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UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 
 
TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT IN STAGE 
LIGHTING: CASE STUDIES OF ABIBIGROMMA AND 
NATIONAL THEATRE PLAYERS, 1980 – 2010  
 
 
BY 
 
MARGARET LAMIOKOR LAMPTEY 
10168561 
 
 
 
THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 
GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE 
REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL THEATRE 
ARTS DEGREE 
 
 
 
JULY 2017
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DECLARATION 
 
I, Margaret Lamiokor Lamptey, hereby declare that this research work titled, Trends and 
Technological Advancement in Stage Lighting: Case Studies of Abibigromma and National 
Theatre Players, 1980 – 2010, is my own product except for the references made in the work 
which are duly acknowledged.  No part of this research has been published or presented 
anywhere for an award or any form of academic recognition. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………… ….………………… 
Margaret Lamiokor Lamptey (Student)  Date 
ID: 10168561 
 
 
 
 
 
………………………… ….………………… 
John Kwadwo Djisenu (Senior Lecturer)  Date 
Principal Supervisor 
 
 
 
………………………… ….………………… 
Cecilia Adjei (Senior Lecturer)  Date 
Co-supervisor 
 
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ABSTRACT 
 
The study was embarked upon to investigate the trends and technological advancement in stage 
lighting with Abibigromma and the National Theatre Players as case study groups. The study 
becomes significant owing to the limited literature in the area of trends and technological 
advancement of stage lighting in the Ghanaian theatre practice.  The qualitative research method 
is employed, which allows the use of historical, literary and case study methodologies helped to 
unravel the use of stage lighting in the Ghanaian theatre from 1980–2010. Data for the 
research was based on interviews, still photographs extracted from four (4) video recorded stage 
productions of Abibigromma Theatre Company and National Theatre Players, documented 
library materials, internet sources and other supporting materials. The purposive sampling 
technique was used to assist in gathering relevant data. Analysis and interpretation on the 
gathered information showed the continuous use of spot and flood lights by the two theatre 
groups. One of the major findings discovered by the study shows, that the use of stage lighting 
was minimal during the initial stages of the groups’ performances. The style of mounting one 
flood light on two separate lighting stands was initially adopted. The theatre groups later 
improved upon the style by fixing two flood lights on separate lighting stands, with the lights 
facing the stage to give enough visibility to the audience.  It is recommended, that Abibigromma 
Theatre Company and the National Theatre Players groups should invest in newly developed 
lighting instruments in order to incorporate a touch of technologically advanced lighting system 
into their stage performances. 
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DEDICATION 
 
This thesis is dedicated to the memory of my late sister, Mrs. Victoria Lankai Sika-Adom who 
passed away before the completion of this research work. The entire Lamptey family of South 
MacCarthy Hill, my husband, Mr. Richard Nii Ashiaku Amoo and my twins Naa Kowa Amoo 
and Naa Aku Sika-Adom, to you all I dedicate this work. 
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 
 
My first acknowledgement goes to the Almighty God, for His wonderful care, protection and 
guidance upon my life. 
 
I wish to express my sincere appreciation to my noble supervisors, John K. Djisenu and Ms. 
Cecilia Adjei for their support, supervision and guidance throughout the research work. 
 
I am grateful to Mr. Africanus Aveh, former Departmental Head of Theatre Arts; Dr. Ossei 
Agyeman, currently Head of Theatre Arts Department; Dr. Joshua Amuah, Head of Music 
Department, and Oh! Nii Kwei Sowah, Head of Dance Studies Department of the School of 
Performing Arts.  My thank goes to the entire Faculty members of the Department of Theatre 
Arts for their tremendous assistance in shaping my thesis topic and giving directions to 
the research work. 
 
I thank my fellow graduate students and our predecessors who acted as peer reviewers during 
my seminal paper presentations. 
 
My warmest gratitude goes to friends and relations such as Mr. Solomon Dartey, Mr. Isaac 
Adamtey Dua, Ebenezer Asime, I. S. Kanazoe, Mr. John Paul Aseidu, Mr. Salifu Jeboni, 
Mr. Faisal Mohammed, Mr. Jeff Cobbah and all friends who assisted in one way or the other. 
 
Many thanks go to Mr. David Tawiah Akushie Amoo, former Artistic Director of Ghana Dance 
Company (National Theatre of Ghana), Artistic Directors and Members of Abibigromma 
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and National Theatre Players, Theatre Stakeholders and all respondents who granted me and 
audience and reception during my field work. 
 
Finally, my deepest gratitude goes to my parents who served as care-givers to my children 
when I absented myself in the pursuit of this research work. Many thanks also go to you my 
loving husband, Mr. Richard Nii Ashiaku Amoo, for your financial and emotional support in 
times of need. I wish to say, God richly bless you abundantly! 
 
Thank you all very 
Much! Nyɛ yi wala dↄn 
agbo!!! 
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TABLE OF CONTENTS 
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................... i 
ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................................... ii 
DEDICATION .................................................................................................................................. ii 
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................... iv 
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................................. vi 
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................................ x 
LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................................... xi 
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................... 1 
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 1 
1.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 1 
1.2 Background ............................................................................................................................. 1 
1.3 Problem Statement ................................................................................................................... 4 
1.4 Research Questions ................................................................................................................. 4 
1.5 Objectives ................................................................................................................................ 5 
1.6 Significance of the Study ........................................................................................................ 5 
1.7 Justification ............................................................................................................................. 6 
1.8 Methodology ........................................................................................................................... 6 
1.9 Data Gathering ........................................................................................................................ 7 
1.9.1 Primary Data ......................................................................................................................... 8 
1.9.2 Secondary Data ..................................................................................................................... 8 
1.10 Theoretical Foundation .......................................................................................................... 8 
1.11 Scope of Limitation ............................................................................................................. 11 
1.12 Study Design (Case study) .................................................................................................. 11 
1.13 Organisation of Thesis ......................................................................................................... 12 
1.14 Profile of Abibigromma Theatre Company ......................................................................... 13 
1.15 Profile of National Theatre Players ..................................................................................... 14 
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................................ 16 
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION .............................................. 16 
2.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 16 
2.2 Technological Advancement of Stage Lighting in Ghana .................................................... 20 
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2.3 Electricity as a Boost to Performances in Ghana .................................................................. 22 
2.4 Stage Lighting Practices for Theatre Performance ................................................................ 24 
2. 5 Theoretical Framework and Methods of Lighting ............................................................... 27 
2.6 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 30 
CHAPTER THREE ......................................................................................................................... 31 
METHODOLOGY .......................................................................................................................... 31 
3.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 31 
3.2 Data Collection Table ............................................................................................................ 31 
3.3 Research Study Design .......................................................................................................... 33 
3.4 Library Research ................................................................................................................... 34 
3.5 Population .............................................................................................................................. 35 
3.6 Sampling Technique .............................................................................................................. 35 
3.7 Data Collection Instrument.................................................................................................... 37 
3.7.1 Data Collection Procedure .................................................................................................. 38 
3.7.2 Extraction of Pictures from Videos .................................................................................... 39 
3.7.3 Interview Procedures .......................................................................................................... 39 
3.8 Types and Sources of Data .................................................................................................... 40 
3.9 Primary Data .......................................................................................................................... 40 
3.10 Secondary Data .................................................................................................................... 41 
3.11 Supporting Data ................................................................................................................... 41 
3.12 Administration of Instrument .............................................................................................. 41 
3.13 Data Analysis Plan .............................................................................................................. 42 
3.14 Experiences on Fieldwork and Limitations ......................................................................... 42 
CHAPTER FOUR ........................................................................................................................... 44 
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF TRENDS AND TECHNOLOGICAL 
ADVANCEMENT OF STAGE LIGHTING OF ATC AND NT PLAYERS ................................ 44 
4.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 44 
4.2 Trends of Technological Advancement of Stage Lighting in Ghana and Stage Lighting 
Equipment of ATC and NT Players From 1980 – 2010 ............................................................. 44 
4.3 Synopsis of The Witch of Mopti Production .......................................................................... 53 
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4.4 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Witch of 
Mopti ........................................................................................................................................... 53 
4.4.1 An Instrument Schedule for the Play Production of The Witch of Mopti ........................... 61 
4.4.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Witch of Mopti ............................................ 62 
4.5 Synopsis of The Gods Are Not to Blame Production ............................................................ 63 
4.6 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Gods Are Not 
to Blame ....................................................................................................................................... 63 
4.6.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of The Gods Are Not to Blame ............... 71 
4.6.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Gods Are Not to Blame ............................... 72 
4.7 Synopsis of The Bride of the Gods Production ..................................................................... 73 
4.8 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Bride of the 
Gods ............................................................................................................................................. 73 
4.8.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of The Bride of the Gods ........................ 82 
4.8.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Bride of the Gods ........................................ 84 
4.9 Synopsis of In The Chest of a Woman Production ................................................................ 85 
4.10 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of In The Chest of a 
Woman ......................................................................................................................................... 85 
4.10.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of In The Chest of a Woman ................ 92 
4.10.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of In The Chest of a Woman ................................. 93 
4.11 Trends of Lighting Theatre Productions Found in ATC and NT Players from 1980 to 1995
 ..................................................................................................................................................... 94 
4.12 Trends of Lighting Theatre Production Found in ATC and NT Players from 1996 to 2010
 ..................................................................................................................................................... 95 
4.13 The Relevance of Theatre Lighting and the Lighting Practitioner ...................................... 96 
4.14. CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 98 
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................................. 99 
SUMMARY, MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 99 
5.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 99 
5.2 Summary................................................................................................................................ 99 
5.3 Major Findings .................................................................................................................... 100 
5.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 101 
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5.5 Recommendation ................................................................................................................. 102 
BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 103 
Internet Sources ......................................................................................................................... 105 
Personal Interviews ................................................................................................................... 106 
Picture illustrations .................................................................................................................... 108 
APPENDICES .............................................................................................................................. 111 
Appendix One: A scanned Photocopy of an Introductory letter to the British Council ............ 111 
Appendix Two: Interview Guide for Lighting Practitioners in Active Service (Open-ended) . 112 
Appendix Three: Interview Guide for Present Members of ATC and NT Players ................... 113 
Appendix Four: Interview Guide for Artistic Directors of ATC and NT Players ..................... 114 
Appendix Five: A. Interview Guide for Theatre Stakeholders.................................................. 115 
Appendix Five: B. Interview Guide for Theatre Stakeholders .................................................. 116 
Appendix Six: Newspaper Photo Showing the NT Players in the play performance of The Bride 
of the Gods. ................................................................................................................................ 117 
Appendix Seven: Stage Lighting Equipment Found at the Accra Arts Centre and the British 
Council Hall .............................................................................................................................. 118 
Appendix Eight: Stage Lighting Instruments used in Ghana From 1980 – 2010 by ATC and the 
NT Players. ................................................................................................................................ 120 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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LIST OF TABLES 
Table 1 Data Collection Table ........................................................................................................ 32 
Table 2 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Witch of Mopti Production .............................. 61 
Table 3 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Gods Are Not to Blame Production ................. 71 
Table 4 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Bride of the Gods Production .......................... 82 
Table 5 A generated Instrument Schedule for In The Chest of a Woman Production .................... 92 
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LIST OF FIGURES 
Figure 1 A generated model of two flood lights mounted separately on a crossed bar lighting stand 
facing the stage .............................................................................................................. 47 
Figure 2 A generated model of two paired flood lights mounted on two separate crossed bar 
lighting stand facing the stage ....................................................................................... 47 
Figure 3 Frontal and side view of a lampless Strand Electric 250/500 watt spot light. Source: 
(SPA) Lab ..................................................................................................................... 48 
Figure 4 The two women preparing for the King of Mopti's wedding ceremony. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA)
 ....................................................................................................................................... 54 
Figure 5 Dancers begin the wedding ceremony with various dances. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) .............. 54 
Figure 6 The Witch of Mopti swears to punish the King of Mopti for not marrying her daughter 
Samanke. Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. 
Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ...................................................................................... 55 
Figure 7  A pool of light designed for the use of the witchcraft activity (for audience to see their 
actions). Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. 
Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ...................................................................................... 56 
Figure 8 Exchange of mystical powers between the Witch of Mopti and a sorcerer. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC 
Archives, (SPA) ............................................................................................................ 57 
Figure 9 Magicians, sorceries, and town peoples afflicted by blindness by the Witch of Mopti. 
Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: 
ATC Archives, (SPA) ................................................................................................... 57 
Figure 10  The storyteller narrating the outcome of witches activities. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) .............. 58 
Figure 11 The witches in their chanting moment. Picture extracted from video recording of The 
Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) .......................................... 59 
Figure 12 The Witch of Mopti contaminates the well with the potion prepared through the 
directives of the devil. Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti 
production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ................................................................... 60 
Figure 13 A generated lighting plot for The Witch of Mopti indicating where lighting instruments 
are rigged, area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and wattage. ........ 62 
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Figure 14 The joyous ceremony of the newly born baby, Odewale. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) . 64 
Figure 15 The divination of the newly born baby Odewale by the Ogun priest Baba Fakunle. 
Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. 
Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ...................................................................................... 64 
Figure 16 The messenger holding the baby boy. Picture extracted from video recording of The 
Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ............................. 65 
Figure 17 Townspeople sitting on the floor complaining to King Odewale of their ailment. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: 
ATC Archives, (SPA) ................................................................................................... 66 
Figure 18 Townspeople encouraged by King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of 
The Gods are Not Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) .......................... 66 
Figure 19 Townspeople getting up gradually indicated by the gradual fading in of bright light. 
Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. 
Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ...................................................................................... 67 
Figure 20 Townspeople on their feet heading to the bush to find herbs for their ailments. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: 
ATC Archives, (SPA) ................................................................................................... 67 
Figure 21 Dimmed lights at the palace of King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording 
of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA).................. 68 
Figure 22  Aderopo tells the King and elders the message from the oracle. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source ATC Archives, 
(SPA) ............................................................................................................................. 69 
Figure 23 Ojuola coming to comfort King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of The 
Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ............................. 69 
Figure 24  Odewale banishes Aderopo by swearing an oath with the symbol of ‘Ogun’. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: 
ATC Archives, (SPA) ................................................................................................... 70 
Figure 25  Odewale ends his swearing. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are 
Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) ............................................. 70 
Figure 26 A generated lighting plot for The Gods Are Not to Blame indicating where lighting 
instruments are rigged, area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and 
wattage. ......................................................................................................................... 72 
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Figure 27  The actor performing the role of a narrator in The Bride of the Gods. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-
Visual Archives ............................................................................................................. 74 
Figure 28 Subinzali romancing Nderize at the court of the high priest of Oro-oni. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-
Visual Archives ............................................................................................................. 74 
Figure 29  Narrator consoles Nderize for her father’s disapproval of her relationship with 
Subinzali. Picture extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. 
Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ........................................................................ 75 
Figure 30 Subinzali and Nderize in a duet performance. Picture extracted from video recording of 
The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ................. 76 
Figure 31 Subinzali condemned to be sacrificed for Nderize’s spirit husband. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-
Visual Archives ............................................................................................................. 76 
Figure 32 Nderize engaging Subinzali in his confinement waiting to be sacrificed. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) 
Audio-Visual Archives.................................................................................................. 77 
Figure 33 The high priest of Oro-oni ready for the sacrifice of Subinzali. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual 
Archives ........................................................................................................................ 78 
Figure 34 The blind griot reveals the identity of Subinzali as the son of the cobra God. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) 
Audio-Visual Archives.................................................................................................. 79 
Figure 35  The blind griot asks Subinzali to demonstrate the prowess of the cobra God. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) 
Audio-Visual Archives.................................................................................................. 79 
Figure 36 Subinzali is set free and given a nod by the high priest to marry her daughter Nderize. 
Picture extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: 
(GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ...................................................................................... 80 
Figure 37 The happy ending ceremony of the marriage between Subinzali and Nderize. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) 
Audio-Visual Archives.................................................................................................. 81 
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Figure 38 The setting for The Bride of the Gods with the chorus behind set. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual 
Archives ........................................................................................................................ 81 
Figure 39 A generated lighting plot for The Bride of the Gods indicating where lighting 
instruments are rigged, area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and 
wattage. ......................................................................................................................... 84 
Figure 40 Nana Yaa Serwaa teaches Owusu Agyeman the art of war through the game of ‘oware’. 
Picture extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. 
Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ........................................................................ 86 
Figure 41 Owusu Agyeman prepares to go to Nana Kwaku Duah’s palace. Picture extracted from 
video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual 
Archives ........................................................................................................................ 87 
Figure 42 The Queen mother of Ebusa on her death bed surrounded by elders and chief priest. 
Picture extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. 
Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ........................................................................ 87 
Figure 43 Akosua and Adwoa gossiping about Owusu Agyeman. Picture extracted from video 
recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual 
Archives ........................................................................................................................ 88 
Figure 44 King of Ebusa Nana Kweku Duah having a meal with Owusu Agyeman and Ama 
Akyaa in attendance is Adwoa (a servant). Picture extracted from video recording of In 
The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ................ 89 
Figure 45 The King Nana Kweku Duah persuading Ama Akyaa to lure Owusu Agyeman into 
marriage. Picture extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman 
production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ..................................................... 89 
Figure 46 The durbar organized for the judgement of Ama Akyaa’s pregnancy. Picture extracted 
from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-
Visual Archives ............................................................................................................. 90 
Figure 47 The jubilation on the amendment of customs and traditions by the people of Ebusa. 
Picture extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. 
Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives ........................................................................ 91 
Figure 48 A generated lighting plot for In the Chest of a Woman indicating where lighting 
instruments are rigged, area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and 
wattage. ......................................................................................................................... 93 
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CHAPTER ONE 
INTRODUCTION 
 
1.1 Introduction 
This chapter gives information on the general historical background on stage lighting and the 
trends of lighting in Ghana from 1980 – 2010. Included in this chapter is the statement of 
problems of the research. A discussion follows on the research questions, objectives of the 
research, and the significance of the study. This chapter also tackles the general view of the 
method used in gathering data for the work, an explanation on the theoretical foundation used for 
the research work, and subsequently the organization of the thesis. The final discussion of this 
chapter deals with the profiles of Abibigromma Theatre Company and the National Theatre 
Players. In referring to the two theatre groups, Abibgromma Theatre Company would be 
shortened to ‘ATC’ and the National Theatre Players to NT Players respectively. 
 
