THE DETERMINANTS OF CAREER CHANGE AMONG HOLDERS 
OF HIGHER DEGREES: THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
EMPLOYEES 
 
 
 
 
BY 
 
EUGENIA  N. Y. B. KESSE 
10268929 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, 
LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS 
FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL SOCIOLOGY DEGREE 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
JULY, 2015 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
i 
 
DECLARATION 
I do hereby declare that this thesis, “The Determinants of Career Change among Holders 
of Higher Degree: The Case of University of Ghana Employees” herein presented for a 
degree of Master of Philosophy in Sociology is the result of my own investigation and that 
this thesis has neither in whole nor part been presented elsewhere for another degree.  
References to other authors have been duly acknowledged. 
 
 
 
……………………………  …..................... 
EUGENIA N. Y. B. KESSE   DATE 
(Student) 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………………  …..................... 
DR. KOFI OHENE-KONADU  DATE 
(Principal Supervisor)  
 
 
 
 
 
……………………………………  …..................... 
DR. PEACE MAMLE TETTEH  DATE 
(Co-Supervisor) 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
ii 
 
DEDICATION 
I dedicate this Thesis to the memory of my late husband, Yaw Kesse. 
 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
iii 
 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 
This MPhil study has been a long and very exciting journey.  Throughout the process there 
have been many obstacles coupled with some degree of anxiety and uncertainty; all these 
were finally allayed and surmounted thanks to the blessings of the Almighty. 
 
Completing the thesis would also not have been possible without the help and guidance of 
many individuals.  First and foremost, I would like to acknowledge my principal 
supervisor, Dr. Kofi Ohene-Konadu for his guidance and academic input throughout this 
work.  His support and encouragement from the day I presented my proposal to the 
completion of this thesis is a debt I can never repay.  I am also grateful to my second 
supervisor, Dr. Peace Mamle Tetteh, for her useful comments and suggestions, which 
enhanced the quality of the thesis; I remain eternally grateful. 
 
I would like to acknowledge and thank the lecturers who despite their busy schedule 
agreed to participate in my study and from whom I have learnt so much.  Their 
contributions are invaluable and cannot be underestimated.  I also wish to thank Mr. 
Benedict Baiden of the Department of Statistics for the useful comments which facilitated 
processing of the data.  I am also appreciative of all my year-mates for their mutual 
support and special love.   
 
My sincere thanks go to my husband, Prof. Nii Noi Dowuona, for being the pillar of 
strength, rock and fortress behind my graduate studies.  The inspiration, encouragement, 
comments and ideas he provided gave impetus to the innovative ideas that facilitated my 
work.  I am deeply grateful for the love and understanding in times of adversity.  Honestly, 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
iv 
 
the constant and unwavering support enabled me to meet the challenges and demands of 
my graduate studies. 
 
To my sweet mother, who had to carry out the burden of caring for the children and also 
managing the home, I say thank you so much.  You have been a pillar of support, comfort 
and encouragement in my life, especially during these two arduous years.  In the course of 
my studies, my two lovely children, Kofi and Yaw had to bear the unfortunate moments of 
missing my presence; I thank these two pretty lads for their show of support and 
understanding during the long periods of absence from home.  I cannot forget the love of 
my siblings, especially my brother Eugene for his support in diverse ways including 
prayers, encouragement and inspiration.  Sweet brother, I say God Richly Bless you. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
v 
 
ABSTRACT 
The study entitled “Determinants of Career Change among Holders of Higher Degree: The 
Case of University of Ghana Employees” was undertaken to ascertain the major factors which 
influence individuals to change their careers at certain stages of their working life. The 
purposive and snowballing sampling techniques were used to select twenty-five members of 
faculty willing to participate in the study. A concurrent mixed-methods approach was adopted. 
Specifically, the study aimed at identifying the individual and organisational factors that 
influenced career change.  A structured interview was adopted to collect data on participants 
demographics, individual and organisational characteristics, with open-ended questions 
eliciting qualitative data to address participants‟ reasons for choosing university teaching as a 
second career, the process they went through to effect the change and the outcome of the career 
change behaviour on job satisfaction.  The findings showed that a range of individual 
characteristics were associated with career change. Majority of the participants who switched 
to their present career were within the 31-40 year bracket.  Higher level of education was the 
most important human capital factor whereas job security and better salary were the dominant 
organisational factors that influenced career change.  Enhanced job opportunity, better salary, 
and the desire to impart knowledge were key reasons that accounted for the change in career 
among the male participants.  For the female participants in particular, time for family was the 
most important reason for the career change.  A major outcome was that the career change had 
been successful and worthwhile.  Skills acquired by the career changers before taking up their 
teaching jobs impacted on the overall job performance of the participants with attendant 
benefits to the University.  Future research should seek to address the multi-faceted aspect of 
this important subject namely, factors influencing career change among mid-life individuals, 
longitudinal study that tracks individuals throughout the career change process, and 
quantitative studies to assess job performance and benefits to the organization. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
vi 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
Content              Page 
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................... i 
DEDICATION ...................................................................................................................... ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ iii 
ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... v 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ..................................................................................................... vi 
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xi 
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xii 
 
CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Background to Study ....................................................................................................... 1 
1.2 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................... 5 
1.3 Objectives of Study ......................................................................................................... 7 
1.4 Research Questions ......................................................................................................... 7 
1.5 Significance of Study ...................................................................................................... 8 
1.6 Definition of Concepts .................................................................................................... 9 
1.7 Theoretical Framework ................................................................................................. 10 
1.8 Organisation of the Study ............................................................................................. 12 
 
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 14 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE ............................................................................................. 14 
2.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 14 
2.1 The Definition of Career ............................................................................................... 14 
2.2 The Concept of Career Change ..................................................................................... 16 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
vii 
 
2.3 Recent Trend of Career Change .................................................................................... 17 
2.4 Previous Studies ............................................................................................................ 20 
2.4.1 Trait and Factor Theory ............................................................................................. 20 
2.4.2 Holland Congruence Theory ...................................................................................... 22 
2.4.3 Expectancy-Valence Theory ...................................................................................... 22 
2.4.4 Developmental Model ................................................................................................ 22 
2.4.5 Social Learning Theory .............................................................................................. 23 
2.4.6 Social Network Theory .............................................................................................. 24 
2.5 Individual Characteristics ............................................................................................. 25 
2.5.1 Traits .......................................................................................................................... 25 
2.5.1.1 Openness to Experience .......................................................................................... 26 
2.5.1.2 Extraversion ............................................................................................................ 27 
2.5.1.3 General Self-Efficacy .............................................................................................. 28 
2.5.2 Demographics ............................................................................................................ 29 
2.5.2.1 Age .......................................................................................................................... 29 
2.5.2.2 Sex ........................................................................................................................... 31 
2.5.2.3 Marital Status .......................................................................................................... 32 
2.5.2.4 Children ................................................................................................................... 32 
2.5.3 Human Capital ........................................................................................................... 33 
2.5.3.1 Education................................................................................................................. 33 
2.5.3.2 Occupation Tenure .................................................................................................. 34 
2.5.4 Job Satisfaction .......................................................................................................... 34 
2.5.5 Job Search and Intentions to Leave Current Job ........................................................ 35 
2.6 Organisational Characteristics ...................................................................................... 36 
2.6.1 Job Security ................................................................................................................ 36 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
viii 
 
2.6.2 Salary ......................................................................................................................... 37 
2.7 Outcomes of Career Change ......................................................................................... 37 
2.8 The Process of Career Change ...................................................................................... 38 
2.9 Motivation to Teach ...................................................................................................... 41 
2.10 Motivation of Career Switchers to Teaching .............................................................. 43 
2.11 Influential Factors for Second-Careers Teachers toward Teaching ............................ 44 
2.12 University Teaching and Career Change .................................................................... 46 
2.13 Career Change and Organizational Benefits ............................................................... 46 
2.13.1 Ability to Take Risks ............................................................................................... 47 
2.13.2 Transfer of Valuable Perspective ............................................................................. 47 
2.13.3 Open-mindedness and learning characteristics ........................................................ 48 
2.14 Significance of the Benefits to the Profession of Education ....................................... 48 
2.15 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 49 
 
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 51 
RESEARCH METHODS ................................................................................................... 51 
3.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 51 
3.1 Study Setting ................................................................................................................. 52 
3.2 Research Design ............................................................................................................ 53 
3.3 Target Population .......................................................................................................... 55 
3.4 Study Population ........................................................................................................... 55 
3.5 Sampling Frame ............................................................................................................ 55 
3.6 Sampling Design ........................................................................................................... 55 
3.7 Sample Size ................................................................................................................... 56 
3.7.1 Sampling Considerations ........................................................................................... 58 
3.8 Methods of Data Collection .......................................................................................... 58 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
ix 
 
3.9 Procedure for Data Collection ....................................................................................... 59 
3.9.1 Sources of Data .......................................................................................................... 60 
3.9.2 Primary and Secondary Sources of Data .................................................................... 60 
3.10 Data Analysis .............................................................................................................. 62 
3.11 Field Experience.......................................................................................................... 62 
3.12 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 63 
 
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................... 65 
ANALYSIS OF DATA ....................................................................................................... 65 
4.0 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 65 
4.1 Determinants of Career Change: Demographics .......................................................... 65 
4.2 Individual and Organisational Factors .......................................................................... 67 
4.3 Processes Career-Switches Go Through to Effect a Career Change............................. 71 
4.4 Reasons Why Individuals Switch Career Into University Teaching ............................. 75 
4.5 Outcomes of Career Switch and Job Satisfaction ......................................................... 79 
4.6 Assessment of Job Performance and Organizational Benefits ...................................... 82 
 
CHAPTER FIVE ................................................................................................................. 84 
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS ........................................................................................... 84 
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 84 
5.2 Process of Career Change ............................................................................................. 89 
5.3 Reasons Reported as Influential in Entering University Teaching ............................... 92 
5.4 Outcomes of University Teaching on Job Satisfaction ................................................. 94 
5.5 Job Performance and Organizational Benefits .............................................................. 95 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
x 
 
CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 100 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................................... 100 
6.1 Summary ..................................................................................................................... 100 
6.1.1 Determinants of Career Change ............................................................................... 100 
6.1.2 Individual and Organisational Factors ..................................................................... 100 
6.1.3 Processes Career-Switches go Through to Effect a Career Change ........................ 102 
6.1.4 Reasons for Change of Career into University Teaching......................................... 103 
6.1.5 Outcomes of Career Switch and Job Satisfaction .................................................... 103 
6.1.6 Skills, Job Performance and Organizational Benefits .............................................. 104 
6.2 Conclusions ................................................................................................................. 104 
6.3 Recommendations ....................................................................................................... 106 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................. 109 
APPENDIX: STRUCTURED INTERVIEW ................................................................... 141 
 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
xi 
 
LIST OF TABLES 
Table 4.1: Biodata of participants (sex). ............................................................................. 66 
Table 4.2: Biodata of Participants (marital status). ............................................................. 66 
Table 4.3: Biodata of Participants (job title). ...................................................................... 67 
Table 4.4: Biodata of Participants (level of education)....................................................... 67 
Table 4.5: Personality Traits of Respondents. .................................................................... 68 
Table 4.6: Reasons Which Influenced the Thought for Change in Relation to Sex. .......... 72 
Table 4.7: Reasons why the switch into University has been Worthwhile. ........................ 80 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
xii 
 
LIST OF FIGURES 
 
Figure 4.1: Distribution of Ages of Participants. ................................................................ 70 
Figure 5.1: Professional Background of Participants before Changing Career. ................. 97 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
1 
 
CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
1.1 Background to Study 
Like the world economy as a whole, changes in both jobs and in careers in today‟s 
information society have been subjected to the globalisation process.  According to Hoyt, 
(1987) and O‟Toole (1981), today‟s computer is characterized by rapidly advancing 
technology and accompanying economic and social change.  These technological changes 
demand constant adaptation to new methods of work, and often to new occupations. 
Similarly, widespread economic restructuring of the past decades, that is, a shift from 
manufacturing to service sector jobs has changed the way people are connected to the 
labour market.  Recent studies (e.g. Carless & Arnup, 2011; Blau, 2007; Bahr 2005; 
Boswell et al., 2005; Blau et al., 2004) have examined how these changes affect personal 
employment decisions.  At the same time, there are heightened interests in the self-
initiated career change decisions and how they predict behaviour of workers globally.  
 
Traditionally, organizations were characterized by rigid hierarchical structures and they 
operated within a stable environment.  Careers therefore were predictable, secure, and 
linear.  People competed for promotions (Rosenbaum, 1979), and climbing up the ladder 
was the ultimate indicator of success (Townsend, 1970).  Consequently, Wilensky (1961) 
referred to career as “a succession of related jobs, arranged in a hierarchy of prestige, 
through which persons move in an ordered (more-or-less predictable) sequence” (p. 523). 
 
Nowadays organizational and environmental systems are highly dynamic and fluid, 
making careers more unpredictable, vulnerable, and multidirectional within (Baruch, 
2006; Cesinger, 2011).  Boundaries within organizations and beyond have faded 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
2 
 
(DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994) and individuals keep moving from one career to the other 
(e.g. Rousseau, 1995).  Thus changing jobs is now considered as a desire for personal and 
professional growth, rather than a sign of personal instability or indecision.  Several 
factors have been found to influence the decision to switch a job or career and these have 
included economic reasons (Boswell et al., 2005), job security (Bahr 2005), time for 
family (Brown et al., 2012), self-actualization (Blau, 2007; Boswell et al., 2005; Blau et 
al., 2004), dissatisfaction with previous work (Mobley, 1982; Dalaba, 1975;) and others. 
 
In a longitudinal study for example, Carless and Arnup (2011) examined the effect of 
individual and organisational factors on career change behaviour.  Although their findings 
revealed that a range of individual characteristics such as openness to experience, 
extraversion, gender, age, educational level, and occupation tenure, were associated with 
career change they concluded that job security was the only factor that explains career 
change (Carless & Arnup, 2011: 80).  In another study, Richardson and Watt (2005) 
identified five factors relating to social status namely, career fit, prior considerations, 
financial reward and time for family as reasons for career change.   
 
Although little data exist to substantiate career movement, researchers, governmental 
entities, and career professionals all over the world offer information indicating that such 
movement is not only showing a continuing trend, but  has become common in the 
workplace today (Hall, 1986; Cesinger, 2011).  Heppner (2006) estimated that 5 to 10 
percent of Americans change occupations each year.  This information signifies that most 
individuals will undergo several career transitions during their lifetime, a movement that 
may include a shift from one job to another or a complete change of careers (Fouad & 
Bynner, 2008; Jackson et al., 1996).  It also suggests that the functions and meanings 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
3 
 
derived from work are shifting (O‟Toole, 1981; Snyder, 1978).  All these are indications 
that a lifelong stationary career is no longer tenable in the modern day globalized market 
(Wise & Millward, 2005). 
 
Likewise, in Africa, there seems to be a shift in the predominant view regarding career as 
a one-time, irreversible decision.  For instance, in an investigation of career change 
amongst previously disadvantaged individuals in South Africa, Chudzikowski (2012) 
found that individuals are increasingly changing their professions due to several reasons 
including socioeconomic factors.  In Ghana, the situation is not different as more 
individuals with diverse background keep switching from established careers to new ones.  
Even though there is very little information to this effect in the country, the phenomenon 
is evident in the proliferation of organisations such as the banks and universities which 
create employment opportunities for middle class workers.  Furthermore, non-traditional 
mode of programme delivery such as distance learning has been very instrumental in 
helping career changers prepare for their second careers.  This is partly due to both real 
and perceived beliefs associated with such professions as being prestigious and well-paid 
enterprises. 
 
Although several factors including the need to open up the economy to propel 
development in Ghana have been given, one can equally not lose sight of the fact that, in 
recent years, the number of people voluntarily choosing to switch careers is increasing 
(Richardson & Watt, 2005; Wise & Millward, 2005; Mercora, 2003).  The 2010 
Population and Housing Census Report showed that although about 80 percent of the 
Ghanaian workforce is employed in the informal sector, about 21% of those engaged in 
the formal sector are engaged as service and sales workers (GSS, 2012).  More 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
4 
 
importantly, in the Greater Accra Region, the most economically active population are 
more likely to be engaged as service and sales workers (35.7%) due to the proliferation of 
the service industry such as banks and educational institutions (GSS, 2012).  
 
For instance, aside the two public universities (University of Ghana and University of 
Professional Studies) in Accra, there are a lot of private ones springing up in recent times.  
One implication of this change is that more highly qualified lecturers will be needed to 
address the problem of increasing student enrolment.  It is therefore not surprising that 
more people continue to sign up to become teachers, particularly at the university level.  
Even more encouraging is the fact that some of these new entrants have consciously 
chosen teaching in preference to a career in which they were already established.  What is 
unique about this group of career changers is the fact that their decisions were apparently 
voluntary.  Their behaviour is considered puzzling because in many cases they leave more 
lucrative careers for the teaching profession.  The obvious question arises: what motivates 
them to do it? 
 
Research has also shown that this cohort of new entrants mostly referred to as “mid-career 
academics” play an important part in bolstering the profession and signalling that teaching 
as a career still holds attractions (Lee and Lamport, 2011; Thomas and Robbins, 1979).  
For this reason they are duly acknowledged by various educational institutions.  As an 
example, according to the Strategic Plan (2014-2024) for the University of Ghana, Legon, 
at least 60% of eligible mid-career academics should have access to competitive UG 
research and training support and access to external support.  However, there is very little 
information about the processes these individuals go through in order to effect the change 
to teaching and the reasons that influence this decision. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
5 
 
Career change can be distinguished from job change which is a movement to a similar job 
or a job that is part of a normal career path.  Several studies (e.g. Feldman, 2002; Rhodes 
& Doering, 1983) have attempted to define the concept of career change as well as 
examining the reasons why people change from their initial choice of careers.  For 
example, Feldman (2002: 76) defined career change as “entry into a new occupation 
which requires fundamentally different skills, daily routines, and work environments from 
the present one”.  The present study, however, focuses on voluntary career change which 
refers to a wilful and intentional change in one‟s career from one occupation category to 
another (Perosa & Perosa, 1984).  Specifically, the study will examine reasons why people 
choose lecturing as a second career and the processes they go through to effect the change.   
 
1.2 Problem Statement 
Although there is much literature on the reasons why people choose teaching as a career, 
there appears to be less research into the complexity of this process for those who enter the 
teaching profession having already had one or more previous career „identities‟ (e.g. 
William, 2010; Richardson and Watt, 2005).  Other studies have also reported similar 
findings (Lerner & Zittleman, 2002; Priyadharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Richardson & 
Watt, 2006), with Lerner and Zittleman claiming that „„the literature on career switchers 
into teaching is generally characterised by its absence‟‟ (p. 1).  Of importance to this 
study, is the group of individuals who enter into university teaching after having 
experience in other careers. 
 
The traditional path to university teaching career has involved entering the profession 
immediately after graduating from the University.  However, the demographics of new 
university teachers, commonly referred to as “lecturers”, are changing.  Only about one-
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
6 
 
half of those who have become university teachers in recent years have done so 
immediately upon graduating from higher learning, with an almost equal number of 
second-career teachers filling the lecture halls (Cochran-Smith & Ziechner, 2005).  Any 
number of factors may cause this potentially life-changing event to be set into motion, 
including a desire for fulfilment, more family and leisure time, and opportunities to serve 
the community (Lee & Lamport, 2011; Chope, 2001).  
 
According to Brown (2002), “despite the influx of individuals searching for new 
occupations, there are few studies on the processes they go through to effect the change.  
Similarly, in Ghana research on the population of non-traditional entrants to university 
teaching profession, especially those who have had prior professional careers is very 
limited.  Additionally, in the western world where a lot of studies have been conducted on 
the phenomenon, majority of these have focused on why people change careers into 
primary and secondary education.  Further, while much of the available research is 
concerned with career changers‟ motivations to teach (Richardson & Watt, 2005; 
Richardson, Gough, & Vitlin, 2001; Serow & Forrest, 1994), it appears that less attention 
has been paid to their experiences, and the process through which they effect this change.  
This study seeks to explore the gap in literature of the experiences of career changers and 
the reasons why they choose lecturing as a second career in Ghana.  Are these reasons 
influenced by conditions in their prior professions?  Are they necessitated by pull factors 
associated with university teaching?  Or are they related to individual traits as reported by 
several studies (Carless and Arnup, 2011; Costa & McCrae, 1992; Rhodes & Doerings, 
1983) on the phenomenon.  This research aims at finding answers to these questions. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
7 
 
1.3 Objectives of Study 
The main objective of this study is to explore the determinants of career change among 
holders of higher degrees in University of Ghana.  Within this overall objective the 
following questions will be addressed: 
1. to identify the individual and organisational factors which influence career change 
2. to examine the reasons why individuals choose lecturing as a second career and the 
extent to which these are gendered; 
3. to understand the processes career switchers go through in order to effect a career 
change into university teaching;  
4. to describe the outcome of career switch into university teaching on job 
satisfaction and also ascertain the benefits to the new organisation. 
5. to make recommendations on how to manage career choices and aspirations and 
highlight the benefits of the change to the organisation. 
 
1.4 Research Questions 
The main objective of this study is to explore the determinants of career change among 
holders of higher degrees in University of Ghana.  Within this overall objective the 
following questions will be addressed: 
1. What are the individual and organisational factors responsible for career change? 
2. What conditions stimulate the decision to switch career to university teaching and to 
what extent are these gendered? 
3. What are the processes career changers go through to effect the change? 
4. What influence does career change have on individual job satisfaction in Ghana? 
5. Do career changers bring any benefits to their new organisations? 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
8 
 
1.5 Significance of Study 
Career change is among the most critical decisions in a person's lifetime.  This decision 
has a far-reaching impact on a person‟s future in terms of lifestyle, status, income, security 
and job satisfaction.  
 
Many research studies on the topic have been done in other African countries and 
especially in the western world.  For example, Mercora (2003) carried out a study on the 
topic: “A qualitative study examining the motives and determinants of a voluntary career 
change into education”.  Surprisingly, in Ghana, not only have there been very little 
empirical studies on career change into university teaching but also the phenomenon in 
general has not received the necessary attention.  Thus a study that aims at examining the 
determinants and consequences of career change in the Ghanaian context will help address 
this gap in literature especially in the area of sociology of work and industrial relations. 
 
It will also be relevant to individuals considering a career change, for organisations that 
are downsizing or restructuring, and for career theory and counselling.  These will help 
provide a better understanding of job retention, job satisfaction, and performance in 
Ghana.  In addition, the study of the relationship of gender, work experience, and career 
switch will aid gender advocates to understand more fully the background variables and 
problems faced by various categories of women and men as they choose their careers.  
This study will also challenge policy directions in creating better and more balanced 
opportunity programs that will help people in their career decisions. 
 
According to Marcus and Donald (2001), for people to excel in their chosen field and to 
find lasting satisfaction in doing so, they need to understand the unique patterns of their 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
9 
 
personality, and to find jobs which fit both their personal needs and their skill set.  A study 
on how personality affects career decisions will provide a vital information that would 
help individuals make the right career choice and reduce dissatisfaction with careers, curb 
switches in careers and ameliorate the entire quality of life. 
 
More importantly, according to Chen (2006), quality in teaching and learning can only be 
enhanced if faculty members are satisfied and content with their job.  Thus an 
understanding of why individuals change careers in order to teach is key to retaining and 
satisfying this cohort of teachers. 
 
1.6 Definition of Concepts 
The study makes use of terms and concepts that must be put in context for clarity.  
Concepts and terms used are defined as follows:  
Career 
This is defined as the evolving sequences of a person‟s work experiences over time 
(Arthur et al, 1989)  
Career Change  
Changing to a work position in a different occupation category or field, where 
previous skills and responsibilities are largely irrelevant and new training is 
undertaken (Carless & Arnup, 2011). 
Higher Degree  
Second and/or post-graduate degree 
University of Ghana Employees  
Refers to the teaching staff 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
10 
 
Voluntary 
This refers to a wilful and intentional act. 
 
Boundaryless Career 
A sequence of job opportunities that go beyond the boundaries of a single 
employment setting (DeFillipi & Arthur, 1996, p.116). 
Midlife 
It refers to period of a person‟s life span between the age of 35 and 60 years old 
(Bahr, 2009). 
Process of Career Change  
“movement across occupational boundaries” (Hess, Jepsen & Dries, 2012, p. 280). 
Job Change 
“movement to a similar job or a job that is part of a normal career path” (Rhodes & 
Doering, 1992). 
Second Career 
a career chosen to replace an initial means of livelihood. 
Career Switch 
 the movement of a person from one job group to another. 
 
1.7 Theoretical Framework 
A theoretical framework is a collection of interrelated concepts that guides a research 
process (Ary, Jacob & Razavieh, 1996).  Several frameworks have been used to explain 
career change phenomenon and these include, theory of congruence (Holland, 1985), the 
expectancy valence theory (Vroom, 1963) and the self-concept theory (Super, 1990).  
Nonetheless, this study will adopt Rhodes and Doering‟s (1983) model of career change to 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
11 
 
provide the theoretical framework.  This is a preferred model because unlike other 
frameworks that have guided research in this area, it incorporates almost all the key factors 
as suggested by Sonnenfeld and Kotter (1982), as well as the process of career change.  
Thus, it allows a comprehensive examination of the phenomenon. 
 
According to this model, individual and organisational factors influence perceived fit, 
which in turn influences job satisfaction.  Thus, being dissatisfied leads to thinking about 
changing jobs or careers and subsequently intentions to search for new positions.  A full 
examination of the model will not be possible for the purposes of space so the study will 
concentrate on selected determinants, processes and outcomes of career change.  
Specifically, the individual characteristics will be: traits (openness to experience, 
extraversion, and general efficacy), demographic factors (age, gender, marital status, and 
children), human capital (education level and occupational tenure), the immediate 
antecedents of job satisfaction (job search activity and intentions to leave), and the 
organisational factors (job security and salary). 
 
Although there was increased research on career change during the 1970s and 1980s 
(Rhodes & Doerings, 1983; Armstrong, 1981; Hill & Miller, 1981; Holland, Magoon, & 
Spokane, 1981; Lawrence,1980; Thomas, 1980; Neapolitan, 1980; Robbins, Thomas, 
Harvey, & Kandefer, 1978; Snyder, Howard, & Hammer, 1978; Gottfredson, 1977; 
Wiener & Vaitenas, 1977; Schneider, 1976; Biderman, 1973; Clopton, 1973), there still is 
little consistent understanding of the determinants of career change.  Again, the very few 
systematic studies on the phenomenon have produced divergent results on the motivation 
for career change, and the total process of career change itself has not been adequately 
explored.  These have been attributed in part to a lack of a comprehensive framework for 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
12 
 
studying career change.  It is against these shortfalls that Rhodes and Doering (1983) 
developed the model of career change. 
 
