i AN ASSESSMENT OF THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF TERRORISM IN THE SAHEL REGION OF WEST AFRICA BY RICHMOND DEBRAH (10805058) THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON, IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF THE MASTER OF ARTS DEGREE IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS LEGON JULY 2021 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DECLARATION I declare that this dissertation and the work presented in it are my own and has been generated by me as the result of my own original research under the supervision of Dr Boni Yao Gebe. No part of this work has been presented to any university or an institution of the award of any degree. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii DEDICATION I dedicate this work to everybody that is striving to make it in life against all odds. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere and deepest gratitude goes to Dr Boni Yao Gebe, my supervisor, who has been a tremendous mentor for his motivating advice, assistance and kind words since the first day I set foot in LECIAD, University of Ghana, Legon; Dr Boni Yao Gebe, whose expertise was invaluable in guiding me through the research with his insightful feedback motivated me to bring out the best. I would also like to acknowledge the enormous contributions made to this work by Dr. Festus Aubyn, Dr. Vladimir Antwi-Danso and Mr Richard Apau. These people deserve mentioned of the support they gave me when they took time out of their busy schedules to assist me with an interview. I am really grateful. I will also like to thank my lecturers for their valuable guidance throughout my study. You provided me with the requisite knowledge and information I needed to complete my course work and dissertation successfully. God bless you all. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ACSRT African Centre for the Study and Research on Terrorism ADC Democratic Alliance for Change (Alliance Démocratique pour le Cangement) AQIM Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb CNRDRE National Committee for the Re-establishment of Democracy and the Restoration of the State (Comité national pour le redressement de la démocratie et la restauration de l’État) CRDRE Committee for the Re-establishment of Democracy and the Restoration of the State CVE Countering Violent Extremist ECOWAS Economic Community of West African States FLM Macina Liberation Front GDP Gross Domestic Product GSPC Salafist Group for Preaching and Combat GTI Global Terrorism Index IED Improvised Explosive Device IOM International Organisation for Migration ISGS Islamic State of Greater Sahara ISIL Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi ISIS Islamic State of Iraq and Syria ISWA Islamic State of West Africa ISWAP Islamic State West Africa Province JNIM Jama’at Nasr al-Islam Muslimin MINUSMA United Nations Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali MNJ Mouvement Des Nigériens pour La justice MNJ Nigerien's Movement for Justice (in French Mouvement des Nigériens pour la justice) MNLA National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad MNLA National Movement for the Liberation of Azawad MUJAO Mouvement pour l’Unification et le Jihad en Afrique de l’Ouest MUJAO Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa MUJWA Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa PLO Palestinian Liberation Organisation SALW Small Arms and Light Weapons UN United Nations UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNECA United Nations Economic Commission for Africa US United States University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Contents DECLARATION .................................................................................................................................... ii DEDICATION ....................................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ..................................................................................................................... iv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................. v Contents ................................................................................................................................................ vii ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................ x CHAPTER ONE ..................................................................................................................................... 1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................. 1 Background to the Research Problem ..................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem .................................................................................................. 4 1.3 Research Questions ........................................................................................................................... 6 1.4 Research Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 6 1.5 Scope of the Study ............................................................................................................................ 7 1.6 Rationale of the Study ....................................................................................................................... 8 1.7 Conceptual Framework ..................................................................................................................... 8 1.9 Literature Review ............................................................................................................................ 12 1.9.1 Definition of terrorism ................................................................................................................. 12 1.9.2 Terrorism Motivation ................................................................................................................... 19 1.9.3 Social Effects of Terrorism .......................................................................................................... 21 1.9.4 Economic Effects of Terrorism ............................................................................................. 24 1.9.5 Terrorism Activities in the Sahel ................................................................................................. 27 1.9 Research Methodology ................................................................................................................... 33 1.9.1 Research Design ........................................................................................................................... 33 1.9.2 Sources of Data ............................................................................................................................ 34 1.9.3 Sampling and Sampling Technique ............................................................................................. 34 1.9.4 Data Analyses ....................................................................................................................... 34 1.9.5 Ethical consideration ............................................................................................................. 35 1.10 Arrangement of Chapters ...................................................................................................... 35 Endnotes ................................................................................................................................................ 36 CHAPTER TWO .................................................................................................................................. 39 OVERVIEW OF TERRORISM AND INSURGENGY IN THE SAHEL REGION OF WEST AFRICA ................................................................................................................................................ 39 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 39 2.1 History of Terrorism and Insurgency in the Sahel Region of West Africa (Central Sahel – Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger). ............................................................................................................ 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 2.2 Contemporary Terrorism and Insurgency in the Sahel Region of West Africa (Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger) ..................................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.1 Mali ....................................................................................................................................... 42 2.2.2 Burkina Faso ......................................................................................................................... 45 2.3 The Nature of terrorism in the Sahel ......................................................................................... 49 2.4 Strategies, Methods and Tactics of Terrorist Groups in the Sahel Region of West Africa ....... 51 2.5 How Terrorism is funded in the Sahel Region of West Africa ................................................. 55 2.6 Terrorist Groups in the Sahel Region of West Africa ............................................................... 58 2.6.1 Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) ........................................................................... 58 2.6.2 Ansar Dine ............................................................................................................................ 61 2.6.3 Movement for Divine Unity and Jihad in West Africa (MUJWA) ....................................... 62 2.6.4 Boko Haram .......................................................................................................................... 62 2.7 Causes of Terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa ......................................................... 64 2.7.1 Religion ................................................................................................................................. 64 2.7.2 Socio-Economic Causes ........................................................................................................ 66 2.7.3 Political Instability ................................................................................................................ 67 2.7.4 Climate Change and Resource Scarcity ................................................................................ 69 2.8 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 70 Endnotes ................................................................................................................................................ 71 CHAPTER THREE .............................................................................................................................. 76 THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF TERRORISM IN THE SAHEL REGION OF WEST AFRICA – BURKINA FASO, MALI AND NIGER ........................................................................... 76 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 76 3.1 Terrorist insurgency in the Sahel Region of West Africa ......................................................... 76 3.2 Social Effects of Terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa .............................................. 85 3.2.1 Security and Safety ............................................................................................................... 85 3.2.2 Education .............................................................................................................................. 89 3.2.3 Health .................................................................................................................................... 91 3.2.4 Food Security ........................................................................................................................ 94 3.2.5 Women and Children ............................................................................................................ 97 3.3 Economic effects of Terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa .............................................. 