1.2 Background 
A performance space could be divided into two forms: designated theatre space as against any 
other found spaces. The designated space is the standard theatre space where usually technical 
facilities are incorporated in the structure. Examples of such spaces include the Proscenium, the 
Arena or Theatre-in-the-Round and the End Stage. At the same time, any found spaces apart 
from the above examples are also used for performances. Theatre history has played a very 
significant role in providing information about performance spaces. For instance, there is 
knowledge about the use of the Amphitheatre during the Greek era. The Coliseum stage was 
used by the Romans whereas in the Medieval era, the raised platform was used. The Renaissance 
period saw the use of the Proscenium stage.  
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th
Around the 5  century BC the Greeks took advantage of their geographical landscape and made 
use of the natural slope of the hillside to fashion their theatre space known as the Amphitheatre. 
During that period, the Greeks made use of sunlight for their Dionysian festival drama 
performances. These performances originated from the ritual performance of the goddess 
Dionysus and it is performed during the daytime. The technology of using the natural lighting 
source (Sun) for performances created visibility for the mass audience to see the performance 
from the tiered seating space. Later, Roman theatre space also took the semblance of the Greek 
Amphitheatre until the reign of the Roman Emperor Pompey.  During Pompey’s rule, he built an 
oval open-air theatre space with various vomitoria known as the coliseum. The coliseum was 
used for all manner of performances such as gladiatorial displays, horse racing, circus and theatre 
performances. These performances are done during Empire day or public holidays. The Romans, 
like the Greeks mainly used the natural sunlight for illuminating their performances. Sometimes 
th
torches and fire are used to indicate the time of day during the performance. The 11  century AD 
saw the use of candles in front and around the church altar as source of lighting for liturgical 
th th
drama in the medieval era. In the 12  and 13  century AD, drama performances shifted from the 
church to secular performance on raised platforms.  Again, drama performance for this period 
took place during the day and the sunlight served as the source of lighting for the performance. 
The Renaissance drama performance in an enclosed building, made use of candles and oil lamps 
as the sources of lighting the performance. For instances, candles in chandeliers in the theatre 
auditorium were used for general lighting, candles or oil lamps placed in front or at the edge of 
the stage, provided illumination for the performers and candles behind the proscenium were also 
used for lighting the scenery.    
 
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As theatre spaces went through changes, technical element such as stage lighting evolved 
with time. In the early 1800’s gas was invented in Europe. According to Williams, (1999, p. 
33), gas lamp was introduced onto the stage during 1817 in some European theatres. During 
this period, lights were brightened, dimmed or cut off completely with the assistance of the 
controlling valve. A year after its introduction in theatres in Europe, gas technology spread to 
American theatres. The Chestnut street Theatre in Philadelphia and the Bowery Theatre in New 
York were lit with gas. The invention of the electric arc and the development of the electric 
filament lamp by Thomas Edison brought a remarkable advancement in the theatre. These later 
technological developments in lighting made it possible for performances to be held indoor. 
Aptly, in everyday life, lighting technology has lent itself to night life and this has been the 
motive for performances to shift from day to night. 
 
In Ghana, during the early 1900s, the popular night life Concert Party performances was enjoyed 
by the use of the crude kerosine wick lamp, Aladdin oil lamps, the gas lamps and the electric 
1
bulb . T h e  Efua T. Sutherland Experimental Theatre performance at the Ghana Drama Studio 
in the 1960’s and 1970’s made use of electric bulb manipulated by electric stage dimmers. Again, 
t he use of electric controlled stage lighting instruments influenced the performances of 
professional theatre groups such as the ATC and The Ghana Dance Ensemble, both from the 
University of Ghana; and The NT Players and The Ghana Dance Company, the two resident 
performing groups of the National Theatre of Ghana from 1980 to date.  
 
                                                          
1 Owusu, M. (1983). Drama of the Gods: A study of seven African plays. Roxbury: Omenan, p. 9  
 
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This research will look into the development of stage lighting in some selected past theatre 
productions from ATC of the School of Performing Arts at University of Ghana and the NT 
Players of the National Theatre of Ghana respectively. Special attention will be given to 
performances for the period 1980 – 2010. Again, this research will analyse the technology of 
lights used during the scope of the research and their relevance to theatre performances. 
Furthermore, this research will also look at the role of the lighting practitioners in the two theatre 
groups. 
 
1.3 Problem Statement 
Scholarly works in relation to stage lighting on theatre practice in Ghana is scanty and those 
available  have failed to address the concerns of technological advancement in stage lighting in 
Ghana and the efficacy of stage lighting on theatre productions; hence the need for this research. 
Again, scholastic work on ATC and the NT Players by Gyamfi 2013 and Collins 2016 deals with 
the managerial and the drama presentation of the two groups respectively without touching on 
stage lighting used by the two theatre groups in their performances as well as the kinds of lighting 
equipment used and how it aided the performance. 
 
1.4 Research Questions 
1.   How has the trends and technological advancement of theatre lighting affected the  
 development of Ghanaian theatre? 
2.   What is the relevance of stage lighting to Ghanaian theatre performances? 
 
3.   What has been the role of the lighting practitioner in the Ghanaian theatre? 
 
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1.5 Objectives 
1.   To document the developmental trends of stage lighting in Ghanaian theatre productions. 
2.   To explore how stage lighting has been relevant to the Ghanaian theatre. 
3.   To investigate the role of the lighting practitioner in Ghanaian theatres. 
 
1.6 Significance of the Study 
The outcome of this research would serve as a material for analysis and further research for 
theatre practitioners and, for that matter, stage lighting scholars and students. The study would 
contribute to the corpus of scholarly work as an addition to existing knowledge due to the 
inadequate literature in the area of technological advancements in stage lighting in Ghanaian 
theatre practice in this present-day. 
 
This research is also relevant for the study of lighting history and its effectiveness on various 
performances in Ghanaian theatre. The study would help contribute to a better understanding of 
the way Ghanaian stage lighting practitioners have executed their understanding of stage lighting 
in some lighted Ghanaian theatre performances such as the four plays by the two theatre groups 
that would be reviewed in chapter four of this thesis. 
 
The  study  will  also  create  awareness  of  the  importance  of  documenting  stage  lighting  in 
Ghanaian productions. This will help both Ghanaians and non-Ghanaians to appreciate the 
technicalities in Ghanaian theatre performances. 
 
The work would serve as an awakening and motivational for stage lighting practitioners, that their 
work as lighting persons is important for academic discourse. This would encourage them to 
improve on their creativity to enhance Ghanaian theatre performances. 
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Finally the research will broaden the knowledge and the understanding of the trends and 
technological advancement of stage lighting and its necessity for theatre productions in Ghana. 
 
1.7 Justification 
The resident theatre group of the School of Performing Arts, ATC and the NT Players of the 
National Theatre of Ghana were selected as the case study groups due to their long 
existence in the country and their establishments fall within the period of the research.  Also the  
two  professional  theatre  groups  are aligned  to  institutions  that  have  theatre structure for 
presenting theatre. Again, the two professional theatre groups have had national and international 
recognition in theatre production of which stage lighting is said to be part and as a result 
researching on the trends and technological advancement of stage lighting in Ghana within the 
two theatre groups as a case study groups is appropriate.  
 
1.8 Methodology 
This research would employ qualitative method, specifically, historical and literary 
methodology. It will also look at concepts and theories to analyze and seek answers to 
questions raised. The data collection tools for the study would be based on historical analysis, 
reading and Archival materials (Videos, pictures, newspapers, footages etc.). Another data 
collection method, such as interviews would be employed. 
 
The historical and l iterary methodology employed wou ld  establish reliable data on the 
trends and technological advancement of stage lighting in Ghana with the two professional 
theatre groups as case studies. In Ukala (2006, p. 12) “historical methodology entails 
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investigating documented sources such as books, journals, reports, films, video and audio tapes, 
archival material, archaeological excavation, artifacts and oral sources. Its function is to trace the 
beginnings   and   development   of   people,   institutions   and   things   to   establish   facts   and 
occurrences.”    
 
Interviews would be conducted to acquire more information on the research topic: these 
would include the current artistic directors of the two professional theatre groups, stage managers 
of the groups, members of the groups, their resident lighting person and other lighting 
practitioners in the theatre and television industry. Apart from that, other stakeholders such as 
past technical theatre lecturers of the School of Performing Arts, Director of National 
Commission on Culture, former members of the ATC that have handled stage lighting would be 
interviewed through telephone discussions, internet or face to face discussions. 
 
1.9 Data Gathering 
The first approach in collecting data for this research involved the acquisition of documented 
sources which included books, periodicals, reports, photographs of theatre performances by the 
NT Players, video recordings of theatre performances by ATC and other written and printed 
materials on theatre performance within the scope of the research. 
 
The second phase was created by orally interviewing lecturers, lighting practitioners, artistic 
directors and some members of the two professional groups; ATC and NT Players. A set of open- 
ended interview questions were designed for this purpose (see Appendix Two to Five). 
 
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1.9.1 Primary Data 
Pictures were extracted from video performances of the two theatre groups and interviews were 
also conducted. This served as the primary data for the research. Videos and photographs were 
obtained from the t w o  theatre groups, Ghana Broadcasting Corporation archives, libraries and 
informants. Interviews were conducted from the two theatre groups. Lighting p ractitioners in 
active service o r  out of active service as well as some lecturers and past members of both 
theatre groups were also interviewed for data collection. 
 
1.9.2 Secondary Data 
Published  books,  journals,  library  research  and  newspaper  items,  served  as supporting 
materials for the history of stage lighting and theatre  performances in Ghana. 
  
1.10 Theoretical Foundation 
For this research to be supported, the researcher considers Stanley McCandless theory of 
lighting (from the third paragraph) of Ratpacdimmers internet document (2017), as well as the 
expression ‘State-of-the-art-technology’, to help fashion the work. McCandless method of 
lighting the stage, demonstrated first the provision of visibility for the actor on stage. This is 
derived from how the sun moves towards people on the earth. The segmented acting areas are 
lighted with two stage lights, positioned at ninety degrees to the other and angled at forty-five 
(45º) degrees, facing the actor on stage. Stanley McCandless proposed the use of a warm hue(s) 
and cool hue(s) for the two stage lights opposite the other. The method also shows how light can 
complement the other artistic items (props) found in the acting area, lighting of the drops and 
cyclorama and adding special lighting such as a tight pool of light or special effect lights. This 
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method of lighting is not altered by the technological changes that affect lighting instruments as 
the year goes-by.  Rather, lighting manufacturers have strived to produce stage lighting 
equipment that can produce the needed effect for lighting the various acting areas. This theory 
would be used by the researcher to investigate how stage lighting has affected the Ghanaian 
theatre 
 
 
Like Stanley McCandless, Adolphe Appia, another lighting theorist also talks about the generality 
in the use of light as visibility. According to Williams, (1999, p. 39), Adolphe Appia termed the 
visibility of light as “Helligkiet”. Again he differentiated between the set of stage lights 
purposely for scenery and stage lights designated for modeling of textured structures, images and 
objects on stage. He advocated for stage lighting to move in time and evoke emotions. His theory 
and form of stage lighting has been inculcated in modern stage lighting practice. Like 
McCandless, Appia amplifies the use of stage lighting to achieve the needed functions of stage 
lighting in the theatre. The researcher would use this theory to examine the types of stage lighting 
used in Ghanaian theatre performance by ATC and NT Players from 1980 – 2010 and its relevance 
to the performance. 
 
Furthermore, Duro Oni, a Professor of stage lighting, justifies the art as the power that ignites 
technological development and enhancement which is captured in the phrase ‘State-of-the art 
technology’. He says that, the term gives a clue that most technological development and 
advancement in this modern era is propelled by the primary thinking process from the art. As 
postulated by Orisaremi (2012, p. 663) during his interview with Duro Oni he has this to say: 
Now, first of all, I want you to consider this phrase and the phrase is: state-of-
the-art technology. That the most modern of technological developments are 
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referred to as state-of-the-art, [this] makes the art the primary power engine of 
technological developments. Now, before people started going to space, fiction 
writers  had  started  writing  about  man  developing  wings  and  flying  
before scientists started saying, ‘Look if man is going to fly, how is he going to 
fly?’ So the arts are the primary thinking process for the development of 
technology, and that is why when something is very modern, it is referred to as 
state-of-the-art. That state of the art is the development of the mind that has that 
ability theoretically to go from the dream to the realization of the dream. And 
that, for me, is the convergence between art and technology. 
 
Technology, in this sense, is realized out of the art. The art here would be limited to theatre 
production which becomes the primary force igniting the production of new technological and 
enhanced stage lighting equipment, to replace the existing ones. Again, this could be explained 
by saying that the art of lighting the actor and stage objects to ascertain the functions and 
qualities of lighting, to the understanding of the audience, is born from the artist and his work 
before it is engaged with science, to produce the various lighting instruments in the theatre. 
Also from the numerous purposes of stage lighting equipment, it is obvious that technological 
advancement has affected stage lighting instruments from its inception to date. This is evident 
in the development of lighting equipment to produce an even wash of light and hard-edged 
beams of light, to illuminate theatre performance. As a result, the technological advancement of 
stage lighting would be analyzed to ascertain its effect on the theatre productions of ATC and 
NT Players. Finally, this theory would help to unearth how stage lighting has been relevant to 
Ghanaian theatre. 
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1.11 Scope of Limitation 
The ATC and the NT Players have presented theatre performances at different venues with the 
use of stage lights over the period under research. However, the study would not be able to 
discuss all the performances of the two theatre groups within the scope of the research. This 
research thus focused on performances that took place at the respective resident theatres namely, 
the Efua T.  Sutherland Drama Studio’s (E.T.S Drama Studio) proscenium stage, for ATC and the 
National Theatre of Ghana’s proscenium stage, for the NT Players. The study would not be able 
to discuss all performance of the two theatre groups within the scope of the research but when 
necessary some will be mentioned for the purpose of referencing. 
 
Again, there would be no linkage of the personal lives of stage lighting practitioners to their 
execution of stage lighting work, although comments would be passed on their creative 
contributions to the Ghanaian theatre development. 
 
1.12 Study Design (Case study) 
The resident theatre group ATC of the School of Performing Arts and the NT Players of the 
National Theatre of Ghana are the case study groups. Case study for this research work 
would be aligned to Bromley’s (1990, p. 302) definition that a case study is, “a systematic 
inquiry into an event or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain the 
phenomenon of interest”. The investigation in this research is moved towards the use of stage 
lighting in the two theatre groups with keen interest in the use of advanced technology of stage 
lighting in the Ghanaian theatre.  
 
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According to Yin, (1994) case study has to do with “Data come largely from documentation, 
archival records, interviews, direct observations, participant observation and physical 
artifacts”.  Out of these documentations and archival materials, purposive sampling of recorded 
theatre productions within the scope of the research will be used. The sampling would not 
necessarily represent all professional theatre groups of Ghana entirely, but the point still remains 
that the population of works of stage lighting and the role of lighting practitioners, examined for 
this research work, would unearth the answers for the research questions. 
 
1.13 Organisation of Thesis 
The thesis consists of five chapters. Chapter one opens with an introduction. This is followed by 
the section that gives information on the general historical background on stage lighting. It 
tackles stage lighting in different theatre spaces and the trends of lighting over a period of years. 
The statement of problems of the research, the layout of the research questions, the objectives of 
the research and the significance of the study is also treated. This chapter further deals with the 
general view of the method used in gathering data for the work. An explanation is given on the 
theoretical foundation used for the research work. A detailed profile of ATC and NT Players are 
subsequently recorded in this chapter. 
 
Chapter two presents a review of literature on the overview of technology and technological 
advancement of stage lighting in Ghana, and scholarly views on light and stage lighting.  A 
review of practices and methods of stage lighting was looked at, with emphasis on ATC School 
of Performing Arts University of Ghana and NT Players of the National Theatre of Ghana.  
 
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Chapter three addresses the presentation of data gathered for this research work. This chapter 
also deals with interview discussions from lighting practitioners in and out of active service, as 
well as interviews of stakeholders in the theatre and stage lighting industry. 
 
Chapter four deals with the analysis and interpretation of data gathered for this research work. 
Still pictures from video recordings of stage play productions of the two theatre groups are 
thoroughly examined and presented as the materials for accessing stage lighting in Ghana from 
1980 – 2010. Interviews and documented materials also provided information on the research 
topic. 
 
Chapter five contains the conclusion and recommendations of the research.  
 
1.14 Profile of Abibigromma Theatre Company 
In May 1983, ATC, the resident Theatre Company of the School of Performing Arts , University 
of Ghana was duly formed. The formation of ATC was to serve as a research and experimental 
unit of the School of Performing Arts. A three member group was tasked to set the group in 
motion. This comprises of Dr. Ben Mohammed Abdallah, Prof. William Ofotsu Adinku and Mr. 
Asare Newman. The formation of the group became necessary after an earlier formation of a 
repertory theatre by Mr. Aseidu Yirenkyi, which could not stand the test of time. Locally and 
internationally, ATC has travelled and performed extensively. Most of their international 
programs have come as a bilateral exchange between the University of Ghana and the Foreign 
Nations. The ATC’s mission was to promote and embark on research into Ghanaian Arts and 
African cultures. Performances of the group were to replicate the making of African Theatre 
based on the gathered information and resources from oral and written literatures in Africa. 
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Hence, the name Abibigromma means African theatre, culled out of the Folkloric traditions of 
Ghana and Africa. Administratively, the Artistic Director of the group is appointed by turns from 
one of the three disciplines of the  School  of  Performing  Arts,  namely the  Music  
Department,  t h e  Dance  Department  and  the Theatre  Arts Department to serve for a period 
of two to four years.  The staff is made up of versatile individuals, some of whom are graduates 
from the School of Performing Arts while others are persons with great talents in music, dance 
and drama. 
 
1.15 Profile of National Theatre Players 
The group adopted the name National Theatre Players in the year 1998 after a series of contests 
and confrontations over the use of the acclaimed name ‘Abibigromma’, with the ATC resident 
group of the School of Performing Arts. This was so, because the group that formed the NT 
Players, happens to be senior members of ATC who left the ATC group persuasively, to the 
National Theatre of Ghana, to continue their artistic work. This action, resulted in the change of 
name to NT Players. The NT Players ironically, until now, use the name ‘Abibigromma’ for 
administrative purposes and for national recognition of their activities.  The NT Players trace 
their history to the formation of the ATC group of the School of Performing Arts at the 
University of Ghana in the year 1983. But unlike ATC, the NT Players points to the month of 
August as the formation of the group. The NT Players group was set up as a model repertory 
troupe, to facilitate teaching, research and experimentation (National Commission on Culture, 
2006). Initially, membership was limited to graduates of the School of Performing Arts but now, 
non- graduates who had attained appreciable heights in their chosen fields in acting, dancing, 
singing and drumming have joined the group.  
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Sharing the same mission and core functions of the ATC, the NT Players are to develop concepts 
of genuine African theatre which draws from the traditions and modern cultures of Africa. This 
form of theatre presents a total theatre with a blend of music, dance, mime, movement and 
dialogue based on the folkloric works on Ghana and Africa as a whole. Spreading their tentacles 
in the theatre domain, the group embarks on theatre for development projects to effect social and 
behavioural change in Ghanaian communities. The group is headed by an Artistic Director 
with one Deputy Director position. Under them, is the position for Assistant Director, 
followed by performers in professional levels, such as principal, senior and junior staffs as well 
as national service personnel. The group performs in both English and Ghanaian languages. 
Breaking through the barriers of communication, due to the various neighbouring Francophone 
countries, the group has learnt the basics of communicating in French. As postulated by the 
National Commission on Culture, (2006) the NT Players “have a policy of breaking the barriers 
of communication, which was instituted in 1995. Members have a fair working knowledge of 
French and have, from time to time, staged full-length plays entirely in that language.” The NT 
Players has achieved a lot over the years. I t  has won awards, both locally and internationally 
2
and has helped to develop the Abibigoro concept . Again, the NT Players have performed in 
most first and second cycle institutions across the length and breadth of Ghana, dramatizing 
literature set books, for easy understanding of texts. The NT Players have toured and represented 
in theatre festivals of neighbouring countries as well as in Europe, America and Asia. 
                                                          
2
 Abibigro Concept is loosely translated as “African Theatre”. Abibigromma School of Performing Arts. (n.d.). 
Retrieved March 4, 2017, from School of Performing Arts Web Site: www.spa.ug.edu.gh 
 
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CHAPTER TWO 
LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FOUNDATION 
2.1 Introduction 
This section presents a review of literatures on the overview of technological advancement of 
stage lighting in Ghana generally, light and stage lighting as perceived by scholars.  A review of 
some practices and methods of stage lighting are looked at with emphasis on ATC and NT 
Players. Electricity in Ghana would be reviewed in connection with theatre performances. The 
review of these literatures is necessary for the understanding of stage lighting as a craft and art. 
 