The integrated model of career change, according to Rhodes and Doering (1983) is 
derived primarily from the Mobley, Horner, and Holingsworth‟s (1978) turnover model.  
In addition, the model draws on the works of Price (1977) and Steers and Mowday (1981) 
as well as the expectancy valence theory.  Recent studies that have used the model to 
explain the career change phenomenon include Carless and Arnup (2011).  Using this 
model as a framework for their study, Carless and Arnup identified an individual's 
motivation in undergoing career change and the processes he or she moves through to 
effect the career change.  In the same vein, the present study adopts this model of career 
change to investigate the reasons career switchers assign to their behaviour, the processes 
they move through in effecting the change as well as the outcomes. 
 
1.8 Organisation of the Study 
The study is organized into five chapters.  Chapter one is the introduction to the study with 
key sections such as background to study, theoretical framework, problem statement, 
objectives of the study, the research questions, and definition of concepts.  
 
Chapter two reviews the literature.  Literature review involves the systematic 
identification, location, scrutiny and summary of written materials that contain 
information on a research problem (Polit & Hungler, 1999).  Thus studies that have been 
conducted on the topic were reviewed in this chapter.  Some of the areas reviewed include: 
global trend of career change, trends in the labour market in Ghana, reasons for career 
change, and career change outcomes. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
13 
 
Chapter three is the research methods.  This chapter presents the methodological 
approaches which were used for the study.  The issues that were discussed in this chapter 
include: justification for the use of the mixed methods design, the sample size and 
characteristics, the sampling techniques used, the setting of the research, procedures and 
materials used to collect the data and finally the data analysis method employed.  Ethical 
issues considered during and after the field work were discussed under this chapter. 
 
Chapter four is the analytical chapter and captioned: “Career Change into university 
teaching and the outcome on job satisfaction in Ghana.”  The chapter presents the findings 
from the data generated through the open-ended and closed-ended questions.  The main 
objective of the study is to explore the determining factors that influence the choice to 
switch career into university teaching and the outcome of career change on job 
satisfaction.  In the pursuit of this, the study also explored the following specific issues: 
the reasons why individuals choose lecturing as a second career; the processes career 
switchers go through in order to effect a career change into lecturing; and the outcome of 
the career switch into lecturing on job satisfaction. 
 
Chapter five discusses the findings in relation to the socio-demographic characteristics of 
respondents and the specific objectives of the study.  
 
Chapter six provides a summary of the findings, conclusions and some recommendations 
on how to manage career choices and aspirations and highlight the benefits of the change 
to the organisation. 
 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
14 
 
CHAPTER TWO 
REVIEW OF LITERATURE 
2.0 Introduction 
Literature review involves the systematic identification, location, scrutiny and summary of 
written materials that contain information on a research problem (Polit and Hunger, 1999).  
Although a considerable number of studies have been conducted on the career change 
phenomenon, there is very little information pertaining to this specific topic globally.  
Therefore, the literature review for the study will mainly contain information on related 
topics and these shall be organised into sections.  The areas to be reviewed are, the 
definition of career, the concept of career change, global trend of career change, previous 
studies on the phenomenon, motivation for becoming a teacher, individual and 
organisational characteristics that determines career change and career change outcomes. 
 
2.1 The Definition of Career 
Career is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as a person's "course or progress 
through life (or a distinct portion of life)".  In this definition career is understood to relate 
to a range of aspects of an individual's life, learning and work.  Career is also frequently 
understood as the working aspects of an individual‟s life e.g. as in career woman.  The 
term is again used to describe an occupation or a profession that usually involves special 
training or formal education, and is considered to be a person‟s lifework.   In this case 
"career" is seen as a sequence of related jobs usually pursued within a single industry or 
sector e.g. "a career in law" or "a career in the building trade". 
 
The notion of what constitutes a career is therefore complex, and its precise definition is 
often debated.  According to Higgins (2001), the study of careers is an interdisciplinary 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
15 
 
subject comprising research from multiple areas including psychology (Betz, et al., 1989), 
sociology (Barley, 1989), and anthropology (Bateson, 1989) as well as labour economics 
(Becker, 1975) and organizational behaviour (Hackett et al., 1991).  These perspectives 
according to the author, explain the existence of the several approaches to studying an 
individual's career.  While some scholars have focused on an individual's occupation (e.g., 
Rhodes and Doering, 1993; Markey and Parks, 2014) or the work roles experienced during 
a person's lifetime (e.g., Hall, 1976), others have called for a more expansive perspective 
that encompasses both work and non-work role activities and behaviours (e.g. Bateson, 
1989).  Despite these different approaches to the study of careers, career theorists 
generally concur that a 'career' may be defined as 'the evolving sequence of a person's 
work experiences over time' (e.g., Higgins, 2001; Cochran, 1994; Arthur et al., 1989). 
 
According to both organizational and sociological scholars, careers have both an objective 
as well as a subjective side to them (Higgins, 2001; Gunz et al., 2000; Hodkinson and 
Sparkes, 1997; Stephens, 1994; Bourdieu and Wacquant, 1992).  The objective aspect of 
an individual's career consists of the observable patterns of jobs an individual has held 
(Cesinger, 2011) and it is normally measured in terms of rapid promotion, salary 
progression and status increases (King, 2001).  The subjective aspect, on the other hand, 
consists of an individual's own perspective on the set of experiences that make up one's 
'career' (Evetts, 1992; Hughes, 1958; Van Maanen and Schein, 1977).and this focuses on a 
narrow range of behaviour intended to secure those outcomes.  Of great significance to the 
present study is the subjective aspect of careers as it lays emphasis on the meanings career 
changers assign to such career decisions. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
16 
 
Nonetheless, it is important to consider both aspects of an individual's career when 
studying career transitions (Abele and Spurk, 2009; Abele-Brehm and Stief, 2004; 
Giddens.1984; Louis, 1980; Bourdieu, 1977).  For instance, Giddens (1984) used the 
terms “practical consciousness” and “discursive consciousness” to explain the objective 
and subjective elements of career decisions.  He noted that both concepts are developed 
through schemata which serve as tools people use to understand their experiences.  As new 
experiences are gained, the schemata are modified and as they change so does what is 
recognised in the surrounding world.  This is consistent with Cesinger (2011) assertion 
that career decisions can only be understood in terms of the life histories of those who 
make them.  Bourdieu (1977), on the other hand, used the concept “habitus” to summarize 
the ways in which a person‟s beliefs, ideas and preferences are individually subjective but 
also influenced by the objective social networks and cultural traditions in which that 
person lives. 
 
2.2 The Concept of Career Change 
From the above definitions of career, the concept of career change can be described as 
leaving established work experiences, in favour of beginning a new one. Lawrence (1980) 
defines a career change as “job move in which the second job does not belong in the 
normal career progression of the first.”  He added that, individuals in this category do not 
only change jobs but actually change the entire occupational focus of their work. 
 
According to Rhodes and Doering‟s (1983), the concept refers to movement to a new 
occupation or profession that is not part of a typical career progression.  To Carless and 
Arnup (2011), career change is changing to a work position in a different occupation 
category or field, where previous skills and responsibilities are largely irrelevant.   This 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
17 
 
movement, according to the authors, typically involves the need to undertake training or 
education in order to meet the demands of the new career.   Blau (2007) also noted that the 
career change phenomenon is normally associated with considerable cost for the 
individual due to the additional training and human investment required, and lost time and 
income. 
 
There are, of course, many alternative descriptions of career change and so, there are many 
different types of career transitions that one could study (e.g., Breeden, 1993; Doering & 
Rhodes, 1996).  For example, with a different conceptualization of career change, one 
might consider a change in job (e.g., from human resources to finance) within the same 
organization as a career change (Heppner et al., 1994).  Or, one might consider a change in 
organization but not in job (e.g., from one academic institution to another) to be a career 
change (Sullivan, 1999; Rhodes and Doering, 1983, and Ornstein and Isabella, 1993).  
These notwithstanding, the present study adopts a more conservative definition, what 
Higgins (2001) calls a „complex‟ form of career change.  This involves changes in both 
employers and tasks or job functions, rather than a change in only one of these aspects 
(Carless and Arnup‟s, 2011; Parnes, 1954; Smart and Peterson, 1997). 
 
2.3 Recent Trend of Career Change 
The occurrence of widespread career switching is a relatively new phenomenon among 
working professionals.  In the past, a career was likely to be characterized by an employee 
seeking to stay with one, perhaps two companies for the duration of one‟s working life.  
Careers therefore were closely linked to hierarchies in organisations (e.g. Cesinger, 2011; 
Wilensky, 1961; Whyte, 1956).  People competed for promotions, and climbing up the 
ladder was the ultimate indicator of success.  Leading theorists from the 1950s through the 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
18 
 
1970s continued to support this traditional understanding of career ((Rosenbaum, 1979; 
Levinson, 1978; Townsend, 1970; Super, 1957).  By contrast, recent trends indicate the 
prevalence of what is termed as “boundaryless career” (Lee & Lamport, 2011; Baruch, 
2006; Arthur & Rousseau, 1996; Ashkenas et al., 1995; DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994), or 
“protean career” (Hall, 1976; 1996; 2004) where one may change jobs, or even 
professions, many times over the course of a working lifetime  
 
Some have argued that the very nature of work has changed in modern society due to a 
number of factors, including technology, globalism, economics (Chope, 2001; Sullivan & 
Emerson, 2003) and increased competition (Baruch, 2006).  Other factors such as the shift 
in the industrial profile, the changes in the labour profile, the growing need for health care, 
and the benefits for working women have been noted for affecting the future careers of 
workers globally (Sullivan, 1999).  These trends may have had a major impact on the 
environment of individuals who switch careers into university teaching.  Such factors, 
according to Carless and Arnup (2011) necessitate the emergence of the career-switching 
worker who has traded the “company man” mentality of the past for the free-agent 
approach of the present.  Conversely, Valcour and Tolbert (2003) found that career change 
tended to work well for women, due to a number of factors including time off for child-
bearing and raising, and moving due to a spouse‟s career.  The authors also found that 
these types of career decisions do not serve men well and that men are more likely to stay 
with one company, seeking promotions within an organization.  
 
According to Mercora (2003), some of the current pool of career-changers is looking for 
work that may be more fulfilling and personally satisfying than their original choice of 
profession. This assertion has been confirmed by several career scholars (i.e. Baruch, 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
19 
 
2006; Polach, 2004; Thomas, 1980; Jung, 1933) who also added that career change 
decisions occur mostly during mid-life.  For example, Thomas (1980) noted that although 
economic motives (such as salary, prestige and job security) may drive some individuals 
to change their career, the domain of intrinsic work motivation defined by „values‟ and 
“meaningful work” feature prominently as reasons for career change among middle-aged 
managerial and other professional workers.  Such writers believe that a mid-life crossroads 
was common for the worker, and at this point one would choose to change careers toward 
a profession that mirrors one‟s belief systems and personal goals.  Holland‟s (1985) 
ground-breaking work on the nature of careers also established that people gravitate 
toward types of work that are compatible with their personalities.  These individuals tend 
to be more satisfied once they have settled in such a job, becoming far less likely to switch 
careers in the future.  These theories, perhaps, provide explanations for those second-
career university teachers who have given up what are often well-paying professions to 
seek a career more in line with personality traits and value systems. 
 
Rather than treating all career changers as one group, studies focusing on career changers 
have identified patterns based on an individual‟s career decision-making style and choices. 
Terms such as “self-evaluative”, “self-initiated”, “strategic focused”; “aspirational” and 
„opportunistic‟ attempt to capture the thinking of career changers (Bimrose et al 2008, p. 
20).  Certain typologies (based on motivations, identifiable characteristics and responses) 
such as „drift outs‟, „opt outs‟, „bow outs‟, „force outs‟, „classic career changers‟, 
„persisters‟ and „desisters‟ have also been adopted to distinguish between different mid-
life career changers (Thomas, 1980; Watt & Richardson, 2008).   
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
20 
 
Just as there are different reasons for career switching, there are also different results. Not 
all adults experience a seamless transition from one career to another, even if the second 
career is something that the career changer has always dreamed about doing.  Lewis 
(1996) pointed out the obstacles faced by many older career changers in the quest to 
pursue a second career, including considerable investment of time and money as they 
prepare for a new profession.  By contrast, younger career changers often suffer from 
negative self-images and a lack of information “not only on occupations, but also within 
their own interests and skills” (Lucas, 1999, p. 117).  Nevertheless, people of all ages and 
backgrounds continue to make dramatic changes in their professional lives in spite of the 
obvious challenges and hardships. 
 
2.4 Previous Studies 
Several theories have been proposed as helping to explain the career change phenomenon.  
They include Trait and Factor theory, Holland‟s (1987) personality theory, the 
Developmental theory, Vroom‟s (1964) Expectancy-Valence theory and Social Network 
theory.  These shall be reviewed in turn. 
 
2.4.1 Trait and Factor Theory 
The Trait and Factor Theory began with Parsons (1909), who proposes that a choice of a 
vocation depends upon three factors.  The first factor is to have an accurate knowledge of 
one‟s self which includes a clear understanding of one‟s aptitudes, abilities, interests, 
ambitions, resources, and limitations.  The second factor is to have a thorough knowledge 
of the world of work and the requirements for specific jobs.  The final factor is the ability 
to make a proper match between the two, what Kidd (1984) calls 'a process involving a 
matching of self and occupation.  In a study conducted by Thomas (1980), a near majority 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
21 
 
of the respondents representing 53% indicated that “a better fit of values and work” was a 
very important motivation for change. 
 
According to Williamson (1939), the basic purpose of the trait-and-factor approach to 
career counselling was to "match" the characteristics of an individual to jobs which 
required those characteristics, and in so doing identify the jobs which were, theoretically, 
the most appropriate for that client.  Herr and Cramer (1984) identified 10 major types of 
"matching" information usually sought by professional counsellors.  The matching types 
were abilities, needs and interests, stereotypes and expectations, significant others, values, 
residence, family, adjustment, risk-taking, and aspirations.  The "trait" portion of the trait-
and-factor approach referred to client characteristics.  Therefore, vocational counsellors 
are encouraged by proponents of this theory to have extensive and valid information about 
their clients.  The "factor" portion referred to characteristics of various jobs.  In order to 
use this approach effectively, counsellors must also have extensive knowledge of the 
world of work and the requirements for specific jobs. Accordingly, trait-and-factor career 
counselling has been referred to colloquially as the "know the client, know the job" 
approach (Vacc & Loesch, 1987). 
 
Previous studies (Sullivan, 1999; Tokar, Fischer & Subich, 1988; Chen, Gully & Eden, 
2004; Costa & McCrae, 1992; Vacc & Loesch, 1987) that have used this theory to explain 
the phenomenon argue that, individuals who fail to make a proper match between their 
own goals and work values more often than not experience career change. Nonetheless, 
the theory has been criticised as being oversimplified (Kidd, 1984; Law, 1981; Roberts, 
1975) because it does not incorporate other important variables such as social and 
economic factors that can also explain the phenomenon.   
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
22 
 
2.4.2 Holland Congruence Theory 
Holland‟s (1983) theory of congruence has also been used by several career scholars 
(Parsons and Wigtil, 1974; Robbins et al., 1978; Thomas & Robbins, 1979; Wiener 
Valtenas, 1977) to explain the phenomenon under study.  The theory posits that a person 
will leave an incongruent job for one that increases person-work environment congruence.  
This means that people gravitate towards types of work that are compatible with their 
personalities.  Such individuals tend to be more satisfied once they have settled in such 
jobs becoming far less likely to switch careers in the future.  This theory provides a 
plausible explanation for lecturers who have given up what are often well-paying 
professions to seek a career more in line with personality traits and values systems.  
However, findings reported in these studies, according to critics have been inconsistent. 
 
2.4.3 Expectancy-Valence Theory 
Another theory that has been used (Schneider, 1976; Snyder et al., 1978) to study career 
change is the expectancy-valence theory.  The theory was propounded by Vroom (1964) 
and it assumes that behaviour results from conscious choices among alternatives.  It 
suggests that the relationship between people‟s behaviour at work and their goals was not 
as simple as was first imagined by other scientists.  Like the other theories, Vroom‟s 
theory has been faulted for lack of comprehensiveness.  Moreover, Parker and Dyer (1976) 
and Jacobson and Eran (1980) found that non-expectancy factors contributed significantly 
to career change decisions. 
 
2.4.4 Developmental Model 
These approaches maintain that career decisions are a function of the total personality 
within a developmental framework and are viewed as a process instead of an act.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
23 
 
Occupational choice is not restricted to a certain period in life, but as a set of reoccurring 
events throughout the life cycle.  Therefore, career development may be viewed as an 
evolutionary process which is flexible and in which individuals could adapt their 
occupational choices to the changing conditions in their lives.  Theorists associated with 
this model include Ginzberg (1972), Tiedeman and O‟Hara (1963), Hadley and Levy 
(1962), Super (1957) and Beilin (1955).  
 
For example, the developmental model of Ginsberg et al. (1972) and Super (1953, 1957, 
1981) argues that there are developmental stages to decision-making, and that 'good' 
career choice cannot be made until the young person has developed his/her abilities and 
personal maturity far enough.  Perhaps this theory explains why most career change 
decisions happen after people come to the realisation that they are not cut out for what 
they do for a living.  One problem with this position is that an external expert has to decide 
what makes a good decision.  Furthermore, like trait theory, the developmental model is 
restrictedly psychological in its focus, treating each person as a discrete entity and 
minimising the impact of social and contextual factors as part of the decision-making 
process (Hodkinson and Sparkes, 1997). 
 
2.4.5 Social Learning Theory 
This theory addresses the interaction of social and cultural factors on decision-making and 
acknowledges that they become enmeshed in an individual's identity, as life develops and 
experiences are accumulated.  The proponents of this theory (Krumboltz, 1979; Taylor, 
1992; Boreham & Arthur, 1993; Seda, 1996) assume that past experiences through both 
direct and observational stimulus can strengthen individual behaviour.  According to them, 
people are assumed to be intelligent, problem-solving individuals who strive to understand 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
24 
 
the positive and negative reinforcement that surrounds them and then attempt to control 
their environment to suit their own purposes and needs.  
 
Krumboltz‟s (1979) framework, for example, addresses the question of why individuals 
enter particular occupations and why they may express various preferences for different 
occupational activities at selected points in their lives.  However, like other social learning 
theorists, Krumboltz (1979) did not provide conclusive evidence of internal and external 
factors individuals perceive as having influenced an actual decision to enter into a specific 
occupation at selected points in his or her life (Brown & Brooks, 1990). 
 
2.4.6 Social Network Theory 
Social network theory is the study of how people, organizations or groups interact with 
others inside their network.  The theory has been used by several career writers (Higgins, 
2001; Pfeffer, 1997; Hall, 1996; Greenhaus and Callanan, 1994; Ibarra, 1993; Neapolitan, 
1980) to investigate the relationship between network structure and career change.  
Higgins (2001), as an example, asserted that career decision-making is a social process 
and thus, the social context and, in particular, the people who provide the decision-maker 
with advice during the job search process can affect the likelihood of career change.  She 
found that individuals with broad career networks were more likely to change careers than 
individuals with narrow career networks.  Granovetter‟s (1973) seminal work on the 
strength of weak ties also demonstrates that connections between individuals served as 
conduits for career information, specifically, career opportunities.  Thus the set of such 
relationships comprises a social network since it constitutes relationships between ego (the 
focal individual) and a set of alters or people to whom the individual is connected – what 
may be called „advice networks (Brass, 1995).  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
25 
 
The framework that guides this study emphasizes the importance of such networks.  It 
therefore assumes that having a network of advisors who represent a broad array of 
relationship contexts (e.g. work, school, and family) will enhance the number and variety 
of career opportunities to which one has access, thereby increasing the likelihood of career 
change (Higgins, 2001; Hodkinson & Sparkes, 1997; Ibarra, 1993).  The theory has 
however been criticised on the grounds of being too subjective. 
 
2.5 Individual Characteristics 
According to the framework that guides this study, individual and organisational factors 
influence perceived fit, which in turn influences job satisfaction.  The individual factors 
include traits, demographic, human capital and job satisfaction.  The organisational 
factors, on the other hand, are job security and salary.  These shall be looked at in details. 
 
2.5.1 Traits 
Traits are all the aspects of a person‟s behaviour and attitudes that make up the person‟s 
personality.  They are often shown with descriptive adjectives such as patient, 
hardworking and innovative.  Britannica (2002) describes it as a way of thinking, feeling 
and behaving.  An individual‟s personality trait may embrace attitudes and opinions that 
affect the way we deal with issues and, in this case, the situation of changing a career.  To 
Splaver (1977), personality trait plays an important role in the choosing of the right career.  
Splaver therefore stated, “It is important for you to have a good understanding of yourself, 
your personality, if you are to make intelligent career plans” (p.12).  This assertion is 
consistent with the Trait and factor theory.  Personality traits have been an integral aspect 
of understanding vocational choice, yet there have been few studies on personality and 
career change (Sullivan, 1999: Tokar, Fischer & Subich, 1998).  This study aims at adding 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
26 
 
on to the limited number of researches in this regard by looking at some personality traits 
and how they influence the phenomenon of interest.  For the purposes of this study, the 
personality traits to be reviewed are Openness to Experience, Extraversion and general 
self-efficacy. 
 
2.5.1.1 Openness to Experience 
Openness refers to traits, such as how inclined someone is to conform to societal or 
cultural norms, how concretely or abstractly someone thinks about things, and how open 
or resistant someone is to change.  Openness to experience is, therefore a personality 
dimension characterised by imagination, curiosity, creativity, intelligence and being open 
to a range of new experiences (Costa & McCrae, 1992; Carless & Arnup, 2011).  In this 
study, the expectation is that individuals with this personality trait will be more likely to 
change careers than those who do not possess such traits. 
 
According to Carless and Arnup (2011), making a career change is a risky activity and 
more likely to be undertaken by someone who is innovative, intelligently curious, and 
does not favour the status quo.  Higher scores on Openness to Experience have been 
associated with employees' willingness to accept major internal job changes (Mignonac, 
2008; John & Srivastava 1999), and a higher incidence of changing organisations (Vinson, 
Connelly & Ones, 2007).  High scores on creativity and risk taking style have been 
associated with career change (Cesinger, 2011; Abele and Spurk, 2009; Donohue, 2007; 
Kanchier & Unruh, 1989).  
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
27 
 
2.5.1.2 Extraversion 
Extraversion is a personality characteristic that describes things like how social a person is 
or how warm and loving they tend to be.  Extraverts by nature enjoy the company of 
others, are gregarious, sociable, confident, optimistic and energetic.  As a result, they are 
likely to have large work-related networks and high energy levels which assist them to 
obtain employment in a new career (Higgins, 2001).  Kram (1985) also noted that the 
diversity of one's psychosocial advice relations will increase the probability of career 
change.  According to the framework for the study, individuals with this personality trait 
are more likely to initiate and succeed in making a career change.  
 
There have been several studies that provide support of the hypothesised relationship 
between extraversion and career change.  A qualitative study by Lewis and Thomas (1987) 
reported that a majority of engineers and scientists who changed occupations relied on 
their networks to get a job.  Similar findings were reported by Zippay (2001) with a 
sample of steelworkers.  Doering and Rhodes (1989) qualitative study of teachers found 
that speaking with people in different occupations, as well as family and friends was an 
essential preliminary step to making a change.  Many of the mid-career changers 
interviewed by Neapolitan (1980) reported they developed an attraction to their new 
occupation through information provided by their friends and acquaintances.  These 
findings are consistent with the social network theory.  Furthermore, participants with 
higher occupational self-efficacy at graduation were found to be more satisfied with their 
careers seven years later than those with lower occupational self-efficacy (Abele and 
Spurk, 2009b). 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
28 
 
2.5.1.3 General Self-Efficacy 
Another theme that is prevalent within the research literature on career change is the 
concept of general self-efficacy.  General self-efficacy was theorized and introduced into 
career development literature by Betz and Hackett in 1981.  Betz and Hackett (1981) apply 
Albert Bandura‟s self-efficacy theory to the career development of women. Bandura 
(1977) states, “self-efficacy expectations refer to a person‟s beliefs concerning his or her 
ability to successfully perform a given task behaviour.  It is the belief in ability to perform 
across a variety of situations (Chen, Gully & Eden, 2004).  Abele and Spurk (2009) 
defined self-efficacy as the belief in one„s capacity and motivation to successfully perform 
occupational tasks and challenges and to pursue one„s occupational career irrespective of 
the particular field of occupation (p. 54). 
 
Longitudinal studies from Higgins, Dobrow, and Chandler (2008) and Saks (1995) reveal 
an influence of self-efficacy on job satisfaction or perceived career success.  According to 
Heppner, Multon and Johnston (1994) a key attribute that facilitates career change is self-
efficacy.  The more confident an individual is in his or her abilities, the more 
psychologically ready he or she is to take on a challenging task, such as changing careers 
(Higgins, 2001; Bandura, 1997).  Neapolitan (1980) reported that compared to a matched 
sample of non-changers, career changers expressed confidence in their ability to make a 
change successfully.  Similar findings were reported by Kanchier and Unruh (1989). 
 
Organizational scholars have suggested that an individual's confidence to overcome career 
obstacles should increase one's willingness to change careers and, hence, his or her 
probability of doing so (Lent et al., 1996). These scholars have suggested that the primary 
source of such confidence is one's self-esteem and one's sense of self-efficacy and 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
29 
 
personal control during the job search process.  For example, organizational scholars (e.g., 
Higgins, 200) have found that individuals with higher self-efficacy engage in more job 
search behaviours (e.g., interviews) which can affect both one's opportunities as well as 
willingness to change careers.  These findings confirm the framework that guides this 
study. 
 
2.5.2 Demographics 
2.5.2.1 Age 
Research studies on age and career change have produced mixed findings.  A meta-
analysis by Ng et al. (2005) found age to be negatively related to career transition.  As 
individuals age they become less likely to change careers (Blau, 2000; Blau & Lunz, 1998; 
Harper, 1995; Breeden, 1993).  For instance, Breeden (1993) found that the group of 
workers who most often changed careers were less than 30 years of age.  The explanation 
is that younger people have not accumulated general and, or specific human capital in their 
occupation in contrast to older people who are more likely to have substantial investments 
(Parrado et al., 2007)  Younger people are also more likely to be more flexible in their 
living and working arrangements, compared to older individuals. 
 
