120 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh (2015) show that climate change impacts has affected agricultural productions especially in Bangladesh where there is high dependence on agriculture for sustaining household livelihoods. Such climate dependent communities have low adaptive capacity due to endemic poverty, unplanned economic development among others increasing their susceptibility to climate and non- climate related shocks (Burton et al., 2004). In Tanzania, agriculture was singled out to be the most affected by climate change consequently affecting the livelihood of communities dependent on agriculture (Msalilwa, 2013). Clearly, the demographic characteristics of respondents further show that the study communities have low adaptive capacity to address low crop outputs. Notwithstanding the low capacity of communities to initiate measures to rejuvenate agricultural outputs, other forms of alternative livelihood are adopted as coping strategies. Msalilwa (2013) identified various strategies used by local agricultural dependent communities to cope with climate change variability in Tanzania. NTFPs played the lead role as a climate change adaptation strategy for forest dependent communities. Such NTFPs were used for subsistence and an income source providing a safety net in complimenting the declining outputs from agriculture. The research of Balama (2016) further emphasizes that a number of communities around the Iyondo forest reserve in Tanzania uses NTFPs both for subsistence and gaining livelihood capitals as a result of the relatively poor financial gains from their agriculture activities. Ahenkan and Boon (2008) examined NTFPs as a tool to addressing poverty concerns among poor communities through its contribution to livelihoods. With over 350 million people mostly in developing countries depending on NTFPs for income, food, nutrition and medicine (UNDP, 2004) there is clear indication that the study’s finding offers an avenue for strengthening the sustainable conservation of NTFPs in the Lawra District for the maximum benefits. This study also determined that climate 121 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh is a poor predictor of the availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District. This further strengthens arguments through the right measures and policies, communities in the Lawra District can adopt NTFPs as major revenue source and subsistence basis. 5.3 NTFPs Availability and Climate Change The study showed that availability of NTFPs was largely dependent on climate conditions. However the Lawra district as established in the previous section, is experience climate change showed in the unpredictable rainfall patterns and increasing average surface temperatures. Further, to assess the availability of NTFPs under this climate change conditions, the study results on the regression model on NTFPs availability and observed changes in rainfall, however indicated that climate change is a poor predictor of NTFPs availability in the Lawra District. This makes a strong case for NTFPs as a probable alternative to communities as a household income source. The continual reliance of communities in the Lawra District on climate dependent livelihood activities (agriculture) makes them vulnerable in periods of reduced farm yields due to unfavorable climate. This vulnerability exposes them to several livelihood risks including poverty and food insecurity. With climate change having insignificant effects on the availability of NTFPs, it offers a source of opportunity to local people to complement and support household food, income and medicinal needs. The increase in the availability of NTFPs is mostly as a result of the increased awareness on the potentials of NTFPs quite recently. Hitherto, only few people were engaged in the collection with lots of the plants especially left in the wild. But now there are deliberate attempts by families to protect lands to have access to NTFPs for harvest. NTFPs have become increasingly common both in the bush and around homes due to the increase awareness and potentials that have led to 122 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh stronger family and community protection strategies which are discussed in the proceeding sections. 5.3 The Financial Benefits of NTFPs and Its Contribution to Household Livelihood The financial benefits of NTFPs has been discussed variedly in research on the approaches to conducting such valuations. According to Lescuyer (1996), valuation of NTFPs could be conducted through three approaches. The first he explained as getting the market values of the NTFPs of concern. This could be termed as a direct method of accessing financial information on the product of concern. If the direct method proves challenging, Lescuyer (1996) noted that in a second method, the market value of an NTFP is substituted for the nutritious value of non-marketed NTFPs. In his final method, he identified that in situations where both methods fail in providing valuation for NTFPs, the value of the NFTP can be estimated by assessing the time spent in the forest to collect or gather the NTFP. In Adepoju and Salau (2007), they similarly distinguished between tradable NTFPs and non-tradable NTFPs. They noted however that the tradable NTFPs constitute significant recognition in international trade. Further, the whole process of financial benefits is seen not to be the inherent property of an entity. Valuation represents only “a measure of a relationship between a subject and the object of valuation within a context (time and place or hypothetical scenario)” (Adepoju and Salau, 2007). This study measured the market financial value of tradable NTFPs as well as non-tradable NTFPs in the study area. Results indicated that non-traded NTFPs constituted the most used by community members as about 80% of the 76 identified NTFPs are not traded in the market. Despite this, they