The word light, is a household word in the live and recorded media industry, be it theatre, film or 
television. All three make use of light during productions, depending on the necessity of the 
production and its demands.  From the Merriam Webster dictionary, light can be defined as, “the 
form of energy that makes it possible to see things; the brightness produced by the sun, by fire, a 
lamp, [electricity] etc. or as something that makes vision possible, the sensation aroused by 
stimulation of the visual receptors.” In agreement with the quotation, this implies that, light 
gives illumination and make things visible to the human eye. This generality of the use of light to 
illuminate, is perceived by most people. The Swiss stage lighting theorist Adolphe Appia (1862-
1928) termed the general use of light as “Helligkiet” meaning to give illumination. Light for 
illumination is the commonest objective in most disciplines as well. For example, the Christian 
religion views light in the creation of the World as offering visibility; hence God separated 
Daylight from Night. Similarly, the perception of light in Mechanical Engineering is not any 
different from the meaning of light in other disciplines. Acheampong (2014, p.1) postulates 
that “Lighting remains very important in our daily lives. [And that] lighting has vast 
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advantages ranging from visibility to security purposes”. Light could be classified under natural 
sources and artificial sources. Natural sources of lights, such as the sun, moon, fire, etc. are 
recreated in the theatre. But in contemporary times they are predominantly represented with 
artificial stage lighting instrument. For the sake of this research, stage lighting for theatre 
performances would dwell on artificial light from electric powered lamps. 
 
Steve Louis Shelley, (1999, p.20 ) confirms to the use of artificial lights in the theatre and he 
gives the explanation that, beams of light in modern theatre performances emit from the electric 
lamps serving as lighting sources. This indicates that the technology of lights has moved away 
from the natural sources as well as from gas lighting. Shelley, (1999, p.20) continues by saying 
that, these lamps have different colours, intensities and types of lights they emanate. In addition, 
Michael Gillette (2000, p. 288) asserts that unless a production is done outdoors during the day 
time, artificial lights are needed to light the performance. In agreement with Shelly and Gillette, 
present-day theatre performance use of artificial lights from electric lamp gives the stage a real 
feeling of reality through the controlling of intensity. The lighting from the electric lamp can 
imitate the environment and this gives an awe of spectacle to the audience in the theatre.  
 
The awe and spectacle displayed in the theatre by theatre designers resulted in the profound name 
theatre magic. This magical aspect of lighting in the theatre, resulted in the name ‘lighting magic 
sheet’ (a graphical lighting document produced by the lighting designer, depicting all the various 
lighting instruments used in a given theatre production). Storey (2002, p. 6) an interior decorator, 
explains that “…in the theatre [light] can transform the stage”. The transformation of the stage 
brings about the use of electric stage lights to imitate the environment, create atmospheric 
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changes, project buildings, forest, and wild animals as well as to create the mood of the 
production.  At this point, attention would be shifted to the use of light in the theatre. 
 
The term stage lighting or theatre light is interchangeably used to describe the diverse kinds of 
lighting instruments, manufactured purposely for lighting stage performances. Gillette (2000, 
p. 288) explains that “effective stage lighting is not only to [let audience] see the action of the 
play, but also ties together all the visual elements of the  production  and  helps  create  an  
appropriate  mood  and  atmosphere  that  heighten  the audience’s understanding and 
enjoyment of the play”. 
 
In concurring with Gillette, this is by far what stage lighting design is all about. Stage lighting in 
my own view, is the proper use of stage lights, by positioning and focusing of the light that 
would eventually result in an understanding and admiration of light to the audience. In the 
theatre, stage lights have a number of controllable qualities that result in the functionality of 
lights used in a production According to Parker and Smith, (1974, pp. 351 - 335) the qualities of 
stage lighting consist of intensity, distribution, colour and movement. Parker & Craig, (1996, pp. 
376 - 378) agrees with Parker and Smith (1974) by referring to all four qualities of lights 
mentioned above. Again, it is possible to see how Gillette, (2000, pp. 288 - 289) agrees with 
Parker and Smith (1974) and Parker & Craig (1996) by also mentioning all four qualities of 
light, but expatiates more on distribution by adding direction and quality to it. In the theatre, 
one major quality of light that can be controlled is intensity. Intensity is the total brightness of 
light that shines the actor and other visual elements on stage. This could range from complete 
blackness to bright plain light. Distribution of light, on the other hand, is dependent on the 
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source of light direction, and shape and size of the quality of light that is diffused. Colour 
being the third quality, is the ability to transmit colour (hue). Also, colour is a powerful tool that 
helps to enhance mood, to depict the time of day and atmospheric changes. Movement, is an 
important quality of light; the time duration it last for light cue to change, the movement of the 
use of on-stage lights such as candles and kerosine-wick lamps and also the off-stage light 
sources such as follow spot and blatant blackouts from the lighting console. 
 
In the fulfillment of theatre production, stage lighting or theatre lighting, is best accomplished 
with the understanding of the controllable qualities of light to achieve the functions of stage 
lighting. Functions of stage lighting on the other hand, include placing the action, visibility, 
establishing the mood, reinforcing the theme and staging of the story.  According to Parker and 
Smith, (1979, p. 284) the duty of stage lighting is: 
“ To give the actor meaning in his surroundings, to provide him with an 
environment in which he may sensibly interpret his role to assist him in every 
way to bring to the audience the full meaning and emotion of the playwright’s 
script…”   
 
Stage lighting, from the foregoing discussion, can be viewed as an art of craft by which the 
stage is lit, using stage lighting instrument with various colours bright and dim, giving meaning 
to the performance.  
 
In Ghana varieties of stage lights have been used to achieve the art and craft of lighting in theatre. 
It is notable that, these stage lighting instruments have moved through waves of technological 
change with time.  
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2.2 Technological Advancement of Stage Lighting in Ghana 
Technology can be said to be the science of craft which is put in a form of machines, computers, 
factories, etc. that are operated by people with or without the technical know-how (Merriam 
Wesbster Dictionary, 1828).  J. K. Anquandah (2006) defines technology “as the sum of ways in 
which a social group provide themselves with the material objects of their civilization.” In 
actuality, the word technology by the Merriam Wesbster Dictionary comes from a Greek 
constructed word meaning, “the study of arts and craft”. Technology itself started to develop with 
the movement of man’s usage of just the natural resources around him into working tools. 
Technological advancement on the other hand, is known in different parts of the world as 
high-technology which has been infused into our daily lives. For example, cooking of food in the 
house, is now being accomplished with ease based on advanced technological instruments. In 
this modern time, there is a division between “low technology” and “high technology”.  
Anquandah (2006), explains that low technology:  
“refers to pre-industrial technology, the knowledge, the means and processes 
 available for making tools and products of tools and the extraction and collection 
of materials, [whereas high technology] involves the systematic application of 
scientific knowledge and principles, to industrial processes or to the problems 
arising from the interaction of people with their environment.” 
 
Stage lighting, and for that matter lighting equipment, falls within high technology. This has 
made a number of scholars to view stage lighting as science, in the service of the performing 
arts. Reason being that, contemporary manufacturing of stage lighting instruments, have 
maximum scientific component and due to that relies on electricity to power and control them. In 
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agreement, Edwin Wilson, (2007, p. 378) states that “Lighting – … is the most advanced in terms 
of equipment and techniques”.  
 
The lighting equipment used in stage lighting has developed over the years to meet the demands 
of the stage and the dramatist’s artistic works.  Then the assumption is that stage lighting 
instruments are made, based on concrete needs of the actor on stage, to express himself to the 
audience. Baugh (2005, p.1) states that “[stage lighting] technology has served as an externally 
… representation and celebration of human skill and ingenuity.” This statement confirms the 
ability to which stage lighting manufacturers have strived to develop the lighting world, by 
bringing into existence stage lighting equipment to serve the needs of the theatre. 
 
Advancing  the  discussion further,  technological  advancement  affecting  stage  lighting  has  
come  as a process of meeting the needs of the stage, such as creating visibility, establishing the 
mood, laying of emphasis, modeling of the actor and the visual elements in the Ghanaian theatre 
industry from 1900s till now. It is worth noting also, that a lot of stage lighting equipment used 
for lighting theatre performances in Ghana came from the Western and Asia world.  
 
History has recorded that most stage lighting found in Ghana during the 1980’s was imported 
from Great Britain. This is due to the colonial affiliation Ghana has with the British. Owusu 
(2016) makes it known that, the National Theatre of Ghana during the 1990’s witnessed a 
different form of advanced light from China and Japan, due to a bilateral agreement between the 
two countries. In  advancing  this  submission,  the  socialist  economy  of  Ghana  from  
President  Kwame Nkrumah’s rule to President Jerry John Rawlings’ era, placed the government 
in the position to provide for local sector organizations, to facilitate development. Around the 
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1970’s, the government of the day saw to the provision of stage lighting equipment from United 
Kingdom to the Arts Centre, Accra and the training of such lighting practitioners as Paul Aliba in 
the United Kingdom. According to Arkhurst (2017), subsequent years, from 1984 to 1986 saw the 
Arts Council of Ghana and the National Commission on Culture, purchasing stage lighting and 
sound equipment for the School of Performing Arts and the Centre for National Culture in Accra 
respectively. Again, in the year 1992, Semevo (2016) admitted that audience eye were graced 
with a new set of lighting equipment from China, during the performance of the  opening 
ceremony dubbed This is Our Own at the auditorium of the National Theatre of Ghana.  It could 
then be suggested that ATC and NT Players have used stage lighting with various advanced 
technological features from Britain and China in Ghana, during and beyond the scope of the 
research. 
 
2.3 Electricity as a Boost to Performances in Ghana 
 
The technology of electricity boosted theatre performances in Ghana. In the western world, “The 
introduction of electricity [in theatre performance] at the beginning of the twentieth century, 
greatly enhanced lighting’s functionality as well as its creative potential.” Allain & Harvie 
(2006, p. 167) In Ghana, stand-alone diesel generators were the first kinds of electricity 
plants used and they were owned by the mining companies, factories, municipalities and 
institutions such as hospitals and schools. According to a report in Guide to Electric Power in 
Ghana (2005, p. 16 - 17) public supply of electricity in Ghana was first established in Sekondi 
in1914, and later, it was extended to Takoradi in 1928. It was manned by the Gold Coast 
Railway Administration that used mainly electric power to support and run the railway system 
and other auxiliaries like workshops, offices that were attached to it. The emergence of electricity 
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in Sekondi-Takoradi could indirectly serve as the starting point of the Concert Party tradition in 
the Western Region of Ghana. This may also have given rise to the high number of Concert Party 
groups from that geographical location. 
 
In a similar situation, 1927 saw the supply of electricity in Winneba and according to Guide to 
Electric Power in Ghana, (2005, p. 16-17) there was “an initial direct current (DC) supply of 
electricity which was later changed to alternating current (AC), by extending the supply to 
Swedru in 1948.” This implies that Swedru has a sub-station that supplies electricity. In J. H. 
Kwabena Nketia’s book, Ghana - Music, Dance and Drama: A review of the performing arts 
of Ghana, he recorded a national Concert Party competition organized by the Ghana National 
Entertainment Association at the Swedru sports park in 1961, as the first series of competitive 
festivals, of which six Concert Party bands took part, each performing for an hour. In attendance 
was a very large appreciative audience, including some chiefs and elders of the area. He stated 
that the performance was scheduled to start at 8:00 p.m. and end at about 1:00 a.m. This 
time duration would necessarily require artificial lights, powered by electric supply and with an 
already-existing electric power station in Swedru, adequate supply of electricity to such a public 
venue, as Swedru Sports Park for the performance, would face less challenge, with respect to 
lighting. 
 
In Accra, supply of electricity was made available by the Public Works Department (PWD) that 
commenced the supply on November 1, 1924. Electricity was later expanded to serve the Tema 
Municipality from 1961to1964. A double circuit transmission line from the Tema Diesel Plant 
also supplied half of Accra’s power demand. 
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Katey (2016) made it known that, in Accra, theatre performances during the 1980’s were 
mainly lit with flood stage lights. According to Katey (2016) the flood stage lighting equipment 
are manipulated with the aid of electric power. He also made it known that, other stage lighting 
equipment used around that period include a number of old-fashioned British ‘Strand’ spot lights 
and a four, single-unit dimmer pack. 
 
According to Duro Oni, (2000, p. 107) “for stage lighting to be creatively used, there has to be an 
adequate supply of electricity”. This attests to the fact that constant electric supply cannot be 
overlooked, in showcasing theatre performances in modern-day Ghana. And for that matter, 
electricity supply is very essential for the development of theatre in present day Ghana. 
 
ATC and the NT Players have both performed drama pieces, aided by electric controlled lighting 
from 1980 – 2010. As  a  matter  of  fact,  before  1980,  electricity  supply  had  reached  
many municipal areas in Ghana. Moreover, most public and government institutions across the 
country have had supply of electricity. For example, the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC), 
the Ghana Film Industry Corporation (GFIC), Arts Centre Accra, the British Council Hall Accra, 
National Film and Television Institute (NAFTI), Cape Coast and Kumasi Centres for National 
Culture (CNC) as well as the other regional cultural centres, already had electricity supply, which 
could support stage lights for drama performances. 
 
2.4 Stage Lighting Practices for Theatre Performance 
th th
Stage lighting practice has developed extensively in 19  and 20  centuries by two major lighting 
scenographers namely Adolphe Appia (1862-1928) and Edward Gordon Craig (1872-1966). The 
two stage lighting designers developed scenographic works that encompass stage setting and 
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stage lighting. Adolphe Appia and Edward Gordon Craig are theatre persons who have strong 
views on the use of lighting, especially in relation to architecture and a review of their works 
would be apt for this research. 
 
Baugh (2000, p. 100) says that, Appia in his pamphlet La Mise en Scène du Drame Wagnérien, 
interpreted the fundamental concept of Wagner’s Gesamtkunstwerk by providing what he, Appia 
thought to be the correct approach to the mise en scène. Appia foresaw the stage as a ‘place’ 
rather than as ‘scene’, this made him propose a simple arrangement of spatial forms that would 
not serve to represent any specific location. The stage setting according to Appia, should merely 
provide an evocative stage ‘place’ in which the major emphasis would be upon the movement in 
space of the actor and the illumination of the actor. This form of illumination he termed ‘diffused 
lighting’ and ‘living light’ meaning the general light for lighting the atmosphere and light that 
could be used to reveal form and focus attention.  
 
Appia’s lighting designs on Wagner’s musical dramas at Bayreuth theatre in Germany reached its 
peak in 1883. According to Baugh, he developed eighteen (18) practices for the theatre which 
includes stage lighting. Appia defines the stage in terms of time and space and suggests the use of 
light to create mood and composition. Baugh makes it known, that the radical nature of Appia’s 
lighting practice of the time, are displayed in the festival of Hellerau by the Dalcroze Institute. 
The lighting practices can be summed up as follows: 
1. The proper use of light is essential for a setting, and for the full dramatic exposure of the 
performer. 
2. Stage light should consist of atmospheric ‘diffused light’, which would be complemented 
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with form-revealing ‘living light’. 
3. Both atmosphere and form may also be created by projected images. 
4. The use of footlights should be abandoned since they represent an utterly non-real angle of 
light. 
 
Baugh reveals that, the experimentation of these lighting practices of Appia lasted in Hellerau 
Studio until the outbreak of the First World War, which saw the closure of the Dalcroze’s 
Institute. 
 
Research also shows, that stage lighting equipment meant to produce Appia’s ‘diffused light’, 
‘living light’ and light for projecting images, have been developed by lighting equipment 
manufacturers  hundred years later, by displaying luminaires for producing soft diffused light, 
such as flood lights and wide focused Fresnel spot light. Also stage lighting equipment, with 
focus lenses that produces hard-edged pools of light for the living light and luminaires with 
condense lens capable of producing sharp focused images. 
 
The scenographer, Edward Gordon Craig’s theatre experience, comes from the long service at the 
Lyceum Theatre in Irving’s company in London, during the early 1890’s. His theatre experience 
had a greater influence on his lighting designs. Craig’s appreciation of light originated from the 
‘lime-light men’ of Lyceum Theatre, especially, from the way they produce beams of light from 
the fly-floor side galleries of the stage house. Craig believes that in the theatre, there is a need to 
create environments with light, and lighting is essential for defining the dramatic narrative. To 
Craig, light does not need to be a static tool to illuminate a playing space. Due to that, he did 
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away with footlight and introduced side and overhead lighting in his production. This resulted in 
shadows which he used for great effects. 
 
In addition, Craig built stage models to illustrate his stage environments which he termed screens. 
Like Appia, he dismissed the notion of theatre as imitating nature. Rather he advocated for theatre 
to represent thorough creation. He sides with Appia on the concept of stage space as a place rather 
than a scene.  Craig used his screens as the foundation for the set designs, during the production of 
Hamlet with Stanislavsky, at the Moscow Arts Theatre. 
 
Finally, Craig used coloured lighting, as a medium to create atmosphere and meaning in 
productions. He used colours to transform the stage setting, in a Dido and Aeneas production on 
th th
the 17  to 19  of May, 1900. According to Palmer (2012, pp. 1- 6), Craig used light as “the key 
compositional component, in creating rhythmic movement through painting with light, in the 
performance of Dido and Aeneas”. It is worthy to note, that the use of projected colours on 
Craig’s screens and his large architectural set, created an environment that moved audience and 
actors alike.  
 
2. 5 Theoretical Framework and Methods of Lighting 
To establish direction for the research, I would like to explore Stanley McCandless theory of 
lighting which is also known as the McCandless method of stage lighting. The discussion of 
this thesis falls within this method of lighting. An exploration of it would therefore, define the 
context for the research study. 
 