Similarly. Markey and Parks (1989) stated that “it has been deemed a „socioeconomic law‟ 
that as the age of an individual increases, the likelihood of his or her experiencing 
occupational change decreases”.  Using the same explanation as Breeden (1993) the 
authors mentioned that compared to older workers, younger workers have less of an 
investment in their occupations and their companies and often less attachment to their 
geographic residences or even their lifestyles.  For these reasons, they have fewer 
constraints of all types than their older counterparts and they are more likely to shop for 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
30 
 
occupations that will maximize lifetime earnings and satisfaction.  Nonetheless, Parks and 
Markey (1989) concluded that there is no one age group that breaks the pattern of reduced 
mobility and that, the pattern holds among all groups irrespective of demographic or 
educational characteristics.  A more recent study by Carless and Arnup (2011) on the 
determinants of career change indicated that compared to career changers, career stayers 
are older have more children and have worked longer in their career than those who 
changed careers. 
 
Furthermore, older generations still view career success rather with objective criteria, such 
as advancement or vertical upward mobility in status, income, or authority (e.g. Gattiker 
and Larwood, 1986), compared to younger generations emphasizing the subjective 
meaning of success at work and in life (Judge et al., 1995; Nabi, 1999.; Poole and 
Bornholt, 1998).  Results from Kim, Mone, and Kim (2008) show that individuals in their 
20ies and 30ies develop expertise in areas that they truly enjoy and longed more for work-
life balance compared to respondents in their 40ies.  However, the several studies on what 
is termed as “midlife career change” have reported different results (Lee, 2011; Barclay, 
Stoltz & Chung, 2011; Bobek & Robbins, 2005; Serow & Forrest, 1994; Heppner et al., 
1994; Lawrence, 1979).  For instance, Barclay et al (2010) found that although career 
change may take place at any age across the life span; a critical time for this change is 
during middle adulthood (the period of a person‟s life span between the age of 35 and 65).  
This study therefore attempts to establish whether age is a positive or negative predictor of 
career change. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
31 
 
2.5.2.2 Sex 
Research on sex differences and career change has generated mixed findings. Some 
studies have reported that males change their career more frequently than females (Parrado 
et al., 2007) and are more likely to report their intentions to change careers (Blau, 2000; 
Blau & Lunz. 1998).  In contrast, other studies have reported that women‟s career decision 
remains more complex than men‟s because of their multiple family and work related roles. 
 
Findings from Hakim (2000; 2006) on women„s careers in the UK and the US suggest that 
women mostly exhibit adaptive careers while men – according to Huang et al. (2007) and 
Mainiero and Sullivan (2005) – tend to have more linear, traditional career patterns 
placing more emphasis on monetary rewards and promotion.  McGovern and Hart (1992) 
also found that prestige and salary were more important to men, and flexibility was more 
important to women.  These findings comply with Igbaria and Parasuraman (1991), Kim 
(2004), and Watts (1993) who reported that most women valued balance between work 
and personal life higher than men. 
 
Nonetheless, other studies have found no gender differences in intentions to change 
careers (Carless & Bernath 2007; Markey & Parks, 1989).  For example, Miguel (1993) 
concludes that there are two competing perspectives about gender differences with respect 
to career decisions.  One is that women and men are different in terms of career 
orientation, attitudes, and values, while the other holds that they are the same if mediating 
variables are controlled for. The latter perspective is supported by findings from Kim, 
Mone, and Kim (2008) revealing that males and females did not have substantially 
different career orientations when potentially mediating variables, such as age, 
employment level and education level, were held constant.  In this regard, numerous 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
32 
 
previous studies claiming that females place a higher value than males on work-family 
balance and thus are more likely to switch careers to have this flexibility (e.g. Igbaria and 
Parasuraman, 1991; Igbaria, Kassicieh and Silver, 1999; Kim, 2004) may have limitations.  
Thus, the present study will explore whether females or males are more likely to change 
careers. 
 
2.5.2.3 Marital Status 
The findings on the effect of marital status on career change have been mixed.  Some 
studies have shown that married women switch to careers to have flexible hours to 
accommodate family, community, and career concerns.  For instance, Martin and Hanson 
(1985) found that a large percentage of married women move into professions that allowed 
them time to fulfil their female role.  Other studies have indicated that those who are 
single are more likely to change careers (Carless & Arnup, 2011; Cesinger, 2011; Parrado 
et al., 2007; Breeden, 1993; Markey & Parks, 1989).  It is argued that married workers are 
less likely to change careers due to the risks and consequences associated with changing 
jobs.  Conversely, single people change careers more often because they have fewer 
commitments, and it is therefore easier to relocate for a job change (Markey & Parks, 
1989).  On the other hand, a number of studies have found that marital status has no 
impact on intentions to change careers (Carless & Bernath, 2007; Blau, 2000; Blau & 
Lunz, 1998).  Given these mixed results we will explore its effect on career change.  
 
2.5.2.4 Children 
According to Carless and Arnup (2011), individuals with dependent children are less 
likely to change occupations.  Neapolitan (1980) reported that lack of dependents was an 
important factor that mid-career individuals nominated as a factor that influenced their 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
33 
 
decision to change careers.  Meta analyses have shown that the number of children is 
negatively related to job turnover (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000). 
 
2.5.3 Human Capital 
There has been considerable debate about the relationship between human capital and job 
turnover; this has been dominated by labour economic researchers (Bartel, 2000).  Many 
of the arguments advanced also apply to career change.  Formal education is one form of 
human capital investment (Becker, 1962).  Other investments an individual may make are 
on-the-job training and job migration. Occupational tenure can be considered a measure of 
on-the-job training; it is defined as the amount of time a worker has accumulated in a 
given field and reflects the amount of time and effort an individual has spent to increase 
his or her value in the marketplace.  In this study, the effects of two forms of human 
capital (formal education and occupational tenure) on career change will be examined.  
 
2.5.3.1 Education 
There are two opposite effects of education on career change predicted.  Some career 
writers argued that higher investments in education accrue in greater career stability (Parks 
& Markey, 1989).  According to the human capital theory (Becker, 1962), higher levels of 
education increase the individual's opportunity cost of leaving his or her career and tend to 
keep him in the career longer than his less educated counterparts.  More educated workers 
have a wider range of tasks they can perform and learn a greater repertoire of job skills via 
on-the-job training compared to less educated individuals.  The findings of Parrado et al. 
(2007) support the argument of a positive relationship between education and tendency to 
stay in a career.  The contrary argument is that those with higher levels of education 
accumulate skills and experience on the job, which increase the likelihood of changing 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
34 
 
careers (Sicherman & Galor, 1990).  Higher educated individuals are better equipped to 
acquire additional skills and therefore are more likely to change careers (Harper, 1995; 
Mincer, 1994).  Less educated individuals have a narrower range of work-related skills 
which curbs their opportunities to change careers. 
 
2.5.3.2 Occupation Tenure 
Individuals learn important new work skills and perfect old skills by on-the-job training. 
Through informal instruction by their supervisors or co-workers, trial and error, and 
repetition individuals become increasingly proficient and productive.  On the one hand, 
increased occupational tenure represents a significant human capital investment, therefore 
a reduced probability of changing occupations.  There is limited evidence to support this 
proposition.  Aryee and Tan (1992) reported that increased employee development was 
associated with lower intentions of changing occupations.  On the other hand, it has been 
shown that participating in skill development leads to thoughts about changing careers 
(Donohue, 2007).  Carless and Bernath (2007), in contrast, found that occupational tenure 
had no impact on intentions to change careers with a sample of Australian psychologists.  
In view of the conflicting theoretical propositions and evidence, the relationship between 
human capital (education and occupational tenure) and career change will be explored. 
 
2.5.4 Job Satisfaction 
Job satisfaction is typically defined as the feelings a person has about her or his job 
(Carless & Arnup, 2011).  Locke (1976) described job satisfaction as a pleasurable or 
positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one‟s job or job experiences.  Thus, 
it is an attitude developed by an individual towards his or her job and job conditions 
(Rastgar et al., 2012).  Career writers have noted that work takes up such a significant 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
35 
 
amount of a person‟s life, and that by increasing an individual‟s overall satisfaction with 
his or her work life, the total well-being of the individual, the organisation and the society 
is improved (Duong, 2014; Staples & Higgins, 1998).  A central component of Rhodes 
and Doering‟s (1983) model of career change is that job dissatisfaction is likely to lead to 
thoughts about career change.  However, research on the relationship between job 
satisfaction and career change has generated mixed findings.   
 
A number of studies have reported that feeling dissatisfied at work leads to thoughts about 
changing careers (Cesinger, 2011; Carless & Bernath, 2007; Donohue, 2007; Ostroff & 
Clark, 2001; Blau, 2000; Blau & Lunz, 1998; Rhodes & Doerings, 1993).  On the other 
hand, a longitudinal study of actual career changers found that job satisfaction was not an 
antecedent of change, although, post-change individuals were happier in their jobs (Smart 
& Peterson, 1997; Breeden, 1993).  The differing findings may be due to whether 
intentions to change or actual change were assessed and the subsequent time lag between 
assessing job satisfaction and actual change.  Smart and Peterson (1997) showed that level 
of job satisfaction drops when the individual contemplates making a career change and 
then picks up once the individual implements the change. 
 
2.5.5 Job Search and Intentions to Leave Current Job 
According to the theory (Rhodes & Doering, 1993) that guides this study and theory of 
reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980; Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975), the immediate 
antecedents of career change are thoughts of changing careers, actual job search and 
intention to change.  Individuals who invest time in job search are likely to be aware of 
alternative careers.  Kanchier and Unruh (1989) found that individuals who changed 
careers perceived greater availability of acceptable alternative positions.  In the same vein, 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
36 
 
when Neapolitan (1980) interviewed career changers and a matched group of stayers, he 
found that dissatisfaction with the current career was not enough to cause a career change, 
attractive alternatives were also required.  Due to the lack of research on actual career 
change generally, no direct evidence in support of the proposed relationship could be 
located.  On the other hand, there is strong evidence of the relationship between turnover 
and intentions to leave and job search behaviour (Griffeth et al., 2000).  Thus, it is 
expected that job search behaviour and intentions to leave current job will be positively 
associated with career change. 
 
2.6 Organisational Characteristics 
2.6.1 Job Security 
It is assumed that career development support and job security in organizations influence 
career decisions because they enhance the progressive development of skills and 
knowledge (Cesinger, 2011).  Traditionally, organizations were characterized by rigid 
hierarchical structures and they operated within a stable environment (Cesinger, 2011), 
thereby providing a high degree of job security.  Careers therefore were predictable, 
secure, and linear.  Nowadays organizational and environmental systems are highly 
dynamic and fluid making careers more unpredictable, vulnerable, and multidirectional 
within (Baruch, 2006).  Employees are therefore likely to experience a lack of long term 
job security. 
 
Job insecurity is defined as “perceived powerlessness to maintain desired continuity in a 
threatened job situation” (Greenhalgh & Rosenblatt, 1984, p. 438).  For various economic 
and social reasons the demand for some occupational groups has declined in recent years 
(Markey & Parks, 1989), leading to job insecurity.  Schein (1978) identified job security 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
37 
 
as one of the five anchors used by individuals to choose a career.  Hence, it is reasonable 
to expect that if job security is threatened individuals will consider changing careers.  
There is consistent evidence that job insecurity is an antecedent of intentions to leave a job 
(Blau, Tatum, McCoy, Dobria & Ward-Cook, 2004; Staufenbiel & Konig, 2010).  
However, there is scant evidence to suggest that job security is an antecedent of career 
change.  A qualitative study of graduate engineers and scientists found a small proportion 
of the sample mentioned job insecurity as reason for changing careers (Lewis & Thomas, 
1987).  Doering and Rhodes (1989) replicated these findings with a sample of teachers. 
 
2.6.2 Salary 
Findings on the relationship between career change and salary have been mixed.  
According to Kanchier and Unruh (1989), the possibility of earning a higher salary is 
likely to influence willingness to change careers.  Lewis and Thomas (1987) qualitative 
study of professional engineers and scientists found that the prospect of more money was 
nominated by a majority of career changers as a reason for undertaking the change.  
Similar findings have been reported by others (Kid & Green, 2006; Breeden, 1993; 
Doering & Rhodes, 1989; Markey & Parks, 1989; Neapolitan, 1980; Clopton, 1973).  
These findings suggest that the prospect of a higher salary is a reason for career change.  
However, other studies have reported different results.  In her study on the attractions of 
teaching, Slay (2006) analysis showed a great relevance of non-monetary factors in 
informing the decision to enter teaching.  
 
2.7 Outcomes of Career Change 
According to the framework that guides this study, a career change is typically undertaken 
because there is an expectation that various aspects of work life will improve.  This notion 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
38 
 
is consistent with the normative decision theory (Gati & Asher, 2001), which holds that an 
optimal choice is the one that maximizes the expected utility.  The expected utility of an 
alternative is based on a combination of the value and probability of the outcomes that are 
anticipated from each alternative (Gati & Asher, 2001).  It also confirms the rationality 
theory (Homans, 199).  This study therefore anticipates that there would be an 
improvement in the changeable, instigating factors, namely, in job security, job 
satisfaction, and salary.  The study also expects a reduction in the number of hours worked 
and intentions to leave as this has been identified as one of the reasons why people switch 
career into teaching in general.  A number of studies have shown that individuals who 
change careers have higher job satisfaction after the change (Carless & Arnup, 2011; 
Breeden, 1993; Neapolitan, 1980; Smart & Peterson, 1997). 
 
2.8 The Process of Career Change 
There is substantial evidence from the literature of career development and related studies 
that self-initiated career change is neither sudden nor whimsical.  For instance, King 
(2001) noted that the career change phenomenon is a dynamic process, not consisting 
simply of a one-off execution of discrete behaviour, but rather of continuing execution of a 
set of co-occurring behaviours.  Patton (1978) reports that one-quarter of workers in 
America seriously consider leaving their first choice career permanently.  Lawrence 
(1980) describes a process in this context as the sequence of events that characterize a 
career change.  The process of career change, according to her, include a period of 
reassessment during which the career change decision is made, a transition period during 
which the new job and/or new qualifications are sought, and a final period of socialization 
into the new career.  The process of career change in this study is defined as ‟movement 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
39 
 
across occupational boundaries„(Chinyamurindi, 2012, p.10; Hess, Jepsen & Dries, 2012, 
p. 280) and it includes the various activities associated with career transitions. 
 
Career change decisions, therefore, do not occur overnight.  For example, an art director 
does not sit up in bed one morning and decide to become an engineer.  The phenomenon 
appears to be a process that occurs in a particular context over a period of time.  In this 
sense, the context refers to the specific work, family, and cultural environments that affect 
individuals throughout the process of career change.  These recall the three stages 
described in Lewin's (1947) theory of change: unfreezing, moving, and freezing.  Herman 
et al. (1983) also reported that this process is characterised by a state of uncertainty.  The 
authors asserted “in almost every case people felt tremendous ambivalence about their 
changes.  Excitement and anticipation about the new situation dominated”. A former 
historian communicated his delight with the new role: "I felt like a kid in a big sandbox." 
Along with the excitement came an anxiety about whether they would be able to do the 
job or adapt to the new culture.  
 
According to the wide variety of research available, most theorists agreed that there were 
many factors that affect career change decisions.  The choices a person makes, the values a 
person holds, the successes and failures a person experiences, the social class in which a 
person has developed, and the interests, strengths, and capacities of the person all enter 
into this decision.  In other words, career change is a product of heredity and environment, 
and the person's self-concept was vitally important in that decision (Herr, 1970; Hewer, 
1963; Super, 1957).  The choice of a second career is, therefore, not merely a decision of a 
moment: it is a complex and difficult process that spans a number of years (Ginzberg, 
Ginsburg, Axelrad, & Herma, 1951), if not a lifetime. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
40 
 
Based on the framework that underpins this research, individuals that switch careers go 
through what is termed as the “withdrawal process” in order to effect the change.  This 
process begins with the thoughts of changing jobs/careers, followed by actual search for 
alternatives and intentions to change, prior preparation for change and actual change 
(Rhodes & Doering, 1983). This parallels the stages of career decision making identified 
by Gati (1986).  The process is also consistent with Locke's (1976) task goal model, which 
posits that the most immediate determinant of choice is an individual's goal or intention,  
with Fishbein's (1967) model of attitudes, intentions and behaviours and Slay‟s (2006) 
theory on career transitions. 
 
The decision to change careers is thus seen as a more deliberate act than are other forms of 
voluntary separation and this explains the various processes associated with the 
phenomenon.  For instance, Rhodes and Doering‟s (1989) process of career change is a 
modification of Mobley et al.'s (1978) withdrawal process.  First, congruent with Mobley's 
(1977) model, actual search was included in the model after intention to search.  Actual 
search includes the search behaviour to decide on an alternative as well as to find the 
means of reaching that goal (e.g., location of sources of education or training).  Actual 
search also may produce clarification regarding the availability of alternatives plus 
additional alternatives.  This corroborates Pitz and Harren (1980), four problems of career 
decision making and these include available alternatives, linking objectives to alternatives, 
outcomes associated with each decision and attributes of such outcomes. 
 
The second stage in the model is preparation for change.  The preparation phase includes 
such activities as taking courses and putting aside money for financial support.  Although 
it is placed before actual change, this phase also may occur during the actual change 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
41 
 
process.  The actual change process begins with leaving the old job and is not completed 
until the new job/career is entered.  It should also be mentioned that preparation for 
change will not always lead to actual change because at some point in the process the 
alternative opportunities may no longer be available due to, for example, a shift in 
financial status. 
 
2.9 Motivation to Teach 
As mentioned earlier, the review of literature in reference to university teaching and career 
change has been very limited in nature due to the fact that the majority of studies have 
focused mainly on primary and secondary education.  Furthermore, those that have 
concentrated on career change into primary and secondary teaching have been conducted 
in the western world.  Thus this section will draw largely on reasons why individuals 
choose teaching in general.  Nonetheless, efforts shall be made to put these in context. 
 
For years published research has included reports of studies attempting to determine 
reasons why people select teaching as a career.  Most educators do agree that teaching is 
rewarding, although definitely not an easy work.  Literature spanning the fifty years up to 
the early 1990s has typically classified the motivations influencing teachers‟ career choice 
in terms of intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic factors (Watt, 2012, p. 792).  Published 
research suggests that the reasons for choosing teaching have not primarily changed since 
the 1990s, although different studies tend to emphasise one or other of the factors 
depending on the time period, methodology, country, context and purpose of the study.  
The intrinsic and altruistic factors weigh more heavily in studies conducted in developed 
countries, whereas in socio-cultural contexts such as in Africa extrinsic reasons of salary 
and job security tend to be more important (Watt et al., 2012).  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
42 
 
Studies in several OECD countries revealed that individuals were drawn to teaching due to 
a desire to work with children and because teaching offered the potential for intellectual 
fulfilment and the means to make a social contribution, with a strong emphasis on intrinsic 
factors (OECD, 2005).  Similarly, in a large survey study commissioned by the Australian 
Government for the report „Staff in Australia‟s Schools‟ (2011), „personal fulfilment‟, 
„desire to work with young people‟, „being passionate about education‟ and „enjoyment of 
subject area‟ were the top reasons for choosing teaching among early career primary and 
secondary teachers in Australia (McKenzie at al., 2011, p. 76).  In another earlier 
Australian study to understand the motivations of pre-service teacher education students, 
Manuel and Hughes (2006) found that a majority of the participants interviewed had 
personal aspirations to work with young people and mentioned the attainment of personal 
fulfilment and meaning among the reasons for choosing to teach. 
 
Watt et al.‟s (2012) study to assess pre-service teachers‟ motivations for choosing teaching 
was implemented with a large sample of teachers in the US, Australia, Germany and 
Norway and the primary motivations were assessed using what the authors describe as a 
“psychometrically sound” choice scale (p. 2). The study found the highest rated 
motivations were “intrinsic value, perceived teaching ability, desire to make a social 
contribution, to work with children/adolescents, and having had positive prior teaching 
and learning experiences ... while at the same time extrinsic factors such as job security 
were rated consistently lower across all countries” (p. 14).  Manuel and Hughes (2006) 
also noted ten reasons as being among those most commonly listed by teachers across a 
variety of studies ranging in time from the 1920‟s through the 1980‟s.  The reasons 
include fondness for children, opportunity for adequate income and/or job security, 
favourable working conditions (i.e. good hours, long vacation, desirable personal 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
43 
 
relations), opportunity for service to mankind and opportunity for a creative or challenging 
career. 
 
However, educational theorists bring to our attention that such things as poor salary, lack 
of opportunity for advancement, and perceived monotony of teacher‟s work serve as 
factors which detracted persons from becoming teachers (Spear, Gould & Lee, 2000; 
Kyriacou, Haltgreen, & Stephens, 1999) in the developing countries.  In Ghana, the 
situation is not different as these factors among many others have been the reasons why 
the teaching profession is not considered attractive.  When a young man expresses interest 
in the field of teaching, more often than not the response is negative, as dictated by society 
(Mercora, 2003).  
 
2.10 Motivation of Career Switchers to Teaching 
Coincidentally, second-career teachers share some of the motivating factors that lead 
traditional-age students to choose education as a future career, as well as different and 
unique factors that set them apart.  For instance, Snyder (1995) surveyed 3,000 pre-service 
teachers, including significant numbers of career switchers, and found that most were 
interested in the profession because of an interest in and a love for young people.  
Concerning older students seeking teaching as a second career, most had the benefit of 
children of their own and saw “teaching as an end in itself, rather than as a means to some 
other professional end” (p. 9).  A common thread running through the majority of these 
teachers is the desire to work with young people.  Although there are many characteristics 
of second-career teachers that make them unique, this desire to work with young people is 
shared with traditional-aged teachers.  
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
44 
 
According to one recent study, the reasons that people are changing careers in order to 
become teachers can be reduced to three influencing factors, including the opportunity to 
do something personally satisfying, make a contribution to society, and have a career that 
allows time for family responsibilities (The Pool of Potential Second-Career Teachers, 
2008).  Chambers (2002) interviewed 10 pre-service and in-service secondary teachers 
working in suburban settings outside Chicago.  Her study focused on finding out more 
about the reasons that draw career changers into teaching and the effects of a previous 
successful career on their development as teachers.  She found that second career teachers 
were motivated by altruism, and the perceived personal benefits of teaching.   Others 
speak of a sense of calling which is deep and meaningful, and sometimes religious. This 
calling is stronger than the general perception that teaching is a difficult and demanding 
profession that holds a lowly status in modern society (Richardson & Watt, 2005). 
 
2.11 Influential Factors for Second-Careers Teachers toward Teaching 
Second-career teachers differ from traditional age entrants in the area of influential factors 
leading to teaching.  For example, traditional age pre-service teachers are often strongly 
influenced by a former teacher or by those in the family who are teachers.  By contrast, 
second career teachers are more likely to be influenced by value systems and other 
intrinsic motivators, as well as by prior work experiences.  Powell (1992) asserted that: 
Non-traditional preservice teachers were an older group of students, had 
encountered many life experiences, and most were deeply committed to becoming 
teachers, especially those who had chosen teaching over lucrative careers that they 
had been in for a number of years. (p. 235). 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
45 
 
In addition, many of these teachers had extensive experience with children, most of them 
having raised children of their own.  Other studies show additional factors also contribute 
to the decisions of career-switchers that choose to become teachers.  For instance, in their 
study “I‟ve decided to become a teacher: Influences on career change” Richardson and 
Watt (2005), found that a desire for security, more time with family, and a sense of calling 
were significant reasons why non-traditional teachers were leaving their jobs and steady 
incomes in order to prepare to become a teacher.  They went on to indicate that these 
teachers were realistic and prepared for the demands of the job and were not dissuaded by 
the perceived lowly status of the profession.  Chope (2001) also identified factors such a 
desire for fulfilment, more family and leisure time, and opportunities to serve the 
community as influential in the samples decision to switch career.  Similar findings 
(Ramsey, 2000; Shaw, 1996; Chui Seng Yong, 1995; Young, 1995; Brown, 1992) have 
been reported. 
 
Among the ranks of second-career teachers are people who are leaving often lucrative and 
high profile jobs to enter teaching, as well as those who come from blue-collar 
backgrounds.  According to Yankelovich (1981) and Howard (1978), such individuals 
define success in their own terms.  They want to derive more meaning from their work and 
are therefore reluctant to sacrifice personal and family satisfaction for the sake of their 
careers.  Lovett (2007), for instance, found that despite having a job in banking that paid 
more than they could expect from teaching, some career changers opted to drop salary to 
satisfy their quest for making a difference to students and their learning. Similar studies 
that examine the reasons behind individuals taking up teaching later in life show consistent 
outcomes over the years.  For instance, various studies have found that factors relating to 
salary and job prestige are not rated highly or are not a high priority for someone choosing 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
46 
 
to become a teacher later in life (Crow, Levine, & Nager, 1990; Mayotte, 2003; Powers, 
2002; Priyardharshini & Robinson-Pant, 2003; Williams & Forgasz, 2009).  In a study 
across three Australian universities, Williams and Forgasz (2009) found that career change 
teacher candidates viewed pay and the social status of teachers as far less important as 
other factors and the authors concluded that “career changers were not entering teaching 
for these reasons” (p. 103).  In the same study, intrinsic and altruistic reasons were ranked 
higher than extrinsic rewards by the candidates.  Earlier studies on career change teachers 
came to similar conclusions (Crow, Levine & Nager, 1990; Serow & Forrest, 1994).  
 
2.12 University Teaching and Career Change 
University faculty teaching is one of the most stressful occupations, requiring in-depth 
knowledge, and with pressure to teach and research, and to continually improve 
educational attainment and experience (Chen 2006).  Despite these challenges, most 
individuals tend to choose university teaching over other more lucrative professions in 
recent times.  Among these individuals are those who have had prior professions but have 
switched career into university teaching.  However, literature in this area has focused on 
the reasons why people change career into teaching in general.  The present study attempts 
to establish whether these reasons reviewed above parallel those for which people switch 
career into university teaching. 
 
2.13 Career Change and Organizational Benefits 
According to Hamill (2014), career changers are people with the most interesting 
professional paths which tend to benefits organisations that hire these individuals.  
Research had shown that such people have peculiar intrinsic determinants such that they 
are goal-driven, passionate, and inquisitive (Hamil, 2014; Mercora, 2003; Lawrence, 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
47 
 
1979).  These career changers could often easily identify their most transferrable skills, 
and articulate exactly how they proposed to use those skills in new ways.  A significant 
observation from practice and experience confirmed that companies or institutions which 
employ career-changers benefit enormously from their varied attributes such as risk 
taking, transfer of valuable experiences and skills, open mindedness and predisposition to 
learning new things.  Some of these attributes are highlighted below. 
 