99 3.3.1 Businesses ........................................................................................................................... 101 3.3.2 Industries ............................................................................................................................. 103 3.3.3 Trade and Investment .......................................................................................................... 105 3.3.4 Human Capital .................................................................................................................... 106 3.4 Measures Implemented in the Sahel to Address Terrorism Issues .......................................... 107 3.5 Measures to Take in Addressing the Terrorist Insurgency ..................................................... 112 3.6 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................. 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix Endnotes .............................................................................................................................................. 117 CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................................... 121 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................. 121 4.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 121 4.1 Summary of Findings .............................................................................................................. 121 4.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................................................. 125 4.4 Recommendations ................................................................................................................... 126 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................... 129 APPENDIX ......................................................................................................................................... 144 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x ABSTRACT Researchers and scholars have defined terrorism differently in their own terms. This is due to the fact, one cannot be specific about the motives, targets and methods of terrorism since these categories differ from case-to-case and also, the complication of unravelling the overlaps within each of these categories in effect makes its definition difficult. However, in general, terrorism can be defined as the use of violence or threat of violence to a deliberately to cause fear. The intention behind the causing of this fear among their targets mostly done to pressure or to intimidate societies, a group of people or governments to give in to something, usually in the quest of pursuing goals which are mostly religious, ideological or political in nature. The issue of terrorism has been a major concern in the Sahel Region West African lately, due to the emergence of numerous terrorist group in the region. Terrorist activities have drastically changed the situation in the area, though not much of it has been documented. This study therefore aimed to determine the socio-economic effects of terrorism in Sahel region of West Africa. The study was conducted using Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger in the Sahel Region of West Africa as a case study due to the constant terrorist attacks these three countries have suffered during the past decade which still persist with no sign of ending soon. The 2012 Tuareg uprising in Northern Mali which led to the influx of terrorist groups and organisations coming in to assist the fighters against the state later gave rise to extremism. These extremist groups eventually spread across the Sahel Region with their activities causing devastating consequences on the socio-economic lives of citizens and governments in the region. The study employed the use secondary and primary data. The secondary data used were books, journal articles, internet sources and primary data was gathered using semi-structured interviews to collect relevant data from experts in the field of terrorism. The study found that terrorism activities have had major effects on the economic and social activities in these countries in the Sahel Region of West Africa with education, health, food security, human life, businesses, industries, the sector and the economies of these countries affected. Most citizens have left their communities for other areas closing and leaving their businesses and economic activities. A number of trained workers who offer essentials services have fled the area, leaving some of the basic activities almost deserted. The education and health sector have been the most affected as teachers and medical practitioners fled the region and left public schools and hospitals without professionals in the fields. This study recommends that the governments of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger and also ECOWAS take measures to address the already existing socio-economic problems facing their countries and, also that of the grievances of their citizens. It also recommended that the various counter terrorism initiatives must be revived and provided with the necessary logistics to fight these extremists. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.0 Background to the Research Problem The world today is facing many challenges of conflict and organised crime issues which have devastated many countries and have caused many socio-economic development problems. Terrorism is of such major security concern of the international community that have caused dramatic threat to world peace and security with devastating socio-economic and developmental consequences in countries and regions where terrorism exists. Universally, there have not been an agreed for the word terrorism. It has been defined most countries, departments and agencies in different ways. For example, the United States of America Federal Bureau of Investigation of defines terrorism as "the unlawful use of force or violence against persons or property to intimidate or coerce a Government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives”.1 The United States of America’s Department of Defence also defines terrorism as “the calculated use of unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or ideological objectives.”2 Michael Walzer, defined terrorism as "the deliberate killing of innocent people, at random, to spread fear through a whole population and force the hand of its political leaders".3 Terrorists or extremist usually aim at the general unarmed population using violence or the threat of violence to achieve their objective. Through the use of this means, they are able to “create a psychological effect of fear on the people in the community where their attacks are carried out, therefore causing unrest among people.” In effect, terrorism does not have to do with the immediate victims it claims, but about the horror University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 effect it creates on the rest of the people4. According to Kegley, “terrorism is not directed at the victims of its activities, but the people who eventually get information about their effects, and those who see the results.5 The major terrorist groups that operate internationally are divided into three categories with not clearly defined boundaries: religious extremists financed by governments, radicals or separatists Palestinian and leftist groups; domestic, state-sponsored and international-sponsored terrorism; and also, Cyber terrorism which transcends national boundaries.”6 The Sahel region is not new to terrorist activities and these countries of the Sahel Region in West Africa – Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso – have had pockets of terrorist activities in the past before the current Islamist-attributed terrorist. Some activities of terrorism dates back to when various forms of rebellions were launched by the Tuarges of Northern Mali against the Malian government that started in the 1960s and reached its height in the 1990s.7 In their attempts to the challenge state authority through the use of violence, communities of the Tuaregs and Arab nomads living in the north of Mali were marginalised. In effect, the Tuareg rebel movements launched series of coordinated attacks against Malian government forces throughout the 1960s to the 1990s. Successive Malian governments dealt differently with these rebels with the aim of putting an end to the rebellion.8 A number of strategies were used to deal with the movement which includes: the use of repression; the recognition of the movements; signing of peace treaties; reducing military presence in Tuareg and Arab areas in the north; decentralization of power; and reconciliation. The military was also used as one of the most important elements in solving the Tuareg rebellion issue. Most combatants of the Tuareg militant groups were integrated into the army.9 The GSPC—which recently changed its name to Al Qaeda in the Maghreb— has in the past maintained pockets of terrorist unrest in the countries of the Sahel, particularly in Algeria and around the borders of Mali, Mauritania and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 Niger for a number of years. Although the activities of GSPC was on a small-scale at the initial stages, they have added to the host of problems and security failures that is facing the region.10 The initial Tuareg rebellion that was led by the MNLA elements that moved from Libya to Mali in January 2012 was eventually kidnapped by Jihadist Salafist elements who fought alongside Colonel Ghaddafi’s troops during the Libyan uprising which saw Ghaddafi’s regime coming to an end.11 With the weapons acquired from the fighting in Lybia, they were able to overpower government forces. At the height of this uprising, an enormous portion of the Sahelian region fell into the hands of a countless number of terrorist groups in the first months of 2012 overwhelming and eventually overpowering forces the Malian state.12 The remobilization and accumulation of weapons and fighters from Libya since 2011 after the fall of Ghaddafi fed the contradictions in northern Mali and transformed the situation into a strategic threat for the Sahel Region, West Africa and Western countries as well.13 It was an unprecedented achievement for the terrorists – the emergence of a nucleic Al Qaida Jihadist state – requiring urgent and immediately countermeasures from the International Community, mainly from the West. The three main terrorist actors at that time in northern Mali were AQIM, MUJAO and Ansar Eddine until other terrorist groups emerged.14 The spill over of these terrorist activities later spread into neighbouring countries Niger and Burkina with different terrorist groups operating in different parts of these countries with different ideologies and under different names. From 2019 into early 2020, the G5 Sahel Group which is made up of Burkina Faso, Chad, Mali, Mauritania, and Niger, has suffered significant losses socio-economically due to the activities of these terrorist organizations.15 The consistent attacks launched by these terrorist groups in these countries have had many socio-economic impacts in countries and on the region making socio-economic life difficult for citizens and others alike who live in areas where these terrorist attacks have been rampant.16 Most professionals – including teachers, nurses, doctors, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 engineers, traders, businessmen and others alike – in fear of being attacked or killed by the activities of these terrorist, have fled these areas leaving their jobs.17 Educational institutions and education in these areas has been greatly paralysed as students, teachers, educationist and other professionals in the sector have fled these areas in the Sahel region en-mass, leaving no replacements in the education system.18 In other sectors such as the health sector, consistent terrorist activities has led to most institutions to close down