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Stanley McCandless was born in 1897 and passed on in 1967.  He is noted to be the father of 
modern stage lighting design. Within the McCandless theory, four major categories of lighting 
demands are spelt out, namely: 
a)  Lighting for all the Acting Areas 
 
b)  Blending and Complementary of the acting area 
 
c)  Illuminating the Background (Drops and Cycs) 
 
d)  Addition of Special lighting 
 
 
With these four lighting demands in mind, most lighting designers strive to produce designs in 
stage lighting that interpret and enhance the theatrical performance. Larry Wild, (2006, pp. 1 -
16) gives a vivid interpretation of the requirements of the theory in the document An Approach 
to Stage Lighting.  
 
From the theory, McCandless taught visibility of the actor, first and foremost. In Ratpacdimmers, 
(2017), this form of lighting the actor is termed, a ‘special approach’; the explanation given is 
that “the actor(s) are primarily to be fully lit from the front”. Lighting from the front gives 
enough visibility to the actor(s) on stage. Wild explains that Front-of-House (FOH) lights, form 
the balconies, gallery bars and Front-of-house (FOH) pipes give visibility to the actors within 
the acting areas. Acting area, on this occasion, is defined by Gillette, (2000, p. 301) as “those 
spaces on the stage where specific scenes, or parts of scenes, are played”. Wild further states that 
lights, focused at the various acting areas illuminate the actor’s face and varying the intensity of 
such lights, helps audience focus their attention on a particular action. To light the actor(s), 
McCandless requests for two front lights facing each other, and placed above the actor, at 
approximately forty-five (45º) degrees and angled at ninety (90º) degrees apart, with warm and 
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cool colour to create a natural looking light. In relation to the thesis, creating of visibility of the 
actors in the acting areas, through the use of Front-of-House (FOH) lighting, would inform the 
analysis based on the pictures extracted from the four recorded video productions under 
examination, in order to ascertain the use of this theory. From the theory, the researcher would 
verify how actor’s visibility has been achieved in Ghanaian theatre performance. 
 
Based  on  toning  and  blending of  the  acting  area,  McCandless  gives  the  description  that  
the pictorial  image  of  the  stage  depends  on  the  form  and  colours  of  setting,  arrangement  
of properties and the costume of the group of actors. He emphasizes on the principle of 
distribution, to achieve toning and blending of the acting area. Wild expatiates this by saying, 
that, “On-Stage lights, helps to reveal the actor’s form and separate him from his background”. 
Wild also adds that for toning and blending of the acting area, there must be the use of colours to 
add layer(s) to the costume and setting. This second point in the theory, would be used by the 
researcher to draw the analysis on how the constitution of the pictorial images such as costume 
and setting have been lit to show the developmental trends and relevance of the Ghanaian theatre 
performance. 
 
The third requirement is lighting the background. At this section, McCandless reiterated that 
lighting of the background gives a realistic appeal to a performance. For example: lighting of the 
vegetation, sky and landscape cyc(s), separates the actor from his environs, making the 
actor whole in the picture. The third point in the theory, which places importance on lighting the 
cyclorama, would be used to show how backdrops and cycloramas have been utilized in 
Ghanaian theatre performance, by placing the action in the world of the play. 
 
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Finally, adding ‘Special lighting’ is the last request of McCandless method of lighting. To 
achieve this, Wild states that, any lighting instrument on stage, “that is not an acting area light, 
a toning and blending light or background light, is a ‘Special’ lighting.” Wild explains that “a 
‘Special lighting’ is used to create a tight pool of light, to isolate a specific moment in the play, to 
emphasize an important entrance”. He also added that generally, in executing special light, some 
of the acting area lights from the front are used to strengthen the visibility on the actors face. To 
ascertain the relevance of the fourth point in the theory, the extracted picture illustration from the 
four recorded video productions would be examined by the researcher, to know if special lighting 
have been achieved in Ghanaian theatre and how this selective focus has aided Ghanaian theatre 
performance from the period 1980 – 2010.   
 
In  summary,  this  research which focuses  studies  on trends  and  technological  advancement  
of  stage lighting in Ghana from 1980 – 2010, would be viewed through the lenses of 
McCandless theory of lighting the stage. 
 
2.6 Conclusion 
In conclusion, the literature review, shows the technological advancement of stage lighting in 
Ghana and how electrification in Ghana has aided the development of the travelling Concert 
Party troupes. Moreover, owing to the lighting practices of Adolphe Appia and Edward Gordon 
Craig, stage lighting design has developed up to date. Finally, the application of the McCandless 
method of lighting, to achieve visibility of the actor in the acting areas and the use of colours for 
toning and blending the actor and visual elements on stage, with the creation of realistic 
background of the setting as well as the use of ‘Special lighting’ to achieve selective focus, 
help to define the specific context for the research. 
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CHAPTER THREE 
METHODOLOGY 
 
3.1 Introduction 
This chapter addresses the methodology and presentation of data gathered for this research work. 
Data is summed up into two major categories, that of Capta and Generata. This formation has 
been used by professional researchers in social sciences in gathering information. Data gathered 
are then  arranged  under the  Capta and Generata  structure,  which  are  later  expatiated on,  for  
further  clarification,  under the research design, library sources, population of data gathered, 
sampling technique, data collection instruments, primary data, secondary data, administration of 
instrument, data analysis plan and experience on field work and limitations. All of this would 
help the researcher to achieve the set objectives of the research. 
 
3.2 Data Collection Table 
Data have been gathered and arranged in Capta and Generata formation. Capta and generata 
according to Pickering and Woolgar (2009, p. 141-142) gives the explanation that “There is [a] 
data that is there waiting for you to find and that is termed capta. On the other hand, Generata is 
the data that will only emerge if you structure a means of discovering it, and that is termed 
generata.” From the explanation, the information gathered was thus put into the two categories 
above, to help connect the technological advancement and usage of stage lighting in the 
two theatre groups under study. The data has been listed in the table below: 
 
 
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Table 1 Data Collection Table 
 
Data Words     
found  or Discourse Visual images Interviews Documents Others 
Made 
 Rehearsal ATC ATC Journal News, 
 
 Observation Video and Ekua Ekumah Ernest Adu- Articles 
 Pictures on The Artistic Director Gyamfi – 
 Witch of Mopti  “Management 
 by Mohammed Stage of professional 
 
Ben Abdallah Manager/Members Theatre groups  
  of ATC in Ghana: a 
 The Gods Are  Samuel Dawson case study of 
Capta Not to Blame Asaam Jnr Abibgromma, 
by Ola Rotimi  Esther Offei The resident 
Ben Quaye Theatre group 
Cecilia Yelipoe of the school of 
Performing 
Arts, University 
of Ghana” 
 
Mphil Thesis 
Bright Tefe – 
“The Artistic 
Director and 
the 
management of 
professional 
theatres in 
Ghana , 
    Abibigromma  
as a case 
study” 
  Stage Lighting   
Practitioners 
in/out of active 
service 
John K. Djisenu 
Kwame Ansere 
Victor Siaw Darko 
David E. Quaye 
 NT  Players NT Players Article in News 
 Pictures and   Artistic Director  border Article  
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  video on the Mawuli Semevo Crossings Graphi
Ananse and the  The Growth of c 
missing Beads / Stage Manager/ a national form Showbiz 
The Bride of the Members of theatre in issue 105 
Gods by Yaw Agnes Dapaah Ghana by Steve February 
Asare Naa Collins 24-1 
  March 
In the Chest of a Mphil Thesis 2000 
Woman by Efo “Playwriting Theatre 
Kojo Mawugbe and Players 
Postcolonialism get busy 
: Identifying the this year 
key factors in 
diminution of 
playwriting in 
Ghana 1916- 
2007” by Steve 
Collins 
   Stage Lighting   
Practitioners 
in/out of active 
service 
Emmanuel Tetteh 
George Katey 
Generata Rehearsal  Director of  Internet 
Observation National Articles, 
Commission on journals, 
Culture (Attipoe web pages 
Oduro) and 
   Martin Owusu  Websites 
 
Sandy Arkhurst 
   A. C. Quarm   
 
3.3 Research Study Design 
A case study design was employed to systematically probe into the performances of the two 
theatre groups, to unearth the use of stage lighting in the dramatic presentations of the 
two groups. Donna M. Zucker, (2009, p. 2) quotes Bromley’s definition of a case study “as a 
systematic inquiry into events or a set of related events which aims to describe and explain the 
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phenomenon of interest”. The interest of this research work lies in the use of technological 
advancement in stage lighting within the two theatre groups. To unravel this interest in question, 
the case study research methodologies would be viewed through the qualitative approach, 
t o  arrive at the needed information and knowledge, to enrich the study. Scholars such as Denzin 
and Lincoln (2000) and Bryman (1998) explanations on qualitative approach would be applied. 
For each of these scholars, the explanation of the qualitative approach, gives the researcher the 
ability to investigate a natural phenomenon (theatre productions by the two theatre groups), to 
give subjective interpretation and meaning to situations (of actions) such as, the technology of 
stage lighting equipment used during the period of a theatre production and its importance to the 
Ghanaian theatre, as well as the role of the lighting practitioner. The qualitative research 
approach which offers a realistic interpretation, about how and why certain situations occur 
among people, will be employed.  Bryman, (1998, p. 8)  states  that  “The  way,  in  which  
people  …  study, understand and interpret their social reality, is one of the central motifs of 
qualitative research”.  
 
As a result, the information gathered from the field, interviews, photographs, video recordings, 
archival materials, artifacts etc. would depend on the qualitative approach for an interpretation 
and meanings to be drawn from analyzing these materials, and to arrive at reliable findings, for 
the research work. 
 
3.4 Library Research 
The library research for this project form one of the major categories to acquire data for the 
study.  Libraries to be consulted at the University of Ghana campus include J. H. Kwabena 
Nketia audio/visual archives, African Studies library, School of Performing Arts library, ATC 
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archives and the Balme library. Other libraries visited in Accra are George Padmore Research 
library, Accra Information Centre (Pictorial and video library) a wing of the Ghana National 
Archives stationed at Accra Workers College. All these libraries will be consulted to gather the 
needed information on the establishment of the two theatre groups and available recordings on 
their performances over the years. 
 
3.5 Population 
The targeted population for this study is divided into three categories of people. The first 
category were past and present lighting practitioners of ATC and the NT Players and lighting 
practitioners of other theatre and dance performance groups who are in and out of active service, 
as well as television and video/film lighting practitioners. This category of lighting practitioners 
is necessary to find answers to the second and third research questions. Which asks for the 
relevance of stage lighting to Ghanaian theatre, and the role of the lighting practitioner in the 
Ghanaian theatre respectively? The second group of persons includes past and present members 
of ATC and the NT Players groups, and past and present artistic directors of the two theatre 
groups. This group would help throw light on the objectives for documenting the developmental 
trends of stage lighting in Ghanaian theatre productions. The final category of persons are theatre 
stakeholders, such as theatre lecturers, floor managers of television stations, stage managers of 
theatre spaces, technicians of theatre spaces, Director of the National Commission on Culture and 
Directors of Centre for National Culture. This final group of persons would help to explore how 
stage lighting has been relevant to the development of the Ghanaian theatre. 
 
3.6 Sampling Technique 
The strategy of sampling for this research is the purposive sampling method, which is also 
known as deliberate sampling. The purposive sampling technique is a subset of non-probability 
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sampling technique. According to Ukala, (2000, p. 36), a non-probability sampling means, not 
every member of the population has a chance to be selected, as the researcher’s focus may be a 
particular stratum or class or profession or sub-culture. This made the researcher narrow the 
research, to obtain specific information from experts who have relevant knowledge on the state 
of stage lighting in Ghana and also knowledgeable about the activities of the two theatre groups. 
According to Theme Horse by WordPress (2017) purposive sampling is also known as deliberate 
sampling. Under that sampling technique, sub techniques such as; Expert sampling, Extreme 
Case sampling and Critical Case sampling methods were employed by the researcher. The Expert 
sampling technique includes, only those experts who work within a certain period. For that 
matter, interviews were conducted on lighting practionners from 1980 – 2010 who were in and 
out of service, to gather information on their role in stage lighting in the Ghanaian theatre.  
 
The Extreme Case sampling on the other hand is a technique that focuses on participants with 
unique or special characteristics. Participants  in this  the population are members of the two 
groups, past and present artistic directors, as well as theatre stakeholders who have knowledge 
about the two theatre groups and their activities, which include the groups’ technical assets and 
liabilities, for example, budget allocation for purchasing stage lighting and technical equipment, 
for their theatre performances. This category of persons was selected by the researcher for 
interview. This technique also helps the researcher to gather information on the relevance of theatre 
lighting in Ghanaian theatre performances and ways in which technological advancement in theatre 
lighting has affected the development of Ghanaian theatre.  
 
Finally, Critical Case sampling under purposive sampling was also employed. This method 
according to Theme Horse by WordPress (2017) suggests that the sampling is about “collecting 
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cases that are likely to give you the most information about the phenomenon you are studying”. 
This very sampling technique assists the researcher to settle on four r e c o r d e d  video 
productions, out of a number of videos the researcher acquired from ATC archives, the Ghana 
Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) and personal libraries of informants. The purposive sampling 
technique though, does not represent the entire society, the fact still remains, that whatever is 
discovered through sampling of the population will encourage the researcher to draw on a large 
sample, capable of advancing a variety of opinions reliable for the findings. It will also assist in 
validating and drawing on conclusions for the research topic. 
 
3.7 Data Collection Instrument 
In collecting data, an interview guide, video recordings and photographs are used to gather 
information for the research. Interview questions were based on the general interview guide and 
open-ended questions approach. This was designed to give interviewers the flexible chance to 
provide extensive and more focused information, interpretation and comparison. The open-
ended questions, gave room for more interaction, and a lot of data were taken. For most of the 
interviews, audio-tape recording was used to capture conversations. The recorded interviews 
were transcribed, to serve the purpose of interpreting the research questions. Language barrier 
was limited, since majority of the interviewed people spoke English. The use of Samsung 
Galaxy S3 and Infinix HOT 4 Lite mobile phones were employed to record video films and 
photographs of stage lighting equipment and the various proscenium stages of the National 
Theatre of Ghana and the School of Performing Arts, respectively.  
 
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3.7.1 Data Collection Procedure 
Prior to acquisition of an introductory letter to the British Council offices in Accra, my principal 
supervisor who happens to be a lighting practitioner, gave the researcher clues as to where and 
how to get relevant data for the research work. An example was the British Council auditorium in 
Accra. From that awakening information, an introductory letter was acquired from the Head of 
the Department of Theatre Arts at the University of Ghana, seeking  permission  for  the  
researcher  to  record  and  snap  photographs  of  stage  lighting instruments of the facility (see 
Appendix One for a photocopy of the letter). Other procedures included the booking of 
appointments with one of the assistants at t he  Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) in-
charge of audio- visual documentation archives, to have access to video coverage’s of stage 
th 
performances of ATC and NT Players, on the 19 of September, 2016. In the same way, an 
earlier appointment was booked, with the Public Relation Officer of ATC, at the School of 
th 
Performing Arts, to have access to documented video recordings in their archives, on the 13
of March, 2016. Few of the video recordings of stage productions, acquired from both the 
Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) and ATC archives, are captured in different angle shot. 
As a result, the researcher settled on four video productions that suited the needs of the 
research topic, hence the research scope are divided into two segments, each comprising a decade 
and half. Within each segment, a production each from the two groups is examined. Photographs 
of stage lighting equipment, rigged for the proscenium stage at the Centre for National Culture 
Accra, as well as discarded lighting equipment found at the storeroom, on the same premises are 
th 
photographed by the researcher with permission sought by Emmanuel Tetteh, on the 17 of 
August, 2016, on behalf of the researcher. These photographs are taken to discover the trends of 
stage lighting equipment within the period. Furthermore, permission was granted to the 
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researcher, by the floor/stage manager at the stage of the National Theatre of Ghana to take 
photographs of available stage lighting equipment owned by National Theatre of Ghana and used 
by NT Players, from the opening of the National Theatre in 1993 to 2010.  
 
Finally, photographs of stage lighting equipment are taken from the lighting laboratory of the 
School of Performing Arts, to ascertain the kinds of lighting equipment used by ATC from 1980 
– 2010. The purpose of all the photographs taken would be to help the research to map out the 
trends and technological changes of stage lighting equipment used in Ghanaian theatre from 1980 
– 2010 by the two professional theatre groups. 
 
3.7.2 Extraction of Pictures from Videos 
Video recordings received by the researcher, from the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) 
Accra were in the DVD disc format. The researcher then made use of a laptop, to screen the 
video recordings. Snap-shot of pictures were later taken out of that recording. But, the video 
recordings acquired from the archives of ATC, by the researcher were in the VHS format. Due to 
this challenge, the researcher sought the help of the audio-visual assistant of the School of 
Performing Arts who made use of a Panasonic (DMRS-ES35V) DVD recorder, that can equally 
transpose VHS tape recording onto a DVD compact discs. The researcher later screened all 
the six DVD discs, of recorded staged productions of the ATC, out of which two were 
selected. 
 
3.7.3 Interview Procedures 
The interviews for this research took the open-ended and the general interview guide approaches. 
The open-ended approach by Valenzuela & Shrivastava, (p. 5) is a kind of interview to facilitate 
faster and easy analysis and comparison of information. This form of interview ensued 
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between the researcher and lighting practitioners (in active service and out of active service). In 
this set of interview, questions were asked intended to garner information, on the role of the 
lighting practitioner in the Ghanaian theatre domain, what informs his creative work and how 
relevant stage lighting has been in the Ghanaian theatre. Another interview style employed, was 
the general interview guide approach. This kind of interview designed by Valenzuela and 
Shrivastava, is “intended to ensure that the same general areas of information are collected from 
each interviewee [and] this consists of the focused data)”. But they also explain, that this form 
of interview allows “a degree of freedom and adaptability in [getting] the information from the 
interviewee”. As a result, the prepared general interview questions, organized under this 
interview type, were constructed for members of the two theatre groups, their artistic directors 
and other theatre stakeholders, to access information on the kind of stage lighting that has 
prevailed over the years in the two theatre groups. This interview approach was also organized to 
gather information on the history of the two theatre groups and their core mandate. This assisted 
the researcher to corroborate similar data and their interpretation for the work. 
 
3.8 Types and Sources of Data 
Information gathered for this research work depended on three factors. The primary data, the 
secondary data and other supporting materials, to show evidence of what has been analyzed and 
interpreted in the work. 
 
3.9 Primary Data 
Still pictures snapped from the four recorded productions of the two theatre groups and 
interviews, served as the primary data. Out of four productions namely, The Witch of Mopti, 
The Gods Are Not to Blame, The Bride of the Gods and In The Chest of a Woman, Forty-one, 
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(41) pictures were taken. Captured pictures show the direction of lights on stage and its effect 
on actors and other visual elements. Interviews conducted provided details on the role and 
responsibility of the lighting practitioner. It further provided evidence and explanation on the 
existence of stage lighting and how it has evolved in Ghanaian theatre from 1980 – 2010. 
 