2.13.1 Ability to Take Risks 
Hamil (2014) noted that career-changers are disposed to think outside of the restrictive, 
growth-inhibiting box.  Changing one‟s career path, especially later in life, or after making 
a dent in another profession, demands sheer will and commitment.  Career-changers tend 
to be focused, driven, passionate people who take risk to start over or try something new; 
these attributes are valuable to any organization.  This supports Rhodes and Doering‟s 
(1983) hypothesized notion of openness to experience. 
 
2.13.2 Transfer of Valuable Perspective 
The historical perspective of the role career changers play in their new organisation is 
related to the phenomenon of polymath.  A polymath is a person whose expertise spans 
many different areas (Harper, 2001).  Career-changers are therefore regarded as polymaths 
who bring a wide variety of skills from their “previous lives” to any organization–skills 
that single-career-track professionals are less likely to have explored.  For instance, 
according to Priyadharshini and Robinson-Pant (2010), individuals that switch careers into 
the teaching profession, are not only instrumental in changing the profile of newly 
qualified teachers (usually presumed to consist of fresh graduates), but they also bring 
with them a variety of skills, including management or organisational expertise.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
48 
 
Consequently, this translates to innovative thinking and a more holistic, well-rounded 
approach to challenges.  Hamil (2014) stated that career-changers add skills to their tool 
kit, instead of subtracting because of the wide variety of experiences they have acquired, 
which obviously benefits their new organisations. 
 
2.13.3 Open-mindedness and learning characteristics 
Generally, people who take up jobs in new fields cannot afford to be rigid as a result they 
are automatically more open to learning, thinking creatively, and collaborating.  Hamil 
(2014) opined that career changers are independent enough to have changed paths and are 
also flexible enough to adapt new habits.  These rare traits make them more likely to be 
able to lead (or work within) a team effectively.  It can be argued that hiring a career-
changer unconsciously makes organizations to hire a “smarter” employee since learning 
new skills has been proven to sharpen the brain.  The records showed that career-changers 
often thrive in new environments with great benefits to their employers.  Hamil (2014) 
concludes that the old, one-track-career days are fading fast. The need to adapt the 
recruiting policies of an organization to welcome candidates with diverse backgrounds is 
the best way of tapping the best talents on the job market. 
 
2.14 Significance of the Benefits to the Profession of Education 
Career changers who choose teaching as a second career have a great deal to offer the 
profession and provide much that is worthy of scholarly investigation.  Second-career 
teachers are different from most new college graduates.  As Resta, Huling, and Rainwater 
(2001) pointed out, “midcareer individuals bring many strengths to teaching, including 
maturity, life experience, and good work habits” (p. 61).  The retention rate for these 
teachers is also much better than that of their counterparts.  Rather than gain these 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
49 
 
attributes, as most traditional teachers do in the first difficult year of teaching in their first 
job, these career changers are ready for the task (Lee & Lamport, 2011).  
 
2.15 Summary 
There are a number of limitations to previous studies which this study would address.  
First, there is very little information on the phenomenon of career change in Ghana, since 
the large amount of research on the topic has been conducted elsewhere.  Second, theories 
that have guided career change research have suffered from lack of comprehensiveness 
(Rhodes & Doering, 1983).  Using two or more sociological theories would not be the 
more appropriate means of addressing this gap.  This then calls for an integrated model 
like the one adopted in this study.  Third, the majority of research on career change has 
assessed intentions to change (e.g., Blau, 2000; Carless & Bernath, 2007; Donohue, 2007; 
Higgins, 2001; Rhodes & Doering, 1993) rather than actual behaviour.  Additionally, these 
studies have focused on a few demographic variables such as age, marital status, salary 
and job satisfaction.  Fourth, although there is a large body of literature on career change 
into teaching, a greater number of them have focused on primary and secondary education.  
There is need for research that investigates why individuals enter into teaching at the 
tertiary level, having had prior professional backgrounds.  Fifth, the growing number of 
studies has concentrated on factors that motivated and demotivated both prospective as 
well as practising teachers to change careers (Spear et al., 2000).  However, studies that 
examined the processes individuals go through to effect career change are very limited 
(Carless & Arnup, 2011; Mercora, 2001). 
 
This study therefore seeks to address the aforementioned limitations.  A concurrent 
embedded research design will be used with a small sample size of full time lecturers at 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
50 
 
the University of Ghana.  The research design is unique because although it is a mixed-
method design, it will allow the nesting of the quantitative strand within the primary 
qualitative paradigm. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
51 
 
CHAPTER THREE 
RESEARCH METHODS 
3.0 Introduction 
The purpose of this section is to describe the methodology used in this study.  Rhodes and 
Doering‟s (1983) model of career change provided a framework for the study and this 
formed the basis upon which the study‟s objectives were achieved.  The model was best 
supported by Carless and Arnup‟s (2011) research on determinants of career change. 
 
University teachers who have had prior professional backgrounds were the ideal 
population to study career change due to their actual change of career.  Studying this 
population helped eliminate from the study potential confounds due to the different 
reasons for leaving one‟s career, different status levels for the new career, other variables 
that could mask the relationship being considered.  Therefore, the specific research 
objectives guiding this study were:  
1. to identify the individual and organisational factors which influence career change; 
2. to examine the reasons why individuals choose lecturing as a second career and the 
extent to which these are gendered; 
3. to understand the processes career switchers go through in order to effect a career 
change into university teaching;  
4. to describe the outcome of career switch into university teaching on job 
satisfaction; and  
5. to make recommendations on how to manage career choices and aspirations and 
highlight the benefits of the change to the organisation. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
52 
 
3.1 Study Setting 
This study was conducted on the campus of University of Ghana (UG), Legon in Accra.  
There were several reasons for selecting this study site.  Key among these related to the 
main objective of the study, attractiveness of study site in terms of job security, their 
profile, and convenience.  
 
The main objective of the study was to investigate the contributing factors that influence 
the choice to switch career into lecturing and the outcome of the career change on job 
satisfaction among career switchers in Accra.  In terms of attractiveness, job security and 
profile, the candidate selected the University of Ghana because it is located in Accra.  
Accra is the capital city, highly urbanized, and also cosmopolitan with varied socio-
demographics (GSS, 2012).  The primacy of the Accra Metropolitan Area as an 
administrative, educational, industrial and commercial centre in attracting people from all 
over Ghana, continues to be the major force for rapid population growth, with migration 
contributing to over 35% of the population increase (GSS, 2012).  Urban centres are the 
most ethnically mixed because of migration to towns and cities by those in search of 
employment (Anderson & Rathbone, 2000). 
 
The University of Ghana (UG) was founded by an Ordinance on August 11, 1948 for the 
purpose of providing and promoting university education, learning and research.  
Currently, the University has three campuses under its four Colleges (Agbodeka, 1998).  
In addition, being the premier University, UG encompasses a number of research institutes 
and centres, libraries, administrative offices, and other support services for persons whose 
interest lie in the field of teaching and research.  The University has an enrolment of over 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
53 
 
40,000 students including undergraduate, graduate, and international students (UG, 
2014a). 
 
In terms of convenience, the University is located in the capital city Accra, where the 
researcher lives.  Due to family and financial challenges and appropriateness of the 
selected study site, it was more expedient for the study to be conducted in Accra using this 
tertiary institution without compromising on quality of the research. 
 
3.2 Research Design 
Research designs are plans and the procedures for research that span the decisions from 
assumptions to detailed methods of data collection and analysis (Creswell, 2009).  There 
are three main types of research designs and these include Quantitative, Qualitative and 
Mixed methods (combining quantitative and qualitative methods).  Any of these three can 
be used in a research depending on the nature of the research problem being investigated.  
This study adopted the mixed research design making use of both the qualitative and 
quantitative research approaches.  According to Creswell (2009), the basis for employing 
these designs can be generally described as methods to expand the scope or breadth of 
research, to offset the weaknesses of either approach alone.  In a bid to identify factors that 
influenced career change as well as examined why individuals, in this case those that have 
had prior professional background, switch career into lecturing, the researcher understood 
the complex nature of the study thereby choosing to work with both the qualitative and 
quantitative methods. 
 
Specifically the study employed the concurrent embedded design (Ivankova, Creswell and 
Stick, 2009).  In this sense, the assumptions of the embedded design are established by the 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
54 
 
primary approach, and its data set is subservient within that methodology (Ivankova et al., 
2009).  This study adopted a case study approach; therefore the inquirer conducted the 
research from a constructivist perspective which means although the structured interview 
consisted of both closed-ended and open-ended questions, the open-ended questions 
dominated the interview.  This allowed the researcher to examine participants‟ reasons for 
choosing teaching over established career, the processes they moved through to effect the 
change, and the outcomes of their career change behaviour. 
 
Several advantages have been given in support of the concurrent embedded design and 
these have informed the researcher‟s decision to adopt the approach for this study.  For 
instance, according to Creswell (2009), the model allows researchers to collect both 
qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously, during a single data collection phase.  
Thus unlike the other designs, the embedded model is considered less time consuming as 
the two forms of data are collected at the same time and in the same visit to the field.  
Given the busy schedules of participants, the candidate deemed it more appropriate 
adopting this strategy although it would have been more appropriate using a purely 
qualitative design.   
 
Additionally, although the collection of data from the two methods is often to integrate the 
information and compare one data source with the other, the data may also not be 
compared but reside side by side as two different pictures that provide an overall 
composite assessment of the problem.  Morse (1991) also noted that a primarily qualitative 
design could embed some quantitative data to enrich the description of a phenomenon.  
Similarly, she described how qualitative data could be used to describe an aspect of a 
quantitative study that cannot be quantified. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
55 
 
3.3 Target Population 
Target population is the entire aggregate of cases about which the researcher would like to 
make a generalization (Polite & Hunger, 1985).  According to Burns and Grove (2003) it 
includes all elements that meet certain criteria for inclusion in a study.  For this study, the 
target population included all higher degree holders of the University of Ghana, Legon. 
 
3.4 Study Population 
The study population therefore consisted of all higher degree holders of the University of 
Ghana who have had prior profession but have changed careers to teaching in the 
university. 
 
3.5 Sampling Frame 
A sampling frame defines the members of the population who are eligible to be included 
in a given sample and it aims at drawing a boundary or frame around those cases that are 
acceptable for inclusion in the sample (Morgan, 2008).  For this study, the sampling frame 
included all university teachers with ranks ranging from lecturers to professors; they were 
staff who chose teaching in preference to a career in which they were already established 
and are currently teaching at the University of Ghana, Legon. 
 
3.6 Sampling Design 
It is the scheme for selecting the sampling units from the study population.  According to 
research theorists such as Patton (1990), there is no one best sampling strategy because 
how best a sampling design is, depends on the context in which researchers work and the 
nature of their research objectives.  Based on the eligibility criteria for this study, the 
purposive technique was used in selecting qualified participants.  By purposive sampling, 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
56 
 
the researcher searched for participants that have experienced the phenomenon under 
investigation and were willing to participate in the study. 
 
Further, individuals were selected through snowball sampling (Visser et al., 2000).  In 
snowball sampling, initial respondents are asked to identify individuals that would also 
qualify for the study.  Therefore, the candidate asked the respondents if they knew of other 
people who per the criteria for inclusion qualified for this study, and these were located 
and interviewed.  Although these two sampling designs did not ensure a random sample of 
respondents, they were excellent methods used to gather study subjects when the sampling 
characteristic was somewhat uncommon. 
 
3.7 Sample Size 
A sample size consists of a subset of the entities that comprise the population (Hunger 
1985).  According to Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009), the specific sample size for mixed 
method research studies depends on several factors which include the design and evolution 
of the study in terms of the dominance of the quantitative and qualitative components, the 
trade-off between the breadth and depth of the required information, and what is practical.  
Since the qualitative design dominated this study, the selection of the sampling units was 
guided by the general guidelines in qualitative research.  With respect to the trade-off 
between the breadth and depth of the information required, the study primarily aimed at 
examining the experiences of career changers and the processes they go through in order 
to effect the change.  Such research objectives are best handled through information rich 
cases (Patton, 1990; Greene, 2007; Creswell, 2009).  Again, in terms of practicability, it 
was very difficult to have a large sample size given the nature and focus of this study. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
57 
 
According to Teddlie and Tashakkori (2009), the most useful way to look at sample size in 
qualitative-dominant mixed methods research involves what is termed as “Saturation of 
Information”, which occurs when the addition of more units does not result in new 
information that can be used in theme development.  Thus the sample size for this study 
was defined by the principle of saturation of data.  Research theorists have expressed 
varied opinions on the adequacy of sample size in obtaining saturation.  While some are of 
the view that the principle does not require a specific number of participant (Streubert et 
al., 2003), others believe otherwise.  For instance, Patton (2002) noted that although it is 
not possible to define the number of participants in advance, a range of 20 to 30 interviews 
may achieve saturation in a mixed methods research.  Luck et al (2006), also maintain that 
the qualitative idea is not to generalize from the sample as in quantitative research, thus a 
qualitative-dominant design normally requires a few cases to allow an in-depth 
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation.  Preliminary field studies by the 
researcher showed that those who per the eligibility criteria qualified for this study were in 
the minority as most of the lecturers had entered the profession right after their tertiary 
education.  As a result, the candidate selected 25 as the sample size for the study. 
 
In all 30 participants took part in the study but five of them did not fully qualify for the 
study.  Of great importance to this study is the process that individuals go through to effect 
a career change.  This process, as noted earlier, requires that the individual undertakes 
training or education to enable him/her acquire the necessary qualification for the new 
job/career.  However, there were five participants who although had changed career and 
are currently teaching at the study setting, did not undertake any training or education to 
enable them move switch to teaching at the University.  They stated clearly that at the time 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
58 
 
they thought of changing their career they had the qualification and therefore there was no 
need for any training or education. 
 
3.7.1 Sampling Considerations 
One of the problems encountered in selecting the sample for the present study was in 
deciding when a job change was truly a career change.  To address this, the researcher 
adopted Bell‟s (1975) notion of what constitutes actual career change. This notion 
emphasizes on the importance of whether training or education for the former career was 
necessary and sufficient for the new career.  Thus a change to a career for which previous 
training was unnecessary, and for which more training was needed, would seem to qualify 
for what Bell considers as career change.  The present study therefore included 
participants who undertook training or education in order to move into teaching at the 
University, and rejected those whose previous career training was not necessary and/or 
adequate at the time they first thought of changing careers.  
 
3.8 Methods of Data Collection 
Methods of data collection or strategies of inquiry are types of qualitative, quantitative and 
mixed methods designs or models that provide specific direction for procedures in a 
research design.  Others have called them approaches to inquiry (Creswell, 2007), 
instrumentation (Kumekpor, 2002), or research methodologies (Mertens, 1998).  In mixed 
methods research, the methods of data collection include sequential, concurrent and 
transformative approaches (Creswell, 2009; Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009).  Of 
importance to this study was the concurrent mixed method approach.  
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
59 
 
The concurrent mixed methods procedures are those in which the researcher converges or 
merges quantitative and qualitative data in order to provide comprehensive analysis of the 
research problem.  In this design the researcher collects both forms of data at the same 
time and integrates the information in the interpretation of the overall results (Creswell, 
2009).  Like the other mixed methods designs, there are models or strategies to the 
concurrent mixed method approach (Creswell, 2009; Piano Clark, 2007; Tashakkori and 
Teddlie, 1998).  These are the Concurrent Triangulation Strategy, the Concurrent 
Embedded Strategy and the Concurrent Transformative Strategy.  As mentioned earlier, 
the study used the concurrent embedded strategy in its data collection procedures. 
 
The concurrent embedded design occurs when the researcher collects and analyzes both 
quantitative and qualitative data within a traditional quantitative or qualitative design.  
Thus, although the study adopted a mixed-method approach during the data collection 
period, the quantitative strand was embedded within the qualitative to enable the 
researcher assess and analyse the different research questions or objectives of the study.  
The embedded approach, therefore, was a preferred design because although the study 
required the convergence of both qualitative and quantitative strands, it did not call for a 
purely mixed methods design whereby both methods should have been given equal 
priority. 
 
3.9 Procedure for Data Collection 
The candidate identified qualified participants who were willing to take part in the study.  
All the participants agreed to be interviewed in their respective Departments.  Given the 
method of data collection adopted in this study (the concurrent mixed method), both 
quantitative and qualitative data were collected with greater priority given to the latter.  A 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
60 
 
concurrent mixed methods design which allowed some few close-ended questions and 
open-ended questions was employed.  Quantitative information was collected using the 
closed-ended questions, which asked participants to select from a list of options that truly 
reflects their decisions.  The open-ended questions dominated the survey instrument 
which, allowed participants to share their experiences on the phenomenon.  Although, the 
concurrent data collection designs are said to preclude follow-up on interesting and 
confusing responses, the candidate relied entirely on participants to augment their 
responses by following up on pertinent issues.  Majority of the participants responded to 
the follow-up questions thus affirming for the qualitative aspect of the data. 
 
3.9.1 Sources of Data 
The study was based on data collected from both primary and secondary sources.   
 
3.9.2 Primary and Secondary Sources of Data 
The primary data consisted mainly of qualitative information collected on the field using 
structured interviews.   The interview included open-ended and closed-ended questions.  
Creswell (2007) described closed and open ended questions as methods for collecting both 
quantitative and qualitative data.  Since the study adopted a concurrent mixed methods 
design, the researcher deemed it more appropriate using these techniques to enable her 
collect both qualitative and quantitative data at the same time.  Thus, the closed-ended 
questions addressed participants‟ demographic information as well as the trait factors of 
career change.  The open-ended questions, on the other hand, were used to solicit 
information on the reasons, outcomes and processes participants went through in order to 
effect the change. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
61 
 
The section of the interview on demographic characteristics was used to collect 
information on the sex, marital status and number of children, age, job title and levels of 
education of the participants.  Questions were included in the interview to ascertain the 
processes career switchers went through in order to effect the change in their careers.  To 
identify individual and organisational factors that influence career change, questions on 
individual characteristics such as personality traits (openness to experience, extraversion, 
conscientiousness and general self-efficacy), demographic factors, human capital 
(education level and occupational tenure), job satisfaction, job search activity and 
intentions to leave; and organisational factors (job security and salary) were included the 
structured interview framework. 
 
Another key aspect of the study was to examine reasons underlying switch in careers to 
university teaching.  Pertinent questions in the structured interview centred on gathering 
on information on the following: current occupation of participants; other career pursued; 
reasons for change into university teaching; comparison of present and previous jobs with 
respect to remuneration, social commitments and level of and reasons for satisfaction; and 
factors underpinning the decision to choose university teaching. 
 
Series of questions were also included in the interview to assess the outcomes of the career 
switch into university teaching.  These were (i) whether the change of career into 
university teaching was worthwhile and the underlying reasons, expectations for choosing 
university teaching had been met and there would be any reason to abandon university 
teaching, (ii) opinion on career as a university teacher, and (iii) consideration of career 
change as successful, and reasons for the success.  Assessment of job performance of the 
participants and benefits to the university was an important objective of the study.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
62 
 
Information on this objective was gathered by asking participants to state any valuable 
skills they brought from their previous career, how these skills had affected their new job 
and whether their skills had been recognised and rewarded by the University. 
 
The secondary data, on the other hand, included publications such as books and articles 
that have addressed issues relating to the phenomenon globally.  The study also used 
documents such as the Annual Report of the University of Ghana (UG, 2014a) and 
University of Ghana Strategic Plan (UG, 2014b). 
 
3.10 Data Analysis 
Data analysis is a mechanism for reducing and organising data to produce findings that 
require interpretation by the researcher (Burns & Grove 2003:479).  Since the study 
adopted the concurrent embedded approach which requires the collection of both 
qualitative and quantitative data, the information generated through the quantitative 
approach was coded for easy analysis.  With respect to the qualitative information 
collected using the open-ended questions, the researcher looked out for common themes 
based on the stated objectives and these were analysed and interpreted. 
 
3.11 Field Experience 
Although the researcher intended using the survey which comprised both closed-ended 
and open-ended questions as the main instrument, some participants requested for an 
interview after responding to the survey questions.  These interviews were recorded and 
used to elaborate those provided in the structured interviews.  Furthermore, the 
participants displayed a great sense of interest and cooperation during the information 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
63 
 
gathering stage.  This in no small measure provided the necessary impetus and motivation 
which facilitated the successful conduct of the thesis research project. 
 
3.12 Ethical Considerations 
Ethical measures are as important in qualitative research as in quantitative research and 
include ethical conduct towards participant‟s information as well as honest reporting of the 
results.  Thus, in every scientific research, ethical norms and values must be adhered to.  
First and foremost, permission was sought from the ethical review board of the Office for 
Research, Innovation and Development (ORID), College of Humanities and the School of 
Social Sciences, University of Ghana, Legon.  The ethical measures the researcher applied 
for in this study included consent, confidentiality and anonymity, privacy, dissemination 
of results and the right to withdraw from the study. 
 
Informed consent implies that participants be given as much information for them to make 
an informed decision whether they want to be part of the study or not (Bryman, 2008).  In 
this regard, participants were given full description of the nature and purpose of the study.  
The form stated the research topic, the purpose of the study, a brief description of the 
researcher emphasizing the confidentiality of participants (Gilbert, 2001).  In this 
connection, the participants were asked to give their consent by signing since they were all 
literates.  The detailed questions of the structured interview are presented in the Appendix. 
 
According to Polit and Hungler (1999:143) confidentiality means that no information that 
the participant divulges is made public or available to others.  The anonymity of a person 
or an institution is protected by making it impossible to link aspects of data to a specific 
person or institution.  Participants were made aware that the responses would be used to 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
64 
 
write the thesis and after which the data would be destroyed.  They were also told that the 
data would bear no names on them and that their responses would be kept confidential.  
Furthermore, it would be impossible for someone to take any of collected data and know 
who gave that response.  Confidentiality and anonymity were therefore guaranteed by 
ensuring that data obtained were used in such a way that no other person than the 
researcher knew the source (LoBiondo-Wood & Harber 2002).  In this study codes rather 
than names were attached to the information obtained. 
 
Privacy, according to Gilbert (2001), is protected by how one keeps control of the 
information he or she receives and decides on what information to release and what not to.  
De Vos et. al. (2008), refers to privacy as agreements between persons that limit the access 
of others to private information.  In this study, the researcher ensured that any information 
given by the participants were not divulged.  Privacy also refers to the freedom an 
individual has to determine the time, extent and general circumstances under which private 
information will be shared with or withheld from others (Polit & Hungler, 1999); this was 
also considered in this study. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
65 
 
CHAPTER FOUR 
ANALYSIS OF DATA 
4.0 Introduction 
The main findings from the analysis were based on the stated objectives and presented as 
follows: (1) Determinants of career change, (2) Process of career change, (3) Reasons for 
career change, (4) Outcomes of career change, and (5) Benefits to the organization and 
their policy implications.  Participants‟ stories and comments are used to illustrate these.  
However, for the purposes of time and length restrictions, the most salient stories and 
quotes were given focus. 
 
4.1 Determinants of Career Change: Demographics 
The various aspects of the demographics were sex of the respondents, ages, marital status, 
number of children (if any), job title, levels of education and duration of education from 
High School through first degrees and post graduate degrees. 
 
Out of the 25 participants, 15 (60 percent) were males and 10 (40 percent) females (Table 
4.1).  Their ages ranged from 31 (for those who had just changed their careers into 
university teaching) to 62 (for those who have been on the new career and had attained 
various levels of progression from senior lecturer to professorial ranking).  All the 
participants who were of professorial ranking were above sixty (60) years.  Although in 
Ghana the mandatory retiring age is sixty, in the universities (especially the public 
universities) the teaching staff are engaged on contract up to the age of 65 or more with 
conditions of service similar to the other faculty members who have not yet retired.  
Therefore, information obtained from these participants post-retirement faculty is valid for 
the purpose of this study. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
66 
 
 
Table 4.1: Biodata of participants (sex). 
Category No. of Participants Percentage (%) 
Sex 
Male 15 60 
Female 10 40 
Total 25 100 
 
With respect to the marital status of the participants, 18 out of the 25 representing 72 
percent were married whereas 3 (12 percent) were single, 3 (12 percent) were widowed 
and one had separated from the spouse (Table 4.2).  Apart from the 3 single participants, 
all the rest had children ranging from 1 to 6. 
 
Table 4.2: Biodata of Participants (marital status). 
Category No. of Participants Percentage (%) 
Marital status 
Single 3 12 
Married 18 72 
Separated 1 4 
Widowed 3 12 
Total 25 100 
 
Majority of the participants are of the status of Lecturer (14 out of 25 or 56 percent).  
Seven out of the 25 or 28% are senior lecturers and 4 (16%) are of Professorial ranking 
(Table 4.3).  This job title profile appears to fit into the pyramidal structural norm for 
faculty in tertiary education.  It is worth noting that this was not preconceived since 
participants were selected on the basis of the criteria for inclusion and their willingness to 
partake in the study. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
67 
 
 
Table 4.3: Biodata of Participants (job title). 
Category No. of Participants Percentage (%) 
Job title 
Lecturer 14 56 
Senior Lecturer 7 28 
Professorial 4 16 
Total 25 100 
 
On the level of education, 4 participants had MPhil degrees.  The remaining 21 had PhD 
degrees or terminal degrees in their respective disciplines (Table 4.4).  All the females 
who participated in this study have PhD degrees. 
 
Table 4.4: Biodata of Participants (level of education). 
Category No. of Participants Percentage (%) 
Level of Education (Qualification) 
Mphil 4 16 
PhD 21 84 
Total 25 100 
 
4.2 Individual and Organisational Factors 
According to the framework that underpinned this study, the major determinants of career 
change included individual and organisational characteristics. The individual 
characteristics were: traits (Openness to Experience, Extraversion, Conscientiousness and 
general self-efficacy), demographic factors (age, gender, marital status, and children), 
human capital (education level and occupational tenure), job satisfaction, job search 
activity and intentions to leave; and organisational factors (job security and salary).  The 
data gathered from the survey are presented in the following subsections. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
68 
 
The key personality traits used in the study were openness to experience, extraversion and 
general self-efficacy.  Majority of the respondents (56 percent) indicated that openness to 
experience was the key personality trait that facilitated their decision to change career.  
Twenty percent of respondents identified Extraversion while 24 percent felt General self-
efficacy were the key determinants which influenced their decision (Table 4.5). 
 