as professionals such as nurses and NGOs working in the sector have fled for the fear of their lives creating a vacuum in the health sector that have left unfilled.19 In a similar fashion, many companies, traders and businesses – that is both local, national and multinational corporations – have closed their businesses and left these areas, greatly affecting the economy of these countries and the region as a whole.20 The risks of a possible spill over of instability from the Sahel to the neighbouring countries and regions further complicate the situation. While these are the general problems facing the Sahel, this study sought to access and document the socio-economic impacts of terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa.21 1.2 Statement of the Research Problem Since 2012, the increase in insurgency and terrorism activities in countries of the Sahel Region in West Africa – Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso – has greatly affected the social and economic activities of citizens and governments in this region and the West African sub region in general. Although these terrorist groups are all over the Sahel and have been targeting towns and cities in other countries in the Sahel including Morocco, Algeria, Libya and Mauritania, these three countries – Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger – in West Africa have had the highest number of attacks, with families, citizens, churches, government agencies and military and police posts, tourists and tourist centres, businesses and international aid workers being targeted constantly. These acts of terrorist activities have greatly affected the socio-economic activities of these University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 countries and the spill over is being felt in the region and neighbouring countries. This has resulted in the destruction of life and properties and infrastructure, reduction in productivity and increase in the cost of clean-up and repair cost of damages caused by these terrorists with a number of citizens and inhabitants of these place closing their businesses and moving to other areas of these countries following attacks of these terrorist which results in deaths and injuries of some of their relatives, employees and associates.22 There have also been losses in foreign direct investments, security cost, reduced economic growth, output losses, reduced tourism and losses in trading in these countries due the activities of these terrorist. Foreign investors are being dissuaded in investing in these countries because of the potential terrorist activities. A number of professionals who provide essential services in the education, health and other sectors have either have fled their work places in fear of the consistent attacks on the various institutions they work and their lives and, thus creating major vacuums left unfilled in these sectors. These happenings have created devastating effects on families as well. The effects of these terrorist attacks on the population are numerous and breadwinners are mostly the direct victims.23 Women, children and the working-class have been the primary victims of these attacks. Adding to the impact caused by the destruction of business centres has been financial problem created by the loss of family income after a victim's death especially when the he or she is the breadwinner.24 Children’s academic performance have been affected due to these socioeconomic changes and state support to families affected have been is inadequate.25 Due to this, there is an urgent need for effective state intervention to support and to a large extent, absolve these families to aid their socioeconomic revival.26 The surge in terrorism has extremely affected the economic and social development of the region badly. It is significant to note that these terrorists have been changing their modes of operation, with an increased in the use of various tactics which includes the use of IEDs, gun University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 attacks, suicide bombing and hostage taking that are now commonly used. Even though there have been some effective attempts at engaging these terrorist groups in this region, these interventions have yet to have any significant effect on turnout. The aim of this research, therefore, was to assess the socio-economic effects of terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa specifically in these countries – Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso to enable governments of this region, regional organisations, and multi-national organisations get a greater understanding of these socio-economic damages caused by terrorism activities to better direct resources to help to fight and mitigate terrorism-related costs. 1.3 Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: 1. What is the nature of terrorism in the Sahel region of West Africa? 2. How has terrorism affected socio-economic development in the Sahel region of West Africa? 3. What are the counter terrorism strategies applied to overcome the challenges in the Sahel region of West Africa and with what success? 4. How can terrorism be countered in the Sahel region of West Africa? 1.4 Research Objectives The objective is study was to assess the socio-economic effects of terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa. To address this the research was guided by these specific objectives: 1. To explore the nature of terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa. 2. To assess how terrorism has affected socio-economic development in the Sahel Region of West Africa. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 3. To examine the counter terrorism strategies applied to overcome the challenges in the Sahel Region and their success. 4. To identify the best strategies that can be put in place to counter terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa. 1.5 Scope of the Study The study focused on the socio-economic effects of terrorism in these countries – Mali, Burkina Faso and Niger – since the rise of the insurgency in Mali and its spill over to Burkina Faso and Niger. The research was carried out in the Sahel Regions of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger and it covered the timeframe from 2012 to 2020. The reason is that, the period 2012 to 2020 will gave enough time to assess the long-term effects of terrorism on the socio-economic development of the above countries. These areas are prone to terrorist attacks, which has resulted in devastating effects as many citizens, families, aid workers, businesses, government workers and other professionals have deserted these areas that have been subjected to consistent terrorist attacks in these countries in fear of their lives. The terrorists target citizens, investors, tourists, government workers including health and education workers, aid workers, security personnel and other professionals who to offer essential services to citizens in the affected areas. Since they have being the direct targets of these terrorists, most of these professionals have fled their work places and left the places with major shortage hitting professional services such as education, health, other essential public services. This vacuum created due to absence of these professionals and attacks on other areas of the economies in the region have had effects on the socio-economic development of these areas negatively which is already known to be the poorest part of the West African sub region, and the focus of this study was to in find out these effects. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1.6 Rationale of the Study Terrorism and terrorist activities affect the socio-economic development of states. The purpose of this study was to assess the effects of terrorism activities on the socio-economic development in these countries –Mali, Niger and Burkina Faso – in the Sahel Region of West Africa and add existing literature on the subject. The study also looked at the counter terrorism measures and strategies that have been implemented in the fight against terrorism in this Region and how successful it has been in the quest of eliminating extremists and terrorist activities in the Region. The study aimed at helping to identify some of the best counter terrorism strategies and measures that can be implemented to counter terrorism activities in the region. 1.7 Conceptual Framework The concepts of Human Security and National Security constituted the framework for the study. The concept of human security varies depending on the type of approach. According to the minimalist approach, human security is considered to be "a perception of the absence of risks, dangers and threats to existence, values and interests of human individuals and the formation processes and management of this perception".13 According to the UNDP, which is representative for the maximalist approach, “human security "can be said to have two main aspects: “it means, first, safety from chronic threats as famine, disease and repression. And secondly, it means protection from sudden and harmful disruptions in the patterns of daily life. The human security concept is based on four fundamental characteristics: 1. Human security is universal; being relevant for the entire global population which is affected by different types of threats; 2. These components of human security are interdependent; phenomena such as famine, disease, pollution, social exclusion are interconnected; 3. Human security can be achieved more easily through early prevention than late interventions; 4. Human security is University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 focused on people's lives.”27 According to Haq, “Human security is not about states and nations, but about individuals and people”. Thus, Haq argues that, “the world is entering a new era of human security” in which “the entire concept of security will change – and change dramatically”.28 Lloyd Axworthy, argues that, human security “includes security against economic privation, an acceptable quality of life, and a guarantee of fundamental human rights.”29 In the Human Development Report, published by the UN, seven dimensions of human security are outlined which are: personal, food, economic, health, environmental, community and political. The importance of this concept to the study is that, “this concept can be usefully employed to the fight against terrorism and organized crime in post-conflict and conflict situations. The individual and his security needs is the main focus of this concept since he is the primary victim of terrorism and organized crime, even though terrorism also endangers the security of the state as well. In tackling these threats, therefore, not only that of the state is given a paramount attention but also the security of citizens in particular.30 People matter and that the focus has to be on their vulnerabilities. Thus, being basic message of the human security approach, it is important that state structures like the police and the judiciary, need to be strengthened — albeit with a view to securing and protecting human rights and ensuring democratic governance. Even though the state has the primary function of protection, the protection needs should be provided in such a way that the security of the citizens and the individual is in the foreground.”31 The criticism of this concept is that, “even though the concept of human security has been gradually accepted in international relations, its usefulness as a policy tool and its functioning has been questioned. Human Security has been, first of all, questioned because there is no common agreed definition of it. The concept has been generally questioned because of its University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 limited utility, broadness and vagueness for policy analysis. To some human security is attractive, but analytically weak since it introduces too many variables that are not necessarily linked together. To others human security has