3.10 Secondary Data 
Sources of secondary data came from the libraries and documented materials. These consist of 
published lighting textbooks which provided information on the history of stage lighting, 
functions and qualities of stage lighting as well as beams or field angles of lights. In addition, 
published articles and internet sources, provided highlights on the history of Ghanaian theatre. 
They also provided information on ATC and NT Players theatre groups, as well as the Abibigro 
concept: which forms the basis of some of the productions of the two theatre groups. 
 
3.11 Supporting Data 
Supporting data, according to Pickering & Woolgar (2009, p. 142), “consist(s) of anything you 
wish to supply as supporting evidence to what you have said in the text”. The supporting data for 
this research work are found at the Appendices. They include interview guide questions for 
various interviewees, pictures of various kinds of stage lighting equipment, used by ATC and NT 
Players and Newspaper captions, exhibiting the repertoire productions of the NT Players, which 
includes The Bride of the Gods. 
 
3.12 Administration of Instrument 
The instrument for collecting the data was administered in various ways. Snap-shot of pictures, 
from a DVD video recording, of selected theatre productions, were done immediately after the 
process of converting them from VHS tapes. A number of DVD discs from the archive of the 
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Ghana Broadcasting Corporation (GBC) were also screened on laptops. Two video productions 
were selected from them. Later, snap-shots of pictures were taken. Interview guide questions 
were also given to selected respondents and the needed information were gathered. Interview 
schedules were carried out, as soon as respondents made themselves available. Although majority 
of the voices recorded were captured using a Samsung Galaxy S3 mobile phone and Infinix 
HOT 4 Lite mobile phone, a directional microphone recorder, with an inbuilt storage was 
introduced at the latter stages of the field work. 
 
3.13 Data Analysis Plan 
Analysis of the research was organized from the primary data, secondary and supporting data to 
arrive at answers to the research questions. Conclusions were drawn, based on the set objectives 
for this research work.  The analysis and interpretation of the data gathered is subsequently 
elaborated in the next chapter. 
 
3.14 Experiences on Fieldwork and Limitations 
The researcher encountered some challenges during the fieldwork. Financial constraints was a 
major challenge for the researcher, since at certain points during the collection of data, monies 
have to be given to informants to acquire recorded video productions of the two theatre groups. 
Equally, recorded video productions of ATC on the VHS tape had gathered dust, making the tape 
mouldy. Due to that, the researcher had to purchase a number of head-cleaner tapes. This work 
took a lot of time, and the researcher had to wait for the cleaning process to be completed. 
 
Another major limitation, had to do with the video recordings collected within the scope of the 
research. The researcher found out, that the available video productions of NT Players were 
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mainly from the 1990’s, whereas ATC video productions of the 1980’s were captured in Black 
and White mode. As a result, the descriptions of lights found in the production, with regards to 
colours, are omitted. Again, the resident theatre structures of the two groups came into existence 
in the 1990’s. This challenge prevented the researcher from dividing the scope research, 
consisting of thirty years, into three decades, to examine recorded theatre video productions under 
each decade. For these reasons, the scope was rather segmented into two halves, with each half 
consisting of fifteen years. Consequently, one production each from ATC and NT Players would 
be examined and analyzed under each of the fifteen year period in chapter four. 
 
Booking interviews with Emmanuel Tetteh and Kwami Ansere became a hurdle for the 
researcher because Emmanuel Tetteh, at the time of the research, had retired from the NT Players, 
about two years earlier and getting him for an interview was quite a challenge. An intervention of 
an elderly relative of his was sought and upon that an interview meeting was scheduled. Prior to 
that, a series of appointments have been turned down by the interviewee, on the basis of 
unavailability.  Kwami  Ansere,  like  Emmanuel  Tetteh  was  also  difficult  to  get,  since  his 
occupation often takes him out of Accra. The researcher made numerous phone calls to him to 
book an appointment but it all proved futile due, to his busy schedule. Nevertheless, through 
the persuasion of Mr. Mawuli Semevo the Artistic director of NT Players and upon hearing of the 
researcher’s topic he finally granted a hearing at his office at the Accra Rehabilitation Centre in 
Adabraka, a suburb of Accra. 
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CHAPTER FOUR 
ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF TRENDS AND 
TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENT OF STAGE LIGHTING OF ATC 
AND NT PLAYERS 
 
4.1 Introduction 
This chapter deals with the analysis and interpretation of trends and technological advancement 
of stage lighting of ATC and NT Players. Four video recordings of staged play productions of 
ATC and NT Players have been looked at. The Still pictures of the productions, as well as 
interviews, have been selected to serve as the primary sources of interrogation of trends and 
technological advancement of stage lighting. The first two productions examined are, The Witch 
of Mopti, (2002) written by Mohammed Ben Abdallah and The Gods Are Not to Blame, 
(1971) by Ola Rotimi and performed by the ATC. The next two productions include, The Bride 
of the Gods, (1996) written by Yaw Asare and In the Chest of a Woman (2008), written by Efo 
Kojo Mawugbe and performed by the NT Players. 
 
4.2 Trends of Technological Advancement of Stage Lighting in Ghana and Stage Lighting 
Equipment of ATC and NT Players From 1980 – 2010  
Stage lighting in Ghana has evolved over the years. Various stage lighting equipment, ranging 
from flood lights to spot lights, have been used by travelling concert party groups in the big 
towns, countryside and the neighbouring countries for illuminating and providing visibility for 
their drama presentations.  According to Tetteh (2016) this phenomenon has been in existence 
before the establishment of well-structured theatre buildings, such as the National Theatre of 
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Ghana, Efua T. Sutherland Drama Studio and  some  of  the  various  Centres  for  National  
Culture  in the Central,  Eastern, Northern, Western and Volta Regions of Ghana. The Centre for 
National Culture in Greater Accra also known as the Arts Centre Accra, for instance, was a hub 
of stage lighting instruments. In an interview with Tetteh, he reiterates that stage lighting 
3 4
instruments were rented by drama troupes such as the Worker’s Brigade Band , Osofo Dadzie’s  
5
(Akan drama) group and the Wolomei Cultural Troupe,  for performances at different venues all 
over the country. 
 
The use of lighting equipment in Ghana varies in all aspects. Ghanaian theatre as well as the 
showbiz or the entertainment industry in Ghana from 1980 – 2010, have made use of different 
kinds of lighting instruments ranging from spots, floods, beam projectors, lighting effects, image 
projectors as well as automated lighting instruments. Other lighting instruments include 
mechanically controlled dimmer boards, dimmers packs, touring racked dimmers, and digital 
consoles for performances. All these lighting equipment have aided performances from 
1980 – 2010. In Ghana, technological changes in stage lighting instruments have made it easier 
for theatre performances to take place in both structured theatre spaces and found spaces as well. 
 
The ATC and NT Players under research have enjoyed the use of stage lighting equipment from 
the School of Performing Arts and the National Theatre of Ghana, respectively. The School of 
Performing Arts, served as the unit that nurtured ATC, provided for the group the available 
                                                          
3
 Worker’s Brigade Band is a concert party group that was guided in the 60’s by Felix Morisseau-Leroy 
4
 Osofo Dadzi is an Akan drama performance group  
5
 Wolomei Cultural Troupe is a  musical performance group that sings mainly performed in the Ga local language 
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stage lighting equipment and the needed human resource to operate them. Students who 
graduated from the School were encouraged to accept postings for National Service to the group. 
Out of this provision, ATC was strengthened with the needed human capacity. Later, it e v e n  
became competitive for students to be posted to the group to do their National Service. With 
regards to stage lighting equipment, ATC depended, mostly on the British Strand Electric Flood 
lights, Fresnel spot lights and 500watt Profile lights (see Appendix Seven and Eight) rigged at the 
Performance Hall, (now Mawere Opoku Dance Hall) for their performances. The ATC also made 
use of stage lighting equipment mounted at the Efua T. Sutherland Drama Studio for their theatre 
performances. According to Sowah (2016), during the 1980’s, a maximum of four or two Strand 
Electric Flood lights, accompanied by two cross lighting stands, to facilitate illumination and 
visibility for performances were all that ATC needed to embark on a performance tour within the 
country.  
 
Again, in the 1980’s, the trend of stage lighting for ATC was largely under Strand Electric Flood 
lights. And for ATC, greater interest in lighting theatre performances was for the audience to see 
the performers and to illuminate the acting areas on stage.  Below is an image of how stage 
lighting was mounted: 
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Figure 1 A generated model of two flood lights mounted separately on a crossed bar lighting stand facing the 
stage 
 
 
 
 
Figure 2 A generated model of two paired flood lights mounted on two separate crossed bar lighting stand facing 
the stage 
 
From the above illustrations the Flood lights are crossed to give an even wash of light for 
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illumination and visibility. In an interview with Kwami Ansere, a former lighting technician of 
ATC, he said, this was due to the inadequate supply of stage lighting equipment, in the School of 
Performing Arts at the time. As a result, attempting to design with sufficient lights, when the 
group was on a tour could not be realized. Ansere, also made a point that during the interview, 
though the earlier theatre performances of ATC were done in an ad hoc manner, the maiden 
performance of The Trial of Mallam Ilya in 1984, which is written and directed by Mohammed 
Ben Abdallah with ATC, was lit with the School’s British (Strand Electric) Flood lights and 
(Strand Electric) 500watt Profile spot lights, borrowed from the Ghana Dance Ensemble, (the 
then resident dance group of the Institute of African Studies at the University of Ghana), with 
whom the School had a good working relationship. And the lighting equipment were controlled 
using a mechanical lighting dimmer. Below is an image of the spot light: 
 
Figure 3 Frontal and side view of a lampless Strand Electric 250/500 watt spot light. Source: (SPA) Lab 
 
In another interview with Martin Owusu, he recollects his maiden performance of the play, The 
Story Ananse Told which was performed by the ATC. According to Owusu, the demand of his 
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play with respect to stage lighting was met with the arrival of newly imported lights and sound 
equipment for the School of Performing Arts. Owusu admits, that in the 1987 and 1988 
academic year, the School of Performing Arts received quite a number of stage lighting 
equipment to enhance performances. Among the lighting equipment were: 
 
a.   3-inch 500 watt, Fresnel spot lights (by Strand Electric lighting) 
b.   3-inch 500 watt, Plano-convex spot lights (by Strand Electric lighting) 
c.   1500 and 2000 watt, Fresnel and Plano-convex spot lights (by Strand Electric lighting)  
d.   2000 watt, followspot (by Strand Electric lighting) 
e.   500 watt, Coda flood lights (Scoops) 
f. Four units of 500 watt, Coda flood lights (strip lights)  
g.   An effect machine lens 
h.   Gelatin frames for the various lighting equipment 
 i. Six (6) telescopic stands ( by Manfrotto manufacturer) 
j. One (1) 24/48 channel, Strand dimmer board 
k.    One (1) 6 channel, dimmer board (by Strand Electric lighting) 
l. Four (4) dimmer packs (by Strand Electric lighting)  
m. One (1) colour strobe effect light  
n.   Three (3) different special effects, comprising of fire, clouds and flowing river effects.  
     (See Appendix Eight for images of lighting equipment) 
 
Technologically, these new stage lighting equipment were more advanced than the earlier, old 
fashioned British Strand Electric flood and spot lights. For instance, the 500watt, Fresnel and Plano-
convex spot lights which have a sledge within for adjusting the lamp to flood focus or a spot focus. 
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Again, these two lighting instruments have a gelatin slot as well as a lens slot for sharper or blurring 
focus of light. The 500watt, Coda Flood lights had a gelatin slot also, for the use of gels colour, 
unlike the British Strand Electric Flood lights that had no slot (see Appendix Seven and Eight). 
According to Owusu, the opening celestial scene of the play, The Legend of Aku Sika was lit with the 
cloud lighting effect in addition to a 500watt Fresnel spot light, a Plano-convex, spot light and a four 
single units, Coda Flood lights. According to Owusu, these spots lights aided the demarcation of 
various acting areas in the play, such as the Heavenly scene, the Kings palace, Aku Sika’s abode and 
the riverside. 
 
The arrival of these new technologically advanced stage lights also influenced Ghanaian 
contemporary Playwrights such as Alphonse Yaw Asare, who recorded stage directions with specific 
lights. Among the plays in which lighting descriptions have been recorded are Ananse in the Land of 
Idiots (written in1993 and published in 2006), The Leopard’s Choice(1993) and Desert 
Dreams(1998). An example is the use of spot light for the narrator, focused light for actors, 
silhouette lighting effect and thunder effects. Lighting design in the early 1990’s was possible with 
the number of equipment the School of Performing Arts had received. The set of new lighting 
equipment were used by the ATC, the students and staffs of the School of Performing Arts for 
theatre performances. ATC continued to use this lighting equipment until the School purchased a 
new set of lighting equipment in 2009. They include the following: 
a.   Ten (10), 500-watt, Selecon Plano-convex, spotlights  
b.   Ten (10), four flaps barn-doors for the Selecon PC 
c.   Ten (10), 1000-watt, Source 4 PAR Cans 
d.   Four (4), Strand Beta Zero 88, dimmer packs   
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e.   One (1), 12/24 Strand Jester, compactible console (See Appendix Eight for images of  
      these lighting equipment) 
 
In 2010 ATC, under the directorship of Ossei Agyeman, purchased a number of new stage 
lighting equipment which is equally efficient and technologically advanced. The new Selecon 
Fresnel spot light for instance, has a long cylindrical house and more improved lens, which 
allows for wider focusing than the Strand Electric 500watt Fresnel. The new lighting equipment 
comprises of: 
a.   Six (6), Selecon 500/650watt, Fresnel, spot lights  
b.   Six (6), PAR Cans, Flood lights 
c.   One (1) 12/24 channel, Strand dimmer board  
d.   Two (2), Strand, Beta Zero 88, dimmer packs 
e.   Twelve (12), gelatin Frames (Six each for the spot and flood lights respectively) 
 
f. Six (6,) four-flap barn-doors, for the spot lights 
g.   A set of assorted gels, 
These are the lighting instrument ATC have been using to date. The lighting equipment was 
housed in flight cases, to properly secure them during their performance tour up-country. All 
these listed stage lighting equipment depicts what has been trending, in terms of stage lights used 
in Ghanaian theatre performance. 
 
The NT Players, on the other hand, had the luxurious use of stage lighting mounted at the 
National Theatre of Ghana auditorium since December 1992. According to Semevo (2016) the 
theatre performances for the inaugural ceremony of the National Theatre of Ghana, were 
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enjoyed by the  audience with the three hundred (300) stage lights rigged f o r  the 
proscenium stage. The National Theatre is furnished with the state-of-the-arts rigging system 
comprising of six (6) electric controlled lighting bars, a Front-of-House (FOH) lighting rigs, 
gallery rigs, false proscenium rigs, a lighting bridge and three (3) movable trusses attached to left 
and right fly floors. Furthermore, the stage lighting equipment found at the auditorium of the 
National Theatre includes: 
a.   1000watt, PAR 60-64 Cans 
 
b.   650/800/1000/1500 watt, Ellipsoidal Reflector Spot lights  
c.   2000watt, followspot 
d.   Dimmer packs from China and Japan 
 
e.   48/96 programmable, Strand lighting console  
f. Cyclorama lights, in the hues of red, yellow and blue (See Appendix Eight for images  
      of lighting equipment) 
In addition to the lighting equipment listed above, are focus lenses, gel frames and a set of 
assorted gelatins. All these lighting equipment used by both ATC and NT players in theatre 
performances, show the technological trends of usage of lighting equipment in Ghanaian theatre 
productions from 1980 – 2010. 
 
At this juncture, the researcher will focus attention on the videos and pictures of ATC and 
NT Players. By no order of preference, analysis and interpretation of the four productions would 
be handled, using generated lighting plots to describe the pictures. Analysis of colours and 
application of principles (qualities of lights) and functions of stage lighting, will be fully explored 
to interpret the role of lighting in the productions, within the two fifteen segmented years, derived 
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from the scope of  the research. ATC productions would be the first to be tackled followed by two 
productions of the NT Players. 
 
4.3 Synopsis of The Witch of Mopti Production 
A tradition is broken and customs are disregarded in the land of Mopti, when the newly en-
stooled King decides and goes ahead to marry a woman of lowly birth, instead of his cousin 
(Samanke), a royal. The King’s choice of Fanta, a poor fisherman’s daughter, as a wife, resulted 
in a power struggle between the King and an aunt (The Witch) who swears to punish the King 
and the entire citizenry of Mopti, for going against the customs and traditions. She swears to 
take over the rule of Mopti from the young King, by turning the hearts of the people of Mopti 
against him. The play was written by Mohammed Ben Abdallah and published in the year 2002. 
 
4.4 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Witch of 
Mopti 
The Nine (9) pictures extracted from the video production relate to the structure of the story The 
Witch of Mopti (2002). They are analysed and interpreted, using the controllable qualities of 
light, functions of stage lighting and the generated lighting plot. 
 
In the production of The Witch of Mopti (2002), the acting areas were intensely bright, as 
actors mount the stage and change their costumes before the audience. This bright light is 
recorded as one of the stage directions of the playwright, because the scene is a play within a 
play. Actors costume and faces are therefore visible to audience. In Figure 4  below, the two 
women dialoguing at acting area C (See Figure 13 for the lighting plot) are lit with lights from 
the FOH, FOH left and FOH right making them visible. Again in Figure 4, the dull glow of light 
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on the cyclorama shows the atmosphere of an early morning (no sunlight effect) on the Fouta 
Jallon Mountains. This places the action of the play in its proper setting. 
 
 
Figure 4 The two women preparing for the King of Mopti's wedding ceremony. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
The dull glow highlight on the topside of the cyclorama (sunlight effect) and the shadowy part 
at the bottom reveals the modeling of the Fouta Jallon Mountains. This use of lighting, shows 
the rising sun which graces the dancers for the Kings wedding ceremony. All the acting areas, 
apart from area A on the lighting plot are lit to make the dancers visible enough.  See Figure 5 
below: 
 
 
Figure 5 Dancers begin the wedding ceremony with various dances. Picture extracted from video recording of The 
Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
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The festive mood of the King’s wedding was radiantly lit. The brilliant light on cyclorama 
reveals the illusion of the vast Fouta Jallon Mountains, serving as the setting and backdrop of the 
production. The brilliant light reveals the colours used for the backdrop and also shows tints and 
shady parts of the backdrop, giving a realistic impression to the cyclorama. The acting areas G, 
H and J (See Figure 13 for the lighting plot) serving as the sitting position for the King, the wife 
and their entourage are brightly lit revealing the various colourful costumes of the actors in the 
wedding ceremony. Also, from the picture below, the secluded actress at DR (The witch), in her 
shady costume is equally lit with bright light, (See the picture illustration in Figure 6 below) 
 
 
Figure 6 The Witch of Mopti swears to punish the King of Mopti for not marrying her daughter Samanke. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
A fully intense pool of light at a section of acting area B, emanating from lighting instrument 
number 6 (See Figure 13 for the lighting plot) served as a selective focus light, to direct 
audience attention to that area and as a contrast to see the activities within King’s chambers in 
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the dimmed light. The light for the selective focus is bright, allowing audience to juxtapose the 
activities in the dimmed light with the activities of the witches in the bright light. The light for 
the cyclorama was also dimmed to depict sun down. The direction of the selective focused light 
from the FOH (See Figure 13 for the lighting plot) has pushed the shadow of the witch kneeling 
DR (imitating Fanta) to the left, making her face shine. 
 