When the respondents were asked whether their possession of the above-stated traits 
influenced the decision to switch career into university, 76 percent answered in the 
affirmative.  The preponderance of Openness to experience and Extraversion traits were 
associated more with lecturers than other ranks of faculty; 72 percent and 56 percent of 
lecturers who participated in the study opted for the two traits, respectively.  On the other 
hand, 80 percent of senior lecturers considered General self-efficacy as the key personality 
trait that influenced the shift to their present teaching position in the University. 
 
Table 4.5: Personality Traits of Respondents. 
 
Traits 
Sex of respondent 
Male Female Total 
No. % No. % No. % 
Openness to experience 9 60.0 5 50.0 14 56.0 
Extraversion 2 13.0 3 30.0 5 20.0 
General self-efficacy 4 27.0 2 20.0 6 24.0 
Total 15 100 10 100.0 25 100 
 
It is worthy of special note that all (100 percent) of the Professorial-ranked participants 
indicated openness to experience as the only factor that underpinned their decision to take 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
69 
 
up teaching appointment in the University.  These underpinning traits appeared to be 
consistent with the marital status of the respondents.  The participant who had separated 
from the spouse and the single (unmarried) respondents were those who exclusively 
identified openness to experience as the key trait that influenced their decision making. 
Information gathered showed that the level of education or qualification (MPhil or PhD) 
did not have any bearing on the personality trait. 
 
With respect to age, it was expected that younger employees were more likely to change 
careers compared to older employees.  However, this was not supported in this study.  The 
age groupings within which the participants changed into their present careers as 
university teachers were as follows: <30 years; 31-40 years; 41-50 years and > 50 years 
(Fig. 4.1).  Seventy-six percent of the participants switched to their present career within 
the 31-40 year bracket.  In terms of sex, the expectation was that males will be more likely 
to change careers compared to females; the data supported this expectation as 15 out of the 
25 respondents were males. 
 
On the account of human capital factors, higher level of education was considered by 80 
percent of respondents as a more important determinant that influence their choice of 
present career.  Of the organisational factors, job security and better salary were of equal 
significance in the decision making.  The scale of priorities of these factors was, however, 
skewed with respect to gender.  Fifty percent of the female respondents selected time for 
children as the most important factor that underpinned the change in career.  Thirty 
percent of the women indicated marital status, salary and job security as the preferred 
factors; the rest opted for occupational tenure.  For the males, 70% indicated higher 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
70 
 
educational level, job security and salary as the most significant determinants.  
Interestingly, consideration for children was not indicated by any of the male participants. 
 
Respondents were asked to state whether they were satisfied with their career and the 
reason for their decision.  Sixty-two percent indicated that they were not satisfied while 
thirty-eight percent indicated that they were satisfied with their previous career.  Low 
remuneration and low inspiration were the main reasons for the lack of satisfaction by 
those whose selected job dissatisfaction.  The minority who indicated that they were 
satisfied cited good working environment as the reason. 
 
 
 
 
Figure 4.1: Distribution of Ages of Participants. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
71 
 
4.3 Processes Career-Switches Go Through to Effect a Career Change 
To understand the processes individuals go through in order to effect a career change into 
university teaching the study set out some key parameters namely, when they first thought 
of changing career, reasons which influenced the thought for change, search for alternative 
opportunities, dependence on formal or informal contacts, activities undertaken in order to 
prepare for the new career, challenges faced during the preparation period and duration of 
the transition into new career. 
 
In response to when they first thought of changing career, all the participants reported a 
greater intention to leave their previous job several months prior to actual career change.  
The selected issues under reasons which influenced this thought for change, among others, 
were inspiration from family, desire to impart knowledge, enhanced job opportunities, 
opportunity to have time for the family.  Distribution of participants according to priority 
options for these reasons is given in Table 4.6.  It is obvious that enhanced job opportunity 
and the desire to impart knowledge were key reasons that accounted for the change in 
career among the male participants.  
 
An illustration of how the quest for enhanced job opportunity influences career transitions 
from my data is that of a male participant, who went through a period of unemployed for 
“over five years” with temporal work opportunities described as “piece job” that helped 
him survive.  The participant bemoaned of how he acquired these “piece jobs” using his 
Advanced Level Certificate.  He managed to get a job as a sales officer.  It is during the 
period of being unemployed and through various piece jobs that the decision was made to 
change from being a sales officer to a university teacher.  This was motivated by the 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
72 
 
perception of “stability of income” and “abundant opportunities” in the teaching 
profession. 
 
Table 4.6: Reasons Which Influenced the Thought for Change in Relation to Sex. 
 
 
For the female participants, 8 out of the 10 (representing 80 percent) cited time for family 
as the single most important reason.  One (10 percent) out of the 8 participants explained 
her reason.  “My husband felt I was too busy with my work at the Food and Drugs Board, 
and traffic to and from the Ministries area make me get home late.  So I decided to pursue 
a PhD programme to enable me enter the same profession as my husband to have time for 
my family”. 
 
Another female participant expressed similar reason “I was working in a bank and the 
frustrations was just too much for me to bear.  More importantly, my husband was always 
complaining about my tight schedules which made it difficult for me to have time for him 
Reasons that influenced 
thought 
Sex 
Male Female Total 
 N % No % No % 
Inspiration from Family 1 7.0 0 0.0 1 4.0 
To impart others 2 13.0 1 10.0 3 12.0 
Enhance job opportunity 8 53.0 1 10.0 9 36.0 
Enough Family time 1 7.0 8 80.0 9 36.0 
Others 3 20.0 0 0.0 3 12.0 
Total 15 100.0 10 100.0 25 100.0 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
73 
 
and my children.  One of such complaints almost led to the break-up of my marriage, there 
and then I decided to go into a profession that will accommodate my family 
responsibilities, and this made lecturing appealing to me. 
 
Some of the participants selected inspiration from family members as a reason that 
influenced the thought for the change in career.  “My father was a lecturer and he made 
me aware that if he has a university degree, then with all the necessary support he is 
providing me I have to get something more.  So I knew right from primary school, that 
higher degree was my goal.  I must say that it was his influenced and the desire to attain 
higher degree that influenced me to change from a banker into this profession”. 
 
Generally, majority of the married participants, irrespective of sex, identified impartation 
of knowledge, better job opportunity and time for the family as more important reason for 
the change in career.  Furthermore, all categories of staff placed enhanced job opportunity 
as one of the most important reasons why they switched into teaching. 
 
On the search for alternative opportunities, majority of the participants said that their 
thought to change career was informed by a search for alternative opportunities whereas 
the minority were divided in their opinion.  This decision did not have any clear 
relationship with marital status of the respondents, level of education or qualification and 
job title or rank. 
 
All the 10 female respondents (100 percent) indicated that they relied on formal or 
informal contacts in making the decision to change their previous carriers to the present 
teaching positions in the University.  For the males, 70 percent relied on these contacts for 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
74 
 
the change.  Marital status and level of education did not play any significant role in this 
case.  It was obvious that majority of the Lecturers and Senior Lecturers relied on these 
contacts more than participants with Professorial status. 
 
Of great importance to this study were the courses or programs participants undertook to 
enable them prepare for the new career.  To ascertain this, participants were asked whether 
there was the need for them to undertake any activity in order to qualify for the university 
teaching.  All the respondents (100 percent) responded in the affirmative.  In furtherance 
to this, they were asked to indicate the programs or courses they had to undertake.  
Majority of the participants reported they had to undertake a PhD program.  The few ones 
had Bachelor‟s degree and needed to have an MPhil degree to qualify for university 
teaching.  A participant with a bachelor‟s degree at the time he considered changing his 
career stated that “I had to take an MPhil programme which lasted for 2 years and a 4 year 
PhD programme” 
 
With respect to the challenges they faced during the preparation period, the participants 
raised several issues and these include the following: (i) differences in culture, (ii) distance 
(iii) lack of funds, (iv) family balance, and (v) combining education with work.  In this 
regard, majority of participants identified lack of funds, combining education with work 
and ensuring balance between their studies and family commitments and the main 
challenges that confronted them.  For the females, the issue of combining work, family 
and school was their main challenge whereas, lack of funds was of greater concern for the 
males. Some of the comments are as follows: 
 “I encountered many challenges but key among them was balancing work, school 
and family life.  All attempt to secure a study leave from my employer proved 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
75 
 
futile and I had to do all these at the same time.  It was not easy (a female 
participant)”.  “My main challenge during the MPhil was purely financial.  During 
the PhD studies my challenge related to settling in a new environment or culture in 
the USA” (male participant). 
 
Marital status, level of education and rank did not alter the responses provided by the 
participants.  The duration of the transition from the previous job into new career ranged 
from three (3) to ten (10) years suggesting that for some participants the decision was 
taken without much delay while others had to take time for sober reflection before making 
up their minds.  “I had my PhD programme abroad and I was faced with a language 
problem and difference in culture”. 
 
4.4 Reasons Why Individuals Switch Career Into University Teaching 
According to Rhodes and Doering‟s (1983) model, people choose to change career for 
specific reasons.  To examine the reasons why participants chose lecturing as a second 
career, some pertinent issues were identified to elicit relevant information.  These issues 
were structured as follows: 
 current occupation of participants; 
 other career pursued; 
 reasons for change into university teaching; 
 comparison of present and previous jobs with respect to remuneration, social 
commitments and level of and reasons for satisfaction; and  
 factors underpinning the decision to choose university teaching. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
76 
 
Information gathered showed that the current occupation of all participants was teaching at 
the University of Ghana.  Prior to their present position as lecturers, majority of the 
participants stated that they held non-teaching jobs in different areas of work namely, 
research institutes, the public service and the private sector.  Only three (12 percent) 
participants were teaching in other non-tertiary educational institutions.  It is apparent that 
the number of respondents (15 or 60 percent) who were previously in teaching (non-
tertiary), research and the public service were males and married.  The level of education 
and job title (rank in the University) did not show any clear relationship with the type of 
previous jobs. 
 
To ascertain the underlying reasons for change of career into university teaching, the 
participants were asked, among other issues to state the reasons that influenced this 
decision.  The main reasons given were (a) desire to impart knowledge, (b) desire to 
undertake research, (c) enhanced job opportunities (d) inspiration derived from significant 
others (e) personal growth.  In this regard, a greater number (20) of the participants 
identified one or more of these characteristics but in equal proportions.  The rest (5) 
considered reasons, other than the three factors, as basis for the change of career.  The 
preference for the three reasons was equally distributed among the married participants.  
Generally, the desire to impart knowledge and personal growth were cited by a relatively 
large number of participants, irrespective of the ranks (e.g. Lecturer, Senior Lecturer, 
Senior Lecturer or Professors). 
 
One illustration of how the desire to impart knowledge influenced career change is the 
story of one male participant who expressed the fact that he had always wanted to teach at 
the university level to enable him make impact in the lives of students, but started with his 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
77 
 
previous career in fashion designing while pursuing his MPhil (2 years) and PhD (4 years) 
programmes.  Consequently, it took him 6 years to make the transition into teaching at the 
University of Ghana.  A similar comment was made by another male participant. “I have 
always wanted to teach at the tertiary level but life got in my way and now I am doing 
what I dreamed of all those years ago.” 
 
Personal growth and passion for teaching also served as salient themes for necessitating 
individual career change.  Some participants cited the need to develop further and the only 
way to do this was through a career change.  Others had described themselves as “square 
pegs in round holes” in their first career and said it took them years to realise that their 
“hearts and passions” belong with young adults rather than in the world of accounting. 
 
Twenty out of the 25 (80 percent) respondents considered their present job at the 
University of Ghana as more lucrative.  This response was not exclusive to sex, 
qualification or rank.  Majority of the male respondents indicated that their previous jobs 
accommodated social commitments including time for the family.  On the other hand, the 
females stated that they did not have enough time during the tenure of their respective 
previous jobs.  These observations may relate to the key determinants that cause change of 
careers by females. 
 
According to all the females, non-availability of time for social commitment on the 
previous job strongly influenced their decision to change their career.  All the married 
respondents also stated this as one of the main reasons for the change.  Job title and 
qualification were irrelevant in the responses.  Quite significantly, all respondents were 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
78 
 
emphatic that they were more satisfied with their present job in the university than their 
respective previous jobs. 
 
The reasons given by respondents for being satisfied with teaching in the University were 
varied.  Eight out of the 10 female participants (72 percent) and 3 out of the 15 males 
(about 12 percent) stated that flexible time was the main reason for the job satisfaction.  
Financial reward and the challenging nature of teaching were of greater interest to a large 
number of the male respondents.  All the married respondents (72 percent) including the 
one who had separated from the spouse (4 percent) also cited flexible time as the basis for 
being satisfied with the present job.  There were no preferences of the stated reasons with 
respect to job title (or rank) and level of qualification (MPhil or PhD degrees). 
 
To identify the key influential factors in the decision to choose teaching as a second 
career, the participants were asked to select from a range of factors namely, social status, 
career fit, prior considerations, financial reward, time for family and job security.  The 
scale of priority for the factors based on the number of participants (males) followed a 
decreasing order of job security > social status > career fit > financial reward and time for 
family.  “Prior consideration” as a factor was not selected by any male participant.  For the 
female participants, however, time for the family was selected as the most important factor 
followed by “prior consideration”; social status, career fit, financial reward and job 
security were ranked equal.  The observed scale of priority tends to fit the order of 
preference by the married participants. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
79 
 
4.5 Outcomes of Career Switch and Job Satisfaction 
To describe the outcomes of career switch into university teaching on job satisfaction, the 
participants were asked a series of questions.  These were as follows: (i) Is change of 
career into university teaching worthwhile? (ii) Are the reasons for the change of career 
into university worthwhile? (iii) Have expectations for choosing university teaching been 
met? (iv) Are there reasons underlying expectations for choosing university teaching? (v) 
Have you any reason to abandon university teaching? (vi) Do you have any opinion on 
career as a university teacher? (vii) Would you consider career change as successful? and 
(viii) Do you have any reason for considering career change as successful.  Responses to 
these questions are stated below. 
 
All the respondents (100 percent) stated that the shift of jobs into University teaching had 
been worthwhile.  They also stated that their expectations had been met.  Various reasons 
were assigned to this assertion.  The desire to impart knowledge to students, social 
recognition and job security were the prominent reasons for finding the switch worthwhile.  
Incidentally, similar reasons in addition to quest for personal development were ascribed 
for their expectations being met.  In all cases, the desire to impart knowledge was 
accorded top priority by many participants (Table. 4.7).  However, for the females (10 or 
40 percent) and MPhil holders (4 or 16 percent), personal development was a matter of 
great interest. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
80 
 
Table 4.7: Reasons why the switch into University has been Worthwhile. 
 Sex of respondent 
Male Female 
No % No % 
Job Security 1 6.7 1 10 
Social recognition 2 13.3 1 10 
Imparting knowledge  8 53.3 5 50 
Personal 
development/ Other 
reasons 
4 26.7 3 30 
Total 15 100.0 10 100.0 
 
Responses to the question on whether one would abandon university teaching were 
emphatic among the female participants.  All the 10 females indicated that they would not 
abandon their present job.  Even though a majority of the male respondents (12 or 48 
percent) indicated they would not quit their present job, 3 out of the 15 (12 percent) 
indicated that they might quit.  This view appears to be expressed by Lecturers who hold 
MPhil degrees. 
 
The participants were asked to express their opinions on the following important issues: 
job security, fulfillment and the stressful nature of their career, among other 
considerations.  Majority of the respondents (88 percent) found their present career 
fulfilling and less stressful compared to their previous careers.  In his bid to explain the 
reasons for his satisfaction, a male participated commented:  
 
“Compared to my previous career, teaching at the tertiary level affords me greater 
challenge as it demands continuous search for knowledge as well as the opportunity 
to impart knowledge and training of skilled personnel”. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
81 
 
Another participant who expressed the same sentiment added that “it is a pride to 
see my students contributing to national development” 
 
This expression was not influenced by marital status, job title or level of qualification.  All 
participants indicated that the change into university teaching has been very successful and 
worthwhile.  These positions were attributed to the satisfying and rewarding nature of the 
new job coupled with the fact that their expectations had been met.  The males placed 
greater emphasis on the fulfilling aspect, while the females felt that the success was related 
more to the rewarding character of the new career.  
In response to the question “How would you describe your career as a university 
teacher?”  One male participant commented follows: 
 
“I describe my current profession as very fulfilling, a highly motivated teacher 
because of the performance of students I have trained over the years”.  A female 
participant who described her career as extremely successful and very rewarding 
explained her description 
 
“My colleagues at my former place of work do not have terminal degrees, and have 
not directly impacted people like I have.  Now I walk to so many places and past 
students give me preferential treatment”. 
 
This indicates that despite the challenges participants encountered to make their career 
change successful, they all feel this journey has been worthwhile.  
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
82 
 
4.6 Assessment of Job Performance and Organizational Benefits 
This objective aims at assessing job performance and benefits for the organisation.  To 
achieve this, respondents were asked among other questions to state any valuable skills 
they brought from their previous career and how these skills affect their new job.  They 
were also asked whether they feel appreciated for these skills.  Pertinently, the views of 
participants were sought on the following with aim of assessing the performance of career 
changers and the benefits derived by their new employers: (i) did your experience or skill 
in your previous career assist your performance in the new career; (ii) state some of these 
experiences; (iii) has there been any assessment of your performance in your new career?; 
(iv) how will you describe the assessment?; (v) have you received any special recognition 
or award in your new career?; (vi) state the type of recognition and/or award.   
 
All the respondents indicated that they acquired some experiences and skills on their 
previous careers, apart from the higher degree studies.  Some of the experiences acquired 
involved practical application of findings of their respective thesis research.  Participants 
(5 or 20 percent) from research institutions indicated that on-field experiments, especially 
in the natural and social sciences afforded them the opportunity to adapt conventional 
methodologies to generate relevant data in the natural setting.  Those from the teaching at 
the non-tertiary level public service and the private sector (20 or 80 percent) also cited the 
interactive nature of their respective work with stakeholders and clients. 
 
On assessment of performance in university teaching, majority of the participants (20 or 
80 percent) cited the annual students‟ appraisal of teaching and assessment of general 
performance by Heads of Department as the main forms of evaluation.  Many of the 
participants (18 out of 25 or 72%) stated that students had given an overall satisfactory 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
83 
 
assessment of their teaching.  The remaining respondents (28 percent) indicated that they 
were not privy to the assessment reports.  Twelve participants (48 percent) said they had 
received special recognition and awards since changing career into University teaching.  
Three of the respondents (12%) with teaching background, had at one time or the order 
received the Best Teacher Awards in their Faculties.  Other forms of recognition identified 
were fellowship of professional bodies and intellectual societies and membership of 
international committees in academia. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
84 
 
CHAPTER FIVE 
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 
5.1 Introduction 
Based on the framework that guided this study, it was expected that a number of 
individual and organisational characteristics will influence career change; this was 
supported thereby providing a general support for the model of career change proposed by 
Rhodes and Doering (1983).  As shown in the results, employees who reported high levels 
of Openness to Experience, Extraversion and General self-efficacy were more likely to 
change careers than those who do not have these traits.  Thus, individuals who are curious, 
enjoy new experiences and have well developed social skills are more likely to change 
careers than those who are cautious, quiet, non-sociable individuals.  These traits appear to 
reflect the factors which influenced the decision of participants used in this study to switch 
career into university teaching. 
 
Unlike previous studies (Carless & Arnup, 2011; Mignonac, 2008; Khapova, Arthur, 
Wilderom, & Svensson, 2007), the present research found stronger support for general 
self-efficacy than extraversion.  Employees with this trait have a strong belief in their 
ability to perform across variety of situations and thus have a high probability to switch 
careers.  Although there has been a considerable body of research on personality and 
turnover, little is known about the relationship between personality and career change 
(Sullivan, 1999; Tokar et al., 1998).  Practically, these findings highlight the importance of 
taking into account personality traits when working with individuals who are considering a 
career change.  Also, such findings parallel the trait-and-factor theory which proposes a 
perfect match between an individual‟s life values and career goals.   
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
85 
 
Of the five important factors that influence career change into teaching identified in their 
study, Richardson and Watts (2005) reported that respondents elected “career fit” as most 
influential factor.  The importance of this „personality fit‟ factor is further supported in 
other research in the vocational literature, where Holland (1997) initially defined the 
notion of „congruence‟ as the match between the individual and his/her work environment, 
and others have since demonstrated this congruence to be associated with career 
satisfaction (Elton & Smart, 1998; Fricko & Beehr, 1992; Smart, Elton, McLaughlin, 
1986).   
 
Over recent years the teaching profession has witnessed a significant increase in the 
number of mature age individuals switching careers to become teachers (McKenzie et al., 
2011; Australian Education Union, 2008).  A sizeable proportion of early career teachers 
are now in their thirties and forties and many of them have been in other occupations 
before commencing teaching (McKenzie et al., 2011).  This age bracket has been 
characterised as „midlife‟ by several developmental researchers. For instance, Levinson 
(1978) identified the major transitional periods as “early adult,” “age 30.” “mid-life,” “age 
50” and “late adult.” 
 
In the present study, majority of the participants fell between the ages of 30 and 40 years, 
confirming the above-mentioned studies which suggest that most individuals that change 
careers do so in their midlife.  In their study, Barclay et al. (2010) asserted that although 
career change may take place at any age across the life span; a critical time for this change 
is during middle adulthood (the period of a person‟s life span between the age of 35 and 
55).  According to Lee and Lamport (2011) and Valcour and Tolbert (2003), mid-life 
career changers are part of a global trend of professionals changing careers. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
86 
 
These theorists have noted that midlife is a period of reflection and resurgence for many; a 
stage in life where a person begins to question and re-evaluate their life choices.  
Developmental theorists like Levinson (1978/1996), Gilligan (1982), and Borysenko 
(1996), profess that midlife is an age within the life cycle that one begins to question, who 
am I? Where am I going? And what is the purpose and meaning of my life thus far?  These 
questions are often times instigated by a crisis or transition that allows one to re-evaluate 
life to determine where one has been and where one is going.  Considering the reasons 
participants gave as influencing the thought for career change, it is obvious that their 
decision was influenced by this “mid-life crisis”.  The finding is also consistent with 
several previous studies (Baruch, 2006; Polach, 2004; Mercora, 2003; Thomas, 1980; 
Jung, 1933), but contrary to some others (Carless & Arnup, 2001; Breeden, 1993; Parks & 
Markey, 1989) that found younger individuals to be more likely to change careers.  For 
instance, Breeden (1993) concluded that the group of workers who most often change 
careers were less than 30 years of age.  The explanation is that, these workers have not 
accumulated general and specific human capital in their occupation compared to older 
employees. 
 
According to the framework that guided this study, males change their career more 
frequently than females. This was supported in the present study.  The finding is also 
consistent with other studies (Parrado, et al., 2007; Blau, 2000; Blau & lunz, 1998) but 
contrary to other studies that have reported no sex differences in intentions to change 
careers (Carless &Bernath, 2007; Miguel, 1993; Markey & Parks, 1989).  This is evident 
in the varied reasons male participants assigned to their career change behaviour and thus 
suggests that males are more flexible in their work arrangements than females. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
87 
 
The report, therefore, does not support the literature (Valcour and Tolbert, 2003) that 
holds that career change tends to work well for women, due to a number of factors 
including time off for child-bearing and raising, and moving due to a spouse‟s career.  
Because although the female participants gave these reasons as why they switched career, 
the male participants outnumbered the females in this study, leading to the conclusion that 
more men change career than women.  Nonetheless, this conclusion can be explained in 
terms of the gender imbalance that characterise almost every institution in Ghana, and 
University of Ghana is not an exception.  According to Statistics of the University of 
Ghana, females constitute less than 25% of the total number of teaching faculty.  This 
proportion has been the case over the last few decades (UG, Basic Statistics, 2014). 
 
Concerning marital status, although 18 out of the 25 (72%) participants were married, they 
did not associate their status with the decision to change career.  Thus, similar to other 
studies elsewhere (Carless & Bernath, 2007; Blau, 2000; Blau & Lunz, 2000; Blau & 
Lunz, 1998; Markey & Parks, 1989), this research found no clear linkage between marital 
status and career change.  This may imply that other factors other than marital status were 
of greater consideration in the decision to change careers. 
 
With respect to human capital, the participants were emphatic that their attainment of 
higher education greatly influenced their decision to make the transition.  However, only a 
few of them selected occupational tenure as influential in their decision.  This suggests 
that higher educated employees regardless of the number of years they have been with 
their previous occupation were more likely to change careers than those with little 
education and substantial occupational tenure.  The finding corroborates other studies such 
as Carless and Arnup‟s (2011) who explained that employees with higher levels of formal 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
88 
 
education are more able to learn the knowledge and skills required in a new career.  It is 
also feasible that employees participated in higher education to facilitate transition to a 
new career (Donohue, 2007; Benson, Finegold, & Mohrman, 2004; Kanchier, 1988).  This 
finding is also consistent with the protean or boundaryless career approach to careers (Hall 
& Moss, 1998; Arthur, 1994; Yankelovich, 1981; Howard, 1978) which posits that career 
change rather than stability is a characteristic of contemporary careers. 
 
As indicated in the results of this study, both salary and job security were of equal 
importance in the decision making to switch career.  This finding mirrors a recent study 
that found that individuals in the developed world consider intrinsic factors in their 
decision to change careers while those in the developing world like Ghana emphasize on 
extrinsic determinants.  It is therefore not surprising that Carless and Arnup (2011) study 
which was conducted in the developed world indicated that the prospect of a higher salary 
was not related to career change nor did it improve as expected post-change.  Perhaps this 
inconsistency can be explained in terms of the socio-economic conditions of the two 
worlds. 
 
Further, the scale of priorities of these factors was skewed with respect to gender as 
female participants were more concerned with factors such as time for children and marital 
status as the most important factors that underpinned the change in career.  For the males, 
70% indicated higher educational level, job security and salary as the most significant 
determinants.  Interestingly, consideration for children was not indicated by any of the 
male participant.  Again, this can be explained given the socio-economic environment of 
the participants.  This difference adds weight to studies that have reported that men tend to 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
89 
 
measure career success using objective indicators (salary and promotions) while women 
use subjective measures such as quality time for family. 
 