become a neat device to appropriate development aid for the purposes of foreign policy. In relation to the war on terrorism the human security agenda has been transformed into a northern political and security agenda. Human security has also been denounced as a relation of governance, since instead of the well-being of people living in ineffective states it prioritizes the security of homeland populations and citizens. It has also been criticized because it has had paid too little attention on empowerment of women in particular. Finally, human security’s operationalization has been broken up into various forms and its objectives diffused”.32 National security, on the other hand, is “the protection and safekeeping of the nation as a whole. Its highest priority is the protection of the nation and its people or citizens from external attacks attack and dangers by maintaining armed forces and shielding state secrets”. Walter Lippmann, describes National Security as, "A nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate interests to avoid war, and is able, if challenged, to maintain them by war."33 Harold Lasswell, also describes National Security as, "The distinctive meaning of national security means freedom from foreign dictation.”34 Arnold Wolfers, defined National Security as, “National security objectively means the absence of threats to acquired values and subjectively, the absence of fear that such values will be attacked.35 “National security is also the ability to preserve the nation's physical integrity and territory; to maintain its economic relations with the rest of the world on reasonable terms; to preserve its nature, institution, and governance from disruption from outside; and to control its borders”, (Harold Brown, U.S. Secretary of Defence, (1977-1981).36 Robert E. Osgood Jr has said that national security "necessarily denotes a nation's determination to preserve certain interests at all costs. Foremost among these University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 national interests are: nation's integrity, political independence and fundamental political institutions. It embraces not only the survival of nation, but its ability to survive."37 The importance of this concept to the study is that, “National security does not only embrace external security contours, but also, one of its core priorities is internal security, which is equally very paramount. It is here that the impact of terrorism is felt prominently.38 Low intensity conflict is another name given to terrorism. It is a misnomer; for it's a conflict of low intensity only from the viewpoint of the perpetrators of conflict but also, it brings about maximum destruction and death to the victim-nations.39 One of the primarily focus of National security is associated with managing physical threats and with the military capabilities used for doing so. This means that, national security is often understood as the capacity of a nation to mobilise and organise military forces to guarantee its borders and to prevent or successfully defend against physical threats including military aggression and attacks by non-state actors, such as terrorism.40 Terrorism creates an enemy within. That is why when acts of terrorism is detected, the state must be put resources to counter it ruthlessly, and if necessary, with a massive application of force rather than allow it to exist. The drain acts of terrorism are plunders on an economy is very devastating, forcing the states to divert scarce resources to fighting terrorism. It is against this backdrop that is it is very important that every nation needs to tackle and counter the issue of terrorism effectively so as to preserve and protect its national integrity”.41 The criticism of the above concept is that, National security is premised on the proposition that “security policy is a matter of ensuring national survival”. “The beginning and end of security is the ensuring of national survival and other national security issues can only be raised if national existence is ensured. It is also premised on the fact that foreign affairs and security policy must be formulated first and foremost to ensure national security before other forms of security issues such as sustainable peace, national prosperity, stability and other related University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 concerns then follow.42 The main focus of national security is on potential and actual threats to a nation’s territorial integrity therefore, the primary aim is to protect the nation’s sovereign frontiers against any form of external aggression. This being the logical basis or foundation of the National Security, non-military aspects of security are relegated to the background.”43 It is not surprising given the fact that international relations have been more “state-centric” than “people-centric thus far.”44 1.9 Literature Review 1.9.1 Definition of terrorism Many Scholars have attempted to give the definition of terrorism, but none of these definitions has been accepted generally as accepted universally as the meaning of terrorism. Gianola in his book, “Il volto del terrorismo” defined, terrorism as “the strategic activity, be it of an individual or an organized group, of a bearer of collective interests not, or insufficiently, safeguarded by a national or the international order. It is exercised by means of acts of extreme violence against people and property.” He further added that the targets of the acts of terrorism are not necessarily part of the people that is to be influenced by such violence but rather its influence is effectuated by “attracting the attention of the media or of the general populace.”45 Hardman, also in his work, “Terrorism” defined terrorism as “a term used to describe the method or the theory behind the method whereby an organized group or party seeks to achieve its avowed aims chiefly through the systematic use of violence. Terroristic acts are directed against persons who as individuals, agents or representatives of authority interfere with the consumption of the objectives of such a group. The terrorist does not threaten; death or destruction is part of his program of action, and if he is caught his behaviour during trials is generally directed primarily not toward winning his freedom but toward spreading a knowledge of his doctrines. .Terrorism is a method of combat in the struggle between social groups and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 forces rather than individuals, and it may take place in any social order.”46 Further arguing, he posits that “terrorism is not intended to draw the attention of the ruling government or the country but also to draw the attention of the majority of people by creating a sense of insecurity making them to believe that their safety is no longer safe in the hands of the authorities in power. “The publicity value of the terroristic act is a cardinal point in the strategy of terrorism”, he adds.47 Silverman and Jackson, also in their work, “Terror in Insurgency Warfar” argued that, “terrorism as element in this process of violent change can be defined as the use of physical violence, however indirect, to cause political-psychological fear in a person. They add that terrorism is not a distinct stage in revolutionary development, but a present time tactics to both guerrilla and conventional warfare. To them terrorism differs from guerrilla warfare in as much as its purpose is to influence the opponent and any third parties rather than to annihilate him”.48 “The intention of the act, not the nature of the act, not the nature of the act itself, they added is the crucial characteristics which distinct terrorism. The target, therefore, is often someone other than the victim of a terrorism act. In consequence, the psychological results of the act are more important than the act itself. How an act is seen as torture, arson or murder as terrorism will depend how this act is perceived by the international community. For an act to be seen as terrorism, the victim must be identified by its intended audience, be related with what the victim stands for and experience feelings of fear and insecurity for their own well-being. The intended audience must be aware that it is the target at which the influence or intimidation is directed, they added.”49 To quote English, in his work “Terrorism: How to Respond”, “Terrorism involves heterogeneous violence used or threatened with a political aim; which involve a diversity of acts, of targets, and of actors; it possesses an important psychological dimension, producing terror or fear among a directly threatened group and also a wider implied audience in the hope University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 of maximizing political communication and achievement; it embodies the exerting and implementing of power, and the attempted redressing of power relations; it represents a subspecies of warfare, and as such it can form part of a wider campaign of violent and non- violent attempts at political leverage.”50 Laqueur, outlining the genesis of terrorism notes, “Terrorism has been there for ages dating back to the time of the Jewish Zealots (sicari), who were active during Rome's occupation of Palestine.51 This Zealot sect, according to Chalian et al, was one of the very first groups to practice systematic terror of which we possess a written account. This knowledge of the Zealots’ struggle account is contained in the reporting of Flavius Josephus in his Jewish Antiquities, that was published in 93–94c.e., and in another account of his of the Jewish War, a brief work published between 75 and 79, to the greater glory of Vespasian and Titus, for whom he worked as an advisor on Jewish affairs. Josephus uses the word sicarii — a generic Latin term derived from sicarius, “dagger-man” — to denote the Zealots.”52 The methods and operations they used is similar to the methods of suicide and sacrifice that are used by terrorists in contemporary times. According to Hopman, as quoted in William’s work, “An Analytical History of Terrorism, 1945-2000”, he posits that “in contemporary times, it was given momentum by Robespierre's regime de la terreur (June 1793-July 1794) and, Edmund Burke has been credited with adding the word terrorist to the English lexicon in his Reflections on the Revolution in France, which railed against the "thousands of those Hell hounds called Terrorists ... let loose on the people" by the Jacobins, regularly aided by Dr. Guillotin's famous invention.”53 According to Chalian et al, “the French Revolution marked a turning point in the history of terrorism”. It gave birth to the term “terror”—or what might equally be called “state terrorism”— “prefiguring a practice that was to evolve considerably in the twentieth century with the advent of totalitarianism and large-scale violence. The term “terrorism,” of course, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 they posit, derives from the experience of the French revolutionary Terror that occurred in 1793 and 1794.”54 Terrorism is also linked to “the authoritarian regimes of Nazi Germany, Soviet Russia and the Fascist regime of Italy between the 1920s and 1930. Also, in the Middle East, it can be linked to the fundamentalist Muslim Brotherhood, in Palestine during British rule where various acts of terror were orchestrated against the British and the wars waged against colonialism in Algeria the French and Cyprus against the British”.55 In the events that followed World War Two (2) era (post world war 2), terrorism changed its revolutionary nature. “In the wars of independence fought between the 1940s and 1950s by nationalist seeking to attain independence from colonial rule from European Imperialist in Africa, Asia and the Middle East, the various acts which were violent in nature committed in this process were also considered as acts of terrorism. Some of these wars that were fought in Kenya, Israel, Algeria and Cyprus in the quest to gain independence utilise to some extent, forms