 
Figure 7  A pool of light designed for the use of the witchcraft activity (for audience to see their actions). Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
The direction of the selective focused light from the FOH has pushed the shadow of the Witch 
of Mopti to the left, making her face shine very bright. The fully bright cyclorama, compliments 
the mystic activity that ensues between the Witch of Mopti and the sorcerer in the yellow 
costume.  The overhead rigged light at area G and H, brightened the heads of the other sorcerers 
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and magicians, creating shadows on their faces and neck area.  
 
Figure 8 Exchange of mystical powers between the Witch of Mopti and a sorcerer. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
Figure 9 below, shows direction of shadows on the floor of the stage as actors grope in their state 
of blindness. This comes from an evenly bright wash of light, from different rigging points on the 
stage. 
 
 
Figure 9 Magicians, sorceries, and town peoples afflicted by blindness by the Witch of Mopti. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
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The direction of the light on the storyteller below shows the clarity of his face, and the amount of 
intensity of light, reveals the shape of the actor’s face. The shadows under the chin, eyebrows, 
nose and jawline gives him the modeling of the way in which sunlight normally illuminates our 
face during the day. 
 
 
 
 
Figure 10  The storyteller narrating the outcome of witches activities. Picture extracted from video recording of 
The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
In Figure 11 below, the warm, Lee filter number 019, focused at area A (See Figure 13 for the 
lighting plot) the acting  area designated  for the witches  on stage  created a powerful intense 
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mood of fearful and hostile nature of the witches. The saturation of the colour, toned the skins 
of the witches and makes it difficult to see their faces clearly. The flash of light from the 
strobe effect lighting, creates a mystical mood as the devil speaks through Samanke’s body, to 
the Witch of Mopti. The low angle of the coloured strobe effect lighting, throws the 
shadows of the witches onto the side walls making their shadows look larger than life. 
 
 
 
Figure 11 The witches in their chanting moment. Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti 
production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
The distribution and intensity of highlight and shadows, reveal the form and shape of the well, 
as the Witch of Mopti contaminates the well water with madness (See Figure 12 below). The dark 
image of the Witch of Mopti shows that the contamination of the well took place at night. Again, 
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the dimmed lights on the witch helps create a selective focus, to shift the attention of the 
audience to what is happening around the well. 
 
 
 
Figure 12 The Witch of Mopti contaminates the well with the potion prepared through the directives of the devil. 
Picture extracted from video recording of The Witch of Mopti production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
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4.4.1 An Instrument Schedule for the Play Production of The Witch of Mopti 
Table 2 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Witch of Mopti Production 
 
INSTRUMENT SCHEDULE                  Production……..The Witch of Mopti………… 
 
Date………………………                        Theatre…Efua T. Sutherland Drama Studio… 
Inst. Location Type Watts Cir. Dim. Colour Focus Notes 
(LEE) 
1 FOH left side 3” PC 500    D  
2 Ground  of Coloured      A type of 
FOH left  strobe 400 A an onion 
effect light bulb 
3 FOH left side 3” PC 500    E  
4 FOH 3” Fresnel 500   L019 A  
5 FOH Coda 1unit 500    F  
light 
6 FO H 3” PC 500    D  
7 FOH Coda 1 500    C  
light 
8 FOH 3” Fresnel 500    C  
9 FOH 3” Fresnel 500    B  
10 FOH 3” PC 500    E  
11 FOH right 3” Fresnel 500    E  
side 
12 FOH right 3” PC 500    CD  
side 
13 Ground of 3” Fresnel 500    E  
FOH right 
14 FOH right 3” Fresnel 500    B  
side 
nd
15 2  Bar  2000    GH  
rd
16 3  Bar  2000    IJ  
th
17 4  Bar  500    K  
 
An instrument schedule gives information on each instrument used in the production. It identifies the instrument 
by number, location, type, wattage, circuit, dimmer and focus area. 
 
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4.4.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Witch of Mopti 
 
 
Figure 13 A generated lighting plot for The Witch of Mopti indicating where lighting instruments are rigged, area 
of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and wattage. 
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4.5 Synopsis of The Gods Are Not to Blame Production 
The play begins with a prologue. In the beginning there is a divination pronounced on a newly 
born baby boy, Odewale. The priest of Ogun, Baba Fakunle, says the boy has brought a bad 
omen to the world, for he would kill his father and marry his mother. In order to prevent this 
curse from occurring, the boy should be killed. A messenger is tasked to complete this mission. 
The messenger had pity on him and spared his life. Circumstances bring him back to the land of 
Kutuje, his place of birth after killing an old man at Ede where three foot paths meet. Odewale 
eventually fulfills what the gods foretold about him. In his quest to catch the killer of the late 
King, Adetusa whose death in the land is the cause of the plague, he finds out that he himself was 
the killer.  He plucks out his own eyes from its sockets, the very painful punishment he decrees 
when he finds the killer of King Adetusa. The play ends on a tragic note, with Odewale 
banishing himself from Kutuje. The Gods Are Not to Blame (1971) is an adapted play from 
Sophocles Oedipus Rex, a Greek play transformed into a Yoruba setting, by Ola Rotimi a Nigerian 
playwright. The play is woven with Yuroba cosmology, proverbial language, songs and 
characterization to make the representation meaningful to its present location. 
 
4.6 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Gods Are 
 Not to Blame 
In the video production The Gods Are Not to Blame (1971), twelve (12) still photographs would 
be analyzed and interpreted: 
 
The distribution and bright intensity of light for all the acting areas, in Figure 14 and Figure 15 
below, create the visibility of actors and most of the visual elements on stage. The cut-out artistic 
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designs and patterns on the set, are revealed clearly by various directions of light. The green 
coloured head-gear of Queen Ojuola at DL and the inner costume of the actor at DR, are 
visible. In the Figures 14 and 15 below, actors wearing costumes that are close to the colour 
white, are toned with the amber gel of the Lee filter, in the lighting instrument l and 2 focused to 
areas A and C (See Figure 26 for the lighting plot). 
 
Figure 14 The joyous ceremony of the newly born baby, Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of The 
Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
 
Figure 15 The divination of the newly born baby Odewale by the Ogun priest Baba Fakunle. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA)
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The lighting instrument focused to area BC (See Figure 26 for the lighting plot) strikes the upper 
body of the actor at DR, creating a selective focus on him holding the condemned baby boy. The 
light shining on him and the baby swaddled in a white cloth. makes them glow, pushing the 
shadow beneath the chin and below the elbow. 
 
Figure 16 The messenger holding the baby boy. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to 
Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
From Figure 17 below, lights focused on acting areas A, B, C, D, E and F (See Figure 26 for 
the lighting plot) are dimmed, creating the mood of suffering of the townspeople, from their 
ailment.  Other  visual elements  are  not  too  visible,  except  the  amber  filtered  light  at  the  
entrance  of  the  King’s chamber, giving the impression that all is well with the King. 
Movements from dimmed light to brilliant light occurs gradually on stage, as King Odewale 
encourages the townspeople to have hope and try curing their ailment with herbs (See Figures 
17, 18, 19 and 20). Other visual elements on stage become more visible, as lights fades in 
gradually from the dimmed to bright light, imitating the gradual movement of the actors from a 
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sad and gloomy mood into a happy mood. 
 
Figure 17 Townspeople sitting on the floor complaining to King Odewale of their ailment. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
 
Figure 18 Townspeople encouraged by King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not 
Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA)
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Figure 19 Townspeople getting up gradually indicated by the gradual fading in of bright light. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
 
Figure 20 Townspeople on their feet heading to the bush to find herbs for their ailments. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
The gloomy lights of Figure 21 create less visibility of the forms, shapes and textures within the 
 
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setting, thus making it look visually unappealing. The dimmed light at area G illuminates only 
up to the entrance of the King’s chamber, thus making the triangular pattern stand out. The 
colours are however muted. 
 
 
 
Figure 21 Dimmed lights at the palace of King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are 
Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
Figures 22 and 23 show an intense radiant light on the palace. This gives a bright light on all the 
visual elements on the stage. The cut-out patterns of the palace walls and the cloth behind the 
walls are visible. The actor’s costumes are washed off by the warm radiant light. The triangular 
ash coloured pattern at the entrance of the King’s chamber is also washed off by the radiant 
warm colour of the lights. The sitting stools and the actors are all visible (see pictures on the next 
page). 
 
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Figure 22  Aderopo tells the King and elders the message from the oracle. Picture extracted from video recording 
of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
 
 
Figure 23 Ojuola coming to comfort King Odewale. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to 
Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
Movement of stage light occurs in Figures 24 and 25. Lights are dimmed when King 
Odewale draws a sword from the ‘Ogun’ shrine and swears an oath. When the fearsome nature of 
the god, ‘ Ogun’ is mentioned it is depicted by a low intensity of light in the palace, as the 
 
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King swears an oath. Light becomes fully bright again after the King has finished swearing the 
oath. 
 
 
 
Figure 24  Odewale banishes Aderopo by swearing an oath with the symbol of ‘Ogun’. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
 
 
Figure 25  Odewale ends his swearing. Picture extracted from video recording of The Gods are Not to Blame 
production. Source: ATC Archives, (SPA) 
 
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4.6.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of The Gods Are Not to Blame 
 
Table 3 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Gods Are Not to Blame Production 
INSTRUMENT SCHEDULE            Production…The Gods Are Not to Blame… 
Date……………………………          Theatre………Efua T. Sutherland Drama Studio.. 
Inst. Location Type Watts Cir. Dim. Colour Focus Notes 
(LEE) 
1 FOH left side 3” PC 500   021 C  
2 FOH right 3” PC 500   021 A  
side 
 
3 FOH left side 3” PC 500    BC  
4 FOH right 3” PC 500    AB  
side 
5 FOH Coda 1 500    D  
light 
6 FOH 3” Fresnel 500    A  
7 FOH Coda 1 500    BE  
light 
8 FOH  3” PC 500    B  
9 FOH  Coda 1 500    F  
light 
rd
10 3  Bar Coda 1 500    DE  
light 
rd
11 3  Bar Coda 1 500    EF  
light 
th
12 4  Bar Coda 1 500    008 G  
light 
An instrument schedule gives information on each instrument used in the production. It identifies the instrument 
by number, location, type, wattage, circuit, dimmer and focus area. 
 
 
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4.6.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Gods Are Not to Blame 
 
 
 
Figure 26 A generated lighting plot for The Gods Are Not to Blame indicating where lighting instruments are 
rigged, area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and wattage. 
 
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4.7 Synopsis of The Bride of the Gods Production 
In the court and shrine of the high priest of Oro-oni, a secret romance ensues between Subinzali 
and Nderize who is described as the Bride of the Gods. Subinzali is rescued by the high priest of 
Oro-oni from a blind griot at a crossroads. When the high priest, catches Subinzali a second 
time romancing Nederize at his court, he is to be killed as a sacrifice to appease the spirit 
husband of Nederize. Before Subinzali’s is offered as a sacrifice, his last request to his lover, 
Nderize, is a meal of roasted rabbit liver. Upon completion of the meal a blind beggar asks 
Nderize for the meal and she gives it to him. The blind beggar then whispers a secret phrase into 
her ear for his condemned lover Subinzali to say to the high priest before he is killed. Subinzali 
is saved by the phrase and his identity becomes known as the son of the cobra God. 
 
4.8 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of The Bride of 
the Gods 
T welve (12) photographs are extracted from selected scenes in the video production of, The 
Bride of the Gods (1996) analyzed and interpreted with reference to a lighting plot, using the 
controllable qualities of light and functions of stage lighting. 
 
In Figure 27 below, the extracted photograph shows the attempt of an additive mixing of 
complimentary colours, consisting of magenta and green, emanating from the lighting instrument 
numbers 17, 18, 19 and 20, rigged at the false proscenium, to produce a vibrant white light. 
However, it did not turn out well (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot). As a result, Lee filters HT 
122 (fern green) toned the skin of the narrator. Nonetheless, the FOH light from lighting 
instrument number 5 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) enhances the face and creates shadows 
 
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around the neck area, below the nostrils and below the lower lip, thus making her look nature 
and visible to the audience. 
 
 
Figure 27  The actor performing the role of a narrator in The Bride of the Gods. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
The coloured light from lighting instruments 18 and 19 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) 
enhances the female actor wearing the magenta costume but tones her face and makes her image 
look dull. Similarly, the set design above her is toned by the Lee filter 128, altering the brown hue 
of the set. (See Figure 28 below). 
 
Figure 28 Subinzali romancing Nderize at the court of the high priest of Oro-oni. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
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In Figure 29 below, the uncoloured light from lighting instruments 9, 10, 11, and 12 (See Figure 
39 for the lighting plot) creates two shadows below the narrators chin. But the shadows are 
softened by the FOH lights that produce a brighter lighting on the face and frontal view of the 
actor’s costume. This makes the actors look more visible. The field angles of coloured lighting 
from instruments 18 and 19 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) are also visible on the stage 
floor. 
 
Figure 29  Narrator consoles Nderize for her father’s disapproval of her relationship with Subinzali. Picture 
extracted from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figure 30 below, the uncoloured light from the FOH creates a bright light on the left face of 
Subinzali, thus creating shadows at his right face, and shoulder. The direction of lights from 
lighting instruments 15 and 16 to acting area C (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot), washes the 
side wall behind Subinzali and brightens his upper left shoulder, separating him from the wall 
 
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behind him. 
 
Figure 30 Subinzali and Nderize in a duet performance. Picture extracted from video recording of The Bride of the 
Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
Figure 31 shows the coloured light from lighting instruments 18 and 19 toning the white horse tail 
of the high priest at the top left corner of the photograph. The costume and the headgear of 
Subinzali is equally toned by the same lights. The wide field angles of lighting instruments 18 
and 19 are also visible on the stage floor. 
 
Figure 31 Subinzali condemned to be sacrificed for Nderize’s spirit husband. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
In Figure 32 below, the direction of coloured lights from lighting instruments numbers 17, 18, 19 
 
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and 20 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) tone the actors skin but enhances the costume that are 
in the same hues. The Lee filter 122 enhances Nderize’s headgear whilst the Lee filter 128 
alters her upper and lower garments. The uncoloured light from the FOH creates bright light on 
her face amidst the coloured light around her. 
 
Figure 32 Nderize engaging Subinzali in his confinement waiting to be sacrificed. Picture extracted from video 
recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figure 33 below, the additive colour mixing of Lee filters 118 and 102 at area E (See Figure 
39 for the lighting plot) creates a bright white light on the head gear of the high priest, creating 
shadows around the right eye. Again the direction of lighting instrument 24 and 32 creates a 
white light on the left side of the upper body of the high priest with more shadows to his right. 
The same light creates a shiny surface of the set at his right. The set behind him is however, not 
 
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affected by this light, thus making it appear dull. The overhead lights form lighting instruments 
23, 29 and 30 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) softens the shadows at the right side of the high 
priest. 
 
 
Figure 33 The high priest of Oro-oni ready for the sacrifice of Subinzali. Picture extracted from video recording of 
The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figure 34, the intense light from stage right pushes the shadow of the griot to the left whereas 
the shadow of the high priest is muted by the FOH lights. The beam angle of lighting 
instrument 17 (See Figure 39 for the lighting plot) is visible on the stage floor as well as the field 
angle of instrument 18 (see Figure 39 for the lighting plot). Costumes which are different from 
the coloured light, emanating from lighting instrument 18 are altered. 
 
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Figure 34 The blind griot reveals the identity of Subinzali as the son of the cobra God. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figure 35 below, the intensity and distribution of the various lights on the actors equally show 
the various directions of their shadows on the floor, amidst the coloured lights, which are visible 
on the stage floor as well. 
 
Figure 35  The blind griot asks Subinzali to demonstrate the prowess of the cobra God. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
Figure 36 shows all the warm and cool coloured lights rigged on the first and second electric 
 
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pipe, pointing to different angles and creating a vibrant white light on the actors, thus making 
them look visible to the  audience. 
 
 
 
Figure 36 Subinzali is set free and given a nod by the high priest to marry her daughter Nderize. Picture extracted 
from video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figure 37 below for instance, the green coloured light of Lee Filter HT 089, which is focused 
on the vast backdrop of tree images behind the actors, locates the action specifically in the 
premises of the court and shrine of Oro-oni kingdom.  The  full  intensity  of  all  the  lights 
therefore  makes  the actors clearly  visible  in  their  colouful costumes. 
 
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Figure 37 The happy ending ceremony of the marriage between Subinzali and Nderize. Picture extracted from 
video recording of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In the last extracted photograph of this production, the uncoloured light from the FOH (See 
Figure 39 for the lighting plot) gives a shiny surface to the set, while at the same time, 
maintaining the hues and the designs. Actors behind the set, serving as the chorus in the play, 
are also well lit and very visible. 
 
Figure 38 The setting for The Bride of the Gods with the chorus behind set. Picture extracted from video recording 
of The Bride of the Gods production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
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4.8.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of The Bride of the Gods 
Table 4 A generated Instrument Schedule for The Bride of the Gods Production 
INSTRUMENT SCHEDULE  Production……The Bride of the Gods…….. 
Date………………………….. Theatre….National Theatre of Ghana…… 
         
Inst. Location Type Watts Cir. Dim. Colour Focus Notes 
(LEE) 
     
    
1 FOH PAR 64 1000 C 
     
    
2 FOH Leko 6x9 1500 G 
     
        3 FOH PAR 64 1000 AD 
     
         4 FOH PAR 64 1000 AD
     
5 FOH PAR 64 1000     BE 
     
       6 FOH PAR 64 1000 BF 
     
     7 FOH Leko 6x9 1500 A 
     
        8 FOH PAR 64 1000 D 
     
9 FOH left side PAR 64     1000 BG 
     
        10 FOH left side PAR 64 1000 BG 
     
      11 FOH right PAR 64 1000 BD 
 
side 
     
     12 FOH right PAR 64 1000 BD 
side 
     
13     FOH left side PAR 64 1000 AE 
     
     14 FOH left side PAR 64 1000 AE 
     
15     FOH right PAR 64 1000 CF 
side 
     
        16 FOH right PAR 64 1000 CF
side 
      
17 False PAR 64 1000    HT 122 FG 
Proscenium 
      
18   False PAR 64 1000 L128 FG  
Proscenium 
      
    19 False PAR 64 1000 L128 DE 
Proscenium 
      
    20 False PAR 64 1000 HT 122 DE 
Proscenium 
    
nd 
21 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    D  
    
nd 
22 2 Elec Pipe     PAR 64 1000 AD 
 
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Continuation of Instrument Schedule 
 
     
nd 
23 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64    1000 L 102 E 
     
nd 
24 2 Elec Pipe    PAR 64 1000 L 134 EB 
     
nd 
25 2 Elec Pipe   PAR 64 1000 L 102   F
     
nd 
26 2 Elec Pipe    PAR 64 1000 L 134 CF 
    
nd 
27 2 Elec Pipe     PAR 64 1000 CG 
    
nd 
 2 Elec Pipe       28 PAR 64 1000 G 
     
rd 
29 3 Elec Pipe     PAR 64 1000 HT 118 BE 
     
rd 
30 3 Elec Pipe   PAR 64 1000 HT 118   E
     
rd 
31 3 Elec Pipe    PAR 64 1000 HT 118 F 
     
rd 
 3 Elec Pipe    32 PAR 64 1000 HT 118 D 
    
th 
33 4 Elec Pipe     PAR 64 1000 HT 089 
    
th 
34 4 Elec Pipe PAR 64     1000 HT 089 
         
An instrument schedule gives information on each instrument used in the production. It identifies the instrument 
by number, location, type, wattage, circuit, dimmer and focus area.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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4.8.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of The Bride of the Gods 
 
 
 
Figure 39 A generated lighting plot for The Bride of the Gods indicating where lighting instruments are rigged, area 
of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and wattage. 
 