make up a significant aspect of supporting local livelihoods whiles acting as a safety net for residents in times of dwindling outputs from farming. The study established that the average 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh annual income received by residents was about GH₵ 1759.48 with average financial returns from traded NTFP sales also about GH₵ 18.72. It therefore means that, the percentage of traded NTFPs to contribution to average household income is only about 1.1%. The amount of cash made from NTFPs sales is very low and contributes very minimal to the household income. That notwithstanding many residents noted that despite the situation, the small cash released is still able to cushion the household on a daily basis and also noted that there are still huge opportunities for the future sale of NTFPs as demand for NTFPs such as dawadawa and shea nuts is increasing. Traded NTFPs however included the most common forms of NTFPs including Dawadawa, shea, baobab, kazuge and yellow berries that are still yet to make a sustainable significant financial breakthrough in the market. This supports the GSS (2010) report which indicates that Baobab, Dawadawa, shea trees and Acacia are all year round viable economic trees in the District due to their inherent resistance to drought and fire characteristics. The cash value realized through the sale of these NTFPs is noted to be woefully inadequate by traders even though they acknowledge its complementing role to household income (contributes only 1.1% to the total household income). This has been demonstrated in other parts of the world to be a viable avenue to supporting household income. In the Equateur province of DR Congo, a survey on traded NTFPs earned average monthly income of US$225 compared to the salary of two elementary school teachers’ salaries of US$80-US$120 (Nkem et al., 2010). Similarly, Mukul et al., (2013) in their study in Bangladesh estimated that 19% of household net annual income is from the sale of NTFPs in Satchari community. In Nigeria NTFPs provided income for various households through the sale of leaves, rattan, honey, sap and gums (Okafor et al., 1994). Charlie et al., (2004) noted that in South Africa about 85% of households used NTFPs such as spinaches, fuel wood, wooden utensils, edible fruits, bush meat, wild honey and reeds for weaving. 124 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In addition to the financial returns of tradable NTFPs, both tradable and non-tradable NTFPs are also appreciated on their subsistence contribution to household livelihood. NTFPs in the Lawra District are put to various uses depending on the level of knowledge on the possible use of such resource to the community. The study observed some little variations in the uses of NTFPs across the various communities which are also influenced by availability and demand for the resource. This was observed in Kanpouh where the baobab tree is not in abundance. The general uses of NTFPs however include food, medicine and sale (income). Most NTFPs are directly consumed in their fresh state while others are prepared over fire before consumption. Also, most NTFPs have several parts that are useful for consumption including leaves, roots; fruits and barks of are put to several uses by households. Various methods are used in the preparation of NTFPs for its uses stated above. For medicinal purposes, some leaves and barks are dried under intense heat for hours to days before its use. In British Columbia, Lipsey (1999) noted that the collection of NTFPs has offered employment to over 32,000 people on either seasonal or full time basis. Apart from employing people, the types of NTFPs collected also offered cash returns to traders. Mukul et al., (2013) indicated that the collection of NTFPs was a major activity across all study communities in Bangladesh but also identified about 40 medicinal plants with regular uses to solve various forms of ailments. Wollengerg and Belcher (2001) noted that NTFPs have significant subsistence importance in rural economies despite the fact that only small number of them poses potentials of cash income and employment. Adepoju and Salau (2007) summarized the role of NTFPs in its definition that states that 125 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh “NTFPs came from a large variety of plant parts and are formed into a diverse set of products: leaves and twigs that may be component of decorative arrangements, food items such as fruits, fungi and juices, wood carved or woven into pieces of art or utilitarian objects and root, leaves and a bark processed into herbal remedies or medicines”. The definition encapsulates food, arts (carved and woven) and medicinal benefits of NTFPs to households. Although the definition exempts animals as NTFPs they succinctly covered it under the classifying of NTFPs. The classes included broadly edibles and non-edibles with the former made up of plants and animals, honey, oils, fish, spices among others. The non-edibles also included grasses, ornamental plants, oil for cosmetic use, and medicinal products among others. In a vivid 4 category classification they looked at NTFPs as edibles, medicinal and dietary supplements, floral products and specialty wood products. These however do not differ from the findings of this study. The household roles played by NTFPs included all the classes defined by Adepoju and Salau (2007) except for floral products which included pine boughs, grapevines, ferns and plant products used for decorative applications. The study identified NTFPs that played significant roles in the provision of edibles which are usually consumed after harvesting fresh from the wild, including the baobab, yellow berries, suge among others. Again, medicinal and dietary supplements in the Lawra District were usually gotten from such plants as gojezie, kakala, kakyelleh and Kyirn including Kyei (animal intestine). Many others were also used as food supplements such as spices which included the baobab, shea and dawadawa among others. The 126 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh study findings on NTFPs therefore relates and corroborates the results of the researches discussed above. Finally, special wood products included reports on the nascent carving and weaving industry. Such woody NTFPs are used in the carving of different home products as well as woven baskets among others. The role of NTFPs as discussed in Adepoju and Salau (2007) and the findings of this study are not exhaustive. The roles of NTFPs changes with ecosystem type and climatic zone (Rainforest and Savanna zones) and also the types of NTFPs available. Elsewhere, NTFPs are noted to also be of cultural significance and value (Cooks et al., 2003). To that extent the list of NTFPs and discussions vary with reference to the study area. Even with same broad climatic ecological zones there could be area differences in the types of NTFPs and roles played. For example, bamboo constitutes a major NTFP in Ghana and about 7 species are found in Ghana (Anokye and Adu, 2014). The Oxythenanthera abyssinica species type is the most common in northern Ghana, nonetheless it does not feature among the commonly identified NTFPs in the Lawra District. 5.4 The Management of NTFPs and the Challenges NTFPs constitute a very important aspect of sustainable livelihoods for especially the poor and forest dependent communities. It offers an opportunity for agricultural dependent communities to diversify sources of income, supplement for subsistence food and nutrition and source of medicine for various ailments. According to Hamann and Wang (2006), some of the impacts climate change has on forest ecosystems are inevitable and therefore there is the need to ensure carefully planned adaptation and management strategies to reduce such impacts (Spittlehouse and Stewart, 2003). To such extent, NTFPs constitute a very significant resource used as a safety net in most parts of 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh the world to support poor and climate dependent communities. For example, forests in Burkina Faso and Ghana contributes about 3% and 6% respectively to the national economy through the provision of both wood and non-wood products (NTFPs) as well as regulatory, recreational and cultural services (FAO, 2014). The study reveals that management of NTFPs is vested in the hands of local authorities rather than in the care of the state. Nygren (2005) also holds the view that in most developing countries the management of forest has been decentralized from the central to local government authorities. The decentralized idea he believes makes local people enjoy a sense of ownership in the rules that are made to manage the resources through such activities like implementation, monitoring and enforcement. The successful implementation of management policies is therefore dependent on the effectiveness of communities. According to Anokye and Adu (2013) NTFPs continue to be categorized in Ghana as minor forest products and so have received very little policy attention. He argued that the lack of definite policy on NTFPs has impacted the supply chain of management. Such development has led to slower promotion and development of the NTFP industry. Other researchers including Rijisoort (2000) noted that native knowledge on the management of NTFPs is essential in the broader forest management approaches. Marginalizing local beneficiaries in the management of NTFP resources could be detrimental as observed in the United States by Vaughan et al., (2013) who noted the management of NTFPs should be a collective responsibility between governments and communities. In the management of NTFPs in the Lawra District, both formal and informal institutions are involved. As observed by Nygren (2005), carefully blending the formal and informal institutions 128 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh will help overcome multiple and conflicting interest for a successful community forest management. In the Lawra District, the study revealed that laws from the strategies adopted in the management of NTFPs included adherence to government policies, use of District Assembly by- laws, use of community by laws, reliance on community volunteer groups and moral sanctions. This shows a functionary blend of government and community regulatory systems working in harmony to overcome challenges in managing NTFPs and forests. The chi square tests further reveal that each of the strategies adopted have a significant relationship with the communities. This implies that the efficiency of each of the strategies is community dependent. But clearly, all study communities have showed that the strategies were positively affecting the conservation of their forests. There were no clear incidences of power wielding in the control of natural resources in the study communities as the unique case presented included the formal institutions made up of the District Assembly and registered NGOS and GOs and the informal institutions made up of mainly the communities and their various authorities (Chiefs, Tindana, traditional healers, clan/family heads and youth groups). The wielding of power by sections in the control and access to natural resources as opined by Klooster (2000) and Gezon and Watts (2003) were not evident in this study. Therefore social stratification within the resources had very minimal effect in the governance of resources. This was particularly so because the acceptance of regulations on managing local forest resources was done in a collective manner led usually by the community leaders and the NGOs. Communities determine applicable sanctions and demarcate open forests and protected or parklands of NTFPs which are regulated. Such local by-laws are then sent to the District Assembly for acceptance before implementation. This allowed for an easy way of implementing such by-laws which become a collective binding instrument of conservation. 129 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh The management of NTFPs in the Lawra District at the individual level further decentralizes and increases people’s sense of awareness and ownership of resources that strengthens the implementation strategies. The roles defined by individuals in ensuring the conservation of forest resources includes pouring libation to pacify gods when a sacrilege is committed, protection of sacred grooves, soothsaying to unearth impending disaster, assist chief and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts and to facilitate the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource. This shows increased participation of individuals in the decision making processes of natural resource conservation in the Lawra District which has led to fair access and to forest resources and social and economic benefits for all parties (Agyeman, 1994). Rijsoort (2000) opined that instituting local and indigenous knowledge and management techniques derived through participatory approaches, identifies also the cultural, social, ecological and spiritual significance of forests linked with the use of NTFPs have implications for the sustainability of the resources. The assessment of challenges and threats to the management and availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District show that the absence of specific by-laws, harvesting and processing, climate change and animal and plant invasion threating the survival of some NTFPs were the pressing challenges. Since the emergence of NTFPs as a potential tool for sustaining forest dependent community livelihoods (UNDP, 2004; Ahenkan and Boon, 2008), policies and regulatory frameworks towards its development especially in developing countries have received very little attention (Ahenkan and Boon, 2008). This has been partly blamed on the over concentration on timber resource production as a more valuable commercial resource to the neglect of NTFPs by policy makers (Perez and Byron, 1999). The lack of regulatory policies on NTFPs is noted as the 130 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh prime factor affecting the promotion and marketing of the resource and its development, a situation affecting NTFPs development in Ghana (Ahenkan and Boon, 2010). According to the authors several strategies instituted by the Ghana government in the alleviation of poverty and improving livelihoods has failed to consider NTFPs. They cited the Ghana Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (GPRSP) and the FWP-1994 which stresses on public participation in District level forest management for all forest products but failed to recognize the significance of NTFPs. In sum, Ahenkan and Boon (2008) noted that forestry policies are needed as a sure way in the promotion and development of NTFPs to reduce pressure on forest resources. Also the unsustainable means of harvesting forest resources affects the availability of NTFPs in the Lawra District. This is in line with Acheampong and Marfo (2011) who identified deforestation as a major threat to NTFPs that provides livelihood to over 2.5 million forest fringed communities. The rate of deforestation in Ghana has reached alarming rates of 65,000 hectares which if not checked could lead to depletion of Ghana’s forest cover in the next 25 years (International Tropical Timber Organization, ITTO, 2005). Also, marketing of NTFPs have received very little attention and constitute a major challenge to the development of the nascent industry. In Tanzania, over 20 million people are noted to depend on NTFPs where climate change continues to threaten their livelihood security (CCIAM, 2012). Among the preliminary recommendations by the team to ensure sustainability and the development of NTFPs, the program noted that the challenges confronting the industry in Tanzania could be summarized under domestication, marketing and processing of NTFPs. According to Upadhyay (2008), the major challenges confronting the management of NTFPs in Nepal included the lack of sustainable production practices, inappropriate harvesting and post- harvest practices, inappropriate value addition and poorly marketing information systems has 131 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh hindered the promotion and development of the industry nationally and internationally. His study suggested a five step strategy to sustainably harvesting NTFPs which incorporates and emphasizes all forms of inventory taking a key component. Chupezi et al., (2009) also highlights key ways in overcoming the challenges of processing and marketing of NWFPs (NTFPs) in Africa. The study among many others noted that the addition of value locally, choosing the right marketing strategy, availability of legal information to producers, build capacity of local organizations and cost effective researches and disseminating appropriate information on NTFPs are the key ways of overcoming marketing and processing challenges in developing NTFPs as a safety net and resource for poverty alleviation. 132 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER SIX SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.2 Summary of Key Findings The study findings are summarized in the following paragraphs: Climate conditions continue to vary in the Lawra District. Temperature conditions for the last three decade have steadily increased reaching its highest in 1996 at 31.60C and lowest in at 28.30C over the last 30 years (1984-2014). Also, rainfall levels fluctuated over the 30 years period reaching its peak at 1274.1mm in 2009 and lowest in 2004 at 565.5mm. Rainfall amounts have shown a decreased trend in the Lawra District since 2008. According to the respondents of the study, the changing climatic pattern has affected agriculture (farming) which is largely rain-fed in the District. The major effects of climate change on residents included mainly reduced harvests (outputs) from farming activities. Other effects included the migration of members of households as well as health effects on individuals. The abysmal returns from farming have led many to adopt new strategies to support their livelihood. Among the list of adaptive strategies adopted by farmers included NTFPs collection, irrigation, reducing negative environmental practices, use of fertilizers and improved seedlings, storage and trading/business. NTFPs were available across all study communities despite the changing climatic patterns. A correlation test revealed a strong positive correlation at a significance level of P-value at 0.010 133 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh showing a strong correlation between communities and the availability of NTFPs. Similarly, a regression set up also shows that both temperature and rainfall were poor predictors of the availability of NTFPs. This makes a strong case for NTFPs as a climate change adaptation strategy for rural livelihoods. A total of 76 NTFPs were identified in the study communities. These were made up both plant and animal NTFPs with many types found in all the communities. The most important and commonly harvested NTFPs included the baobab, shea, dawadawa, yellow berries and kazuge. The distribution of NTFPs across the study communities were generally spread across all communities located mostly in the wild and around residential homes. However, the most harvested types coincidently also formed parklands due to their overly abundance at locations. Among all five identified NTFPs only baobab parkland was found to be shared between Kanpouh and Berwong. NTFPs contributed to the livelihood of households in the Lawra District. Generally, NTFPs are used as food, medicine and as spices. The parts consumed depended on the type of fruit. But generally, for plants, the nuts, fruits, bark, roots and leaves were used for various purposes. Animal NTFPs however were in most cases consumed as whole parts. Apart from the contributions noted earlier, the study also valued traded NTFPs. The study established that the traded NTFPs in the Lawra District contributed only 1.1% to the total income of the household. Despite its low contribution to household income, the importance of the non-traded NTFPs far outweighs its income value. It is significant in its contribution to the food demands of homes, medicinal values, and employment, nutrition and energy sources. Beyond these, its cultural and aesthetic values are 134 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh also recognized. In the management of NTFPs in the Lawra District, the key actors included stakeholders in the formal and informal sectors. The formal institutions included the NGOs, GOs and the District Assembly. The informal institutions however constituted local authorities identified as Clan/Family heads (32.9%), chiefs (31%), traditional healer (21.9%), Tindana (12.3%) and youth group leaders (1.9%). A number of strategies were identified by the authorities in conserving and managing NTFPs and forests in the Lawra District. These included adherence to government policies on forest management, use of District Assembly by-laws, use of community by-laws, reliance on community volunteer groups and moral sanctions. All strategies were noted to be effective across all study communities with very little variations. Individuals were also noted to play significant roles in managing NTFPs including pouring libation to pacify gods when a sacrilege is committed, protection of sacred grooves, soothsaying to unearth impending disasters, assist chief and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts and facilitate the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws. The study reveals that participation in the roles of pouring of libation, protection of sacred grooves and soothsaying were dependent on the religious affiliation of residents. Again, the participation of individuals in the roles of assisting chiefs and elders in resolving natural resource conflicts and formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resources were dependent on the sex of residents. Finally, the study reveals that the nascent NTFP industry in the Lawra District faces numerous challenges/threats in its management. The major challenges/threats identified included absence of effective by-laws, harvesting and processing, climate change, animal and plant invasions and 135 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh marketing challenges/threats. 6.3 Conclusion The study sought to investigate the management and use of NTFPs as a climate change adaptation strategy for households in the Lawra District. With increasing awareness on the impacts of climate change on agriculture, various forest communities have resorted to identifying alternative sources to sustainable livelihood. With decreasing yields from farming in the Lawra District, the abundance of NTFPs offers an alternative source of livelihood for households. There are clear indications that there is increase use of NTFPs among households even though this is most cases is for sedentary lifestyles, the resource is noted widely in other jurisdictions to have potential of also becoming a major income source to families. Currently, very little is realized from NTFPs in the Lawra District. The nascent industry is not climate dependent and therefore offers a pathway for forest dependent communities to overcome poverty and other livelihood challenges. The realizations from NTFPs will increase the access of households to human, social, financial, natural and physical capitals that will increase their resilience to climate change variability. This however remains sustainable with the adoption and practice of a wide range of sustainable management practices. A successful implementation of management policies on NTFPs will enhance the resources conservation and availability. Also, to ensure maximum benefits from NTFPs conservation, the strategies should be coupled with a deliberate plan to create a value chain of management incorporating production methods, harvesting, processing and marketing of the products. These are the sure ways of increasing the financial value of NTFPs to levels to support rural livelihoods sustainably. 136 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6.4 Recommendations In the light of the key findings of the study, the following recommendations have been made for targeted policy and community interventions. 1. The District Assembly should take key role in ensuring agricultural input support for farmers in the Lawra District to continue engaging in farming the major livelihood of the residents. The provision of timely weather related information, fertilizers, improved seedlings, climate change resistant crops and notification of changing planting seasons. 2. There should be stronger collaboration between the NGOs, GOs and the District Assembly in educating and sensitizing farmers on changing dynamics of climate change in the District and the appropriate coping strategies. 3. Current strategies of conserving the forest resources should be sustained while new ways of improving the current strategies are incorporated. Community led strategies on by-laws on bush burning, deforestation; sanctions (fees) among others should be strengthened to ensure the abundant and sustained availability of NTFPs through the local assembly. 4. The District Assembly together with NGOs should embark on deeper researches to reveal the various potential uses of unknown NTFPs in consultation with various research bodies in the country and also increase promotion of known and unknown NTFPs in the local markets, school feeding programs, tourists among other avenues. This however should start with a strong institutional commitment to inventory taking on all NTFPs to build strong policies to drive the sectors growth. 5. To adopt NTFPs as a climate change adaptation strategy in the Lawra District, there should be participatory approaches among all stakeholders to seek government and private assistance base on good inventory to establish a management chain from production, 137 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh harvesting, processing and marketing. This way the income value of NTFPs can be increased to the benefit of households especially in worse scenarios of climate change. 6. 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Masters Dissertation, Morogoro, Tanzania. 152 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh USDA Forest Service. (2011). Ghana Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation Assessment. Washington DC: USAID Ghana. Van Rijsoort, J. (2000). Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs): Their Role in Sustainable Forest Management in the Tropics. National Reference Centre for Nature Management, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Vasisht, K. & Kumar, V. (2004). Compendium of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants AFRICA. Volume 1 Africa. U. ICS. Trieste, Italy: 129. Vaughan, R.C., Munsell, J.F., & Chamberlain, J.L. (2013). Opportunities for Enhancing Non- timber Forest Products Management in the United States. Journal of Forestry, 111, (1), 26- 33 Vermeulen, S. J., P. K. Aggarwal, A. Ainslie, C. Angelone, B. M. Campbell, A. J. Challinor, J. W. Hansen, J. S. I. Ingram, A. Jarvis, P. Kristjanson, C. Lau, G. C. Nelson, P. K. Thornton, and E. Wollenberg. (2012). Options for support to agriculture and food security under climate change. Environmental Science & Policy 15 (1):136-144. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2011.09.003 Wollenberg, E. & Belcher, B. 2001. In European Tropical Forest Research Network (ETFRN news:32). Wong, J.L.G. (2000). The biometrics of Non-Timber Forest Product resource assessment: A review of current methodology. Report commissioned under the ZF0077 pre-project of the Forest Research Programme of the United Kingdom Department for International Development. www.etfrn.org/etfrn/workshop/ntfp/download.html World Bank. (2012). World Development Indicators 2012. 153 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh World Food Programme. (2009). Comprehensive Food security and vulnerability analysis for Ghana. Accra, Ghana: World Food Programme. Yabepone, C. (2010). Non-Woody Forest Products and Livelihoods in Northern Ghana. MPhil Thesis, University for Development Studies, Tamale. Yakubu, B. I., & Yeboah, R. N. (2016). Non-Timber Forest Products and Climate Change Resilience : The Case of the Savannah Woodlands Northern Ghana, 6(5), 31–38. Zaman, E.Y., Otiwa, G., Yahaya, U., Oloyede, Y. E., Odey, B. O., & Adaaja, B. (2015). Non- Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) as Alternatives for Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation in Nigeria. International Journal of Scientific and Engineering Research, 6(10), 1665–1672 154 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRES Management and Use of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) as Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Lawra District, Ghana. HOUSEHOLD QUESTIONNAIRES COMMUNITY: This study is being conducted by a Graduate Student of the University of Ghana Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies. It is to solicit for relevant empirical data for the completion of an academic exercise on how NTFPs are managed and used by communities and individuals as climate change adaptation strategy. Your participation is very much needed, and all your responses will be treated with complete confidentiality. 1.0.GENERAL INFORMATION/ SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS 1.1.Name of respondent (optional)………………………………………..……………….. 1.2. Sex (gender) 01) Male 02) Female 1.3. Age:………………. Years. 01) 20-25 02) 26-30 03) 31-40 04) 41-50 05) 51-60 06) 60+ 1.4. Marital status? 01) Single 02) Married 03) Window 04) Cohabiting 05) Separated/divorced 1.5. Education level: 01) None 02) Pre-school 03) Primary 04) JSS 05) Middle 06) SSS/Voc/Tech 07) Tertiary 1.6. Religion: 01) Christianity 02) Islam 03) Traditional 04) Others (specify)…………………… 155 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.7.How many people live in this household?.............................................. Male >18years Male <18years Female >18years Female <18years Total 1.8.How long have you live in this community?............................................................years 01) <5 years 02) 5-10years 03) 11-20years 04) 20-30years 05) >30years 1.9.If you moved in, where have you moved from?.................................................................... 1.10. What position do you occupy in this community? 01) Tindana 02) Magazia 03) Clan head 04) Chief 05) Rain maker 06) Diviner 07) Member 08) Others (specify)………….. 1.11. Occupation: 01) Farmer 02) Fisherman 03) Businessman 04) Employed 05) Unemployed 1.12. What are the major sources of income for your household? Income Source Gross Income per year (GHȼ) 1.13. What are the main sources of food in the household? 01) Own produce from agriculture 02) Purchase from market 03) Gathering from the wild 04) Others (specify)………………….. 1.14. Indicate the kinds of livelihood resources that you have access to? ( Select ALL that apply) 1. Land 2. Potable water 3. NTFPs 4. Cash/Credit 5. Technology 6. Farming inputs 7. Transportation 8. Market 9. Association 10. Social relations 11. Education 12. Healthcare 2.0.RESPONDENT’S PERCEPTION ON CLIMATE CHANGE 2.1 Are you aware of “climate change”? 1. Yes 2. No 2.2 From which source(s) do you hear about climate change? (Select all that apply) Media Name 156 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 01 Radio Station: 02 Television 03 Newspapers 04 Internet 05 School 06 Government agency 07 Others (specify) 2.3 What changes have you observed in rainfall for the past 15 years? (Select ALL that apply) 01) Shorter duration of rainfall 02) Heavy rainfall 03) Heavy storms 04) Late rainy season 05) Unreliable traditional signs of the start of the rainy season 06) Declining rainfall amount 07) others (specify)…………………………. 2.4 What is the temperature condition in this area in the last 10-15years?.......................................... ………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2.5 What do you think is/are the cause(s) of climate change? (Select all that apply) 1. Natural 2. Bad agricultural 3. Bush 4. Cutting down phenomenon practices burning of trees 5. God’s reaction 6. Burning of 7. I don’t 8. Others to human sin firewood know (specify…..) 157 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.6. How does the perceived climate change affect your household livelihood? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2.7. How do you respond/react to the effects indicated in Qn2.6? 3.0.IDENTIFICATION AND RANKING/PRIORITIZATION OF NTFPs 3.1 What can you say about Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) ................................................... 3.2 Do your household harvest/use NTFPs? 1. Yes 2. No 3.3. If YES, what type of NTFPs do your household collect/use? (Select all that apply) NTFPs Types Collected where Shea nut Dawadawa baobab Acacia Honey Bush meat …. Fire wood …. Thatch Fibres Vegetable …. 158 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Others, local/scientific name (specify) 3.4 If NO, why? 3.5 What are the five (5) most important NTFPs in your household? NTFPs Part used Use By whom 1 ……. ……. 2 …….. …… 3 ……. ……. 4 …… …… 5 ……. ……. 3.6 How long have you been using NTFPs? 1) From infancy 2) More than 30 years 3) 10-30years 4) Less than 10 years 3.7. Why do you go for collection of NTFPs? 3.8. What is the current state of usage and availability of NTFPs compared to the past 10 years? Use of NTFPs Period (months ) Reason for change NTFPs Availability 159 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 01) Increasing NOTE: Go to qn.3.9 01) Increasing 02) Decreasing 02) Decreasing 03) Indifferent 03) Same/unchanged 3.9. If NTFPs usage is increasing, what accounted for this? (Select ALL that apply) 1) Demand for NTFPs 2) Proximity to NTFPs 3) Reduction in crop yield 4) Household demographic 5) Reduction in household income 6) Others (specify)…………………… 3.10. On average, how many month(s) do you engage in NTFP works in a year? 1. 1-4months 2. 5-9months 3. 10-12months 4.0.ESTIMATION OF FINANCIAL INCOME DERIVED FROM NTFPs 4.1 What is the average annual income of your household? GHȼ……………………………………………………… 4.2 Is the income earned enough for the household for the whole season? 01) Enough 02) Moderately enough 3) Not enough 04) Can’t Save 4.3. Do NTFPs contribute to your household income? 1. Yes 2. No 4.4. If yes, how much money did you earned from selling NTFPs for the past 12 month? GHȼ……………. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Less than 100 100-199 200-299 300-499 500-999 1,000+ 160 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.5. Out of the money earned from NTFPs, how much was used to buy food items for the past 12 months? GHȼ…………………………………………… 4.6. What were the uses of the rest of the money? ……………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………... 4.7. Are you willing to pay for the management of the NTFPs in this area? 1. Yes 2. No 4.8. If YES, how much money are you willing to pay for their management? Traded NTFPs Non-traded NTFPs GHȼ GHȼ 4.9. Are there available markets for NTFPs in the community or nearby towns? 1. Yes 2. No 4.10. Which market centers do you sell the NTFPs? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4.11. Who are the main buyers of NTFPs in the community? 01) Villagers 02) Middlemen from town/cities 03) others (specify)………………………….. 4.12. What other benefits do your household derived from NTFPs? (Select All that apply) 01) Food 02) Employment 03) Nutrition 04) Medicine 05) Energy 06) Aesthetic 07) Others (specify)…………………. 5.0 NTFPs MANAGEMENT/CONSERVATION STRATEGIES 5.1. Which are the local/traditional institutions in the community that manage NTFPs? 01. chiefs 02. Traditional healers 03. Clans/family heads 04. Tindanas 05. Rainmakers 06. Youth groups 161 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 07. Others (specify) 5.2. Which of the following are ways NTFPs are currently managed in the community? Grade as follows: 1=very effective 2=effective 3=moderately effective 4=Ineffective 5=Not applicable Very Effective Moderately Ineffective Not effective effective Applicable Adherence to government policies Use of District Assembly by- laws Use of Community by-laws Rely on community volunteer groups Moral sanctions 5.3 What role do you play currently in the management of NTFPs? Grade accordingly; 1= Very active 2= Active 3= Dormant 4=Not applicable Very Active Dormant Not active applicable Pouring libation to pacify gods when a sacrilege is committed Protection of sacred grooves Soothsaying to unearth impending disaster Assist chief & elders in resolving natural resource conflicts Facilitate the formulation and enforcement of community by-laws on natural resource Ensure the enforcement of traditional norms, believes and practices on natural resource management Punish offenders of natural resource related by-laws Reporting offenders to authorities for punishment Others (specify) 5.4 How were resources obtained for management of the NTFPs? 162 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 3 4 5 Fine from Funds from GOs/ Community Proceeds from Others: offenders NGOs contribution sale of community resources 5.5 Has management of NTFPs changed in the last 20 years? 5.6 If Yes, how? ............................................................................................................................................................ 5.7. What are the challenges in the management/development of NTFPs in this community? ............................................................................................................................................................ 5.8 What do you think should be done to manage NTFP better in the community? ............................................................................................................................................................ 5.9. Which other institutions manage NTFPs in the community and the type? 01) Forestry Services Division 02) MOFA 03) EPA 04) District Assembly 05) NGOs 06) Others (specify)…………………. THANK YOU 163 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Management and Use of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) as Climate Change Adaptation Strategy in Lawra District, Ghana. KEY INFORMANT INTERVIEW GUIDE This study is being conducted by a Graduate Student of the University of Ghana Institute for Environment and Sanitation Studies. It is to solicit for relevant empirical data for the completion of an academic exercise on how NTFPs are managed and used by communities and individuals as climate change adaptation strategy. Your participation is very much needed, and all your responses will be treated with complete confidentiality. Date…….…/………../2017 Location Name of respondent (Optional) Organization/Institution/Agency Designation of respondent 1. Which aspect(s) of natural resource(s) do your organization manages/support in its management? 2. What type of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) are available in this District? Please provide as many as you can. (Local name or scientific name). 3. What is/are your organizational policy/programme(s) and roles for the management of the resources mentioned in Q1? 4. Are the communities and their traditional institutions part of the management process? 5. If yes, how are they part of the management process? 164 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6. If no, kindly give reasons. 7. How do you enforce the NTFPs’ management practices? 8. What happens to person(s) for non-compliance? 9. What are the challenges in the management/development of NTFPs in this District? 10. What is your suggestion for dealing with the NTFP management challenges in the District? 11. Does your organization/institution has any policy/programme/project that support climate change adaptation process in the District? 12. If YES, can you describe what the policy/programme/project involves and its achievement so far? 165 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX II: NTFPs AT COMMUNITY LEVEL S/N ORIBILI KANPOUH BREWONG TOLIBRI 1 Taame/ta’anga Taame Taame Taame 2 Dooro Dooro Dooro Dooro 3 Tokpara Suge/ Suga Tokpara Tokura 4 Ore Ore Ore Ore 5 Suge/ Suga Gaa Suge/ Suga Suge/ Suga 6 Gaa Kazuge Gaa Gaa 7 Gbeme Tokpara Gbeme Tokpara 8 Kazuge Ang-a Kazuge Aara 9 Lieme Bang-na Lieme Lieme 10 Sansan Gogoh Sansan Sansan 11 Goue Gozang Goue Zangala/ob-nyukuo 12 Kolemakou Gopula Kolemakou Kolemakou/poukalevaar 13 Baarigbe Golezie Baarigbe Tou tee 14 Dunkum Kakala Dunkum Dunkum 15 Swaka Kakyelleh Sur Sur 16 Bere Kalgbog-la Gbaara Kyera 17 Gyamgboro Kakang Tuvaa Kyee 18 Torvaar Kakankyikya Bere Dakune 19 Gbongkira Kyira Gyangboro Naapuro 20 Saalung lellaa Nmaaasugeh Ob-nyukuo Youvaa 21 Veega Nminmiirakoler Koko Derbaa 166 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Sur Popong Saalupela Ong 23 Song Saal-tie Vega Kure 24 Kure Seetug-le Kpagra Wuola 25 Susug-le Baa-ore Mgmene 26 Togbo Zupon Zupon 27 Kpagra Firewood Malere 28 Song Ben-ora Mgbeme 29 Sansire Onsagra Sasere 30 Korenye Grasses Kalezur 31 Derbaa Song Song 32 Kyei uoo 33 Mhaare Segboro 34 Pure 167 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX III: NTFPs IN NORTHEN SAVANNA ZONE 168 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 169 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 170