of terrorism. In 1946, a bomb explosion that hit the King David Hotel in Jerusalem by a Jewish underground group is seen as one of the most momentous terrorist acts. However, the current radical nature of terrorism came into existence after the Second World War.”56 According to the Britannica online encyclopaedia, “the 20th century saw great leap in the use and practice of terror. It became the character of a number of political groups stretching from the extreme right to the extreme left of the political divide.” “The improvement in technology and the development of explosives, automatic weapons and IEDs provided terrorist a new mobility and lethality and the advancement of the aviation industry gave rise to new opportunities and methods for terrorist and changed their modus operandi. During the regimes of Adolf Hitler and Joseph Stalin, both of Germany and the Soviet Union respectively, terrorism was seen as an official policy which was used against opposition and voices of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 descent. The use of execution, torture and imprisonment of opposition members were carried out with legal guidance to instil fear and panic and also to enhance compliance to national ideology and the economic, political and social objectives of the state.”57 The Britannica encyclopaedia also mentioned that “terror was employed by one or both parties in anticolonial conflicts”: one, war of independence between Algeria and France, the Irish war for independence between “Ireland and the United Kingdom, and between Vietnam and France and the United States; secondly in conflicts between different national factions over a land such as between Palestinians and Israelites; thirdly, in conflicts between religious sects such as the one that occurred between Roman Catholics and Protestants in Northern Ireland; and, in internal conflicts between revolutionary forces and established governments.” It adds, “In the latter part of 20th and beginning 21st centuries, some of the most extreme and destructive groups that engaged in terrorism held a fundamentalist religious ideology such as Hamas and al-Qaeda.58 Some groups, including the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and Hamas, employed the tactic of suicide bombing, in which executioners of such acts would attempt to destroy a prominent economic, military, political, or symbolic target by detonating a bomb on their person. In the latter half of the 20th century the most known groups using terrorist means were the Red Army Faction, the Japanese Red Army, the Red Brigades, the Puerto Rican FALN, Fatah and other groups related to the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), the Shining Path, and the Liberation Tigers. The most known groups in the early 21st century was al-Qaeda, the Taliban in Afghanistan, and ISIL.”59 The world woke up to four coordinated terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, which was initiated by Osama bin Laden’s Islamic terrorist group Al-Qaeda on the United States. These attacks were very destructive causing the lives of about 6,000 persons and 9,000 injuries and was the most destructive attack causing several millions of dollars in material loss compared University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria https://www.britannica.com/place/France https://www.britannica.com/place/United-Kingdom https://www.britannica.com/place/Vietnam https://www.britannica.com/topic/Roman-Catholicism https://www.britannica.com/topic/Protestantism https://www.britannica.com/place/Northern-Ireland https://www.britannica.com/topic/fundamentalism https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ideology https://www.britannica.com/topic/Hamas https://www.britannica.com/topic/al-Qaeda https://www.britannica.com/topic/Tamil-Tigers https://www.britannica.com/topic/suicide-bombing https://www.britannica.com/topic/Japanese-Red-Army https://www.britannica.com/topic/FALN https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fatah https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palestine-Liberation-Organization https://www.britannica.com/topic/Palestine-Liberation-Organization https://www.britannica.com/place/Afghanistan 17 to the earlier attacks. This attack led to the creation of international coalition of countries with the aim of fighting terrorism in countries such as Iraq, Afghanistan and other East Countries that were seen as the haven of terrorist groups by the international community.60 According to Rulaca, in his work, “Terrorism Proliferation and Radicalisation in Europe” due to the European Union countries' taking part in the military and international coalition campaigns against terrorist above, there series of coordinated terrorist attacks on some European cities.61 Their targets were the civilian population in these cities.62 For example, the Madrid train bombings carried out on 11 March, 2004 claiming the lives 192 people and injuring around 2,000; in London similar bombings on the underground rail lines and another on bus were carried on the 7 July, 2005 which claimed the lives 56 people and injured than 700 people; and the London bombings of 21st July, 2005 which claimed no life. Other attacks by terrorist were also carried out between 2005 and 2015: first being the Oslo attacks on 22 July 2011 with 77 victims; the second, Charlie Hebdo, the French satirical paper, attacks in Paris on 2nd November 2011 and 7-9 January 2015, which also claimed the lives of 14 people were, of which 2 were police officers; other similar attacks like the Toulouse and Montauban attacks on March 11 to 19 2012, London attacks on 22 May 2013, Brussels attacks on 24 May 2014, and the Copenhagen attacks on 14 February 2015.63 Rulaca also states that the spate of attacks increased when some European states joined in the bombing of ISIS targets in Iraq and Syria. The year 2016 witnessed similar attacks such as: in Brussels on 22nd March, Nice 14th July, and Berlin 19th December. In 2017, the most devastating terrorist attacks in Europe were in the United Kingdom on 22nd March, 22nd May and 3rd June: also, in France on 20th April; in Sweden the attack that happened in Stockholm on 7th April; and Barcelona on16th August and Cambrils 18th August all in Spain. The use of vehicles ploughing into crowds were employed in some of these attacks. ISIS has repeatedly threatened some European states”.64 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Since the September 11 attacks on the U.S. many smaller terrorist groups, aside Al-Qaeda have emerged with different methods of operations and how they carry out their activities. Most terrorist groups come together to create affiliates in countries such as Syria, Mali, Niger, Somalia, Yemen, and Egypt, and al-Qaeda for example, having taken advantage of weak and failing countries, has turned ungoverned spaces into governed spaces, providing governance and assistance to franchise groups working at a grassroots level to generate political legitimacy and trust among local populations in areas they operate.65 In Syria, Yemen, and throughout West Africa have Al-Qaeda-linked groups have integrated themselves with local militants, parroting provincial grievances as a means of gaining entree.66 Bloomberg et al, in their work, “Terrorist Group survival: ideology, tactics and base of operations”, argue that “terrorist groups perform better if they are larger in size, expand their attack modes, are animated by religiosity rather than non-religious political goals, and base their activities in Africa or the Middle East. Groups’ lastingness is bolstered by democratic institutions and an in-between level of ethnic breakup at home”.67 Most terrorist groups nowadays have advanced in their operations and are using innovative means in their attacks and activities wherever they are causing major blows in areas and countries where they operate. “The style of battle and nature conflict since the cold war ended has changed drastically. Through unbalanced warfare, weaker fighters are using creative tools to cause devastating consequences to more powerful rivals.68 The means recruitment, fundraising, and communication by religious extremism has been very easy making difficult for their activities to be monitored effectively by governments. Some terrorist groups are characterised by religion since most of these terrorists’ groups recruit followers by invoking religion and under the guise of fighting on behalf of the religion. This is one of the reasons why University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh https://www.cfr.org/expert-brief/al-qaedas-resurrection https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017-10-24/moderate-face-al-qaeda https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/syria/2017-10-24/moderate-face-al-qaeda 19 terrorism has become more and more deadly as groups easily recruit followers confessing to the same religion.”69 In a nutshell, it can be confirmed that “terrorism has been with of humans since time immemorial but the activities of terrorists these days has given it a new facet. This incident should always be seen in historical point of view to be able to understand it.”70 1.9.2 Terrorism Motivation To ascertain the motive for which people engage in terrorist acts is not an easy task. For one thing, “terrorists aren't likely to show up willingly as experimental subjects, and closely looking their activities from afar can lead to wrong conclusions. Someone’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter, as most Arabs who are behind Palestinian suicide bombers and attackers often will attest”.41 Osama bin Laden described “good and bad terrorism”.1 “Terrorism can be commendable and it can be reprehensible. Terrifying an innocent person is objectionable and unjust, also unjustly terrorizing people is not right. Whereas terrorizing oppressors and criminals and thieves and robbers is necessary for the safety of people and protection of their property. The terrorism we practise is of the commendable kind for it is directed at the tyrants and the aggressors and the enemies of Allah, the tyrants, the traitors who commit acts of treason against their own countries and their own faith and their own prophet and their own nation. Terrorising those and punishing them are necessary measures to straighten things and to make them right.”71 In DeAngelis work “Understanding Terrorism” he posits that, “for years, psychologists examined terrorists' individual traits, searching for clues that could explain their readiness to involve themselves in violence”. He adds that “while researchers have to terms that most terrorists are not "pathological" in any traditional sense, most important insights have been obtained through interviews with some 60 former terrorists conducted by psychologist John University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 Horgan, PhD, at the Pennsylvania State University's International Centre for the Study of Terrorism”.72 According to Crenshaw, “a direct cause of terrorism is an existing of identifiable grievances by subgroup of a larger population, such as when a minority ethnic group discriminated against by the majority. In so doing, a social movement develops with the aim of addressing these grievances and to settle for either equal rights or a separate state; acts of terrorism is then the resort of an extremist group of this broader movement”.73 She again adds that, “the very existence of a group that is dissatisfied within a majority is a catalyst for the cause of terrorism. She adds the use of terrorism is not always what those are discriminated against resort to channel their grievances”.74 In Miller’s work, “The Literature of Terrorism”, Juergensmeyer argues, “most terrorist attacks are carried out using religion as pretext but it cannot be nailed down to a specific country of origin. Given the examples of the Jewish assassins of Israel, radical Hindus and Sikhs in India, the Buddhist terrorist sect in Japan and the Christian militants in the United States. He adds that researchers have long time held the view that certain religious groups give incentives to those ready to give up their lives for the sake of their religion.”75 Ghorayeb for instance as Dawson accounts, inferred that “the elimination of discrimination and degradation led to the vital of sacrificial victim in Shi'a Islam. To demonstrate high esteem and prominence the idea of martyrdom is used within society at large. And people who are ready to lose their lives for religious purposes are seen as iconic inside their culture”. Ghorayeb argues that “they are revered by family and friends for opting to continue the fight for religious views and complete self-sacrificing their personal life.”76 Religious terrorism, as suggested by some researchers is by far greater threat than political terrorism. Religiously motivated terrorist as argued by Caleb Carr hold the view that “they are University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 fighting in an extraterritorial battle that outlines the battle of good versus evil. The end result of this type of war is greater than the individual and therefore substantiates the sacrifice of lives. Individuals that carry out terrorism acts affiliating religiously are more prepared to kill themselves and those around them as against political terrorists who want their message to be known but without causing injuries”. The politically motivated terrorist as argued by Hoffman carryout their message to be heard and they view killing as a sad necessity unlike the religiously motivated terrorist. The dangerous motivator for conflict when compared to just acquiring land.77 The goals of Religious fighters move beyond the world we live in today and look to life after death. They develop a "will to win" mind set because the end results for giving up in a battle is falling out of good graces with God and therefore endless damnation. With this mind set of damnation, “religious fighters past the point of care of their lives and this allows them to repress the fear of death”. Muslim countries are likely to host ten times the number of suicide bombers where the US military is present, or, where an active Israeli occupation remains as in the case of Palestine.78 1.9.3 Social Effects of Terrorism The impacts of terrorism reach many aspects. Terrorism has devastating effects on the social lives of people. The main goal of terrorism is to “disrupt ordinary life, instilling fear and creating sense of helplessness in the population. The end results of terrorism can indeed be wide-ranging and far-reaching. It has endless effects on groups, the individuals, and the society in general. The social success and developmental well-being of the majority are in jeopardy and in the situation of constant strain and stress. Citizens find it difficult to live their lives properly and calmly. The use of violent means to perpetuate their acts among the people causes devastating effects leading to socio-economic decline and the destruction of human and social University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 acquaintances.”79 According to Ganor in Simon-Tov et al, “terrorism’s aim is discourage public faith in authorities and the state, to disrupt ordinary life, to create fear and helplessness in the population, and in the end, change government’s policy.80 Ganor also states that terrorism works to create a sense of security and to disrupt the everyday life of people, making people to live in constant fear and uncertainty in the target community”.81 In the work, “Terrorism, a socio-economic and political phenomenon with special reference to Pakistan”, Sabir argues that, “the terrorism creates sense of insecurity in the minds of the people which leads to sense of dissatisfaction and terror among the population. The sense of helplessness and uncertainty prevails in the minds of people where terrorism exists. This then leads to hopelessness among the people with regards to their personal development and social well-being”.82 These violent acts of terrorism, Samir further posits, badly affects “the mental development of the human beings placing them situation that is stressful. These attacks especially, leave harmful and far-reaching effects on the minds of children with the sight of dead bodies and horrible scenes of terrorism on the media”. Terrorism “damages human and familial relationships which ultimately affects the performance of the individuals in their work places”.83 Terrorism causes devastating impacts on whole social system and not just the individual. Terrorism often causes or leads social split among people belonging to different schools of thought or backgrounds especially when one side is perceived of associating itself with terror acts. This division becomes the cause of major social division which jeopardises the social fabric, cohesion and unity of a country negatively.84 Sabir again argues here that, terrorism causes people to run or escape from their social and professional responsibilities due to the fear of terrorist attacks. A soldier, a nurse, a teacher and any other professional offering essential services cannot perform their duties if they witness University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 the deaths of their colleagues constantly due to deadly terrorist attacks in their course of operations. Even though one will perform his or duty, to constant fear of losing his or her life to terrorist attacks deter one from performing his or her duty to the state. “Terrorism promotes social division and isolation among the different groups of the society. It creates division between the supporters and sufferers of the accused terrorist attacks. This means that terrorism leads social disturbance and people feel divided in the society”, he argues. It also affects the social development and well-being of citizens. Businesses and economy of a country suffer the most due to terrorist activities which directly decrease job opportunities. Poverty level increases which damages the society very much in the long run.85 According to Langer and Godefroidt, due to terrorist attacks, people who lose faith in other people for the fear that they could be attacked since terrorist by their nature are not easily identifiable. The fear that terrorism creates destroys social trust, they argued. They add that “this threat of terrorism does not even have to be real, as perceptions of such threats seem to be enough to decrease people’s societal trust. Where trust is low, economic advancement may slow down, political institutions may remain weak, and well-being may be lost”.86 According to Waxman in his work, “Living with Terror, Not Living with Terror: The Impact of chronic Terrorism on Israeli Society”, “the threat of terrorism leads to a group resort to stereotypes, leading to more negative stereotyping by members of the targeted society”. In the US for instance, there have been several cases of this such stereotypes as the rise of “Islamophobia” in the US after the 9/11 attacks, and the rise in anti-Arab sentiments in Spain after 2004 Madrid train bombings. In similar instance in Israel during the second Intifada, Israelis held negative stereotypes of Palestinians, “seeing them as dishonest, violent, and having no regard for human life.”87 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Waxman also posits that; one social effect of terrorism is “the increase in ethnocentrism and xenophobia as a group raises its solidarity in the face of violence attacks. With this, identification with, and support for, the in-group rises as a result of terrorism, while identification with, and support for, any out-group decreases”. “It was evident in Russia during the course of terrorist attacks carried out by Chechen militants, when ethnic Russian identity became more important, while xenophobia rose. In the United States in the aftermath of 9/11, a similar incident occurred when there was a rise in patriotic sentiment and flags were raised across the country”.88 1.9.4 Economic Effects of Terrorism The correlation between terrorism and economic growth impediment appears very complex. Terrorism impairs economic activity. In its negative repercussions, terrorism is damaging and leads to a devastating effect on the economy that calls for measures to curtail acts of terrorism. Karagöz, 2006, in Mehmet, 2017, outlining the economic effects of terrorism asserts that, “terror and terrorism can lead to a considerable loss for the economy of a nation. These losses, he adds, are mainly due to uncertainties that comes about by the confidence lost with terrorism and transferring a major part of a country’s scarce resources on military expenditure. Also, terrorist can also target directly the essential sectors of economics of countries.”89 These outcomes, he adds, confirms that “the goal of terrorism, which aims to achieve political and economic demands through an unlawful means, is a clear sign to intimidate the government and create fear and horror and panic in the society. In other words, the objectives of terrorism are to reach a political goal by mounting pressure on political authority and breaking down public interest through the use of violence”.90 Frey et al. and Uysal et al., in Mehmet, in relation to the above posit that, terrorism “instils fear and destruction in society and the destruction of a country’s economy. Due to the deep impact University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 of terrorism on the social and political spheres of a country, it also affects economic development negatively”.91 “One major reason for targeting the economy, the state of economic development, by terrorist is that, it is the most important indicator of success. And as a matter of fact, terrorist activities, despite its objective to disrupt the macroeconomic stability in a country, include the economy. The success of these activities is the creation of effective violence in society”, adds in Yalcinkaya as documented by Mehmet.92 Mehmet also states that, “when there is a weak economic structure in a country, the terrorist organization that facilitates the society and the state manipulate it one direction, which will cause panic and fear leading to anarchy that dominates the economy”. “It is a fact that there is a direct and indirect relationship between terrorism and the economy. However, the direction of this relationship may be double-sided to show the interaction. Therefore, in formulating counter- terrorism strategies, the economy of a country should be included”, he added.93 Mehmet, again states that one of the important areas among the objectives of country’s basic economic policy is “economic growth and development”. Simply “a country in a given period, the rise in the amount of goods and services manufactured by expressing economic growth is set to increase in the percentage in GDP”.94 “Considering the spending on final goods and services, GDP is calculated with regards to the expenditure method using the economic indicators in a given time”. Without doubt, Mehmet further adds, “attacks from terrorists affects the determinants of national GDP and thus show clear evidence that show the negative impacts on economic growth. For example, distrust that emanates from terrorism leads to a switch in consumption and investment behaviours”.95 Gupta et al. investigating the impacts of armed conflicts and terrorism middle and low income countries came out that, the economy growth is lower and inflation is often higher if there is an armed conflict in a country which leads negative effects on tax revenues and investment in that country.96 Conducting “a systematic investigation of the incidence and economic impacts University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 of terrorist attacks at the country level”, Tavares came out with the results that, “rich countries are the most prone to suffer from terrorist attacks while their democracies become, if anything, less vulnerable than other countries”.97 In a study by World Bank, it was estimated that “a 4 % GDP decline in the Israeli economy while that of the Palestinian territories suffered a 50 % decline in between 1994 and 2002 due to conflicts and acts of terror.”98 Meierrieks and Gries, highlighting on the causality between terrorism and economic growth posited that, terrorism destructs economic activity by directly causing physical and human capital stock destruction through the loss of life, property damage and others.99 Sloboda, argues that since tourism is one of the biggest industries, and many open economies, especially small countries, count on it as their major of internal generated revenue source, it is largely affected when there are acts of terrorism especially in areas where these tourist centres are located. There is often decline in the patronage of such places too. He adds that terrorism can cause a major blow to the tourist sector by keeping tourists away especially after major terrorist attack especially close to or in a major tourist centre. The long term the indirect costs of terrorism on the tourist sector is that, a substantial number of expenditures is directed into the rebuilding of tourist facilities, to provide security measures to reduce the threat terrorist activities and also, on advertisement to re-attract tourists to these destinations again. This is in the long run damages the travel and tourism sectors of a country causing the country to lose financially.100 According to Blomberg et al, terrorism distorts national levels of consumption, investment, government spending and savings on an aggregate level. Since terrorism creates uncertainly due to fear and panic which often leads to “postponement of long-term investment or increased government spending on security at the expense of other areas such as education, health and infrastructure, which reduces growth in the end”.101 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 According Abadie and Gardeazabal, internationally, terrorism can lead to capital and trade flows diversion since it poses a costly risk and causes reduction to foreign investment.102 When there are terrorist attacks on a leading to withdrawal of international investment, it hurts economic development, “especially when foreign finance and investment are essential engines of growth of an economy”. Studies carried out indeed, have shown that “terrorism has negative impacts on macroeconomic variables such as consumption, investment, and public spending and on the international flow of goods and capital”, added, Abadie and Gardeazabal.103 They again added that these effects “help to explain and confirm why several studies came out that terrorism is impedes economic growth on national, sub national and global levels”.104 Khan and Estrada evaluating the “terrorism effects of on economic performance” highlights the following: activities of the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) in Iraq caused economic growth to decline by -2.58 % and in Syria, -3.20 % in 2013 in a study conducted. These results is evident of how much economies are badly affected by the activities of terrorism.105 In a study by conducted by Gaibulloev and Sandler in Mehmet, 2017, it came out that the “impact of terrorism is felt greatly in developing countries than in developed countries since developed countries have greater flexibility to adapt to terrorism due to their strong economies.”106 Furthermore, the study also found out that “internal terrorist activities have double negative impacts of slowing economic growth than international terrorism. With the reason that, higher negative effect on the economy is due to piled of “government expenses and a loss of capital outlay” due to the rise in terrorism related activities”.107 1.9.5 Terrorism Activities in the Sahel According to Harmon, Terrorism in the Sahel part dates back to the first Tuareg insurgency against the newly independent Malian government, the so-called Alfellaga, which lasted from May 1962 to August 1964 and was led by members of the Ifoghas confederacy and was limited University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 to Adrar des Ifoghas (Adagh). The main cause of the Alfellaga was a Tuareg nationalism that was growing in the face of what they saw as a rival Malian nationalism, in which the Tuareg did not want to participate. In the early 1960s, the Malian government tried to reduce or end the political power of the Tuareg and Bidan chiefs in the northern regions of Mali, which they saw as a relic of colonial era privilege.108 The government also tried to free the bellah-iklan and to regulate the movement of herds of livestock, especially cattle, across borders. The Tuareg perceived all of these government initiatives as detrimental to their political agenda and to their culture and livelihood. He again posits that they were against the Keita regime because they felt they should never have been made part of Mali.109 According to Sidibé, these led to consistent revolt against the Malian state by the Tuareg which were met with harsh rebuttals from the Malian state over the years and these attempts to rise up against state authority is due to the marginalisation and discrimination of Tuareg and Arab nomadic communities residing in the northern part of Mali. In their attempts to express their grievances, they formed movements which launched coordinated attacks against government security agents. To address this, successive Malian governments dealt differently with rebel movements in the north of the country in order to contain this. A number of strategies were used to deal with the movement: there have been the use of repression; the recognition of the movements; signing of peace treaties; reducing military presence in the north; decentralization of power; and reconciliation. The Tuareg perceived all of these government initiatives as detrimental to their political agenda and to their culture and livelihood. 110 According to Harmon, years of marginalisation and drought conditions forced many Kel Adagh and other Tuareg to flee their homelands leave in exile. They took refuge in Algeria, Libya, Niger, Mauritania, and Burkina Faso. While in exile in neighbouring countries such as Algeria and Libya, most of them were recruited into the armies of these countries to help fight insurgent University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 and terrorist that confronted their host countries. In Libya, the Malian exiles played an important part in Muammar Qadaffi’s regime with most of them serving in the military.111 The coup in Mali in 2012 provided a perfect opportunity for these exiled Tuareg and other Arab minorities to rise again. The exiles decided to apply the political and military skills they had learned in exile to a war of liberation.112 According to Danjibo, “with the availability of arms from Libya, with which the fighters who fought side by side with Gaddafi in the hands of these Tuareg fighters who escaped following the death of Gaddafi, provided grounds for renewed armed insurrection against Malian state in the north of the country which then spread to other states in the Sahel”. “It is believed that other states in the Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa are likely to have deposits of large catchments of arms and ammunitions circulating in the region, making these countries potential areas of conflicts and instability”, notes, Danjibo.113 According to Cherbib, when these armed rebels, mostly made up of “Malian Tuareg and Arab fighters returning back to Mali after the fall of Muammar Gaddafi’s regime in Libya, launched insurrection in January 2012 against the Malian state and won control of the north of Mali, the AQIM – a terrorist organization in the Sahel that has been fighting the Algerian state and terrorizing other states over the years – and its local offshoots back the Malian insurgents briefly. They later chase them out of the three main cities in the north – Kidal, Timbuktu and Gao – which they governed from April 2012 to January 2013. Seizing the opportunity to carry out its terrorist activities, they implemented Sharia law and trained more locals in jihadist warfare while administering the north and parts of central Mali (Mopti region)”.114 According Phillepe, in the context of the Sahel these factors – “erosion of state institutions, collusion with corrupted officials, involvement of security officials and business persons in contraband trafficking are among the factors” – “provided a perfect impetus and conducive theatre of operations for the AQIM to perpetrate a crime terror nexus. The Malian conflict in University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 2012 further made the AQIM to capitalise on expanding their activities within and beyond the Sahel”.115 According to Renard, originally beginning in Algeria GSPC, the AQIM changed its name and strategy to reflect the ideas reflect that al-Qaida’s model. Despite a steady decline in the number of recruits due to pressures and counter measures from Algerian security forces, AQIM has shown some form of remarkable resilience these past decades. It has used al-Qaida’s influence to recruit new members; it has shifted from the use of guerrilla tactics to terrorism by engaging criminal activities as well; and lastly, moving southward and east across borders to escape the counter pressures mounted on it by Algerian security forces.116 According to Niang, although most of the terrorist groups in the Sahel, including AQIM, have a rather distant link to AI Qaeda, they have been able to use the veneer of Islamic ideology to embed themselves into local religious networks, some of which have recently gone through a radicalization phase. They are often structured around qatiba or battalions and they operate across the Sahel using guerilla strategies that allow them to escape state control quite successfully. AQIM's form of ransoming is often seen as a scheme, a one-off opportunity that allows them to extract maximum resources; this precludes the possibility of mutually beneficial relationship and future transfer while allowing them to bankroll their operations. Incidents of kidnapping thus tend to be violent, often leading to executions where payments.117 Ndiaye also posits that, the Sahel faces widespread violence and the number of terrorist attacks has increased in Burkina Faso, Niger and Mali, killing more civilians and soldiers. However, Islamist groups including MUJAO, AQIM, and Ansar al-Dine thrive and gain strength over “ungoverned spaces” across the Sahel region. Militant Islamist groups control the northern territory of Mali and threaten the security of populations in neighbouring countries. Most of their activities involve attacks on civilians, ambushes on military troops, bombings of popular University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 markets, hotels, cities and restaurants across the region.118 The people struggle of extraordinary levels from forced displacement due to terrorist attacks. The International Organization for Migration (IOM) observes thousands of people fleeing across the region causing large scale population displacements. AQIM has expanded its reach beyond the borders Sahel, by engaging in kidnappings of foreign citizens in Mauritania, Niger, and Mali. The group have murdered foreign citizens and assassinated military officials as well as innocent citizens. In response to the assassination, a Malian military was subsequently defeated and humiliated. In August 2020, AQIM launched a suicide bomb attack which was unsuccessful in the vicinity of the French embassy in Mauritania.119 According to Apau and Banunle, in Burkina Faso, “the threat of terrorism and the activities of terrorism is not different from other countries in the Sahel. Insecurity is on the rise on daily basis in the country with an increasing report of terrorism and conflict related violence in the western regions of the country”. In Boucle du Mouhoun, a region that borders conflict affected Mali, Apau adds, “there have seven