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4.9 Synopsis of In The Chest of a Woman Production 
Nana Yaa Serwaa, the elder child of the Queen mother of Ebusa, is denied the stool of the Ebusa 
Kingdom, on the notion that she is a girl and for that matter her younger brother is the preferable 
candidate. This situation compels her to device a plot to challenge and change the traditional 
customs of on ly male children, having the right to kingship. In her adventure, she disguises her 
only daughter to pose as a boy, under the disguised name Owusu Agyeman in other to rule the 
Ebusa kingdom after the reign of his brother the King, Nana Kwaku Duah the third. However, 
the tables turn, when Nana Yaa Serwaa’s child, Owusu Agyeman is falsely accused by Ama 
Akyaa, the King’s daughter as the one who impregnated her. The punishment for impregnating a 
royal before marriage, is the removal of the male genitals. But it comes to light that Owusu 
Agyeman is a girl, when the executioner fails to return with ‘his’ male genitals to the King, elders 
and people of Ebusa. In trying to set the customs right, the King, Nana Kwaku Duah asks the 
executioner to kill his pregnant daughter, Ama Akyaa and Owusu Agyeman, the disguised niece, 
as well as an elder, Nana Opong, whose son is alleged to be the culprit. T h e  King then 
attempts to de-stool himself, out of frustration but for the timely intervention of the elders of 
Ebusa, the old customs were amended and the three condemned royals, sentenced to be executed, 
are eventually set free. 
 
4.10 Analysis and Interpretation of Stage Lighting Found in the Production of In The Chest 
of a Woman 
An analysis and interpretation of eight (8) pictures extracted from the video production of, In 
The Chest of a Woman (2008) is the final set of photographs to be examined in this research. The 
use of lighting in the production, will therefore be explored, with the aid of a lighting plot 
 
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generated to support, the controllable qualities and functions of stage lighting, observed in the 
production of the play. 
 
The first extracted photograph (See Figure 40 below) depicts the intensity in the harsh 
uncoloured light from the lighting instruments 6, 7 and 10 focused at area A (See Figure 48 for 
the lighting plot) makes the actors visible, but washes their skin, thus making them look too 
shiny. The brilliant light produced by instruments number 6, 7 and 10, does not alter the entire 
colour of the hut and the straw roofing. The green coloured costume on the upper body of Nana 
Yaa Serwaa, is washed, thus making it look too brilliant, to the extent that the folds in the 
costume are blurred. 
 
Figure 40 Nana Yaa Serwaa teaches Owusu Agyeman the art of war through the game of ‘oware’. Picture 
extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
 
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In Figure 41, the picture illustration shows a high intensity of lights on the actors from the 
uncoloured light of the FOH thus creating shadows beneath their chins and throws their shadows 
behind them. 
 
Figure 41 Owusu Agyeman prepares to go to Nana Kwaku Duah’s palace. Picture extracted from video recording 
of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
Figure 42 below, also shows a selective focus of lights at area D and E. There is dimmed light at 
areas A, B and C (See Figure 48 for the lighting plot). At DR, light has faded out at Nana Yaa 
Serwaa’s abode and brightened up at the inner chambers of the Queen mother of Ebusa, at areas D 
and E. The distribution of lights directed to areas D and E (See Figure 48 for the lighting plot), 
creates an intense pool of light, thereby blurring the actors and other visual elements at the centre 
of the stage. 
 
Figure 42 The Queen mother of Ebusa on her death bed surrounded by elders and chief priest. Picture extracted 
from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
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In Figure 43, the brightly intense light from lighting instruments 2 and 9 focused on acting area B 
(See Figure 48 for the lighting plot), produces a bright light that washes the frontal and right view 
of the actor on the left of the picture. This form of lighting creates shadows on her left side. 
 
 
Figure 43 Akosua and Adwoa gossiping about Owusu Agyeman. Picture extracted from video recording of In The 
Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
In Figures 44 and 45 below, the distribution of lights from lighting instruments 4, 5 and 8 focused 
on area C (See Figure 48 for the lighting plot) produces the full intensity in the uncoloured 
lights. This makes the faces of the actors shine and washes their costumes. The strong and 
intense light from instrument 8 casts the shadow of Ama Akyaa onto the left arm of t h e  
K i n g ,  Nana Kweku Duah. There is no clear modeling of Ama Akyaa’s face, due to the 
sectional angle of light emanating from lighting instrument number 8, which has no 
 
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complimenting lights from the back or right side of Nana Kweku Duah. As a result, Ama Akyaa’s 
face looks like a two dimensional painting with a dark background. 
 
 
Figure 44 King of Ebusa Nana Kweku Duah having a meal with Owusu Agyeman and Ama Akyaa in attendance is 
Adwoa (a servant). Picture extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) 
Audio-Visual Archives 
 
 
Figure 45 The King Nana Kweku Duah persuading Ama Akyaa to lure Owusu Agyeman into marriage. Picture 
extracted from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
 
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Figure 46 shows fully intense lights coming from t h e  plain or uncoloured lighting 
instruments rigged f or the whole acting areas. The lights are so bright, that revealing the shapes 
of some of the visual elements on staged is impaired. The costumes and skin of the actors and the 
stage floor around the acting area D (See Figure 48 for the lighting plot) are totally washed. 
However, actors sitting at DL are in a lower intensity of light and this illumination makes their 
coloured costumes more visible. 
 
 
 
Figure 46 The durbar organized for the judgement of Ama Akyaa’s pregnancy. Picture extracted from video 
recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
Figure 47 also shows a strong intensity of all the uncoloured lights on stage, even to an extent of 
illuminating the masking devices, such as the red drop at the back of the set, as well as the green 
legs located at sides of the set. The full bright light also blurs most of the actors and the visual 
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objects on stage, at this point of the production. 
 
Figure 47 The jubilation on the amendment of customs and traditions by the people of Ebusa. Picture extracted 
from video recording of In The Chest of a Woman production. Source: (GBC) Audio-Visual Archives 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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4.10.1 An Instrument Schedule of the Play Production of In The Chest of a Woman 
Table 5 A generated Instrument Schedule for In The Chest of a Woman Production 
 
INSTRUMENT SCHEDULE Production……In The Chest of A Woman… 
Date…………………………. Theatre…National Theatre of Ghana…… 
         
Inst. Location Type Watts Cir. Dim. Colour Focus Notes 
     
1 FOH PAR 64 1000    A  
     
2 FOH PAR 64 1000    B  
     
3 FOH PAR 64 1000    B  
     
4 FOH PAR 64 1000    C  
     
5 FOH left side PAR 64 1000    C  
     
6 FOH right PAR 64 1000    A  
side 
     
7 FOH left side PAR 64 1000    A  
     
8 FOH right PAR 64 1000    C  
side 
    
nd 
9 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    B  
    
 nd 10 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    A  
    
 nd 11 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    D  
    
 nd 12 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    BD  
    
 nd 13 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    D  
    
 nd 14 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    CE  
    
 nd 15 2 Elec Pipe PAR 64 1000    E  
An instrument schedule gives information on each instrument used in the production. It identifies the 
instrument by number, location, type, wattage, circuit, dimmer and focus area. 
 
 
 
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4.10.2 Lighting Plot for the Play Production of In The Chest of a Woman 
 
 
 
Figure 48 A generated lighting plot for In the Chest of a Woman indicating where lighting instruments are rigged, 
area of focus, the colour media, the instrument number and wattage.
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4.11 Trends of Lighting Theatre Productions Found in ATC and NT Players from 1980 
to 1995 
Tracing the trends of lighting from 1980 to 1995, it is noticeable, from the lighting plots in 
chapter four (See Figure 13 and Figure 39), that spot lights and flood lights were the  
instruments mainly used, in lighting the performances during the period, of the two theatre 
groups. 
 
The picture illustrations of The Witch of Mopti production by ATC, show the various 
applications of the principles (qualities of light) and functions of lighting.  The use of light 
through distribution, intensity and colour for instance creates the mystic mood for the 
witches’ camp. Furthermore, the bright and colourful costumes of the actors are all made 
visible. Selective focusing is also achieved through the laying of emphasis on the witches’ 
activities set against what takes place in the King’s chamber and the action of the sorcerers 
and magicians in the town. The direction of the lighting instruments and the varying intensity 
of light on the cyclorama backdrop, enhanced the illusion of reality, especially of the Fouta 
Jallon Mountain. Modeling of the narrator’s face is also achieved, based on the direction and 
intensity of lights. (See picture illustrations form Figures 4 to 12). 
 
In the production of The Bride of the Gods, filtered light, produced through the use of 
gelatin materials comprised of warm and cool colours. The hues of the warm colours, 
consists of amber and magenta and that of the cool colours are made up of green and blue. 
From the lighting colour wheel, such complimentary colours as magenta mixed with the 
primary colour of green, would produce white light. Likewise, amber mixed with the 
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primary colour of blue, would equally produce white light. It is noticeable from the lighting 
plot, (See Figure 39) that an attempt on additive colour mixing is made. But due to the 
direction of the lights, it did not yield an effective result. That notwithstanding, the use of the 
colour magenta, as filtered light enhances the costumes of actors as well as alters the actual 
colour of some costumes in different hues of colour. A blend of the colours, blue and amber 
lights, for instance, produces a semi-white light, which enhances the costume of the high 
priest of Oro-Oni. The use of uncoloured lights from the FOH basically produces visibility 
for the actors and other visual elements such as the set itself, the vast tree backdrop, costumes 
and accessories as well as props. (See picture illustrations from Figures 27 to 38) 
 
4.12 Trends of Lighting Theatre Production Found in ATC and NT Players from 1996 to 
2010 
Lighting for theatre productions from 1996 to 2010 by the two theatre groups has not change 
very much. The NT Players still makes use of PAR Can flood lights for lighting and ATC 
also makes use of Strands spot lights and flood lights. Based on observation from the video 
recording collected from ATC archives, the purchase of  a new set of stage lighting 
equipment, such as Selecon 3” inches spot lights and PAR 64 Cans by the ATC in 2009 did 
not reflect on the quality of productions, until later years. 
 
From the extracted picture illustrations from the performance of The Gods Are Not to Blame, 
(See Figures 14 to 25), it is noticeable that ATC employed the principle of intensity, by 
varying the amount of lights on the acting areas to interpret mood and atmosphere in the 
production.  An example is the oath swearing scene King Odewale, with a metal object 
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( the symbol of the god ‘Ogun’). Another example is the varying intensity of lights on the 
townspeople, as they lament about their ailment to King Odewale. Light i s  gradually 
moved from dimmed to bright light (see Figures 17 to 20), thus creating visibility, modeling 
of actors and other visual elements. The use of amber light, for instance, bleached the actor’s 
costume. 
 
The production of, In The Chest of a Woman b y the NT Players, also makes use of PAR 
Cans flood lights. The PAR Can light ranges from 60 – 64, with specifications ranging from 
narrow spot to wide f lood lights. The uncoloured instrument produces bright and harsh 
light which is closer to the instrument’s full intensity. This type of light is so strong, that it 
blurs and bleaches actors’ skin and other visual images on the stage. (See Figures 40 to 47 
for the picture illustrations). 
 
4.13 The Relevance of Theatre Lighting and the Lighting Practitioner 
Stage  lighting  for  theatre  performance  has  not  become  a  choice, but rather  a  necessity.  
It connects the pictorial elements together on stage and offers the desired atmosphere and 
creates the mood for the appreciation of audience. Lighting is a tool of communication, 
though non- verbal, it announces the beginning of scenes, provides low or high 
intensities to depict mood and ambience and produce abrupt blackouts at the end of scenes, 
to arouse the emotions in the play. As a result, the use of stage lighting is very relevant to 
any theatre production. Gillette (2000, p. 288) postulates that “effective stage lighting not 
only lets the spectators  see  the  action  of  the  play  but  also  ties  together  all  the  visual  
elements  of  the production and helps create an appropriate mood and atmosphere that 
heighten the audience’s understanding and enjoyment of the play”. 
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In effect, it is obligatory for any lighting designer or technician to see to the realization of 
Gillette’s postulation. And so the relevance of lighting in the Ghanaian theatre and the role 
of the lighting p ractitioner are identified within the forty-one (41) picture illustrations 
analyzed in this chapter. (See Figures 4 to 47).  
 
In short, all these achievements of designing is realized by the lighting designer and lighting 
technician in the two theatre groups. Lighting practitioners in the two theatre groups 
could be viewed as two different people. It is quite interesting to note, that the lighting 
technician for the NT Players, (Emmanuel Tetteh) plays the roles of a lighting designer, a 
lighting technician, a master electrician, and a lighting board operator altogether, an 
experience he gained, mostly from handling stage lighting equipment over the past thirty-five 
(35) years. In an interview with Arkhurst,   he says, that “Emmanuel Tetteh, though not a 
formally trained lighting practitioner, his long years in the industry has made him develop an 
appreciable measure of lighting work experience in the NT Players group”. From this 
assumption and the analysis of the two productions of the NT Players, I would like to 
conclude that, Tetteh’s lighting work experience is comparable to that of a professional 
lighting designer. The lighting practitioner of ATC on the other hand, plays the role as a 
lighting designer and a lighting board operator, while an electrician attached to the School of 
Performing Arts and appointed by the electrical department of the Physical Development and 
Municipal Services Department (PDMSD) of University of Ghana, plays the role of a 
lighting technician and a master electrician for the ATC. This makes the work profile of 
the lighting p ractitioner in ATC less complicated than his counterpart w i t h  t h e  NT 
Players group. This information was gathered through an interview with Mawuli Semevo the 
Artistic Director of NT Players and Kwami Ansere. 
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4.14. CONCLUSION 
In conclusion, the analysis and interpretation of trends and technological advancement of 
stage lighting in ATC and NT Players through the examination of the picture illustrations, 
demonstrates the prolonged use of spot and flood lights in Ghanaian theatre performances 
within the two theatre groups from 1980 – 2010. Again the analysis reveals the use of 
principles and functions of stage lighting. Through the analysis, it is evident that theatre 
productions from the 1980’s through to 1995, made use of more colours to enhance and 
create moods and atmosphere for audience enjoyment. In the years 1996, through to 2010, 
varying levels of intensity of lights was also produced to create moods and ambience, to 
reveal forms and create visibility during the two performances by the two theatre groups.  
 
Finally, the generation of blue prints, such as lighting plots and instrument schedules that 
emerged out of the four productions discussed in the thesis, guided the researcher in 
efficiently analyzing and interpreting the effective use of lighting in the four video 
productions of both the ATC and the NT Players. 
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CHAPTER FIVE 
SUMMARY, MAJOR FINDINGS, CONCLUSION 
AND RECOMMENDATIONS 
 
5.1 Introduction 
This chapter offers a summary of the entire study; it highlights the major findings, conclusions 
and recommendations for further research with reference to trends and technological 
advancement in stage lighting in the Ghanaian theatre productions, with respect to ATC and the 
NT Players as case study groups. 
 
5.2 Summary 
The researcher sought for the trends of stage lighting that existed in Ghana and the various kinds 
of technological advancement that affected lighting instruments and their uses over the period 
of the study that is from 1980 – 2010. 
 
Chapter two dwelt on various literary sources to support and identify various theories to 
foreground the work, while chapter three dealt with the processes involved in gathering data, and 
its proper presentation. To enable easy analysis of stage lighting, found in Ghanaian theatre and 
the use of technological advanced lighting instruments in the Ghanaian theatre performance, the 
information gathered was summed up in a tabular form to facilitate easy interpretation, in order 
to unravel the answers to the questions raised in the thesis. An attempt was made to address such 
questions as to how the trends and technological advancement of theatre lighting has affected 
the development of Ghanaian theatre. Furthermore, the relevance of stage lighting to Ghanaian 
theatre performances and the role of the lighting practitioner in the Ghanaian theatre, as well as 
accomplishment of the set objectives, were duly addressed. 
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5.3 Major Findings 
a)  Findings reveal that the use of stage lighting was minimal during the initial stages of 
development of theatre productions by ATC and NT Players. The style of mounting 
one flood light on two separate lighting stands for instance, was initially adopted. 
However, both groups later improved upon this style by fixing two flood lights on 
separate lighting stands, with the lights facing the stage, to give enough visibility to the 
actors. 
 
 
b)  Another major findings reveal, that stage lights saw an improvement in the change 
from the use of flood lights into spot lights and the introduction of special effect light. 
Some examples of such spot lights include; the Fresnel spot light, the Plano-convex 
spot light, the Profile spot lights, the Follow spot, the Cantata PC lights. An example of 
lighting for special effect, include; the fire effect, the flowing river effect, the cloud 
effect and the coloured strobe effect. These improved lighting instruments enhanced 
performances from the 1980’s to the early 1990’s. In the ATC, for instance, spot lights 
were used to create a pool of light for the laying of emphasis and for directing the 
audience’s attention to a particular scene, during theatre production. 
 
c)  The earlier stages in the development of theatre productions by NT Players, on the 
proscenium arch stage of the National Theatre of Ghana, saw the use of lighting 
instruments such as the Chinese PAR cans, the Profile spot lights, the Follow spot, 
projectors and assorted gelatins to aid performances as the research reveals. The wide 
flood Par 64 cans (WFP) for instance, was used later to give an even wash of light, 
while the narrow spot Par 60 – 62 cans (NSP) was used to create a wide pool of light. 
The profile spot lights were also used to produce tight pool of light and the gelatins for 
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creating the needed moods and environment during performances.  
 