In a study conducted by Neapolitan (1980), the researcher found that career changers were 
dissatisfied in their first occupations because of incongruence between wants and 
expectations and occupational rewards.  In this study, majority of the participants 
indicated they were not satisfied with their previous work and gave reasons such as low 
remuneration and low inspiration.  The minority who indicated that they were satisfied 
cited good working environment as the reason for their dissatisfaction.  This goes to 
confirm studies that identified environmental factors as solely responsible for career 
decisions.  It also coincides, for instance, with the hypothesis that self-actualization, a 
career growth outcome, is one of the principal factors affecting job satisfaction (Sagal & 
DeBlassie, 1981).  It further adds weight to previous studies (Carless & Arnup, 2011; 
Breeden, 1993) that assessed actual career change.  These authors reported that job 
satisfaction was a non-significant predictor of career change. 
 
5.2 Process of Career Change 
The decision to change career is seen as a more deliberate act than are other forms of 
voluntary separation (Rhodes & Doering, 1983).  Like any major event, from birth to 
death, the actual moment of career change declares to the world that a process has been at 
work.  While careers, like other life events, are normally measured on external factors 
(tenure, promotion, etc.), an internal life known only to the individual or close friends 
often provides a fuller perspective (Herman et al., 2014).  In order to examine the 
processes associated with career change into university teaching, the study set out some 
key parameters namely, when they first thought of changing career, reasons which 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
90 
 
influenced the thought for change, search for alternative opportunities, dependence on 
formal or informal contacts, activities undertaken in order to prepare for the new career, 
challenges faced during the preparation period and duration of the transition into new 
career. 
 
In response to when they first thought of changing their career, all the 25 participants 
reported a greater intention to leave their previous job several months prior to the actual 
career change.  The selected issues under reasons which influenced this thought for 
change, among others, were inspiration from family, desire to impart knowledge, 
enhanced job opportunities and opportunity to have time for the family.  It is obvious that 
enhanced job opportunity and the desire to impart knowledge were key reasons that 
accounted for the change in career among the male participants.  This analysis shows the 
great relevance of non-monetary factors in informing the decision to change careers.  
 
For the female participants, 8 out of the 10 (72%) cited time for family as the single most 
important reason that influenced the thought to change career.  But the question remains 
whether the male participants have no need for flexible hours to allow them time for their 
families.   This is not surprising given the kind of socialization process we have in Ghana 
which defines and shapes the role of women in economic activity along biological and 
cultural lines (Amu, 2006).  On the whole, all categories of staff placed the desire to 
impart knowledge as one of the most important reasons why they switched into teaching at 
the tertiary level.  Probable explanation is the given by Dalaba (1975) and Berg (1974) 
who found that many well-educated adults have high career expectations and insist upon 
opportunities to express themselves and to make meaningful contributions to society. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
91 
 
According to the model that guided this study, actual search includes the search behaviour 
to decide on an alternative as well as to find the means of reaching that goal (e.g. location 
of sources of education or training).  Actual search also may produce clarification 
regarding the availability of alternatives plus additional alternatives.  The finding in this 
study provided a strong support for the career change model (Rhodes & Doering, 1983), as 
majority of the participants indicated that the thought to change career was followed by a 
search for alternative opportunities.  The results are also consistent with Locke‟s (1976) 
task goal model and with Fishben‟s (1967) model of attitudes, intentions and behaviours.  
Nevertheless, the minority were divided in their opinion.  
 
In response to whether they relied on formal or informal contacts in making the decision to 
change to university teaching, a greater number of the respondents said they relied mainly 
on friends (informal contacts).  This is in agreement with the social network theory which 
suggests that the set of career opportunities an individual has may be enhanced or 
constrained by the structural characteristics of the individual‟s network of relations 
(Higgins, 2001; Hodkinson & Sparkes, 1997; Ibarra, 1993) which in this study includes 
friends.  It further adds weight to Higgins (2001) assumption that career change decision-
making is a social process; thus the social context and, in particular, the people who 
provide the decision-maker with the information during the job search process can affect 
the likelihood of career change.  Those in the minority relied on advertisement (formal 
contacts) a job outlet that has been enhanced over the years thanks to increased 
technology. 
 
According to career change theorists (Carless & Arnup, 2011; Markay & Parks, 1980; 
Blau, 2000), the process associated with the phenomenon comes with considerable 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
92 
 
challenges for the changers.  For the participants in this study, the main challenges 
included lack of funds, combining education with work and ensuring balance between 
their studies and family commitments.  All the females reported that the issue of 
combining work, family and school was their main challenge whereas, lack of funds was 
of greater concern for the males.  The contextual explanation is that our society is largely 
patriarchal where the resources for providing for the needs of the family are borne by men.  
Thus the issue of lack of funds cited by the male participants finds truth in this 
sociocultural background of Africa and in this case Ghana. 
 
The duration of the transition from the previous job into new career ranged from three (3) 
to ten (10) years and this confirms the notion of prior consideration reported by 
Richardson and Watt (2005).  It also affirms the notion that the actual change process 
begins with leaving the old job and it is not completed until the new job/career is entered 
(Rhodes & Doering, 1983). 
 
5.3 Reasons Reported as Influential in Entering University Teaching 
Sociologists are interested in knowing why people behave the way they do or reasons 
individuals assign to their everyday activities.  Likewise, the researcher set out to 
understand why individuals construct particular identities of themselves and in later years 
decide to switch into teaching.  Influenced by her personal experience, the researcher 
desired to know the pull factors that attracted the participants into teaching at the 
university level.  To achieve this, she solicited information on both the past and present 
occupation of participants, reasons for entering university teaching, issues concerning 
flexibility of schedule, job satisfaction, reasons for satisfaction and others.  
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
93 
 
All the participants are lecturers of the University of Ghana, Legon who have entered the 
profession from other careers or jobs.  The areas included teaching (non-tertiary), research, 
public and private work (ICT, media, industry administration and marketing, commerce 
and banking).  This observation fits the required background of the participants.  Again, 
the professional background other than teaching at the university level of participants 
affirms the basis of the study, that is, career change and not job change.  This is 
underpinned by the definitions of Rhodes and Doering (1983) on “career change” and “job 
change”.  Career change refers to “movement to a new occupation or profession that is not 
part of a typical career progression”, whereas job change is considered as movement to a 
similar job or a job that is part of a normal career path. 
 
Research elsewhere have noted that a large population of career changers have come from 
non-teaching background (Lee and Lamport, 2011; Cochran-Smith & Ziechner, 2005).  
However, studies on career change from non-teaching to teaching at the tertiary levels are 
rare (Richardson & Watt, 2005).  Majority of the research have concentrated on non-
teaching to teaching at the primary and secondary levels (Shaw, 1996; Young, 1995; 
Brown, 1992; Chui Seng Yong, 1992) and also from faculty teaching to non-teaching 
(Herman et al., 1983). 
 
Reasons for changing from these careers to lecturing varied from the desire to impart 
knowledge, fulfilment, the opportunity for research and inspiration derived from 
significant others, challenging, financial reward and job security.  These underpinning 
reasons have roots in theory and practice.  Schein (1978) identified job security as one of 
the five anchors used by individuals to change a career.  For this reason, it is reasonable to 
expect that if job security is threatened individuals will consider changing careers.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
94 
 
Kanchier and Unruh (1989) noted that the possibility of earning a higher salary likely 
influences willingness to change careers.  In a related qualitative study of professional 
engineers and scientists, it was observed that the prospect of better remuneration was 
nominated by a majority of career changers as a reason for undertaking the change (Lewis 
and Thomas, 1987).  However, reasons such as fulfilment and desire to impart knowledge 
by participants support the appeal of teaching in general.  This result affirms the notion 
that non-monetary motives are more relevant in informing the decision to enter teaching 
than monetary factors (Hof, Strupler & Wolter, 2011).  
 
5.4 Outcomes of University Teaching on Job Satisfaction 
This section aimed at establishing whether the career change decision has resulted in the 
expected outcome.  As noted by Rhodes and Doering (1983), individuals undertake career 
change with the expectation of improving various aspects of work.  In this study, the 
improvement was identified as job satisfaction, job security, and fulfilment in respect of 
imparting knowledge with attendant recognition by students, research opportunities to 
acquire more knowledge, and better work-life balance. 
 
Studies elsewhere have indicated that reduction in hours worked was a major factor of job 
satisfaction that described the outcomes of career change (Breeden, 1993; Smart & 
Peterson, 1987; Neapolitan, 1980).  In this study, time with family was a key element of 
job satisfaction especially among the female participants.  This observation is in accord 
with the findings of Lee and Lamport (2011) and Richardson and Watt (2005).  More 
importantly, it supports the Ghanaian culture whereby women are perceived to be 
homemakers and therefore they are raised to care for the home and children. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
95 
 
5.5 Job Performance and Organizational Benefits 
The findings on the performance of the new career changers may serve as an indication of 
improvement in quality delivery of academic work (teaching, research and extension).  
This improvement may, in part be attributed to the experiences and skills that the new 
employees bring from their previous work endeavours.  The implications of this 
performance enhancing characteristics to the overall service delivery of the University 
cannot be under estimated. 
 
The Strategic Plan of the University of Ghana for the period 2014-2024 (UG, 2014b) 
states that 63% of all lecturers currently on staff role have PhD compared to target of 
100%.  The need for greater effort in staff development to bridge this gap has been 
emphasized.  Towards this end, the stated major pillars of the Plan include growth of the 
numbers of graduate students, especially at the PhD level, to ensure a ratio of 50:50 
(undergraduate/graduate).  It is also to expand significantly the number of faculty 
members to ensure a decent teacher: student ratio in conformity with national norms and 
standards by the end of the plan period. 
 
Under the Plan the two top priorities are Research and Teaching and Learning with key 
priority initiatives such (a) ensuring that 85% of the faculty in all departments should have 
PhDs by 2018; (b) Departments should achieve at least 75% of teaching performance 
targets; and (c) at least 60% of eligible mid-career academics should have access to 
competitive UG research and training support and access to external support.  Decreasing 
funding sources with the attendant minimal budgetary allocation for staff training during 
the past few decades have brought severe challenges to management of tertiary 
institutions.  It is apparent that attainment of the stated goals would come with enormous 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
96 
 
setbacks.  It is against this backdrop that the role of career changers as noted in this study 
becomes important. 
 
Majority of the participants have terminal degrees (PhD) before changing their careers to 
teaching.  This educational background fits into the minimum qualification requirement 
for teaching in the University.  The cost implications apart from the high calibre personnel 
are beneficial to the University in terms of faculty development.  Career changes also 
bring fresh contemporary ideas and knowledge to their new institutions, especially in the 
current state of limited resources that cannot support sabbaticals, an element so vital in the 
working lives of academics.  As noted in this study, all the participants have had different 
experiences and skills from their previous jobs before joining the university.  These 
diverse backgrounds (Fig. 5.1) have become invaluable asset to the new organization in 
respect performance output. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
97 
 
 
 
Figure 5.1: Professional Background of Participants before Changing Career. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
98 
 
Studies elsewhere provide proven evidence on the benefits institutions derive from career 
changers.  It has been noted by career change theorist that companies or institutions which 
employ career-changers benefit enormously from their varied attributes such as risk 
taking, transfer of valuable experiences and skills, open mindedness and predisposition to 
learning new things.  Empirical evidence showed that career-changers often thrive in new 
environments with great benefits to their employers.  The old, one-track-career days are 
fading fast (Hamil, 2014) for which reason institutions need to adapt their recruiting 
policies to welcome candidates with diverse backgrounds; this is a more beneficial way of 
tapping the best talents on the job market. 
 
For the few participants with previous teaching experience, though non-tertiary, the 
intrinsic qualities they bring to the new career is worth noting.  According to Powell 
(1992) second career teachers are more likely to be influenced by value systems and other 
intrinsic motivators, as well as by prior work experiences.  He asserted that non-traditional 
pre-service teachers were an older group of students, had encountered many life 
experiences, and most were deeply committed to becoming teachers, especially those who 
had chosen teaching over lucrative careers that they had been in for a number of years.  
This observation ties in well with reasons assigned to the decision of the mid-life and 
older generation of participants in this study, who indicated that desire to impart 
knowledge and quality time for the family were overriding determinants rather than job 
security as salary for the switch.  In addition, many of these teachers had extensive 
experience with children, most of them having raised children of their own.  Other studies 
show additional factors also contribute to the decisions of career-switchers that choose to 
become second-career teachers. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
99 
 
According to Herman et al. (1983), Ostroff et al. (2001), Chui Seng Yong (1992) and 
Austin and Hanish (1990), mid-career changes go through an intense period of soul 
searching before taking decisions on a life-long endeavour.  Once they do so they remain 
on the job till they retire.  These findings are also consistent with the trait and factor 
theory, which posits that once individuals are able to make a perfect match between their 
values and career goals, they tend to remain in such professions.  A greater number (more 
than 90 percent) of participants indicated in this study they will not quit their present 
university teaching career if given other options.  It can therefore be argued that 
participants, including the majority in the mid-career group, would remain on their new 
university teaching job until they retire.  This is significant for the University in terms of 
staff retention, judging from available statistics which shows that in the past two decades, 
a greater number of people have joined the teaching staff with very few (less than one 
percent) leaving the service before the statutory retiring age of 60 years (UG, 2014b). 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
100 
 
CHAPTER SIX 
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
This chapter presents a summary of the key findings of this study, state conclusions 
derived from the findings and make some pertinent recommendations.  The study focused 
on five main objectives namely, (1) determinants of career change, (2) process of career 
change, (3) reasons of career change, (4) outcomes of career change, and (5) benefits to 
the organization and their policy implications using structured interviews and references to 
documents and literature as primary and secondary sources of data, respectively. 
 
6.1 Summary 
A summary of the key findings from the study on the basis of the objectives are stated in 
the following subsections. 
 
6.1.1 Determinants of Career Change 
The determinants of career change focused on the demographics of respondents, namely, 
ages, marital status, number of children (if any), job title and educational background or 
qualification.  The 25 participants comprised 60 percent males and 40 percent females 
with age range between 31 and 62 years.  Majority of the participants (72 percent) were 
married with children (1 to six per family).  The job title categories were 56 percent 
lecturers, 28 percent senior lecturers and 16 percent professors with 84 percent of the all 
the teaching staff holding PhD degrees. 
 
6.1.2 Individual and Organisational Factors 
Individual and organisational characteristics consistent with the framework of this study, 
were identified as important determinants of career change.  The study revealed that the 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
101 
 
key individual traits were age, openness to experience, extraversion, general self-efficacy 
human capital (education level and occupational tenure) and job satisfaction.  The 
organisational factors were job security and salary. 
 
Fifty six percent of the participants stated that their decision to change career was due to 
openness to experience.  Extraversion and general self-efficacy were the main traits that 
influenced 20 percent and 24 percent of the participants, respectively, to switch careers.  
Openness to experience and extraversion traits were associated more with Lecturers than 
other ranks of faculty.  A large number of senior lecturers (80 percent) identified general 
self-efficacy as the key personality trait for the change in career to the present teaching job 
at the University of Ghana.  Openness to experience was the most important trait for 
taking up teaching appointment in the University by all the professors.  With respect to 
age, 31-40 year bracket constituted 76 percent of the participants who switched to their 
present career within with males being the majority.  Higher education was the more 
important human capital factor in the decision by 80 percent of respondents to change 
career.  Job satisfaction was a common determinant chosen by majority of participants. 
 
On the account of the organisational factors, job security and better salary were of equal 
consideration in the decision making.  Gender or sex appeared to have influenced the scale 
of priorities of these factors because time for children was selected by 56 percent of the 
female respondents as the most important factor that informed the decision to change 
careers.  On the other hand, majority of the males (70 percent) indicated higher 
educational level, job security and salary as the most significant career change 
determinants. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
102 
 
6.1.3 Processes Career-Switches go Through to Effect a Career Change 
Specific issues used to identify the processes participants went through to change their 
careers included when they first thought of changing career, reasons which influenced the 
thought for change, search for alternative opportunities, dependence on formal or informal 
contacts, activities undertaken in order to prepare for the new career, challenges faced 
during the preparation period and duration of the transition into new career. 
 
The period between when participants first thought of leaving their job and when they 
actually changed their careers took several months.  The reasons which influenced this 
thought were inspiration from family, desire to impart knowledge, enhanced job 
opportunities, opportunity to have time for the family; enhanced job opportunity and the 
desire to impart knowledge were key reasons, especially for the males with time for the 
family as the most important reason for the females. 
 
Inspiration from family members was an important reason that influenced the thought for 
the change in career for participants whose parents were once lecturers.  Impartation of 
knowledge, better job opportunity and time for the family influenced majority of the 
married participants for the change in career.  All the participants placed enhanced job 
opportunity, a search for alternative opportunities, reliance on formal or informal contacts 
as the most important reasons why they changed their jobs into teaching. 
 
Pursuit of higher degree qualifications (MPhil PhD) was the most important academic 
preparation that enabled all participants to change their careers.  Participants were 
confronted with some major challenges during the preparation period, key among which 
were associated such as lack of funds, combining education with work and ensuring 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
103 
 
balance between their studies and family commitments.  Generally, the transition period 
from the previous job into new career ranged from 3 to 10 years. 
 
6.1.4 Reasons for Change of Career into University Teaching 
The specific reasons why participants chose lecturing as a second career were examined.  
Prior to their present position as lecturers, majority of the participants had non-teaching or 
non-tertiary teaching backgrounds (research institutes, the public service and the private 
sector and senior high school).  The desire to impart knowledge and personal growth were 
identified by large number of participants as the underlying reasons for change of career 
into university teaching.  Eighty percent of respondents considered their present job at the 
University of Ghana as more lucrative while all of them found the new job self-satisfying.  
Consistent with the major determinant for the career switch by females, non-availability of 
time for social commitment on the previous job strongly influenced their decision to 
change their career.  Social status, career fit, financial reward and job security were of 
minor significance.  For the male participants, the scale of priority for selected factors that 
influenced the change in career followed a decreasing order of job security > social status 
> career fit > financial reward and time for family. 
 
6.1.5 Outcomes of Career Switch and Job Satisfaction 
The outcomes of career switch into university teaching on job satisfaction were assessed.  
The study provided responses to pertinent issues related to whether career change to 
university teaching had been worthwhile and successful, reasons for the decision, meeting 
of expectations and desire to maintain job.  According to all the respondents the job 
change had been worthwhile, successful and their expectations had been met as a result.  
Consequently, the participants had not contemplated leaving their present job at the 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
104 
 
University.  The overriding reasons were the desire to impart knowledge to students, 
personal development, social recognition and job security.  Furthermore, in the opinion of 
majority of the respondents the present teaching job was career-fulfilling and less stressful 
in nature compared to their former jobs. 
 
6.1.6 Skills, Job Performance and Organizational Benefits 
The study noted some important skills acquired by participants from their previous jobs, 
job performance indicators and the benefits that the University had derived from them.  
The skills were derived from knowledge acquired from pursuit of higher degree and skills 
from previous jobs.  Participants from research institutions brought along skills research 
experiences which adapted conventional methodologies to generate relevant data in the 
natural setting.  The other participants from the public service and the private sector also 
cited skills acquired from the interactive nature of their respective work with stakeholders 
and clients. 
 
6.2 Conclusions 
Based on the summary of the analysis of the findings the following conclusions were 
made relative to the relationship between the determinants of career change and the 
individual and organisation characteristics. 
 
The demographics indicated more males than females among the participants of the study, 
which reflected the gender imbalance in the population of University teachers in Ghana.  
The job title categories perfectly described the pyramidal structure which was consistent 
with the norm for the Universities in Ghana.  Majority of the participants had terminal 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
105 
 
degrees which conformed to the minimum qualification required for teaching in the 
University and was a key determinant in the decision to switch career. 
 
The 31-40 year bracket, which was the largest group of career changers, was described as 
the mid-life group in this study, contrary to the age class in studies elsewhere.  It may be 
concluded that the retiring age of 60 years in Ghana may make the description of this 
group as mid-life careers plausible. 
 
The job security and enhanced job opportunities were the key individual factors that 
accounted for the change in career among the male participants.  Time for family was the 
most important factor for changing career into university teaching among females 
participants used in the study underscoring the role of women in in economic activity 
along biological and cultural lines.  Combining income earning activities with higher 
degree studies was the greatest challenge identified by male participants arising out of the 
largely patriarchal socio-cultural Ghanaian context. 
 
Majority of the individuals used in the study had non-teaching background; the minority 
with previous teaching experience did so at pre-tertiary levels.  The reasons for changing 
from these careers to lecturing varied from the desire to impart knowledge, fulfilment, the 
opportunity for research and inspiration derived from significant others, challenging, 
financial reward and job security.  Value systems and other intrinsic motivators such as 
desire to impart knowledge and openness to experience were key factors that influenced 
participants with previous teaching background.  The duration of the decision for the 
change ranged from three to ten years suggesting that for some participants the decision 
was taken without much delay while others had to take time for sober reflection.   
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
106 
 
It is obvious from this study that career change to university teaching had been worthwhile 
and successful outcomes with expectations such social recognition, job security and better 
salaries for the new careers being met.  In this regard, the participants did not contemplate 
leaving their present job at the University creating a positive impact on retention of highly 
qualified staff. 
 
Majority of participants had acquired their terminal degrees in addition to years of 
working experience before making the career switch to teaching at the University.  This 
study has shown that experiences and skills gained by participants from their previous 
careers translated into greater performance and recognition in the University.  The 
contributions of the career-changers in quality academic output, staff development and 
attainment of the strategic goals of the University may be significant as noted in studies 
elsewhere. 
 
6.3 Recommendations 
The findings established that more individuals in their midlife (in this study it the 31-40 
year group) switch career than other age groupings.  This suggests a need to understand 
why this group switch careers.  Several studies have been conducted on midlife career 
change, but majority of them have focused on women in this transitional period.  More 
importantly, these studies have been done elsewhere.  Given the paucity of information on 
career change within our socio-cultural setting, it is recommended that future research 
should focus on this subject in Ghana with emphasis on the reasons assigned by 
individuals, especially those at mid-life age. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
107 
 
A recommendation for future research would be a longitudinal study that tracks 
individuals throughout the career change process.  Such longitudinal studies will enable 
researchers link causes of career change with subsequent actual behaviour.  Again, since 
individuals change careers because they believe it will accrue positive outcomes, there is 
the need for a research that can assess these improvements.  This is possible through the 
use of a longitudinal design to track individuals following a career change.  Similarly, a 
longitudinal study, examining the motives and job satisfaction of the second career 
university teachers after three-year period would serve as an important tool in future 
recruitment or requirements of persons choosing teaching as a career. 
 
The majority of research including the current study, has focused on individual 
characteristics, thus little is known about contextual and organisational issues that 
influence decision to change careers.  For instance, the present study found that contextual 
issues such as pressures from family and influence of significant others are associated with 
career change.  Majority of the female respondents valued time for the family a major 
factor in the decision to change careers.  This requires research that examines a more 
comprehensive array of these antecedents and their outcomes of career change.  
 
Qualitative studies have made an important contribution to our understanding of career 
change.  This technique needs to be complemented with studies with large samples and 
data collected multiple times.  Although, the present study adopted a mixed-method 
design, the emphasis was on the qualitative strand, thus it is  recommended would be that 
future studies related to the topic be undertaken with a greater quantitative design to allow 
for a large sample. 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
108 
 
Assessment of the process associated with this phenomenon revealed that these individuals 
bring on board valuable skills and experiences from their previous career which help them 
in the performance of the new jobs.  The potential benefits that they bring to their new 
organisation need to be appraised quantitatively. 
 