security-related incidents recorded since October 2018. An estimated people of about 1.4 million live in conflict-affected zones of Burkina Faso. Due forced internally displaced people, the population of Djibo, a Sahel town continues to rise by 50% due to displacement of people from surrounding towns.120 It evident that effects of the insecurity and rising violence are aggravating the vulnerability of refugees, displaced populations and host towns who need humanitarian assistance”.121 According to a report by the United States Department of State Publication Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism that was released in August 2010, “the Al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM) demonstrated a greater interest in Niger in 2009, making attempts to and expand and extend its influence into Nigerien territory from the ungoverned spaces that borders Mali and Algeria. The porous borders and ungoverned spaces provide terrorist groups such as AQIM a haven for recruiting, people and smuggling of contraband, undetected transit, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 and facilitation of logistics among others. Niger’s severe resource constraints which emanates from its current status as one of the poorest countries in the world coupled with an ongoing political crisis, have hampered the Nigerien government’s efforts to counter the activities of the AQIM and other terrorists group intrusion”.122 According to Danjibo, “the Sahel and other areas of sub-Sahara are the centres sectarian crises in Africa, culminating in terrorist activities”. He argues, “Inter and intrastate wars are common in the region. These conflicts have contributed to aggravating a situation of gross insecurity of lives and livelihood. It is currently estimated that there are more than 10 million small arms and light weapons circulating in the Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa, which create a situation of instability in the region.” “The region is having been devastated by a number of challenges, which includes the lack of transparency and accountability, state fragility, weak institutions, the lack of development, non-participatory political processes, weak bureaucratic structures, youth unemployment, rural-urban migration, the lack of social justice, environmental hazards and poverty”.123 He again posits that, “the Sahel remains one of the most complex regions in the world in terms of ethnic configuration, religion, colonial experiences, the environment and geography. Countries in the region have been beset with age-old complex problems ranging from ethnicity, to religion and the environment”.124 The sudden end of “authoritarian regimes in Tunisia, Egypt and Libya, which renewed hopes of democratisation in the region, has on the other hand expanded the activities of terrorist groups that have taken advantage of the porous borders fragility of states and ungoverned spaces in the Sahel and Sub-Saharan Africa”. Due to the “porous boundaries and borders among countries of the Sahel and the fragile nature of states have terrorists groups have been coordinate with a network of other terrorist groups such as the MUJAO, Ansar Eddine, while University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 giving Boko Haram the chance to constantly transit from Nigeria to the Sahel region Niger to Mali, and to link up with the AQIM and other groups for financial and logistic support to carry out its operations.125 The proliferation of weapons and arms after the fall of regimes is a major factor have led to the development of local and transnational extremist groups. These arms that are either bought at very low prices from illegal organisations or criminal terrorist networks in the North and West Africa, have landed in the hands of terrorist groups such as AQIM and others to aid their activities. This is particularly true of Boko Haram's connection with AQIM and other terrorist organisations in West Africa”.126 From all the above reviewed literature, it is evident that, the literature has clearly defined the concept terrorism and its activities, highlighting on terrorism, its social and economic effects and terrorist activities in the Sahel. It was also evident from the literature above that, terrorism and its changing nature as well as the security dynamics requires that pragmatic measures should be implemented in response to the many challenges confronting the Sahel Region. It was however clear that, there are literature lapses of specifically assessing the socioeconomic effects of terrorism in the Sahel Region of West Africa, which has not been filled by the available literature. The literature gap that is left unfilled from the above literature is what this study seeks to fill. 1.9 Research Methodology 1.9.1 Research Design The research methodology is a case study of these three countries of the Sahel, which are, Niger, Mali and Burkina Faso in the Sahel Region of West. The study employed the use of qualitative and purposive approach. Due to the risk involved in engaging terrorists and geographical restriction; how covert terrorist operations are; and also, the risk involved in engaging terrorist for real life interviews, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 research made use of mainly qualitative data and employed the use of qualitative method of data analysis. The researcher interviewed experts and academics in the field terrorism. 1.9.2 Sources of Data The use of both primary and secondary sources of data were employed by the research. Primary sources of data were obtained from interviews conducted with experts and resource persons who have expertise in terrorist activities through the use of face-to-face semi-structured interviews to collect primary data from academics and experts in Ghana. Semi-structured interview guides were conducted in this study and this gave free room for the respondents to answer questions freely in their own opinions without restrain. Permission of the respondents were sought before the interviews were recorded and later transcribed to letter. Secondary sources of data were obtained from books and journal articles. 1.9.3 Sampling and Sampling Technique Focused and purposive methods of sampling used were used for this research. Purposive sampling known “as subject sampling makes use of non-probability technique allowing the researcher to select members within a large population to participate in the study. This form of sampling is time saving and cost effective because of the limited number of people interviewed for the study”. 1.9.4 Data Analyses Data analysis was based on content analysis which gives a “detailed and systematic examination of the contents of a particular material for identifying patterns or themes.” The study analysed and reviewed published journal articles, books, internet sources and research papers related to the research data collected to find out its relevance to the statement problem. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 1.9.5 Ethical consideration Relating to ethical consideration, the researcher obtained letters from LECIAD and gave them to the respondents. The interviews for the study for the study were scheduled and conducted on agreed dates and the respondents were given an informed consent to assist the researcher in the study and to record the interview. 1.10 Arrangement of Chapters Chapter One constitutes the introduction of the research. Chapter Two gives an overview of terrorism in the Sahel Regions of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger. Chapter Three assesses the implications of terrorism activities on the socio-economic development of Burkina Faso, Mali and Niger, the counter terrorism strategies applied to overcome the challenges in the Sahel Region and their success and implementation challenges faced and the way forward for the UN. Chapter Four discusses the summary of research findings, conclusion and recommendations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 ENDNOTES 1 Education, P. TITLE Teaching Guide on International Terrorism: Definitions, Causes, and Responses. INSTITUTION United States Inst. of Peace, Washington, DC. 2 Ibid 3 Walzer, M. (2002). Five questions about terrorism. Dissent, 49(1), 5-11. 4 Ibid 5 Kegley, C. W. (Ed.). (2003). The new global terrorism: characteristics, causes, controls. Pearson College Division. 6 Ibid 7 Sidibé, K. (2012). Security Management in Northern Mali: Criminal Networks and Conflict Resolution Mechanisms. IDS Research Reports, 2012(77), 1-103. 8 Ibid 9 Ibid 10 Rao, S. Helpdesk Research Report: Conflict and Stabilisation in Mali and the Sahel region. 11 Ibid 12 Ibid 13 Dentice, G. (2018). Terrorism in the Sahel Region: An Evolving Threat on Europe’s Doorstep. 14 Ibid 15 Ibid 16 Ibid 17 Barkindo, A. (2020). The Sahel. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 21-26. 18 Ibid 19 Ibid 20 Ibid 21 Ibid 22 Barkindo, A. (2020). The Sahel. Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses, 12(2), 21-26. 23 Harmon, S. A. (2016). Terror and insurgency in the Sahara-Sahel region: corruption, contraband, jihad and the Mali war of 2012-2013. Routledge. 24 Ibid 25 Ibid 26 Ibid 27 Gomes, O. A. (2016). A thematic guidance note for regional and national human development report teams. United Nations Development Programme Human Development Report Office. 28 Haq, K. (1999). Human security for women. na. 29 Axworthy, L. (2001). Human security and global governance: putting people first. Global governance, 7, 19. 30 Benedek, W. (2010). The human security approach to terrorism and organized crime in post-conflict situations. In Transnational Terrorism, Organized Crime and Peace-building (pp. 3-16). Palgrave Macmillan, London. 31 Ibid 32 Johns, L. (2014). A critical evaluation of the concept of human security. E-IR International Journal of Media Studies. 33 Lippmann, W. (1943). US foreign policy: Shield of the republic. 34 Lasswell, H. D. (1950). National security and individual freedom. 35 Wolfers, A. (1952). " National security" as an ambiguous symbol. Political science quarterly, 67(4), 481-502. 36 Keefer, E. C. (2018). Harold Brown: Offsetting the Soviet Military Challenge 1977-1981 (Vol. 9). Government Printing Office. 37 Kamath, P. M. (2001). Terrorism in India: Impact on national security. Strategic Analysis, 25(9), 1081-1987. 38 Holmes, K. R. (2015). What is national security. Heritage foundation essays. Available on line at www. heritage. org. Accessed on, 29th January, 2021. 39 Ibid, 21 40 Ibid 41 Ibid, 21 42 Weldemariam, A. F. (2009). Ethiopia's Foreign Affairs and National Security Policy: The Case for a Paradigm Shift. Available at SSRN 1511625. 43 Ibid 44 Ibid 45 Gianola, D. (2009). Il volto del terrorismo. Firenze Atheneum. 46 Hardman, J.B.S., (1936). ‘Terrorism’. In Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, vol. 14. New York: Macmillan. pp. 575–576. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 47 Ibid 48 Silverman, J. M., & Jackson, P. M. (1970). Terror in Insurgency Warfare. Military Review, 50(10), 61-67. 49 Ibid 50 Richard English,(2009). Terrorism: How to Respond. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 51 Laqueur, W. (1999). The new terrorism: Fanaticism and the arms of mass destruction. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 52 Ibid 53 Ibid 54 Chaliand, G., & Blin, A. (Eds.). (2016). The history of terrorism: From antiquity to ISIS. Univ of California Press 55 Ahmed, D. M. (2017). The impact of terrorism on Socio-economic development, a case study of Kenya's North Eastern region (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nairobi). 56 Ibid 57 Jenkins, J. Philip (2020, July 27). terrorism. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/topic/terrorism 58 Ibid 59 Ibid 60 Ibid 61 Ana-Raluca, S. T. A. N. TERRORISM PROLIFERATION–RADICALISATION PHENOMENON IN EUROPE. 62 Ibid 63 Ibid 64 Ibid 65 Clarke, C. P. (2019). How Terrorist Groups Learn: Implications for al-Qaeda. Foreign Policy Research Institute (FPRI), March, 13. 66