5.4 Conclusion 
In conclusion, the researcher set out to investigate the trends and technological advancement in 
stage lighting in Ghanaian theatre, by focusing on a set of objectives. These objectives are, to 
document the developmental trends of stage lighting in Ghanaian theatre productions, to explore 
ways in which stage lighting has become relevant to the Ghanaian theatre and to investigate the 
role of the lighting practitioner in Ghanaian theatre. The researcher gave a detailed explanation 
of how the application of stage lighting has progressed technologically in Ghanaian theatres as 
demonstrated by ATC and the NT Players, through the methodology employed for the work. 
This information is found in the fourth chapter of this thesis, which embodies the analysis and 
interpretation of trends and technological advancement of stage lighting of ATC and NT 
Players. T h e  r ev i ew e d  l iterature reveals that stage lighting in Ghanaian theatre has sailed 
due to the importation of various stage lighting equipment into the country, as a result of a boost 
in electrification in Ghana. It is followed by the application of principles (controllable qualities 
of light) functions of lights and the review of stage lighting practices elsewhere.  While chapter 
three encompasses the methods and the data collection strategy used in the research, such as an 
open- ended interview approach, general interview guided questions, archival materials and 
photographs to capture and gather the needed information for the research work. Analysis and 
interpretation of extracted picture illustrations from the four recorded video productions also 
provided the necessary information needed in chapter four to unearth the changing trends of 
stage lighting, found in theatre productions of ATC and NT Players from 1980 – 2010.  Major 
findings in Chapter five, further reinforced the developmental trends of stage lighting in Ghana. 
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5.5 Recommendation 
Having investigated the technological advancement in stage lighting, the following are some 
of the recommendations made by the researcher; 
i. With the influx of a high-volume of technologically advanced lighting equipment in the 
world, particularly in Ghana used for theatre performances, ATC and NT Players 
should invest in the current state of the art, stage lighting instruments for their theatre 
performances.   
ii. ATC and NT Players should make it a point to train their lighting technicians and 
master electricians to acquire new knowledge in the lighting industry. This could be 
achieved by providing scholarships, retraining and organizing refresher courses for 
their lighting technicians and master electricians. 
iii. The use of less energy consumable stage lights, such as the LED PARs, the LED SPOTs   
and the Automated lighting equipment (Intelligent lights), should be encouraged, to 
provide the best quality in lighting technology for performances. 
iv. ATC and NT Players should, encourage their lighting technicians and master electricians 
to produce blue-prints, such as ( a lighting Plot and an instrument schedule or magic 
sheet) for their theatre performances, for the sake of documentation and for posterity. 
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Palmer, S. (2012, May). White Rose University Consortium. Retrieved May 15, 2018, from White 
Rose Web site: https//eprints.whiterose.ac.uk 
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Wild, L. (2006, December 19). Northern State University. Retrieved November 16, 2015, from 
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ScholarWorks@UMass Amherst: http://scholarworks.umass.edu/nursing_faculty_pubs/2 
 
Interviews 
Ansere, K. (2016, October 19). The Lighting Practionner. (M. Lamptey,  Interviewer)  
Arkhurst, S. (2017, April 10). The Designers Work. (M. L.  Lamptey, Interviewer) 
Djisenu, J. K. (2015, October 27). Stage Lighting and the Lighting Practionner. (M. L. Lamptey, 
Interviewer) 
Katey, G. (2016, March 22). Stage Lighting and the Lighting Practionner. (M. L. Lamptey, 
Interviewer) 
Owusu, M. (2016, March 23). Stage lighting and Designing in Ghana. (M. L. Lamptey,  
 Interviewer) 
Quarm, A. C. (2016, September 21). Lighting within studio 1 & 2 at Ghana Broadcasting 
Coporation. (M. L. Lamptey, Interviewer) 
Semevo, M. (2016, September 18). Live and Work within the National Theatre Players. (M. 
Lamptey, Interviewer) 
Sowah, O. N. (2016, September 17). Working with the Abibigromma group. (M. L. Lamptey, 
Interviewer) 
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Tetteh, E. (2016, JUly 30). The lives and works of a Lighting Practionner. (M. L. Lamptey, 
Interviewer) 
Tetteh, E. (2016, August 17). The practionner and stage lighting. (M. L. Lamptey,  
 Interviewer)  
 
th th 
Emmanuel Tetteh 30 July, 2016 and 17 August, 2016 
nd th 
George Katey 22 March 2016, 30 June 2016 
th 
John K. Djisenu 27 October, 2016 
th 
Kwami Ansere 19 October, 2016 
th 
Oduro Attipoe 11 August 2016 
st 
A. C. Quarm 21 September, 2016 
rd 
Martin Owusu 23 March, 2016 
th 
Mawuli Sermevo 18 September, 2016 
th 
Oh! Nii Kwei Sowah 17 September, 2016 
th 
Samuel Dawson Asaam Jnr. 15 September, 2016 
th 
Cecilia Yelipoe 17 September, 2016 
th 
Agnes Dapaah 18 September, 2016 
th 
Mawuli Semevo 18 September, 2016 
th 
Sandy Arkhurst 10 April, 2017 
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Picture illustrations 
1. Picture Generated from Cinema 4D Drawing Software Applications. 
 
a. Figure 1 A generated model of two flood lights mounted separately on a crossed 
bar lighting stand facing the stage 
 
b. Figure 2 A generated model of two paired flood lights mounted on two separate 
crossed bar lighting stand facing the stage 
 
2. A Snap Photograph of Strand Electric 250/500 watts Profile light. Source SPA. 
 
a. Figure 3 Frontal and side view of a lampless Strand Electric 250/500 watts 
s p o t  light. Source: School of Performing Arts Lighting Lab 
 
3. Pictures extracted from The Witch of Mopti video production. Source: ATC 
       Archives, (SPA). 
 
a. Figure 4 The two women preparing for the King of Mopti's wedding ceremony. 
 
b. Figure 5 Dancers begin wedding ceremony with various dances. 
 
c. Figure 6 The Witch of Mopti swears to punish the King of Mopti for not 
marrying her daughter Samanke. 
 
d. Figure 7 A pool of lights designed for the use of the witches activities for 
audience to see their actions. 
 
e. Figure 8 Exchange of mystical powers between the Witch of Mopti and a sorcerer. 
 
f. Figure 9 Magicians, sorceries, and town peoples afflicted by blindness by the 
Witch of Mopti. 
 
g. Figure 10 The storyteller narrating the outcome of witches activities. 
 
h. Figure 11 The witches in their chanting moment. 
 
i. Figure 12 The Witch of Mopti contaminates the well with the portion prepared 
by the direction of the devil that occupied Samanke’s body before she died. 
 
 
 
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4. Pictures extracted from The Gods Are Not to Blame video production. 
Source: ATC Archives, (SPA). 
 
a. Figure 14 The joyous ceremony of the newly born baby, Odewale. 
 
b.   Figure 15 The divination of the newly born baby Odewale, by the Ogun priest 
Baba Fakunle 
 
              c.Figure 16 The messenger holding the baby boy. 
 
     d.   Figure 17 Townspeople sitting on the floor complaining to King Odewale of 
           their ailment. 
 
      e.  Figure 18 Townspeople encouraged by King Odewale. 
 
      f.   Figure 19 Townspeople getting up gradually indicated by the gradually fade 
in of bright light. 
 
      g.  Figure 20 Townspeople on their feet heading to the bush to find herbs for their  
           ailments.  
 
       h. Figure 21 Dimmed lights at the palace of King Odewale. 
 
       i.  Figure 22 Aderopo tells the King and elders the message from the oracle. 
 
       j.  Figure 23 Ojuola coming to comfort King Odewale. 
 
       k. Figure 24 Odewale banishes Aderopo by swearing an aoth by the symbol of  ‘Ogun’. 
 
       l.  Figure 25 Odewale ends his swearing. 
 
5. Pictures extracted from The Bride of the Gods video production. Source: 
(GBC) Audio-Visual Archives. 
 
a. Figure 27 The actor performing the role of a narrator of The Bride of the Gods on 
 stage. 
 b.   Figure 28 Subinzali romancing Nderize at the court of the high priest of Oro-oni. 
c.   Figure 29 Narrator consoles Nderize for her father’s disapproval of her 
relationship with Subinzali. 
 
d.   Figure 30 Subinzali and Nderize in a duet performance. 
 
e.   Figure 31 Subinzali condemned to be sacrificed for Nderize’s spirit husband. 
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f. Figure 32 Nderize engaging Subinzali in his confinement waiting to be sacrificed. 
g.   Figure 33 The high priest of Oro-oni ready for the sacrifice of Subinzali. 
h.   Figure 34 The blind griot reveals the identity of Subinzali as the son of the cobra God. 
 i. Figure 35 The blind griot asks Subinzali to demonstrate the prowess of the cobra God. 
j. Figure 36 Subinzali is set free and given the nod by the high priest to marry her daughter 
Nderize. 
       k.   Figure 37 The happy ending ceremony of the marriage between Subinzali and 
Nderize. 
 
l. Figure 38 The setting for The Bride of the Gods with the chorus behind the set. 
 
6. Pictures extracted from In The Chest of a Woman video production. Source: 
(GBC) Audio-Visual Archives. 
 
a.   Figure 40 Nana Yaa Serwaa teaches Owusu Agyeman the art of war through 
the game of ‘oware’.  
 
b.   Figure 41 Owusu Agyeman prepares to go to Nana Kwaku Duah’s palace. 
 
c.   Figure 42 The Queen mother of Ebusa on her death bed surrounded by elders 
and chief priest. 
 
d.   Figure 43 Akosua and Adwoa gossiping about Owusu Agyeman. 
 
e.   Figure 44 King of Ebusa Nana Kweku Duah having a meal with Owusu 
Agyeman and Ama Akyaa in attendance is Adwoa (a servant). 
 
f. Figure 45 The King Nana Kweku Duah persuading Ama Akyaa to lure Owusu 
Agyeman into marriage. 
 
g.   Figure 46 The durbar organized for the judgement of Ama Akyaa’s pregnancy. 
 
h.   Figure 47 The jubilation on the amendment of customs and traditions by the people of 
Ebusa. 
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APPENDICES 
 
Appendix One: A scanned Photocopy of an Introductory letter to the British Council 
DEPARTMENT OF THEATRE ARTS 
SCHOOL OF PERFORMING ARTS 
COLLEGE OF HUMANITIES 
UNIVERSITY OF GHANA 
P .0. EOX LG 19 
LEGON 
 
3rd  August, 2016. 
 
C.46 
 
The Director 
British Council 
Accra. 
 
 
Dear Sir/Madam, 
 
 
LETTER OF  INTRODUCTION 
MARGARET  LAMIOKOR LAMPTEY (ID. No. 10168561) 
 
I write   to  introduce  the   above-named  post-graduate  student  from   the 
Theatre    Arts  Department,  School   of  Performing Arts  - University  of  Ghana, 
Legon, to your  outfit. 
 
 
Margaret L. Lamptey is u ndertaking a research  project on ‘ Stage Lighting 
and Techn ological  Changes of Lighting Equipment’. 
 
 
We would  be grateful if you could grant  her the necessary assistance. 
Thank  you. 
 
 
Yours sincerely, 
 
 
 
  
 
DR. AGYEMAN OSSEI 
( HEAD OF  DEPARTMENT) 
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Appendix Two: Interview Guide for Lighting Practitioners in Active Service 
(Open-ended) 
 
 
1.   Who is a lighting practitioner? 
 
2.   What constitutes the work of a Lighting Practitioner? 
 
 
3.   What informs your creativity? 
 
4.   Do you have an assistance to support you in executing your work? 
 
5.   Does your work require supervision? 
 
6.   What is the role of Paul Aliba in your life and work? 
 
7.   What is your relationship with the other lighting practitioners in the industry? 
 
8.   What kinds of stage lighting are available at the Centre for National Culture in Accra and  
     the Ghana Drama Studio? 
 
9.   What sought of stage lighting instrument was available during that period 1970’s, 1980’s  
       and 1990’s? 
 
10. Do you apply any form of lighting method or theory to your lighting work? 
 
11. How long have you been lighting stage productions and where else have your offered 
your stage lighting service? 
 
12. Has your travelling experience outside the country have any direct influence on your 
stage lighting work? How? 
 
13. What pertains during festivals such as PANAFEST, NAFAC and Theatre seasons relating  
       to stage lighting? 
 
14. What is the current state of stage lighting in Ghana? 
 
15. What is the way forward? 
  
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix Three: Interview Guide for Present Members of ATC and NT Players 
 
 
1.  What is your designation and what constitute your duties in the group? 
 
 
2.  How long have you been working with the group? 
 
 
3.  Currently, how has stage lighting been executed in theatre productions for the group? 
 
 
4.  What has been the form of stage lighting for the group in the past few years? 
 
5. Does the group have a lighting designer at the moment? 
 
 
6.  What innovations have you seen in theatre lighting in Ghana since you joined the group? 
 
7.  Who handles stage lighting for the group at the moment? (The question is exclusive 
for ATC) 
 
 
8.  Do the lighting practitioner of the group attend organized stage lighting refresher courses? 
 
 9.   Is management of the group aware of the technological advancement of stage lights in the  
       country? 
 
10. What is the current state of stage lighting in the group and what are your suggestions  
     about it? 
 
 
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Appendix Four: Interview Guide for Artistic Directors of ATC and NT Players 
 
 
1.   Who are you and what constitutes your designation in the group? 
2.   How many terms have your served the group in your capacity as the Artistic Director? 
3.   What is your personal mission for the group apart from the core missions and core 
mandate of the group? 
4.   How long have you been with the group? 
5. What is your take on stage lighting for theatre performances? 
6. How has stage lighting affected the development of theatre performances of the group?  
7. What kind of stage lighting instruments do the group have or uses for their theatre 
productions? 
8. As the Artistic Director of the group do you have plans for purchasing modern and  
    advanced stage lights? 
9. Does the group have a lighting designer at the moment? If answer is No, then Why? 
10. Are there any form of retraining, refresher courses or scholarships for the lighting  
   designer or lighting technician in the group?  
 
 
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Appendix Five: A. Interview Guide for Theatre Stakeholders 
 
 
1.   Can you describe the activities of either ATC or NT Players group since its inception? 
 
 
2.   What brought about the break-up of the Abibgromma theatre group in the early 1990’s? 
 
 
 
3.   What became of the ATC members who remained on Legon campus after the break-up of the 
       Abibigromma group? 
 
 
4.   How do the groups get subventions (funds) to purchase their technical needs? 
 
 
5.   What theatre productions have you witnessed from ATC and or NT Players? 
 
 
6.   Did the stage lighting interpret any of the scenes to your understanding? 
 
 
 
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Appendix Five: B. Interview Guide for Theatre Stakeholders 
 
 
1.   Do the National Commission on Culture provide technical support in terms of stage 
lighting equipment to the various cultural centres in the capital regions of Ghana? 
 
 
2.   In your own opinion, what reasons can you give for the lack of stage light equipment 
      at the National Theatre of Ghana? 
 
 
3.  Would you recommend the use of low energy consumption and multi-purpose lighting 
instruments such as the LED PAR lights and the automated lighting equipment? 
 
 
4.   What is your take on re-fresher courses or scholarships for lighting practitioners in theatre  
      groups? 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix Six: Newspaper Photo Showing the NT Players in the play performance of 
The Bride of the Gods. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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Appendix Seven: Stage Lighting Equipment Found at the Accra Arts Centre and the British 
Council Hall 
 
 
 
       
  
500 watt Strand Electric Flood light with lamp A lampless500watt Flood lights with C-   
hanging on the top bar of the Arts Centre Accra proscenium Clamp found at the Art Centre Accra store room 
stage (Flood lights are lens less lighting instrument that 
produces even wash of light) 
 
 
 
 
 
A lampless 500 watt Strand Electric strip light  found at the Arts Centre Accra store room (Strip light are flood 
lights which produces even wash of they are mainly used to light backdrops) 
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Strand Electric Flood lights (500 watt) screw Strand Electric Flood lights (500 watt) showing 
base bulb with aluminum reflector and gelatins slot. the side of the instrument found in the store room of the 
Arts Centre Accra manufactured between1945 – 1981 
 
 
 
 
 
  
  
Strand Electric Fresnel baby Spot light (250/500 watt)  Strand Electric250/500watt Profile Spot light found 
hanging at the  overhead bar of  the stage at with four shutter for internal beam shaping found the 
British Council Hall Accra . (The lighting instrument was  hanging at the British Council hall Accra and in good 
manufactured between 1957 – 1978 by Strand Electrics)  good working condition. 
 
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Appendix Eight: Stage Lighting Instruments used in Ghana From 1980 – 2010 by ATC and 
the NT Players. 
 
 
    
 
Strand Electric 500watt Fresnel spot light         Strand Electric 250/500watt spot  light found at the 
with slots for holding gel frame and zoom lens  SPA lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                           
  
 
 
 
A frontal view of a Strand Electric Mini PC 500watt    A PC showing exterior view of a 500watt Mini PC from 
with slots for holding gel frame and zoom lens         Strand Electric found at the SPA lighting lab
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A Front and Exterior view of a Strand Electric Fresnel 500watt found at the SPA lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
 
      
 
  
A full view of 1200watt Cantata PC from Strand Elect ric     An exterior view of 1200watt Cantata PC found at  
                                                                                                     the SPA lighting lab 
 
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800watt Profile Spot lights from Japan found at the National 1500watt Leko light from China 
Theatre of Ghana found at the National Theatre of Ghana 
  
 
 
  
 
 
 
      
 
2000watt Selecon Followspot supplied by Japan Tripod stand for mounting the Followspot 
for the National Theatre of Ghana                                                          for the National Theatre of Ghana 
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A single unit flood light (Coda 500watt) found at the SPA       Four unit Cyc light (Coda 500/4) found at  
Lighting lab           the SPA lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
 
             
 PAR Can frames with blue gel   A Japan brand PAR Can found on the FOH rigs at the National Theatre of  
 Ghana 
 
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A Fire Effect drum at the SPA lighting lab                 A set-up of a fire effect machine at the lighting SPA 
                                                                                        lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
                                                       A 5.1 zoom lens for lighting effect machine at the SPA lighting lab  
 
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University of Ghana  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
A colour strobe effect lights found at the SPA lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
 
15amps British Strand electric dimmer pack found at the SPA lighting lab 
 
 
 
 
The long strip Cyclorama light at the National Theatre of Ghana 
 
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University of Ghana  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
 
 
 
 
    
  
15amps Chinese dimmer pack at the National A Japanese racked dimmer pack at the National Theatre 
Theatre of Ghana  of Ghana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
         
 
                                    24/48 channel Strand console found at the SPA lighting lab  
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University of Ghana  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
A Chinese brand stage electric machine used in lowering lighting bars at the National Theatre of Ghana 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Efua T. Sutherland Drama Studio proscenium stage with lights rigged on the FOH bar
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University of Ghana  http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh
 
 
The National Theatre Proscenium stage with two electric lighting pipes lowered for rigging 
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