In respect of policy on human resource management, it is important that the University 
recognises the impact of career changers in the overall service delivery.  The University 
ought to adapt their recruiting policies to attract individuals who would like to change 
their careers into teaching.  This may well facilitate attainment of the stated goals 
especially in the two top priority areas of research and teaching in the University of 
Ghana. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
109 
 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
Abele, A. E., & Spurk, D.  (2009a). How do objective and subjective career success 
interrelate over time? Journal for Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 
82 (4), 803–824. 
Abele, A. E., & Spurk, D.  (2009b).  The longitudinal impact of self-efficacy and career 
goals on objective and subjective career success.  Journal of Vocational Behavior, 
74 (1), 53–62. 
Abele-Brehm, A., & Stief, M.  (2004). Die Prognose des Berufserfolgs von 
Hochschulabsolventinnen und -absolventen: Befunde zur ersten und zweiten 
Erhebung der Erlanger Längssschnittstudie BELA-E. Zeitschrift für Arbeits- und 
Organisationspsychologie, 48(1), 4–16. 
Agbodeka, F. (1998). A history of University of Ghana: Half a century of higher education 
(1948-1998). Woeli Publishing Services, Accra.  381pp. 
Ajzen, I., & Fishbein, M. (1980). Understanding attitudes and predicting social behavior., 
Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 
Amu, N. J. (2006). The Role of Women in Ghana‟s Economy. Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. 
Accra: Woeli Publishing Service. 
Anderson, M. D., &Rathbone, R. (2000). Urban Africa: Histories in the Making. In: D.M. 
Anderson & R. Rathbone (Editors). Africa's Urban Past. Oxford: James Currey. Pp. 
1-17. 
Armstrong, J. C. (1981).  Decision behavior and outcome of midlife careerchanges. 
Vocational Guidance Quarterly, 29, 205-211. 
Arthur, M. B. , & Rousseau, D. M. (1996). A career lexicon for the 21st century. Academy 
of Management Executive, 10: 28−39. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
110 
 
Arthur, M. B., Hall, D. T., & Lawrence, B. S. (Editors) (1989). Handbook of Career 
Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Ary, D., Jacobs, L.C., & Razavieh, A. (1996). Introduction to research in education (5th 
Edition). Orlando, FL: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. 
Aryee, S., & Tan, K. (1992). Antecedents and outcomes of career commitment. Journal of 
Vocational Psychology, 40, 288−305. 
Ashkenas, R., Ulrich, D., Jick, T., & Kerr, S. (1995).  The boundaryless organization. San 
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.  
Austin, J. T., & Hanisch, K. A. (1990).  Occupational attainment as a function of abilities 
and interests: A longitudinal analysis using Project TALENT data. Journal of 
Applied Psychology, 75, 77-86. 
Australian Education Union (2008). Beginning Teacher Survey 2007: Results and Report 
Retrieved from http://www.aefederal.org.an/publications/2008/Btsurvey07res.pdf. 
Bahr, T. (2009). Midlife Career Change and Women: A Phenomenological Examination 
of the Process of Change.  PhD Thesis, UNLV Theses/Dissertations/Professional 
Papers/ Capstones. Paper 76, University of Nevada, Las Vegas. 167pp. 
Bandura, A. (1997) Self-efficacy: The Exercise of Control. W.H. Freeman and Company. 
New York. 
Bandura, A. (1977). Self-Efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. 
Psychological Review, 84 (2), 191-215.  
Barclay, S. R., Stoltz, K.B. and Chung, Y.B. (2011).  Voluntary Midlife Career Change: 
Integrating the Transtheoretical Model and the Life-Span, Life-Space Approach.  
The Career Development Quarterly, 59, 386-399. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
111 
 
Barley, S. R. (1989). Careers, identities, and institutions: The legacy of the Chicago 
School of Sociology. In: M.B. Arthur, D.T. Hall, & B.S. Lawrence (Editors), 
Handbook of CareerTheory (pp. 41-65). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 
Bartel, Ann P. (2000). Measuring the employer's return on investments in training: 
Evidence from the literature.  Industrial Relations, 39, 502−524. 
Baruch, Y. (2006).  Career development in organizations and beyond: Balancing 
traditional and contemporary viewpoints.  Human Resource Management Review, 
16(2),125–138. 
Bateson, M. C. (1989). Composing a Life. Atlantic Monthly Press: New York. 
Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. The Journal of 
Political Economy, 70, 9−49. 
Becker, G. S. (1975). Human Capital: A Theoretical and Empirical Analysis, with Special 
Reference to Education (2nd Edition). National Bureau of Economic Research: 
New York. 
Beilin, H. (1955). The application of general developmental principles to the vocational 
area. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 2(1), 53-57. 
Bell, D. (1975). Training potential among older workers. In: A.H. Pascal, D. Bell, L.A. 
Dougherty, W.L. Dun, & V.M. Thompson (Editors), An evr7/1rc7ti0~7 
ofpo/ic.wdared wser7rd7 on programmes for mid-life career redirection: Vol. II-
Mqjor Jindings. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation. 
Benson, G. S., Finegold, D., & Mohrman, S. A. (2004). You paid for the skills, now keep 
them: Tuition reimbursement and voluntary turnover. Academy of Management 
Journal, 47,315−331. 
Berg, B. L. (2009). Qualitative Research Methods for the Social Sciences (7th Edition). 
California State University, Long Beach: Allyn and Bacon. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
112 
 
Betz, N. E., & Hackett, G. (1981). A self-efficacy approach to the career development of 
women. Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 18, 326-339. 
Betz, N. E., Fitzgerald L. F., & Hill, R. E. (1989). Trait-factor theories: traditional 
cornerstone of career theory. In Arthur MB, Hall DT, Lawrence BS (Editors). 
Handbook of Career Theory, 26-40. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. 
Biderman, A. D. (1973).  Where do they go from here? Annals of the American Academy 
of Political and Social Science, 406, 146-161. 
Bimrose, J., & Barnes, S. A.  (2007). Styles of Career Decision making.  Australian 
Journal of Career Development, 16(2),20-28. 
Bimrose, J., Barnes, S.- A., & Hughes, D. (2008). Adult career progression and 
advancement: A five year study of the effectiveness of guidance. Coventry: 
Warwick Institute for Employment Research and the Department for Innovation, 
Universities and Skills http://www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/soc/ier/publications/2008/ 
eg_report_4_years_on_final.pdf 
Blau, G. (2000). Job, organizational and professional context antecedents as predictors of 
intent for interrole work transitions. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 56, 330−345. 
Blau, G. (2007). Does a Corresponding Set of Variables for Explaining Voluntary 
Organizational Turnover Transfer to Explaining Voluntary Occupational Turnover. 
Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 70, 135−148. 
Blau, G., & Lunz, M. (1998). Testing the incremental effect of professional commitment 
on intent to leave one's profession beyond the effects of external, personal, and 
work-related variables. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 52, 260−269. 
Blau, G., Tatum, D. S., McCoy, K., Dobria, L., & Ward-Cook, K. (2004). Job Loss, 
Human Capital Job Feature, and Work Condition Job Feature as Distinct Job 
Insecurity Constructs. Journal of Allied Health, 33, 31−41. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
113 
 
Blau, P. M. (1964). Exchange and Power in Social Life. New York: John Wiley. 
Bobek, B. L., & Robbins, S. B. (2005). Counseling for career transition: Career pathing, 
job loss, and reentry. In S. D. Brown & R. W. Lent (Editors), Career development 
and counseling (pp. 625–650). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. 
Boreham, N. C., & Arthur, T. A. A. (1993).  Information Requirements in Occupational 
Decision Making, Research Series, No. 8 (London, Employment Department). 
Boswell, W.R., Boudreau, J.W. and Tichy, J. (2005). The Relationship Between Employee 
Job Change and Job Satisfaction: The Honeymoon-Hangover Effect. The Journal 
of Applied Psychology, 90, 882−892. 
Bourdieu, P., & Wacquant, L. D. (1992)  An Invitation to Reflexive Sociology. Cambridge: 
Polity Press. 
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of practice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge 
University Press. 
Brass, D. J. (1995). A social network perspective on human resources management. 
Research in Personnel and Human Resources Management,13: 39-79. 
Breeden, S. A. (1993). Job and occupational change as a function of occupational 
correspondence and job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 43, 30−45. 
Brown, A. (2005). Learning while working in small companies: comparative analysis of 
experiences drawn from England, Germany, Greece, Italy, Portugal and Spain : 
SKOPE Monograph 7. ESRC funded Centre on Skills, Knowledge and 
Organisational Performance, University of Oxford and University of Warwick 
http://www. skope.ox.ac.uk/WorkingPapers/SKOPEMON07.PDF 
Brown, A., Bimrose, J., Barnes, S., & Hughes, D. (2012). The role of career adaptabilities 
for mid-career changers.  Institute for Employment Research, University of 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
114 
 
Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK.  Journal of Vocational Behaviour, 80(3), 
754– 761. 
Brown, D. (2002).  The role of work and cultural values in occupational choice, 
satisfaction, and success: A theoretical statement.  Journal of Counseling and 
Development, 80(1), 48–56. 
Brown, D., & Brooks, L. (1990). Career choice and development: Applying contemporary 
theories to practice (2nd ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 
Brown, J. M. (1991). The work place of early twenty-first century. The Journal for 
Vocational Special Needs Education, 14(1), 24-30. 
Brown, J. M. (1991). The work place of early twenty-first century. The Journal for 
Vocational Special Needs Education, 14(1),24-30. 
Brown, M. M. (1992). Caribbean first-year teachers‟ reasons for choosing teaching as a 
career. Journal of Education for Teaching, 18(2),185–195. 
Brown, S. D. & Lent, R.W.  (2005). Career development and counseling. New Jersey: 
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 
Bryman, A. (2006). Integrating quantitative and qualitative research: How is it done? 
Qualitative Research, 6 (1), 97-112. 
Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Methods (3rd ed.). New York: Oxford University 
Press. 
Caracelli, V. J., & Greene, J. C. (1993). Data analysis strategies for mixed-method 
evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 15(2),195–207. 
Carless, S. A., & Bernath, L. (2007). The determinants of intent to change careers among 
psychologists. Journal of Career Development, 33, 183−200. 
Carless, S. A., & Arnup, J. L. (2011). A longitudinal Study of the Determinants and 
Outcomes of Career Change. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 78, 80–91. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
115 
 
Cesinger, B. (2011). Career and Success: A Literature Review. Discussion Paper 01-2011. 
Chambers, D. (2002).  The real world and the classroom: Second career teachers.  The 
Clearing House, 75(4), 212-217. 
Chambers, D. (2002). The Real World and the Classroom: Second Career Teachers. The 
Clearing House, 75(4), 212-217. 
Chen, G., Gully, S. M., & Eden, D. (2004). General self-efficacy and self-esteem: Toward 
theoretical and empirical distinction between correlated self-evaluations. Journal 
of Organizational Behavior, 25, 375−395. 
Chen, S. H., Yang, C. C., Shiau, J. Y., & Wang, H. H. (2006). The development of an 
employee satisfaction model for higher education. TQM Magazine, 1(5), 484-500. 
Chinyamurindi, W. T. (2012). An investigation of career change using a narrative and 
story-telling inquiry. SA Journal of Human Resource Management/SA Tydskrif vir 
Menslikehulpbronbestuur, 10(2), Art. #447, 11 pages. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/ 
sajhrm.v10i2.447 
Chope, R. C. (2001). Exploration of the emotional avenues of career change.  Paper 
presented at the meeting of International Career Development Conference, Seattle, 
WA. 
Chudzikowski, K. (2012). Career Transitions and Career Success in the „New‟ Career Era. 
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81 (2), 298-306.. 
Chui Seng Yong, B. (1995). Teacher trainees‟ motives for entering into a teaching career 
in Brunei Darussalam. Teaching and Teacher Education, 11(3), 275–280. 
Clopton, W.  (1973).  Personality and career change. Industrial Gerontology, 19: 9-17. 
Cochran L. (1994). What is a career problem? The Career Development Quarterly, 42, 
204-215. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
116 
 
Cochran-Smith, M., & Zeichner, K. M. (Eds.). (2005). Studying Teacher Education: The 
Report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education. Mahwah, NJ: 
Erlbaum. 
Coleman, J. S. (1990). Foundations of Social Theory. Belknap, Cambridge. 
Cook, K. S., & Emerson, R. M. (1978). 'Power, Equity and Commitment in Exchange 
Networks'. American Sociological Review, 43, 721-739. 
Costa, P. T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-
R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual.  
Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc., Odessa, FL. 
Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R.R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) 
and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, 
FL:Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. 
Costa, P.T., Jr., & McCrae, R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R) 
and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: 
Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc. 
Creswell, J. W. (2009). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods 
Approaches (3rd ed). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc. 
Creswell, J. W., Plano C.V. L., Gutmann, M., & Hanson, W. (2003). Advanced mixed 
methods research designs.  In: A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Editors), Handbook of 
mixed methods in social & behavioral research (pp. 209-240).  Thousand Oaks, 
CA: Sage Publications Inc. 
Creswell, J. W. (2007).  Qualitative inquiry and research design; Choosing among five 
approaches. (3rd ed.).  Sage Publications Inc., Thousand Oaks, CA. 
Crow, G. M., Levine, L., & Nager, N. (1990). No more business as usual: Career changers 
who become teachers. American Journal of Education, 98, 197-223. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
117 
 
Dalaba, O. G. (1975). Dare to change your job and your life. Journal of Management, 1, 
13- 16. 
De Vos, A., Dewettinck, K., & Buyens, D. (2008). To move or not to move? The 
relationship between career management and preferred career moves. Employee 
Relations, 30(2), 156-175. 
DeFillippi, R. J., & Arthur, M.B. (1996). Boundaryless contexts and careers: A 
competency-based perspective. In: M. B. Arthur & D.M. Rousseau (Editors), The 
boundaryless career: A new employment principle for a new organizational era 
(pp. 116-131). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
DeFillippi, R. J., & Arthur, M. B. (1994).  The boundaryless career: A competency-based 
perspective.  Journal of Organizational Behavior, 15(4),307–324. 
Doering, M. M., & Rhodes, S. R. (1989). Changing careers: A qualitative study.  The 
Career Development Quarterly, 37, 316−333. 
Donohue, R. (2007). Examining career persistence and career change intent using the 
career attitudes and strategies inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 70, 
259−276. 
Elton, C. F., & Smart, J. C. (1998). Extrinsic job satisfaction and person-environment 
congruence. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 32, 226–238. 
Evetts, J. (1992). Dimensions of career: avoiding reification in the analysis of change. 
Sociology, 26, 1-21. 
Feldman, D. (2002). Second careers and multiple careers. In C. L. Cooper & R. Burke 
(Editors), The new world of work (pp. 75–94). Oxford, England: Blackwell. 
Fishbein, M. (1967).  Attitude and the prediction of behavior.  In M. Fishbein (Editor), 
Readings in attitude theory and measurement. New York: Wiley, 477-492. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
118 
 
Fishbein, M., & Ajzen, I. (1975). Belief, attitude, intention and behavior: An introduction 
to theory and research. Addison-Wesley, Reading, MA. 
Fouad, N. A., & Bynner, J. (2008). Work Transitions. American Psychologist, 63, 241-
251. 
Frankel, J., & Wallen, N. E. (Editors.) (2002). How to Design and Evaluate Research in 
Education. MacGraw-Hill, Boston. 
Fricko, M. M., & Beehr, T. A. (1992). A longitudinal investigation of interest congruence 
and gender concentration as predictors of job satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 
45, 99–117. 
Gati, I., & Asher, I. (2001). The PIC model for career decision making: Prescreening, in 
depth exploration, and choice. In: T.L. Leong & A. Barak (Editors), Contemporary 
models in vocational psychology: A volume in honor of Samuel H. Osipow (pp. 6–
54). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. 
Gattiker, U. E., & Larwood, L. (1986). Subjective career success: A study of managers 
and support personnel. Journal of Business and Psychology, 1(2), 78–94. 
Germeijs, V., & De Boeck, P. (2002). Career Indecision: Three Factors from Decision 
Theory. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 18, 113–122. 
Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) (2012). 2010 Population and Housing Census: Summary 
Report of Final Results. Accra: Ghana statistical Service. 
Giddens, A. (1984). The constitution of society: Outline of the theory of structuration. 
Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. 
Gilbert, N. (2001). Researching Social Life (2nd ed.). London: Sage Publication Co. 
Ginzberg, E. (1972). Restatement of the theory of occupational choice. Vocational 
Guidance Quarterly, 20 (3), 7-176. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
119 
 
Ginzberg, E., Ginsburg, S. W., Axelrad, S., & Herma, J. L. (1951). Occupational choice: 
An approach to a general theory (p. 185). New York: Columbia University. 
Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for 
qualitative research. Chicago, IL: Aldine. 
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative research. The 
qualitative report volume, 8(4), 597-607. 
Golafshani, N. (2003). Understanding Reliability and Validity in Qualitative research. The 
qualitative report volume, 8(4), 597-607. 
Gottfreson, G. D. (1977).  Career stability and redirection in adulthood.  Journal of 
Applied Psychology, 62, 436-445. 
Granovetter, M. (1973). The strength of weak ties. American Journal of Sociology, 6, 
1360–1380. 
Greene, J. C. (2007). Mixed methods in social inquiry. Jossey-Bass, Inc., San Francisco. 
Greene, J. C., Caracelli, V. J., & Graham, W. F. (1989). Toward a conceptual framework 
for mixed-method evaluation designs. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 
11(3), 255–274. 
Greenhalgh, L., & Rosenblatt, Z. (1984). Toward conceptual clarity. Academy of 
Management Review, 9, 438−448. 
Greenhaus, J., & Callanan, G. (1994). Career Management (2nd ed.). Fort Worth 
Philadelphia: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. 
Griffeth, R. W., Hom, P. W., & Gaertner, S. (2000).  A meta-analysis of antecedents and 
correlates of employee turnover: Update, moderator tests, and research 
implications for the next millennium. Journal of Management, 26, 463−488. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
120 
 
Gunz, H., Evans, M., & Jalland, M. (2000). Career boundaries in a „boundaryless‟ world. 
In: M. Peiperl, M. Arthur, R. Goffee & T. Morris (Editors) Career Frontiers: New 
Conceptions of Working Lives (pp. 24–53). Oxford: Oxford University Press. 
Hackett, G., Lent, R. W., & Greenhaus, J. H. (1991). “Advances in Vocational Theory and 
Research:A 20 Year Retrospective.” Journal of Vocational Behavior 38: 3-38. 
Hadley, R. G., & Levy, W. V.  (1962). Vocational development and reference groups. 
Journal of Counseling Psychology, 9 (2), 110-114. 
Hakim, C. (2000).  Work-lifestyle choices in the 21st century: Preference theory. Oxford: 
Oxford University Press. 
Hakim, C. (2006). Women, careers, and work-life preferences.  British Journal of 
Guidance & Counselling, 34(3): 279–294. 
Hall, B., & Howard, K. (2008). A synergistic approach: Conducting mixed methods 
research with typological and systemic design considerations. Journal of Mixed 
Methods Research, 2(3): 248–269. 
Hall, D. T. (1996). The career is dead—long live the career: A relational approach to 
career. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 
Hall, D. T. (2002) Careers in and out of organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage Publication 
Inc.  
Hall, D.T. (1976).  Careers in organizations.  Goodyear, California. 
Hall, D.T. (1986). Breaking career routines: Midcareer choice and identity development. 
In Hall D. T. and Associates (Editors), Career development in organizations 
(pp.120-159).  San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 
Hall, D.T. (2004) ―The protean career, A quarter-century journey. Journal of Vocational 
Behavior, 65(1), 1–13.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
121 
 
Hall, D.T., & Moss, J. E. (1998). The new protean career contract: Helping organizations 
and employees adapt. Organizational Dynamics, Winter: 22−37. 
Halladay, P. (2008). Mid-career changers: An investigation of non-traditional entrants 
into Teaching. (Doctoral Dissertation, Michigan State University). Retrieved from 
http://magic.lib.msu.edu. 
Hamil, K.  (2014).  3 reasons why everyone should hire career changers.  https://blog 
general assembly/hire-career-changers. 
Harper, B. (1995). Male occupational mobility In Britain. Oxford Bulletin of Economics 
and Statistics, 57, 349−369. 
Harper, D. (2001).  Online Etymology Dictionary.  Oxford University Press, UK. 
Heppner, M.J., Multon, K.D. and Johnston, J.A. (1994). Assessing psychological 
resources during career change: Development of the Career Transitions Inventory.  
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 44, 55−74. 
Herman, J.  McArt, E., & Belle, L. (1983). New beginnings: A study of Faculty career 
changers.  Improving College and University Teaching, 31(2), 53-60. 
Herr, E. L. (1970). Decision-making and vocational development. Boston: Houghton 
Mifflin. 
Herr, E. L., & Cramer, S. H. (1984). Career guidance and counselling through the life 
span, (2nd ed).  Boston: Little & Brown Inc. 
Hess, N., Jepsen, D. M., & Dries, N. (2012). Career and Employer Change in the Age of 
the "Boundaryless" Career. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 81(2), 280-288. 
Hewer, V. H. (1963). What do theories of vocational choice mean to a counselor? Journal 
of Counseling Psychology, 10, 118-125. 
Hiestand, D. L. (1971). Changing careers after thirty-five. New York: Columbia Univ. 
Press. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
122 
 
Higgins, M. C., Dobrow, S. R., & Chandler, D. (2008).  Never quite good enough: The 
paradox of sticky developmental relationships for elite university graduates.  
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 72(2), 207–224. 
Higgins, M. C. (2001). Changing careers: The effects of social context. Journal of 
Organizational Behavior, 22, 595−618. 
Hill, R. E., & Miller, E.L. (1981).  Job change and the middle seasons of a man's life. 
Academy of Management Journal, 24, 114-127. 
Hodkinson, P., & Sparkes, A. (1997). Careership: A sociological theory of career decision 
making. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 18(1), 29–44. 
Hof, S., Strupler, M., & Wolter, S. C. (2011). Career Changers in Teaching Jobs: A Case 
Study Based on the Swiss Vocational Education System.  Discussion Paper No. 
5806 IZA, Bonn. 
Holland, J. L. (1973). Making vocational choices: A theory of careers. Englewood Cliffs, 
NJ: Prentice-Hall. 
Holland, J. (1985). Making vocational choices: A theory of vocational personalities and 
work environments (2nd Edition). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 
Holland, J. L. (1972). Professional manual for the Self-directed search. Palo Alto, CA: 
Consulting Psychologists Press. 
Holland, J. L., & Gottfredson, G. D. (1976).  Using a typology of per-sons and 
environments to explain careers: Some extensions and clarifications. The 
Counseling Psychologist, 6, 20-29. 
Holland, J. L., Magoon, T. M., & Spokane, A.R. (1981).  Counseling psychology: Career 
interventions, research, and theory.  Annual Review of Psychology, 32, 279-305. 
Homans, G. (1961). Social behaviour: Its Elementary Forms. London: Routledge and 
Kegan Paul. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
123 
 
Hoyt, K. B. (1987). The Impact of Technology on Occupational Change: Implications for 
Career Guidance, 35, 269–278. 
Hsieh, H. F., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis. 
Qualitative Health Research, 15(9), 1277-1288. 
Huang, Q., El-Khouri, B. M., Johansson, G., Lindroth, S., & Sverke, M. (2007).  Women's 
career patterns: A study of Swedish women born in the 1950s.  Journal of 
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 80(1), 387–412. 
Hughes, E. C. (1958). Men and Their Work. Free Press: Glencoe, IL. 
Ibarra, H. (1993).  Personal Networks of Women and Minorities in Management: A 
Conceptual Framework.  Academy of Management Review, 18, 56–87. 
Ibarra, H. (2003). Working identity: Unconventional strategies for reinventing your 
career. Boston, MA: Harvard Business School Publishing. 
Igbaria, M., Kassicieh, S. K., & Silver, M. (1999).  Career Orientations and Career 
Success among Research, and Development and Engineering Professionals. 
Journal of Engineering and Technology Management, 16(1), 29–54.  
Igbaria, M. G.  J. H., & Parasuraman, S. (1991).  Career orientations of MIS employees: 
an empirical analysis. MIS Quarterly, 15(2), 151–169. 
Jackson, C., Arnold, J., Nicholson, N., & Watts, A.G. (1996). Managing Careers In 2000 
and Beyond. Brighton: Ies/Crac. 
Jackson, C., Arnold, J., Nicholson, N., & Watts, A.G. (1996). Managing Careers In 2000 
and Beyond. Brighton: Ies/Crac. 
Jacobson, D., & Eran, M. (1980).  Expectancy theory components and non-expectancy 
moderators as predictors of physicians preference for retirement. Journal of 
Occupational Psychology, 53, 11-26. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
124 
 
John, O. P., & Srivastava, S. (1999). The Big Five taxonomy: History, measurement, and 
theoretical perspectives.  In: L.A. Pervin & O.P. John (Editors.), Handbook of 
personality: Theory and research (pp. 102-138).  New York: The Guilford Press. 
Johnson, R. B., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., & Turner, L. A. (2007). Toward a definition of mixed 
methods research. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 1, 112-133.  
Johnson, R.B., & Onwuegbuzie, A.J. (2004). Mixed methods research: A research 
paradigm whose time has come. Educational Researcher, 33(7),14-26. 
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., & Bretz, R. D. (1995).  An empirical 
investigation of the predictors of executive career success.  Personnel Psychology, 
48,485–519. 
Jung, C. G. (1933). The stages of life. Modern Man in Search of a Soul. New York: 
Harcourt. 
Kanchier, C., & Unruh, W. R. (1989). Factors influencing career change. International 
Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, 12, 309−321. 
Khapova, S. N., Arthur, M. B., Wilderom, C. P. M., & Svensson, J. S. (2007). Professional 
identity as the key to career change intention. Career Development International, 
12, 584−595. 
Kidd, J. M. (1984) Young people's perceptions of their occupational decision-making, 
British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 12, 25-38. 
Kidd, J. M., & Green, F. (2006). The careers of research scientist: Predictors of three 
dimensions of career commitment and intention to leave science. Personnel 
Review, 35, 229−251. 
Kim, S., Mone, M. A., & Kim, S. (2008).  Relationships among self-efficacy, pay-for-
performance perceptions, and pay satisfaction: A Korean examination.  Human 
Performance, 21(2),158–179. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
125 
 
King, Z. (2001). Career Self-Management: a framework for guidance of employed adults. 
The Management Centre, King’s College, London, 150 Stamford Street, London 
SE1 9NN, UK. 
Kram, K. E. (1985).  Mentoring at Work: Developmental Relationships in Organizational 
Life. Scott, Foresman: Glenview, IL. 
Krannich, R. L., & Krannich, C. R. (1993). The best jobs for the 1990s and into the 21st 
Century. Manassas Park, VA: Impact. 
Krumboltz, J. D. (1979). A social learning theory of career decision-making. In: A.M. 
Mitchell, G.B. Jones & J.D. Krumboltz (Editors), Social Learning and Career 
Decision Making. Cranston, RI: Carroll Press. PMid:20738188. 
Krumboltz, J. D., Mitchell, A. M., & Jones, B. G. (1978). A social learning theory of 
career selection.  In: J.M. Whitely and A. Resnikoff (Eds.), Career Counseling 
(pp.100-127). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole. 
Kumekpor, T. K. B. (2002). Research Methods and Techniques of Social Research. 
SonLife Press & Services, Accra. 
Kyriacou, C., Haltgreen, A., &Stephens, P. (1999).  Student teachers‟ motivation to 
become a secondary school teacher in England and Norway, Teacher Development, 
3(3), 373–381. 
Law, B. (1981).  Community interaction: a 'mid-range' focus for theories of career 
development in young adults, British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 9, 
142-158. 
Lawrence, B. S.  (1979). Work careers in mid-life.  Working Paper 1061-79, 
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge. 
Lawrence, B. S. (1980).  The myth of the midlife crisis. Sloan Management Review, 21 
(4), 35-49. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
126 
 
Lee, D., & Lamport, M. A. (2011).  Non-traditional entrants to the profession of teaching: 
Motivations and experiences of second-career educators.  Christian Perspectives in 
Education, 4(2). Available at: http://digitalcommons.liberty.edu/cpe/vol4/iss2/3 
Lee, E. (2011). Learning interventions for mid-career transition: towards a conceptual 
framework.  Conference Paper, Institute Adult Learning, Singapore. 
Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Hackett, G. (1996). Career development from a social 
cognitive perspective. In: D. Brown & Brooks, L. (Editors). Career choice and 
development (pp. 373-421). Jossey-Bass: San Francisco. 
Lerner, P. K., & Zittelman, K. (2002).  Career changers: Women (and men) who switch to 
teaching. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational 
Research Association, New Orleans, LA. 
Levinson, D. J., Darrow, C. N., Klein, E. B., Levinson, M. H., &  McKee, B. (1978). The 
Seasons of a Man’s Life. New York: Knopf.  
Lewin, K. (1947).  Frontiers in group dynamics; Concept, method and reality in social 
science; Social equilibria and social change. Human Relations, 1, 5-41. 
Lewis, J., &Thomas, K. (1987). Occupational change and career development amongst 
graduate engineers and scientists. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 
15, 182−196. 
Lewis, R. (1996). Career changers find road to success marked with perils. AARP Bulletin, 
37(6), 6-8. 
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage 
Publishers Inc. 
Locke, E. A. (1976).  The nature and consequences of job satisfaction. p. 1297-1349.  In 
M. D. Dunnette (Editor), Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology 
(pp. 1297-1349.  Chicago: Rand McNally. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
127 
 
Locke, E. A. (1976). The nature and causes of job satisfaction. In: M.D. Dunnette (Editor), 
Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 1297-1349). Chicago: 
Rand McNally. 
Locke, E.A. (1979).  The supervisor as "motivator": His influence on employee 
performance and satisfaction. In R.M. Steers & L.W. Porter (Editors), Motivation 
and work behavior. (pp. 377-389).  New York: McGraw-Hill. 
Louis, M. R. (1980). Surprise and sense making: What newcomers experience in entering 
unfamiliar organizational settings. Administrative Science Quarterly, 25: 226−251. 
Lovett, S. (2007).  Teachers of promise: Is teaching their first career choice? New Zealand 
Annual Review of Education, 16,29-53. 
Lucas, M.S. (1999). Adult career changers: A developmental context. Journal of 
Employment Counseling, 36, 115-118. 
Maniero, L., & Sullivan, S. E. (2005). Kaleidoscope Careers: An alternative explanation 
for the opt-out revolution. The Academy of Management Executive: 106-125. 
Manuel, J., & Hughes, J. (2006). 'It has always been my dream': Exploring pre-service 
teachers' motivations for choosing teaching. Teacher Development, 10(1), 5-24. 
Marcus, B., & Donald, O. C. (2001). Now discover your strength. New York: The Free 
Press. 
Marcus, B., & Donald, O. C. (2001). Now Discover Your Strength. New Yor: The Free 
Press. 
Markey, J. P., & Parks, W. (1989). Occupation change: Pursuing a different kind of work. 
Monthly Labor Review, 112, 3−12. 
Martin, J. K., & Hanson, S. L. (1985). Sex, family wage-earning status, and satisfaction 
with work. Work and Occupations, 12(1), 91–109.  
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
128 
 
Maxwell, J. A., & Loomis, D. M. (2003). Mixed methods design: An alternative approach. 
In: A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Editors), Handbook of mixed methods in social 
and behavioural research (pp. 241-271). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers Inc. 
Mayotte, G. A. (2003). Stepping stones to success: previously developed career 
competencies and their benefits to career switchers transitioning to teaching. 
Teaching and Teacher Education, 19, 681-695. 
McGovern, K. R., & Hart, L. E.  (1992).  Exploring the contribution of gender identity to 
differences in career experiences.  Psychological Report, 70, 723–737. 
McKenzie, P., Rowley, G., Weldon, P., & Murphy, M. (2011). Staff in Australia‟s Schools 
2010: Main Report on the Survey. Australian Council for Educational Research. 
Mercora, D. (2003).  A Qualitative Study Examining the Motives and Determinants of a  
Voluntary Career Change into Education. Seton Hall University Dissertations and 
Theses (ETDs). Paper 105. 
Mertens, D. M. (2003). Mixed methods and the politics of human research: The 
transformative-emancipatory perspective. In A. Tashakkori & C. Teddlie (Editors), 
Handbook of mixed methods in social and behavioral research (pp. 135–164). 
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers Inc. 
Mignonac, K. (2008). Individual and contextual antecedents of older managerial 
employees' willingness to accept intra-organizational job changes. The 
International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, 582−599 
Miguel, M. M.  (1993).  Individual definitions of career success: at odds with 
organizational and social definitions: Doctoral dissertation. Dissertation Abstract 
International 7A54, No. 4: 1456. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
129 
 
Mincer, J. (1994). Human capital: A review. p. 109-141.  In: C. Kerr and P. D. Staudohar 
(Editors), Labour economics and industrial relations: Markets and institutions.  
Cambridge: Harvard University Press. 
Mobley, W. H. (1977).  Intermediate linkages in the relationship between job satisfaction 
and employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 237-240. 
Mobley, W. H. (1982). Some unanswered questions in turnover and withdrawal research.  
Academy of Management Review,7, 111-116. 
Mobley, W. H., Homer, S. O., & Holingsworth, A. T. (1978).  An evaluation of precursors 
of hospital employee turnover. Journal of Applied Psychology, 63, 408-414. 
Morgan, D. L. (1998). Practical strategies for combining qualitative and quantitative 
methods: Applications to health research. Qualitative Health Research, 3, 362–
376. 
Morse, J. M., & Niehaus, L. (2009). Mixed methods design: Principles and procedures.  
Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press. 
Morse, J. M. (1991).  Approaches to qualitative-quantitative methodological triangulation.  
Nursing Research, 40(1), 102-123. 
Morse, J. M. (1994).  Designing funded qualitative research.  In: N.K. Denzin & Y.S. 
Lincoln (Editors), Handbook of qualitative research (pp. 220-235).  Thousand 
Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers Inc. 
Myers, D. M. & Newman, M. (2007). The Qualitative Interview in IS Research: 
Examining the craft. Information and Organization, 17, 2-26. 
Nabi, G. R.  (1999).  An investigation into the differential profile of predictors of objective 
and subjective career success.  Career Development International, 4(4), 212-224. 
Nachmias, F. C., &  Nachmias, D. (1996). Research Methods in the Social Sciences. (5th 
ed.) New York: Worth Publishers. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
130 
 
Neapolitan, J. (1980).  Occupational change in mid-career: an exploratory investigation. 
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 16, 212-225. 
Ng, T. W. H., Eby, L. T., Sorensen, K. L., &Feldman, D. C. (2005).  Predictors of 
objective and subjective career success. A meta-analysis.  Personnel Psychology, 
58(2), 367–408. 
Niles, S. G., & Arthur, G. L. (1991). Cultural changes and career changes: The case of 
Ebo. The Career Development Quarterly, 40, 20–23. 
Nukunya, G. K. (2003). Tradition and Change in Ghana: An Introduction to Sociology. 
Accra: Ghana Universities Press. 
O‟Toole, J. (1981). Work in an era of slow economic growth.  Technological Forecasting 
and Social Change, 16(4), 277 – 310. 
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (2005). Teachers Matter: 
Attracting, Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers. OECD Publishing.  
Ornstein, S., & Isabella, L. A. (1993). Making sense of careers: A review 1989–1992. 
Journal of Management, 19, 243−267. 
Osei, G. M. (2008). Career ladder Policy for Teachers: The Case of Ghana. International 
Review of Education, 54 (1), 5-31. 
Ostroff, C., & Clark, M. A. (2001). Maintaining an internal market: Antecedents of 
willingness to change jobs.  Journal of Vocational Behavior, 59, 425−453. 
Parker, D. F., & Dyer, L. (1976).  Expectancy theory as a within-person behavioral choice 
model: An empirical test of some conceptual and methodological refinements. 
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 17, 97-117. 
Parnes, H. (1954). Research on Labor Mobility. Bulletin no. 65. Social Science Research 
Council: New York. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
131 
 
Parrado, E., Caner, A., &Wolff, E. N. (2007). Occupational and industrial mobility in the 
United States.  Labour Economics, 14, 435−455. 
Parsons, F. (1909). Choosing a Vocation, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. 
Parsons, G. E., & Wigtil, J.V. (1974).  Occupational mobility as measured by Holland‟s 
theory of career selection.  Journal of Vocational Behavior, 5, 321-330. 
Parsons, T. (1937). The structure of social action. New York: McGraw-Hill. 
Patton, C. V. (1978).  Mid-career change and early retirement.  New Directions in 
Educational Research, 20, 69-82. 
Patton, M. (1980).  Qualitative evaluation and research methods.  (2nd ed.). Newbury 
Park, CA: Sage Publications Inc. 
Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: 
Sage Publications Inc. 
Perosa, S. L., & Perosa, L. M. (1984).  The mid-career crisis in relation to super‟s career 
and Erikson‟s Adult Development Theory.  International Journal of Aging and 
Human Development, 20, 53-67. 
Pfeffer, J. (1997).  New directions for Organization Theory: Problems and prospects.  
New York: Oxford University Press. 
Pitz, G. F., & Harren, V. A. (1980). An analysis of career decision making from the point 
of view of information processing and decision theory. Journal of Vocational 
Behavior, 16, 320–346. 
Polach, J. L. (2004). Understanding the experience of college graduates during their first 
year of employment Human Resource Development Quarterl, 15(1), 5–23.  
Polit, D. F., & Hungler, B. P. (1999).  Nursing Research: Principles and Methods (6th ed.). 
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
132 
 
Poole, M., & Bornholt, L. (1998). Career Development of Academics: Cross-cultural and 
Lifespan Factors.  International Journal of Behavioral Development, 22(1), 103–
126. 
Powell, G. N., &  Mainiero, L. A. (1992).  Cross-currents in the River of Time: 
Conceptualizing the complexities of women‟s careers.” Journal of Management, 
18, 215-237. 
Powell, R. R. (1992). The influence of prior experiences on pedagogical constructs of 
traditional and non-traditional preservice teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 
8(3), 225-238. 
Powers, F. W. (2002). Second-Career Teachers: Perceptions and Mission in Their New 
careers.  International Studies in Sociology of Education, 12(3), 303-318.  
Price, J. L. (1977). The study of turnover.  Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. 
Price, J. L. (1977). The study of turnover.  Iowa State University Press, Ames. 
Priyadharshini, E., & Robinson-Pant, A. (2003).  The attractions of teaching: An 
investigation into why people change careers to teach.  Journal of Education for 
Teaching, 29(2), 95-122. 
Ramsey, G. (2000). Quality matters. Revitalising teaching: Critical time, critical choices. 
Report of the Review of Teaching Education New South Wales. NSW Department 
of Education and Training: Sydney. 
Rastgar, A. A., Davoudi, S. M. M., Oraji, S. & Fartash, K.  (2012). Illustrate the important  
linkage between perception of justice and job satisfaction. Asian Journal of 
Research in Social Sciences and Humanities, 2(5), 270-288. 
 
Resta, V., Huling, L. & Rainwater, N. (2001).  Preparing second-career teachers.  
Educational Leadership, 58(8), 60-63. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
133 
 
Rhodes, S. R., & Doering, M. (1983). An Integrated Model of Career Change. Academy of 
Management Review, 8, 631−639. 
Rhodes, S. R., & Doering, M. M. (1993). Intention to change careers: Determinants and 
process. Career Development Quarterly, 42,76−93. 
Richardson, P., & Watt, H. (2005). I‟ve decided to become a teacher: Influences on career 
cange. Teaching and Teacher Education, 21(5), 475–489. 
Richardson, P., Gough, J., & Vitlin, M. (2001). Becoming a mature-aged teacher: career 
change into teaching. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in 
Education Annual Conference, Fremantle. 
Robbins, P. I., Thomas, L. E., Harvey, D. W., & Kandefer, C. (1978).  Career change and 
congruence of personality type: An examination of DOT-derived work 
environment designations. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 13, 15-25. 
Roberts, K. (1975).  The developmental theory of occupational choice: a critique and an 
alternative.  In: G Esland, G., Salaman & M. Speakman (Editors) People and Work 
Edinburgh: Holmes McDougall with Open University Press. 
Rosenbaum, J. L. (1979). Tournament mobility: Career patterns in a corporation.  
Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 221–241. 
Roth, M. (2003). Validation of the Arnett Inventory of Sensation Seeking (AISS): 
efficiency to predict the willingness towards occupational change, and affection by 
social desirability. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 1307–1314. 
Rousseau, D. M. (1995). Psychological contracts in organizations. Thousand Oaks: Sage 
Publications Inc. 
Sagal, K., & DeBlassie, R. (1981).  The male midlife crisis and career change. Journal of 
Employment Counseling, 18(1), 34-42. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
134 
 
Saks, A. M. (1995). Longitudinal field investigation of the moderating and mediating 
effects of self-efficacy on the relationship between training and newcomer 
adjustment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 80(2), 211–225.  
Schein, E. (1996).  Career anchors revisited: implications for career development in the 
21st Century.  Academy of Management Executive, 10(4), 80-88. 
Schein, E. H. (1978). Career dynamics: Matching individual and organizational needs.  
Reading, MA: Addison Wesley. 
Schneider, J. (1976).  The "greener grass" phenomenon: Differential effects of a work 
context alternative on organizational participation and withdrawal intentions. 
Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15, 308-333. 
Seda, M.A. (1996). Factors influencing CPAs career decision-making process: A test of 
Krumboltz‟s social learning framework, Unpublished Master's Thesis, New York 
State University, NY. 
Sen, A. (2008). Rational Behavior.  In: S.N. Durlauf and L.E. Blume (Editors).  The New 
Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. 
Serow, R. C., & Forrest, K. D. (1994). Motives and circumstances: Occupational-change 
experiences of prospective late-entry teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education, 
10(5), 555-563. 
Shaw, C. C. (1996). The big picture: An inquiry into the motivations of African-American 
teacher education students to be or not to teachers. American Educational 
Research Journal, 33(2), 327–354. 
Sicherman, N., & Galor, O. (1990). A theory of career mobility. Journal of Political 
Economy, 98, 169−192. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
135 
 
Slay, H. S. (2006). The Influence of Career Identity and Social Networks On Career 
Transition Magnitude. Ph.D Thesis, Graduate School, University of Maryland, 
College Park, Baltimore. 
Smart, J. C., Elton, C. F., & McLaughlin, G.W. (1986).  Person-environment congruence 
and job satisfaction. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 29, 216–225. 
Smart, R. and Peterson, C. (1997). Super's career stages and the decision to change 
careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 51, 358−374. 
Snyder, J. F. (1995). Perceptions of pre-service teachers: The job market, why teaching, 
and alternatives to teaching. Slippery Rock, PA: Slippery Rock University Office 
of Career Services. 
Snyder, R., Howard, A., & Hammer, T. H. (1978).  Mid-career change in academia: The 
decision to become an administrator. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 13, 229-241. 
Sonnenfeld, J., &  Kotter, J. P. (1982).  The maturation of career theory. Human Relations, 
35: 19-46. 
Spear, M., Gould, K., &  Lee, B. (2000).  Who would be a Teacher? A Review of Factors 
Motivating and Demotivating Prospective and Practising Teachers (Slough, NFER). 
Splaver, S. (1977).  Your personality and your career.  New York: Julian Messner. 
Staples, D. S., &  Higgins, C. A. (1998). A study of the impact of factor importance 
weightings on job satisfaction measures. Journal of Business and Psychology, 
13(2), 211-232. 
Staples, D. S., & Higgins, C. A. (1998). A study of the impact of factor importance 
weightings on job satisfaction measures. Journal of Business and Psychology, 
13(2),211-232. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
136 
 
Staufenbiel, T., & Konig, C. (2010). A model for the effects of job insecurity on 
performance, turnover, and absenteeism. Journal of Occupational and 
Organizational Psychology, 83, 101−117. 
Steers, R. M., & Mowday, R.T. (1981).  Employee turnover and post-decision 
accommodation processes. In B.M. Staw & L.L. Cummings (Editors), Research in 
organizational behavior (Vol. 3). Greenwich, Conn.: JAI Press, 1981, 235-281. 
Stephens, G. K. (1994). Crossing internal career boundaries: The state of research on 
subjective career transitions. Journal of Management, 20(2), 479-501. 
Strauss, A., & Corbin, I. (1988). Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory 
procedures and techniques (2nd Edition).  Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishers 
Inc. 
Sullivan, S. E. (1999). The changing nature of careers: A review and research agenda. 
Journal of Management, 25, 457−484. 
Sullivan, S. E., & Emerson, R. (2003). Recommendations for successfully navigating the 
boundaryless career: From theory to practice. Paper presented at the annual 
conference of the Midwest Academy of Management, Columbus, OH. 
Super, D. E. (1953). A theory of vocational development. American Psychologist, 8: 185–
190. 
Super, D. E. (1957). The Psychology of Careers. New York: Harper and Row. 
Super, D. E. (1981). Approaches to occupational choice and career development. In: A.G. 
Watts, D.E. Super, & J.M. Kidd (Editors.), Career Development in Britain. 
Cambridge, England: Hobsons Press. 
Super, D. E. (1990). A life span, life-space approach to career development. In: D. Brown, 
& L. Brooks (Editors), Career choice and development (2nd ed.). San Francisco: 
Jossey–Bass. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
137 
 
Tashakkori, A., & Teddlie, C. (1998). Mixed methodology: Combining the qualitative and 
quantitative approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing Inc. 
Taylor, M. J. (1992).  Post-16 options: young people's awareness, attitudes, intentions and 
influences on their choice, Research Papers in Education, 7, 301-335. 
Teddlie, C., & Tashakkori, A. (2009). Foundations of mixed methods research.  Thousand 
Oaks, CA: Sage Publishing Inc. 
The Pool of Potential (Second-Career) Teachers. (2008).  http://www.insidehighered.com/ 
layout/set/print/news/2008/09/10/teaching. 
Thomas, L. E. (1980). A typology of mid-life career changers. Journal of Vocational 
Behavior, 16, 173-182. 
Thomas, L. E., & Robbins, P. I. (1979). Personality and work environment congruence of 
midlife career changers. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 52, 177-183. 
Tiedeman, D. V., & O‟Hara, R. P. (1963). Career development: Choice and adjustment. 
New York: College Entrance Examination Board. 
Tokar, D. M., Fischer, A. R., & Subich, L. M. (1998). Personality and vocational 
behavior: A selective review of the literature, 1993–1997. Journal of Vocational 
Behavior, 53, 115−153. 
Townsend, R. (1970). Up the organization. London: Coronet Books. 
University of Ghana (UG, 2014a). Basic Statistics. Accra: UG, Legon. 
http://www.ug.edu.gh/about/overview. Accessed on 29/10/2014. 
University of Ghana (UG, 2014b). Strategic Plan, 2014-2024. University of Ghana, 
Legon. 
University of Professional Studies, Accra (UPSA).  (2014). History of the University. 
Accra: University of Professional Studies. http://upsa.edu.gh/pages/about-
upsa/history. Accessed on 29/10/2014. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
138 
 
Vacc, N. A., & Loesch, L. C. (1987). Counseling as a profession.  Muncie, IN: 
Accelerated Development Inc. Pp. 42-131. 
Valcour, P. M., & Tolbert, P. S. (2003). Gender, family and career in the era of 
boundarylessness: Determinants and effects of intra- and inter-organizational 
mobility. International Journal of Human Resource Management, 14(5), 768-787. 
Van Maanen, J., & Katz, R. (1968).  Individuals and their careers: Some temporal 
considerations for work satisfaction. Personnel Psychology, 29, 601-616. 
Van Maanen, J., & Schein, E. H. (1975).  Improving the quality of work life: Career 
development. Improving life in organizations: A monograph series sponsored by 
the U.S. Department of Labor, Washington D.C. 
Van Maanen, J., & Schein, E. H. (1977).  Career development. In: J.R. Hackman S.L. 
Suttle, (Editors), Improving life at work.  Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear. 
Vinson, G. A., Connelly, B. S., &  Ones, D. S. (2007). Relationships between personality 
and organization switching: Implications for utility estimates. International 
Journal of Selection and Assessment, 15, 118−133. 
Vroom, V. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley & Sons. 
Watt, H. M. G., & Richardson, P. W. (2003). Motivational factors leading to teaching as a 
career choice: Development and validation of the FIT-Choice scale. Paper 
presented at the AERA Annual Conference, Chicago, April 21–25, 2003. 
Watt, H. M. G., Richardson, P. W., Klusmann, U., Kunter, M., Beyer, B., Trautwein, U. & 
Baumert, J. (2012). Motivations For Choosing Teaching As a Career: An 
International Comparison using the FIT-Choice Scale. Teaching and Teachers 
Education, 28(6), 791-805. 
Watts, G. A. (1993). Work values, attitudes and motivations of women employed in 
administrative support occupations. Journal of Career Development, 19(1), 49–64. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
139 
 
Weber, M. (1920). Conceptual Exposition.  In Economy and Society. In G. Roth and C. 
Wittich (1968). 
Whyte, W. H. (1956). The organization man. New York: Simon &. Shuster. 
Wiener, Y., & Vaitenas, R. (1977). Personality correlates of voluntary mid-career change 
in enterprising occupations. Journal of Applied Psychology, 62, 706-712. 
Wilensky, H. L. (1961).  Orderly careers and social participation: The impact of work 
history on social integration in the Middle Mass.  American Sociological Review, 
26: 521. 
Wilkinson, S. (2008). Focus Groups. In J. A. Smith (2nd Edition), Qualitative psychology: 
A practical Guide to Research Methods (pp.187-206). London: Sage. 
Wilkinson, S. (2008). Focus Groups. In: J.A. Smith (2nd Edition), Qualitative Psychology: 
A practical Guide to Research Methods (pp.187-206). London: Sage Publications 
Co. 
Williams, J. (2010). Constructing a new rrofessional identity: Career change into teaching. 
Teaching and Teacher Education, 26 (3),639-647. 
Williamson, E. G. (1939). How to counsel students: A manual of techniques for clinical 
counsellors. In: V.G. Zunker (Editor), Career counselling: Applied concepts of life 
planning.  California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. 
Wise, A. J., & Millward, L. J. (2005).  The experiences of voluntary career change in 
30‐somethings and implications for guidance. Career Development International, 
10(5), 400-417. 
Yankelovich, D. (1981).  New rules: Searching for self-fulfillment in a world turned 
upside down. New York: Random House. 
Young, B. J. (1995). Career plans and work perceptions of pre-service teachers. Teaching 
and Teacher Education, 11(3), 281–292. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
140 
 
Zippay, A. (2001). The role of social capital in reclaiming human capital: A longitudinal 
study of occupational mobility among displaced steelworkers. Journal of Sociology 
and Social Welfare, XXVIII, 99−119. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
141 
 
APPENDIX 
STRUCTURED INTERVIEW 
 
Dear Participant, 
My name is Eugenia Brempomaa Kesse, a Master of Philosophy student from the 
Department of Sociology, University of Ghana, Legon.  I am conducting a thesis research 
on the topic THE DETERMINANTS OF CAREER CHANGE AMONG HOLDERS 
OF HIGHER DEGREES: THE CASE OF UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
EMPLOYEES.  This research is purely academic and it is geared towards obtaining 
information on the factors underlying career change in Ghana.  I would be grateful if you 
could respond to the questions; no names are required.  I assure you that all information 
provided will be treated with utmost confidentiality.  Thank you for your willingness to 
participate. 
 
SECTION A 
Demographic characteristics 
Please tick [√]; indicate when inapplicable by [N/A]; or provide answer (s) where 
appropriate 
1. Sex: [  ] Male   [  ] Female  
2. Age: ………………………………………………... 
3. Marital status:  [  ] Single   [  ] Married [  ] Separated   [  ] Divorced  [  ] Widowed 
4. Do you have children [  ] Yes [  ] No 
5. If yes, how many children do you have? …………………………………………… 
6. Job title: …………………………………………………………………………… 
7. Level of education: ………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
142 
 
Education: No. of Yrs.  Qualifications /Degrees  
 Completed (duration) Received /Dates /Field of Study 
 
8. Sec / High Schools ………………..........  ……………………..  
   ……………………… …......……………… 
 
9. University/College ……………….……  …...........……………… 
  ……………………...  .....…….......………….. 
 
10. Could you please state some of the reasons that inspired you to attain higher 
education? 
…………….……………………………………………………………………………
…...………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
SECTION B 
Exploring the processes career switchers go through in order to effect career change? 
11. When was the first time you thought of changing your career? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………...............................................................................................…… 
12. What were the reasons that influenced this thought? 
………………………………........................................................................…....... 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
143 
 
13. How would you describe the search for alternative opportunities? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
14.  How would you describe your relationship with those you relied on during the search 
process? 
.................................................................................................................................……
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
15. What activity or activities (training or education) did you undertake in order to prepare 
for your new career?  
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
16. How would you describe the training or education period? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
17. What were some of the challenges during the training or education period?......... ..... 
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
18. How long did it take you to make the transition into your new career?  
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
144 
 
SECTION C 
Identifying individual and organisational factors that influence career change 
19.  Which of these personality traits best describes you or who you are?  
[  ] Openness to Experience (imagination, curiosity, creativity, intelligence and being    
      open to a range of new experiences) 
[  ] Extraversion (sociable, confident, optimistic and energetic)   
[  ] General Self-Efficacy (a belief in ability to perform across a variety of situations) 
 
20. Do you think your possession of this/these trait (s) contributed to the reasons why you 
changed your career?  [  ] Yes  [  ] No 
 
21. Which of these factors would you say was/were influential in your decision to switch 
career? 
[  ] Sex      [  ] Children 
[  ] Marital Status     [  ] Higher education level  
[  ] Salary      [  ] Occupational tenure  
[  ]  Job security          
    
22. Were you satisfied with your previous career?  [  ] Yes        [  ] No 
 
23. Please give reason (s) for your answer to Question 22.  
……………………........................………………………………………………………… 
……………………........................………………………………………………………… 
24. How old were you when you entered your first career? …………………………… 
25. How old were you when you switched to your new career?............................................. 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
145 
 
SECTION D 
To examine why individuals choose university teaching (lecturing) as a second 
career. 
 
26. Can you please give me an overview of your previous carrier? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
27. Why did you make the change into university teaching? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
28. What conditions in your previous career influenced your decision to switch into 
University teaching? 
………………………………………......................................................................... 
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
……………………………………………………………………………………… 
29. Between your previous and present careers, which would you consider more lucrative 
in terms of salary and other benefits? 
…………………………………………………......................................................... 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
146 
 
30.  In terms of flexibility of schedule, how would you describe your previous 
employment? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
31. How would you describe your previous career in terms of job satisfaction? 
…….....................………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
32. Can you share with me some of the reasons why you feel more satisfied with your 
present career than you were with the previous one?. 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
 
33. What are the specific pull factors that influenced your choice of university teaching as 
a second career? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
147 
 
34. Which of these factors would you say were influential in your decision to choose 
university teaching as a second career? 
[  ] Social status 
[  ] Career fit 
[  ] Prior considerations 
[  ] Financial reward 
[  ] Time for family 
[  ] Job security 
 
SECTION E 
To find out the outcome of the career switch into university teaching. 
35. How do you describe your decision to switch career into university teaching 
(worthwhile or are there regrets) 
…………………………………………………....……………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
36. Have your expectations for choosing university teaching been met?    
[  ] Yes   [  ] No 
37. If yes, could you please mention some of the expectations. ………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
38. What are the reason(s) that might cause you to abandon university teaching as a 
career? 
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
  
148 
 
39. How would you describe your career as a university teacher?  
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
………………………………………………………………………………………… 
40. Looking back, would you consider your career change successful?  
.............................……………………………………………………………………… 
.………………………………………………………………………………………… 
SECTION F 
To develop recommendations on how to improve job satisfaction among career 
changers and highlight the benefits of the change to the University. 
 
41. Did your experience or skill in your previous career assist your performance in the 
new career? 
42. State some of these experiences 
43. Has there been any assessment of your performance in your new career? 
44. How will you describe the assessment? 
45. Have you received any special recognition or award in your new career? 
46. State the type of recognition and/or award. (END). 
 
University of Ghana                              http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh