PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BREACH, PERCEIVED JUSTICE AND EMPLOYEE RETALIATORY BEHAVIOUR IN THE INFORMAL SECTOR BY JULIET ENAM DOGBATSE (10278907) THIS THESIS IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MPHIL INDUSTRIAL AND ORGANISATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY DEGREE JULY 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh i DECLARATION I, Juliet Enam Dogbatse, author of this thesis do hereby declare that, this work has never been submitted in whole or part for the award of any degree or diploma in this university or elsewhere. To the best of my knowledge, this thesis contains no previously published or written materials by another person apart from the references and quotations from articles and books that have been duly acknowledged. ……………………………………….. Juliet Enam Dogbatse (Student) Date: ………………………………… This work has been submitted with approval from: ……………………………………………… Dr M. Asumeng (Principal Supervisor) Date: …………………………………….. ……………………………………………… Dr K. Nyarko (Co- Supervisor) Date: ……………………………………… University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to the following people: Professor Samuel Nyarku, Mr Seth Nii Moi Allotey, and Rex Laurence Agbenu. Thank you all for believing in me and for supporting and encouraging me in my scholastic endeavour. This work is also dedicated to all workers in the informal sector who keep striving despite the challenges they face. I commend them for the contributions they have made in keeping the economy of Ghana alive and thriving. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I am most grateful to God for His mercies, kindness, and blessings. It was He who saw me through all the happy and stormy periods of my life as a student of this university. My heartfelt appreciations go to Dr M. Asumeng and Dr K. Nyarko, my lecturers and supervisors for their invaluable assistance in this project. The support, advice and guidance they offered me during this project helped me tremendously. I am truly indebted and thankful to my family: my mothers Mary Ama Keleve, Rose Keleve, and Patience Keleve and my uncles Benjamin Keleve and Redeemer Krah for their love and support. I am grateful to them for always having my back and for pushing me to achieve my goals. Ms. Mary Ama Keleve deserves special thanks for investing in me and in my education, standing by me in the toughest times and for surviving all the challenges she has faced as a single mother. Richard Hoyah also deserves a special mention for being a steadfast friend for 7 years, for opening his office for me to study and for sleeping on tables in the library to keep me company when I was studying at night. It is a blessing to have a friend like him. Much appreciation goes to all the participants in this project and the mangers who gave their employees the permission to participate in this project. Without them, this project wouldn’t have been possible. I also acknowledge the invaluable contributions of Dr Prince Adika, Jonathan Tetteh, Beauty Deffery, Lambert Coffie Atsivor, Gabriel Edzordzi Agbozo, and all my friends and course mates. I am appreciative of the assistance and support they gave me during this project. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv ABSTRACT This study examined the relationships between psychological contract breach, perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour and the moderating roles of religiosity and perceived psychological contract in informal organisational settings. A sample of 150 informal sector employees from ages sixteen to fifty-seven participated in the study. All participants responded to questionnaires on perceived psychological contract, psychological contract breach, perceived justice, employee retaliatory behaviour and religiosity. Four hypotheses were tested. Pearson correlation and multiple regression statistical tests were used to analyse the data. As expected, psychological contract breach had a significant positive relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour. A significant negative relationship was also observed between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. Analysis of results indicates that employees’ decision to engage in retaliatory behaviour is influenced more by their perception of justice than a breach of the psychological contract. Results also supported the prediction that religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. The prediction that perceived psychological contract will moderate between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour was however not supported. The results are discussed within the frameworks of Social Exchange Theory and Organisational Justice Theory. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed and recommendations for future research are also given. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v TABLE OF CONTENTS Content Page DECLARATION ……………………………………………………………………….... i DEDICATION …………………………………………………………………………... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS …………………………………………………………….. iii ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ……..………………………………………………………… v LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………………. x LIST OF TABLES …..………………………………………………………………....... xi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS …………………………………………………………... xiii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study ……………………………………………………………... 1 1.1.1 Psychological Contract Breach ……………………………………………... 5 1.1.2 Perceived Justice …………………………………………………………… 6 1.1.3 Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ……………………….…………………... 6 1.1.4 Religiosity ………………………………………………………………….. 8 1.1.5 Ghana’s Informal Sector ……………………………………………………. 9 1.2 Statement of the Problem ……………………………………………………………... 11 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study …………………………………………………….. 13 1.4 Relevance of the Study ………………………………………………………………... 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 15 2.2 Theoretical Framework ……………………………………………………………….. 15 2.2.1 Social Exchange Theory …………………………………………………….. 16 2.2.2 Organisational Justice Theory ………………………………………………. 20 2.3 Review of Related Studies ……………………………………………………………. 21 2.3.1 Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour …………………… 21 2.3.2 Religiosity as a Moderator between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour …………………………………………… 27 2.3.3 Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ………………………………………………………. 30 2.3.4 Perceived Psychological Contract as a Moderator between Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ……... 33 2.4 Rationale for the Present Study ……………………………………………………….. 37 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses ……………………………………………………………... 38 2.6 Conceptual Framework ………………………………………………………………. 39 2.7 Operational Definition of Terms ……………………………………………………... 40 CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction ………………………………………………………………………........ 42 3.2 Population …………………………………………………………………………….. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii 3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique ………………………………………………... 42 3.4 Research Design ……………………………………………………………………… 45 3.5 Measures ……………………………………………………………………………… 45 3.6 Procedure ……………………………………………………………………………... 51 3.6.1 Pilot Study ………………………………………………………………….. 51 3.6.2 Main Study …………………………………………………………………. 53 3.7 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………………………………... 54 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………... 56 4.2 Data Analysis …………………………………………………………………………. 56 4.2.1 Preliminary Analyses ……………………………………………………………….. 56 4.2.1.1 Factor Analysis of Scales ………………………………………………... 56 4.2.1.2 Reliability of the Scales ………………………………………………….. 64 4.2.1.3 Normality of the Variables ………………………………………………. 65 4.2.1.4 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables …………………………………… 65 4.2.1.5 Pearson Correlation between Variables …………………….…………...... 66 4.2.2 Hypotheses Testing ………………………………………………………………… 69 4.2.2.1 Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ………………… 70 4.2.2.2 Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour …... 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii 4.2.2.3 Perceived Justice, Psychological Contract Breach, and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ………………………………………….. 72 4.2.2.4 Moderation Analysis ……………………………………………………... 73 4.2.2.4.1 Perceived Justice, Religiosity and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ………………………………………..... 74 4.2.2.4.2 Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Psychological Contract and Retaliation …………………………………………………….. 78 4.3 Summary of Findings …………………………………………………………………. 79 4.4 Observed Model ………………………………………………………………………. 80 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………………………… 81 5.2 Discussion of Main Findings …………………………………………………………. 81 5.2.1 Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ……………………. 81 5.2.2 Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ……... 84 5.2.3 Perceived Justice, Religiosity and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ………. 86 5.2.4 Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Psychological Contract and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour …………………………….. 88 5.3 Contributions of the Study ……………………………………………………………. 89 5.3.1 Theoretical Contributions …………………………………………………... 89 5.3.2 Practical Implications ………………………………………………………. 89 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix 5.4 Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………………………… 91 5.5 Recommendations for Future Studies ………………………………………………… 92 5.6 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………. 92 REFERENCES …………………………………………………………………………... 94 APPENDICES Appendix A: Consent Form ………………………………………………………. 106 Appendix B: Data Collection Instrument …………………………………………. 109 Appendix C: Reliability Analysis ………………………………………………… 116 Appendix D: Descriptive Statistics ……………………………………………….. 121 Appendix E: Correlation Matrix ………………………………………………….. 122 Appendix F: Regression Tables …………………………………………………... 123 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 2.1: Summary of Hypothesised Relationships between Independent, Moderator and Dependent Variables ………………………………………… 39 Figure 4.1 Figure 4.1 Relationship between Predictor, Moderator and Criterion Variables …………………………………………… 74 Figure 4.2 Religiosity as Moderator between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour ……………………………………………... 77 Figure 4.3 Summary of Observed Relationships between Variables Investigated ……………………………………………………….. 80 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xi LIST OF TABLES Title Page Table 1.1 Religious Affiliations in Ghana ……………………………………………….. 9 Table 2.1 Functional and Dysfunctional Consequences of Retaliatory Behaviour For the Individual and Organisation …………………………………………… 26 Table 2.2 Conceptualisation of the Two Dimensions of Religiosity ……………………... 28 Table 3.1 Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ………………………………… 44 Table 3.2 Summary of Reliability Statistics Obtained for the Measures ………………… 52 Table 4.1 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for PCBI ……………………………….. 57 Table 4.2 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for PCS ………………………………… 58 Table 4.3 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for OJS ………………………………… 60 Table 4.4 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for ORBS ………………………………. 62 Table 4.5 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for CRS ………………………………… 63 Table 4.6 Summary of Reliability Statistics Obtained for the Measures ……………… 64 Table 4.7 Summary of Mean, Standard Deviation, Normality Values of Study Variables …………………………………………………….. 65 Table 4.8 Correlation Matrix ……………………………………………………………... 68 Table 4.9 Summary of the Pearson Correlation between PJ and ERB ……………………. 70 Table 4.10 Simultaneous Regression on the Relationship between the Dimensions of PJ and ERB …………………………………………………….. 71 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xii Table 4.11 Summary of the Pearson Correlation between PCB and ERB ……………….. 72 Table 4.12 Simultaneous Regression on the Relationship between PJ, PCB and ERB ………………………………………………………………. 72 Table 4.13 Multiple Regression of the Moderation of Religiosity on the Relationship between PJ and ERB ……………………………………............. 75 Table 4.14 Multiple Regression of the Moderation of PPC on the Relationship between PCB and ERB …………………………………………. 78 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh xiii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ERB: Employee Retaliatory Behaviour OCB: Organisational Citizenship Behaviour OJT: Organisational Justice Theory PJ: Perceived Justice PPC: Perceived Psychological Contract PCB: Psychological Contract Breach SET: Social Exchange Theory University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study During the recruitment and selection process, contracts are signed by both employers and employees. These contracts, often called employment contracts, form the basis of the union of the two parties and detail the duties and expectations that employers and employees have of each other. There is, however, one contract which is implicit, unwritten and non-verbal but is as equally important as the employment contract. This is the psychological contract. Psychological contract refers to the beliefs, perceptions and expectations of reciprocal obligations between employers and employees (Argyris, 1960; Rousseau, 1989). Simply, the psychological contract is a mental model which is based on the terms and conditions of the employment relationship. Thus employees agree to perform tasks in order for the organisation to fulfil promises made to them. The relationship between employers and employees has undergone major and steady changes over the years, and as a result psychological contracts have become important in understanding present employment relationships (Turnley, Bolino, Lester & Bloodgood, 2003). There are many characteristics of the psychological contract but the most important of these is that the psychological contract is based on beliefs and perceptions of the individual, so it is subjective. Nevertheless, the psychological contract has great influence on the attitudes of both employers and employees. Very often, these beliefs and perceptions outweigh the written and explicit terms and conditions of the official employment contract (Robinson & Morrison, 2000; Robinson & Brown, 2004; Restubog, Hornsey, Bordia & Esposo, 2008). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 Psychological contracts are formed from a variety of sources (Turnley & Feldman, 1999a; Rousseau, 2007). First are agents of the organisation such as Human Resources Managers, top management and recruiters. These agents make explicit promises on issues such salary and remuneration, fringe benefits, and allowances. Another source of the psychological contract is observation of the organisational environment. Perceptions are formed through observation and an observation of the work environment can shape or change an individual’s psychological contract. Other sources of the psychological contract include colleagues, administrative documents and the track record of the organisation (Rousseau, 1995; Robinson & Brown, 2004). Early experiences with an organisation can also form and influence an employee’s psychological contract (Rousseau, 1990; 2007). An individual’s unique way of processing information can also influence the way he forms and interprets his psychological contract (Turnley & Feldman, 1999a). This could explain why employees in the same organisation could have different psychological contracts. An individual’s psychological contract serves as a motivation for behaviour (Robinson & Brown, 2004). This is because it is centered on the exchange of promises in which the individual has voluntarily participated. That is, the individual assumes that ‘if I give A, I will be given B in return’. Voluntary commitments have a higher probability of being kept than those made involuntarily (Rousseau, 2007). For instance, an employee who makes a commitment to an organisation without being coerced is more likely to stick with that organisation than an employee who has made no commitment or has been forced to make commitments. Thus, employees with psychological contracts are motivated to perform better at work because of the expectations they have (Robinson, Kraatz, & Rousseau, 1994; Rousseau, 2004). Psychological contracts are also perceived differently by various parties. In other words, it is possible for employers and employees to perceive obligations and expectations differently University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 (Morrison & Robinson, 1997; Ballou, 2013). For example, the term “commitment” could be understood by an employee to mean coming to work on time, performing duties, and leaving exactly at closing time, while an employer could interpret the same term to mean performing extra duties and working on weekends to achieve targets. Likewise, two employees in the same organisation, who share the same official employment contract could have different psychological contracts. As a result, one employee could experience a breach of psychological contract while the other employee does not (Robinson & Brown, 2004). Although there are differences and subjectivity in perceiving and interpreting psychological contracts, individuals act as if their psychological contracts are mutual (Rousseau, 2007) even though this may not be the case in reality. Again, psychological contracts involve a sense of obligation (Robinson & Morrison, 2000; Robinson & Brown, 2004; Deery, Iverson & Walsh, 2006). In other words, parties involved have their own sense of what they should give and receive. Obligations come from many sources such as explicit promises, human resource managers and colleagues, and official documents. Conventionally, psychological contracts are built on exchange relationships and obligations such as hard work and loyalty for good remuneration, promotion, and job security (Turnley et al., 2003; Deery et al., 2006). These have, however, become uncertain due to the changing nature of the business world (Robinson & Morrison, 2000). The psychological contract, therefore, viewed as an important element of the employer- employee relationship and its effect on work behaviour is important (Robinson & Morrison, 2000). This is because a breach or fulfilment of psychological contract can influence job attitudes (Turnley et al., 2003; Coyle-Shapiro & Conway, 2005; Deery et al. 2006). To fully understand and appreciate the nature of psychological contracts, one must know the different types of contracts (Rousseau, 1995). For this study, the most common categorisation, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 proposed by MacNeil (1985), will be used. MacNeil (1985) proposed that there are two types of contractual agreements: transactional contract and relational contract marking two contrasting on a continuum. Rousseau (1990) used this continuum to describe unique features of two types of psychological contracts. Transactional contracts, more economic and extrinsic in nature, include terms such as specific duties and a short term duration (Rousseau, 1990). Thus an employee with a transactional psychological contract expects money in exchange for work done. Due to its short term nature, temporary workers are more likely to have transactional psychological contracts (Shore & Tetrick, 1994; Rousseu, 2007). Also, there are no long term commitments, loyalty or job security and stability involved in transactional psychological contracts. A relational contract, on the other hand, can be both economic and non-economic in nature as well as intrinsic (MacNeil, 1985). It also includes socio-emotional concerns such as trust, good faith and fairness (MacNeil, 1985). Terms such as loyalty and the commitment of both employer and employee in fulfilling each other’s needs play an important role in relational contracts (Rousseau, 1990; 2007). In other words, unlike employees with transactional contracts, employees with relational contracts are satisfied with receiving money or promises of job security in return for work done. Employees with this type of contract are more willing to work overtime and to support the organisation due to the stable and indefinite time frame of the employer-employee relationship (MacNeil, 1985; Robinson et al., 1994; Rousseau, 2004). There have been rapid changes in employment relationships. These changes are due to economic downturns, irregular pays, loss of job security and many other economic and social issues (Robinson & Brown, 2004; Deery et al., 2006). This trend has generated an interest in research on psychological contracts and reciprocal obligations in the business world. Hence, in the past decade, many studies conducted on psychological contracts and their outcomes have University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 focused on the formal sector and working environment (Coyle-Shapiro & Conway, 2005; Restubog, Bodia & Tang, 2006, Ballou, 2013). 1.1.1 Psychological Contract Breach As discussed earlier, psychological contract is an individual’s belief concerning the terms and conditions of an exchange relationship with another person. Simply, it specifies what an employee believes he owes the organisation and what the organisation owes him in return. When an employee believes that an organisation has failed in fulfilling its promises and obligations, a breach occurs (Rousseau, 1989; 1995; Morrison & Robinson, 1997). Psychological contract breach is defined as an employee’s cognition that his or her organisation has failed to fulfill promises that were made (Morrison & Robinson, 1997; Robinson & Morrison, 2000; Suazo, Turnley & Mai-Dalton, 2005; Bal, De Lange, Jansen & Van Der Velde, 2008). Like the psychological contract, psychological contract breach is perceived. As a matter of fact, it is the perception of broken promises and not the actual breaking of promises that results in a breach of the psychological contract (Robinson, 1996). As a result, it is very subjective. However, it is as influential as the actual psychological contract. A breach of the psychological contract is likely to negatively affect an employee’s work attitude (Lester, Turnley, Bloodgood, & Bolino, 2002; Suazo et al., 2005). Research consistently has proven that psychological contract breach leads to undesirable worker attitudes and behaviours such as turnover intentions (Suazo et al., 2005; Lo & Aryee, 2003), turnover (Turnley & Feldman, 1999a), work place deviance (Bordia, Restubog, & Tang, 2008), lower job satisfaction (Turnley & Feldman, 1999a; Bal et al., 2008), absenteeism (Deery et al., 2006), withholding of organisational citizenship behaviour (Turnley et al., 2003; Restubog et al., University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 2008), decreased performance of in-role behaviours (Turnley et al., 2003), and reduced organisational trust (Deery et al., 2006). 1.1.2 Perceived Justice Organisational justice refers to individual or collective judgments of fairness (Folger & Cropanzano, 1998; Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007). Justice is perceived, thus it is subjective. Researchers on perceived justice have theorised that it has three forms: distributive, procedural, and interactional (Greenberg, 1964; Colquitt, Conlon, Wesson, Porter, & Ng, 2001). Distributive justice involves the perceived fairness of outcomes received from an employer; procedural justice involves the perceived fairness of the processes and decisions in the allocation of outcomes among people in the organisation; and interactional justice involves the quality of interpersonal treatment received during the enactment of organisational procedures (Cropanzo & Discorfano, 2007). The sense of fairness has a strong impact on workers’ behaviour and attitudes. For example, perceived fairness promotes behaviour such as organisational commitment and effective job performance as well as increasing the tendency for employees to engage in organisational citizenship behaviour (Colquitt et al., 2001; Cropanzo & Discorfano, 2007). Perceptions of justice also help in reducing and alleviating many negative effects of dysfunctional work environments such as stress, employee retaliatory behaviour, employee withdrawal, and turnover (Folger & Cropanzano, 1998; Cropanzano, Rupp, Mohler, & Schminke, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001). Injustice has also been found to result in counter productive work behaviours (Nyarko, Ansah-Nyarko, & Sempah, 2014). 1.1.3 Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Employee retaliatory behaviour refers to acts of revenge taken by disgruntled employees in response to perceived injustice or unfairness at work (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 Examples of such acts are withholding effort or citizenship behaviours, intentionally performing tasks incorrectly, purposely damaging equipment, taking supplies or materials, taking longer breaks than allowed, calling in sick, spreading rumours about people at work, refusing to help others at work, failing to report problems, attending to personal matters while at work, deliberately wasting time, sabotaging projects, and ignoring or verbally abusing people at work. Whistleblowing (reporting organisational actions which are perceived to be illegitimate, immoral & illegal) is also a form of retaliatory behaviour. Employee retaliatory behaviour was conceptualised to serve as a counterpart to organisational citizenship behaviour (Skarlicki & Folger, 2004). Although behaviour that is classified as retaliation may also be called counterproductive work behaviour, workplace aggression, or employee deviance, it is distinctive in a number of ways. First, retaliatory behaviour places prominence on the situational context in which the behaviour occurs. In contrast, other forms of “organisational misbehaviour” emphasise underlying dispositional inclinations to engage in negative behaviours at work as the motivational force behind such behaviour. Therefore employee retaliatory behaviour may or may not be considered “misbehaviour” depending on the context in which it occurs (Skarlicki & Folger 1997; 2004; Penny, 2004). Second, employee retaliatory behaviour refers specifically to behaviour that is triggered by unfair treatment at work and entails a singular motive: to restore justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004), while other forms of ‘organisational misbehaviour’ have broader perceptive regarding intentions (Penny, 2007). For instance, counterproductive work behaviour is defined as behaviour that has the potential to harm an organisation or individuals at work. Though it is driven by malicious intent, employees may engage in counterproductive work behaviour as a method of coping with job stress, as a reaction to unfairness, or out of boredom (Penny, 2007). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 However, employee retaliatory behaviour is solely ignited by unfair treatment (Skarlickli & Folger, 1997; 2004). Third, unlike other organisational misbehaviours which are solely dysfunctional, employee retaliatory behaviour can either be dysfunctional (to the organisation: damage and loss of property; to the individual: feelings of guilt & anxiety) or functional (for the organisation: changes and improvement, keeps individuals accountable; to the individual: restores equity and relieves one’s own sense of morality) (Skarlicki & Folger, 2004). 1.1.4 Religiosity Religion is fast becoming an important aspect of the working environment (Day, 2005). Also, employees more flexibly and regularly express their religious practices or beliefs at work (Atkinson, 2000; 2004). The terms “religiosity” and “religiousness” have been used interchangeably in research. Both terms have been defined as the strength of an individual’s connection to his or her religion (King & Williamson, 2005). Ghanaians are religious people. Population censuses carried out in 2000 and 2010 show a steady rise in the number of Ghanaians who are religious (GSS, 2002; 2012). 93.9% of the Ghanaian population identified as religious in the 2000 Population and Housing Census (GSS, 2002). This number rose to 94.8% in the 2010 Population and Housing Census (GSS, 2012). Below is a table based on religious affiliations in Ghana culled from the 2000 and 2010 censuses. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 Table 1.1 Religious Affiliations in Ghana Affiliation 2000 Census 2010 Census Christian Pentecostal/ Charismatic Protestant Catholic Other Christian Sects 68.8 % 24.1% 18.6% 15.1% 11% 71.2% 28.3% 13.1% 13.1% 11.4% Muslim 15.9% 17.6% Traditional 8.5% 5.2% Other Religious Sects 0.7% 0.8% None 6.1% 5.2% Source: Ghana Statistical Service The table above shows that a majority of religious Ghanaians are Christians. Also, between 2000 and 2010, there was a reduction (0.9%) in the percentage of non-religious Ghanaians. Islam has also seen a rise (1.7%) in followers between 2000 and 2010. Traditional religion, on the other hand, has experienced a significant decrease (3.3%) in followers. Religion and religiosity influence the behaviour of workers. Studies have shown that a person’s level of spirituality and religiosity can influence his or her level of commitment to the organisation (Milliman, Czaplewski & Ferguson, 2003), job satisfaction (Milliman et al., 2003; King & Williamson, 2005), and turn over intentions (Milliman et al., 2003). 1.1.5 Ghana’s Informal Sector There is no consensus among researchers on the definition of the term ‘informal sector’. Hart (1975) defines the term as unregulated economic activities. Farrell, Roman & Mathew (2000) on the other hand, used the term ‘shadow economy’ to refer to the informal sector. In conceptualising the construct, Farrell et al. (2000) maintained that there are two approaches to defining activities in the informal sector: the definitional and behavioural. According to the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 10 definitional approach, the informal sector is economic activity which is unrecorded in official statistics such as gross domestic products (Farrell et al., 2000). In contrast, the behavioural approach states that the informal sector is based on whether or not an activity follows established legal and official procedure (Farrell et al., 2000). Thus, the informal sector is unregulated economic activities which may or may not follow established legal procedure. Ghana’s informal sector continues to expand as the economy and population grow (Osei- Boateng & Ampratwum, 2011). This is due to the inability of the civil and private formal sector to generate enough jobs for the citizens (Ofori, 2009). A decision by the government of Ghana to freeze employment in the civil sector has also pushed many to seek employment in the informal sector. However, the contribution of the informal sector to the development of Ghana cannot be overemphasised. According to the Ghana Living Standards Survey and the National Population Census both conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) in 2008 and 2010 respectively, more than 80% of Ghana’s work force are in the informal sector which has three occupational categories: agriculture and fisheries, crafts and trade, and service and sales. The reports suggest that over half of the employed, 55.9%, are self-employed, 20.4% are working in family businesses while 17.6% are income or salary employees. The reports also show that workers in rural areas engage in agricultural work while their urban counterparts prefer non- agricultural work (GSS, 2008). Urban informal sector workers include domestic workers, repairers of mechanical and electronic equipment, food traders and caterers, garage workers (for example, auto mechanics, vulcanisers, and welders), security men, drivers and mates (bus conductors), hairdressers and barbers, dressmakers, shop attendants, and construction workers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 11 1.2 Statement of the problem Employment in Ghana is primarily informal. The Ghana Living Standards Survey V (GLSS V 2005/2006) and the National Population Census both conducted by the Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) in 2006 and 2010 respectively suggest that more than eighty percent (80%) of Ghana’s work force are in the informal sector which has three occupational categories: agriculture and fisheries, crafts and trade, and service and sales. Research conducted over the years show that Ghana’s informal sector is riddled with numerous problems. First of all, there are few recognised unions (Ofori, 2009). Establishing or joining a trade union is every worker’s right in Ghana. Article 21 (e) of the 1992 constitution of the Republic of Ghana also assures every worker of the right to form or join a union of his choice for the promotion and protection of his economic or social rights. This right is reiterated in article 79 (1) of the Labour Act (Act 651, 2003). Despite these rights, most employees in the informal sector are yet to establish and join recognised unions (Ofori, 2009). Ghana Private Road Transport Union (GPRTU), Ghana National Tailors and Dressmakers Association, and Ghana Hairdressers and Beauticians Association are examples of unions in the informal sector. However, many other professions in the informal sector are yet to establish unions. The lack of interest in forming and joining unions could also be due to fear of being viewed as “trouble makers” and being sacked as a result. Also, employees in the informal sector are often paid far below the National Daily Minimum Wage (NDMW; Baah, 2007; Ofori, 2009). The NDMW covers all forms of employment in Ghana and it is reviewed and determined yearly by the National Tripartite Committee made up of government, organised labour and the Ghana Employers Association. The 2015 NDMW is GH¢ 7, marking a 16.7% increment from the 2014 NDMW of GH¢ 6. Even though the NDMW is somewhat low, a majority of informal sector employees earn far below the recommended University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 12 wage (Baah, 2007; Ofori, 2009). Data from GLSS V also indicates that more than half of employees in the informal sector earn below the authorised NDMW. Consequently, people employed in the informal sector are normally paid low incomes and remunerations. The availability of excess labour and the lack of skills to earn higher wages are largely responsible for the salaries paid to these employees (Baah, 2007). To add to the problem of earning less than the legislated NDMW, there is little or no job security for workers in the informal sector. Though the Labour Act (Act 651, 2003) states what constitutes fair and unfair termination of employment in articles 62 and 63 respectively, employees in the informal sector lose their jobs at the impulses and whims of their employers. Article 64 of the Labour Act (Act 651, 2003) provides remedies for unfair termination. However employees cannot take any legal actions for any unfair discharge as there are usually no formal employment contracts (Baah, 2007). Research conducted over the years suggest that the perception of the failure of an organisation or an employer to fulfill promises leads to negative attitudes and behaviours such as increased turnover intensions, lower job satisfaction, deviance, aggression, reduced trust and counterproductive work behaviour among employees (Rousseau; 1995; Suazo, et al., 2005; Ballou, 2013). Perceptions of justice within an organisation has also been found to influence employee attitudes and behaviours (Badu & Asumeng, 2013; Nyarko et al., 2014). Thus, employees are likely to retaliate when they perceive forms of injustice within the organisation. Some scholars (Greenberg, 1984; 1987; Skarlicki, Folger, & Tesluk, 1999; Folger & Cropanzano, 2001) have also argued that if decisions taken by employers and managers are perceived to be unfair and unjust, employees experience feelings of wrath and resentment. These feelings also elicit desires to harm and punish the party blamed for causing problems (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 13 Research on religiosity and its effects on worker attitudes and behaviours has increased over the years (King & Williamson, 2005). Studies conducted on religiosity also indicate its influence on employee attitudes and behaviours (Milliman et al., 2003; Day, 2004). Religiosity has been found to be associated with organisational citizenship behaviour (Brotheridge & Lee, 2007) and job satisfaction (King & Williamson, 2005). Day (2004) however points out that much work on this area of research remains to be done. Despite the provision of measures by the Government of Ghana to promote the rights and interests of employees, the informal sector has made little progress. Most workers in the informal sector remain unaware of the law. The lack of a collective voice also makes it difficult for the concerns of these workers to be heard. If this is the case, are they not likely to take the law into their own hands and deal with their employers as they deem fit? Could the religious nature of these employees influence their likelihood to retaliate against their employers? These questions highlight the need to study the informal as the problems in this sector make it a breeding ground for negative work behaviours. The present study thus focuses on psychological contract breach and perceived justice as determining factors of employee retaliatory behaviour in the informal sector as well as the moderating roles of religiosity and perceived psychological contract. 1.3 Aims and Objectives of the Study The main purpose of this research is to investigate the relationship between psychological contract breach, perceived justice and retaliatory behaviour of employees in the informal sector. Specifically, the research seeks to find out the following: 1. To determine the impact of perceptions of justice on employee retaliatory behaviour. 2. To examine the influence of psychological contract breach on employee retaliatory behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 14 3. To ascertain the moderating role of perceived psychological contract on the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. 4. To investigate the moderating role of religiosity on the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. 1.4 Relevance of the Study As discussed earlier, employment in Ghana is predominantly informal. Eighty percent (80 %) of Ghana’s workforce are currently employed in the informal sector. Studies show that this sector has its fair share of problems such as job-insecurity, low wages and income, bad environmental conditions which lead to poor safety and health, and lack of recognised and effective unions to fight for the rights of these workers and bargain on their behalf (Baah, 2007; Osarenkhoe, 2009; Ofori, 2009). Despite these problems, the informal sector has largely been ignored in industrial and organisational psychology research. This study therefore aims to increase researchers’ interest in the Ghanaian informal sector. It is hoped that the study will also be of benefit to researchers and persons who wish to understand the behaviour patterns of employees in the informal sector. Due to the large number of studies on the formal sector, the study may enable future researchers to make comparisons between the two fields of work thus making holistic generalisations. Moreover, the findings obtained in this study could be used to formulate effective policies that would favour employees in the informal sector. Employee retaliatory behaviour, though first proposed by Skarlicki and Folger (1997), has not been thoroughly investigated. This study may therefore add to knowledge on that topic. It could also be helpful in cross-cultural references on this subject, as culture is known to influence how people behave and perceive things. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 15 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction The present study, as discussed in the previous chapter, seeks to find out the relationship between psychological contract breach, perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour with the informal sector in Ghana as the target population. The main objective of this chapter is to provide a review of the theories on psychological contracts, perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, as well as academic research vital and related to the present study. The chapter begins with a discussion on employer-employee relationships and continues with a review of related empirical studies. The review section highlights the findings obtained in previous studies as well as the arguments of some scholars. The main purpose of the review is to expose gaps in the literature on the study variables and to guide the present study in filling those gaps. A research model showing a diagram of the relationships between the study variables and results expected in the present study follows the review section. The chapter also includes the rationale for the study and the hypotheses to be tested. The chapter finally ends with the operational definition of the terms used in the study. 2.2 Theoretical Framework There are a number of theories which seek to explain negative work behaviours and the factors that cause or predict such behaviours. The Social Exchange Theory (SET; Gouldner, 1960; Blau, 1964) and the Organisational Justice Theory (OJT; Greenberg 1984; 1987) will form the foundation of this study. These theories are discussed in relation to psychological contract and perceived justice as antecedents of employee retaliatory behaviour. While SET and OJT take marginally different approaches to explaining employee retaliatory behaviour, both theories University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 16 highlight the importance of the relationships that employees have with their organisations and employers as antecedents to the performance of retaliatory behaviours. 2.2.1 Social Exchange Theory (Gouldner, 1960; Blau, 1964) The Social Exchange Theory (SET) has been a major theory for explaining work related attitudes and behaviours. It is one of the most influential models in explaining employee attitudes and behaviours. This theory was formed based on the seminal works of Homans (1958) who introduced a notion of social behaviour that was centered on exchange. Basically, he presented the idea that exchanges are not only about physical things but also include things of symbolic worth such as approval and reputation (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). From the social exchange perspective, behaviour is motivated by the desire to seek rewards and people behave in specific ways based on the need to reciprocate and the expectation that their reciprocal actions will be rewarded (Blau, 1964). Homan’s (1958) ground-breaking work connected a variety of disciplines and generated interest in the concept of social exchange. This led to the propounding of many theories on social exchange and its dimensions. The social exchange theory provides a general approach for understanding how employees are likely to react when they perceive that their psychological contracts have been breached. The concept of social relationships is the central point in SET. It is this aspect of SET that has gathered most research attention by far (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). According to this model, certain antecedents at the workplace lead to interpersonal connections (Cropanzano et al., 2001; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Blau’s (1964) model of social exchange relationships has received more attention than other models. His argument was that people form and maintain exchange relationships which further their self-interests. In his comparison of economic and social exchanges, Blau (1968) stated that the fundamental and most important difference between the two constructs is that social exchange involves obligations which are not specified. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 17 He argued that while social exchanges tend to prompt feelings of personal obligations, gratitude, and trust, economic exchanges produced no such feelings. Thus, as the benefits obtained in social relationships did not have an exact price and an exact period of payment, those relationships lasted longer than economic relationships (Blau, 1968). Social exchange relationships, therefore, signify improperly specified terms with positive action from a party being repaid in a non-specific and flexible way over a period of time (Blau, 1964). Simply, social exchange relationships develop when employers look after employees, thereby producing advantageous results. Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) argued that the social exchange relationship is an intervening variable between work place relationships and employee attitudes. This in effect suggests that individuals evaluate relationships in which they are involved in terms of rewards and costs and those evaluations influence how they act in their relationships. One of the basic views of SET is that, for relationships to evolve into mutual commitments, the parties involved must abide by certain rules of exchange as these rules form the guidelines of exchange relationships (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). One of those rules is the norm of reciprocity and it is probably the best known rule of exchange (Gouldner, 1960; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). This notion is closely related to the concept of social exchange relationships. Social exchange relationships are generally assumed to be facilitated by the norm of reciprocity. The norm of reciprocity postulates that people have the inborn predisposition to reciprocate (Gouldner, 1960). Therefore, when individuals perceive positive treatment, the norm of reciprocity suggests that they will pay back by behaving in positive ways. Likewise, negative actions will be repaid with negative actions. The concept of the norm of reciprocity can simply be summarised as “like begets like”. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 18 Research suggests that psychological contracts are helpful in defining the social exchange relationships that exist between employers and employees (Robinson et al., 1994; Turnley et al., 2003). Indeed, psychological contracts form the foundations of social exchange relationships between employers and employees. Each party engages in voluntary actions with the expectation that the other party will reciprocate by some means (Robinson et al., 1994). Like social exchange relationships, psychological contracts heavily rely on the sense of obligations (Robinson & Brown, 2004; Deery et al., 2006). Though the sources of obligations are many and varied, they are the driving force of psychological contracts and are very influential in motivating the behaviour of employees (Turnley et al., 2003; Cornway & Briner, 2005). A breach of the psychological contract occurs when employees perceive an inconsistency between the performance of their obligations and the performance of their employers’ obligations. Discrepancies of that nature create a sense of inequality in the employment relationship and weaken or destroy the mutuality of the obligations in the exchange relationship (Robinson et al., 1994; Robinson, 1996). Consequently, when employees perceive that their employers have not met their obligations to them, they will be inclined to do whatever it takes to rebalance or equalise the employment relationship (Rousseau, 1995). This will explain why psychological contract breach is a predictor of employee retaliatory behaviour. If employees feel they have performed their parts of the ‘deal’ but their employees have failed to live up to expectations and broken promises they made, employees are likely to engage in retaliatory acts such as stealing, damaging of property or whistle blowing to pay the ‘debts’ their employers owe them or to register their displeasure and frustration. Employees also define their relationships with their organisations and employers using the norm of reciprocity. This simply means that behaviour is paid in kind (Gouldner, 1960). When employees believe their employers are looking out for their best interests, fulfilling promises University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 19 and living up to their expectations, they will respond in kind by performing positive actions such as organisational citizenship behaviour (OCB). However, when employees perceive a breach of their psychological contracts from failure on the part of employers to fulfil obligations and from the organisation engaging in unfavourable and unsupportive acts, they are freed from their felt obligation to engage in positive behaviour such as OCB (Restubog et al., 2008). Such employees then reciprocate by reducing actions that benefit the organisation or by performing actions, such as purposely damaging equipment and sabotaging projects, which directly harm the organisation. Hence, employees engage in retaliatory behaviours to reciprocate unfavourable treatment received from their employers or organisations. Though this theory adequately explains psychological contract breach and its effects on job attitudes and behaviours, it has been criticised for a number of reasons. Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) pointed out that there is ambiguity in the definition of reciprocity in Gouldner’s (1960) model of reciprocity. The researchers therefore outline the nature of reciprocity within the context of exchange and proceeded to argue that there are three types of reciprocity. From previous research, Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) identified the following types of reciprocity: reciprocity as a transactional pattern of interdependent exchanges; reciprocity as a folk belief; and reciprocity as a moral norm. Shore and Coyle-Shapiro (2003) also criticised Gouldner’s (1960) model of reciprocity. They argued that though Gouldner (1960) proposed the norm of reciprocity as a universal issue, the concept did not take into account the role of individuality in influencing exchange relationships. Shore and Coyle-Shapiro (2003) noted that, although reciprocity affects exchange relationships, individuals differ in the degree to which they endorse reciprocity. They suggested that the exchange or reciprocation ideology plays a role in explaining individual difference in the propensity of reciprocity in influencing behaviour. The more strongly an individual endorses an exchange ideology, the greater his or her likelihood to keep track of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 20 what has been exchanged and to expect reciprocity (Coyle-Shapiro & Conway, 2004). On the other hand, an individual who does not strongly endorse an exchange relationship may not care about the reciprocation of obligations (Coyle- Shapiro & Conway, 2004). Other scholars (Robinson, 1996; Rousseau, Sitkin, Burt & Camerer, 1998) have argued that trust, a psychological state in which an individual has positive expectations about another person’s actions despite vulnerability to those actions (Kath, 2007), is a vital component of exchange relationships. Regardless of the criticisms, SET remains one of the most influential conceptual models for understanding behaviour and has been used in many studies, producing satisfactory results. 2.2.2 Organisational Justice Theory (Greenberg, 1984; 1987) Greenberg’s (1984; 1987) theory of organisational justice is rooted in Adams’ (1963) theory of equity. In presenting his theory of inequity as a framework of reactions to violated norms of exchange relationships, both transactional and relational, Adams (1965) sought to explain how people perceived equity in terms of inputs and outcomes and the consequences of discrepancies. He theorised that people who are not happy about inequity in the exchange relationship are motivated to act in a certain way to punish the wrongdoer. Greenberg’s (1984) attempt to expand the Equity Theory led to the creation of OJT. Organisational justice refers to the extent to which employees perceive fairness in workplace outcomes, procedures and interactions. OJT, therefore, is a model which explains how employees perceive the actions of employees and the behaviours which result from those perceptions. OJT is the theory most commonly used to explain employee retaliatory behaviour (Penney, 2007). Greenberg (1984; 1987) proposed three dimensions of justice: distributive (outcomes), procedural (allocation processes) and interactional (interpersonal treatment). Studies show that all three dimensions are important in determining employee attitudes University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 21 (Cropanzano et al., 2001) and an interaction between the dimensions result in employee retaliatory behaviour (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). Cropanzo, Bowen and Gilliland (2007) suggest that there are two sides to organisational justice. When perceptions of justice are high, employees are motivated to engage in behaviours beneficial to the organisation (Badu & Asumeng, 2013). Justice also boosts the trust and respect that employees have for their employers. Conversely, perceptions of injustice produces bad results for employers and the organisation as a whole (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; Nyarko et al., 2014). One of those bad results is employee retaliatory behaviour. One of the motivating thoughts behind employee retaliatory behaviour is the desire to restore justice. Therefore, when employees experience some form of injustice, they will be driven to restore justice. Efforts to restore justice would be considered retaliatory behaviour. 2.3 Review of Related Studies The key argument in this study is that, based on Organisational Justice Theory and Social Exchange Theory, there is a relationship between psychological contract breach, perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour and that those relationships are moderated by perceived psychological contract and religiosity. In view of this, this section reviews some studies that have been conducted in the area of psychological contracts and breach of contracts, perceived justice, employee retaliatory behaviour and religiosity. 2.3.1 Perceived Justice (PJ) and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour (ERB) Employee attitudes and behaviours are considered to have crucial impact the performance of organisations. Research on organisational management, therefore, more often than not seeks to identify factors which influence the behaviour of employees. One of such factors is justice. This variable has been conceptualised as an individual’s perception of fairness in how they are treated by their employers (Greenberg, 1964; Al-Zu’bi, 2010). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 22 Studies have consistently showed that perceptions of justice greatly influence the attitudes of employees (Skarlicki & Folger; 1997; Badu & Asumeng, 2013; Allameh & Rostami, 2014; Nyarku et al., 2014). The equity theory (Adams 1963) rationalises these findings by explaining that employees expect consistencies between their inputs and their outputs. In other words, employees expect that the rewards they receive from the organisation should match their contributions. Inconsistencies in the ratio between contributions and rewards lead to negative feelings which eventually translate into negative behaviours which harm the organisation. On the other hand, perceptions of fairness result in positive feelings such as increased trust and job satisfaction which lead to positive behaviour such as Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (OCB) which are beneficial to the organisation. A study conducted by Owolabi and Babalola (2011) on the effects of perceived inequality on the fraudulent intent of bank employees in Nigeria with 170 participants confirmed previous research findings on perceptions of equity and its effects on employee attitudes. Results obtained from a self-developed scale used to measure fraudulent intent and a standardised instrument used to measure perceived inequality showed that, perceptions of inequality significantly predicted intents to commit fraud. It was concluded that perceived inequality at work created feelings of rejection and worthlessness which led to fraudulent intent. Greenberg’s (1984) conceptualisation of justice proposes that there are three dimensions of justice. The first dimension is distributive justice. This dimension of justice refers to the perceived fairness of the outcomes that an individual receives from organisation (Greenberg 1984; Colquitt, 2001). In this dimension of justice, fairness or lack of it is perceived as a result of appraisal of personal benefits (Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007) and comparison with others (Al-Zu’bi, 2010). Three standards of allocating outcomes have been discussed in literature. These standards are equity, equality and need (Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007). Equity refers to allocations based on inputs or performance, while equality focuses on equal allocations for University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 23 everyone involved. Allocation based on need are centered on obvious suffering. For various people under the circumstances upon which the standards of allocation are based, each of these standards may foster a perception of distributive justice (Cropanzo & Discorfano, 2007). Generally, perceptions of an unfair allocation of job outcomes produce feelings of frustration and anger (Adams, 1963; Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; Al-Zu’bi, 2010) which elicit desires to get rid of those feelings and balance the equation of justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004). Critical to the study of perceptions of fairness at the work place is dimension of procedural justice. Procedural justice refers to perceptions of fairness in the processes used in allocating outcomes and making general work decisions (Colquitt, 2001). Whereas distributive justice suggests that satisfaction is a function of outcome, procedural justice suggests that satisfaction is a function of process (Al-Zu’bi, 2010). Neutrality, the opportunity to be heard, and consideration of employees during decision making are some of the principles of procedural justice (Colquitt, 2001). Even though employees are interested in the outcomes they receive (distributive justice), employees are also interested in the processes by which those outcomes are allocated (Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007; Al-Zu’bi, 2010). The final dimension of PJ is interactional justice. This aspect of justice is concerned with perceptions of fairness in interpersonal treatment received during the performance of organisational procedures (Colquitt, 2001). Rearchers have identified two subcultures of interactional justice: informational justice and interpersonal justice (Folger & Cropanzano, 2001; Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007). While informational justice is concerned with the presence or absence of clarifications, interpersonal justice is based on the dignity that employees receive. Such as treatment is respectful, honest, and considerate of their feelings (Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007). There have been calls for the formal separation of the two cultures due to their variance in influencing perceptions of justice (Colquitt, 2001; Colquitt et al., 2001; Cropanzano & Discorfano, 2007). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 24 Individually, the three dimensions of justice have strongly influenced employee behaviour. Results of a study conducted by Badu and Asumeng (2013) indicated that the decision of employees to engage in OCB was more influenced by perceptions of interactional justice than perceptions of distributive and procedural justice. The results show that employees in the Ghanaian context are more likely to engage in OCB when their employers treat them with respect rather than allocating rewards with fairness and being unbiased in decision making. This study however did not consider part-time employees which are gradually increasing in the Ghanaian employment world. The present study therefore includes both permanent and part- time employees. Scholars also have examined the interactions between different dimensions of justice and their influences on employee attitudes and behaviour. Indeed, Skarlicki and Folger (1997) encouraged researchers not to limit analysis of justice to its dimensions but also include analysis on the interaction of the three dimensions in relation to employee attitudes and behaviour. Al-Zu’bi (2010) reported that although the three dimensions of justice were significantly related to job satisfaction, interactions among the variables also significantly and positively predicted job satisfaction. The findings were the same for Nyarko et al. (2014) and Badu and Asumeng (2013) who also reported that interactions among the three dimensions of justice significantly and positively predicted counter productive work behaviours and OCB respectively. In following their own calls for testing interactions of the dimensions of justice instead of single dimensions of justice, Skarlicki and Folger (1997) hypothesised that a three-way interaction among distributive, procedural, and interactional justice could predict organisational retaliatory behaviour. The ground-breaking study produced the following results: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 25 1. The relation between distributive justice and retaliatory behaviour was significant only when there were low levels of procedural and interactional justice. 2. At high levels of procedural justice, the two-way interaction between distributive and interactional justice was not significant. These results suggested that sensibly fair procedures moderate an individual's retaliatory predispositions that would otherwise be increased by the combination of having low levels of both distributive and interactional justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). It is was based on the results above that the model of employee retaliatory behaviour was built. The researchers conceptualised the construct as acts of revenge performed to restore fairness and justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004). In other words, behaviour according to this model is motivated by the desire to pay back a transgressor for the wrong he or she has done (Skarlicki & Folger, 2004). In the work setting, a transgressor could be an employer or the entire organisation. The conceptualisation of employee retaliatory behaviour serves as a counterpart of Organisational Citizenship Behaviour (Skarlicki & Folger, 2004) based on previous research findings which have showed that perceptions of justice and fairness motivate employees to perform voluntary acts which are not formally rewarded or acknowledged by employers but are beneficial to the organisation. Though practical implications of studies conducted on perceptions of justice and work behaviours suggest that managers should strive to maintain fairness at the workplace due to the negative consequences of perceived unfairness, Skarlicki and Folger (2004) maintain that the consequences of employee retaliatory behaviour are complex. In the conceptualisation of employee retaliatory behaviour as the opposite of OCB, Skarlicki & Folger (1997; 2004) noted that, though both constructs are results of perceived fairness and unfairness, their effects on the organisation are not similar. They theorised that while OCB was purely favourable to the organisation, retaliatory behaviour could either be positive or negative to both the individual University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 26 and the organisation. Skarlicki and Folger’s (2004) typology of the consequences of retaliatory behaviour for both the individual and organisation are presented in a table below: Table 2.1 Functional and Dysfunctional Consequences of Retaliatory Behaviour for the Individual and Organisation For the Individual For the Organisation Functional Restores equity Change and improvement Relieves one’s sense of moral obligation Keeps members of the organisation accountable Dysfunctional Negative affect: Guilt Anxiety Regret Loss of customers as a result of bad customer services Distraction Damage to goods and equipment Rumination (constant thinking about work activities leading to adverse effects and health probelms) Loss of resources due to theft Low morale among employees which leads to low or bad performance Loss of reputation and goodwill resulting from whistle-blowing From the typology proposed by Skarlicki and Folger (2004), in the quest of employees to restore justice and fairness at the place of work, implications of their retaliatory acts could either be positive or negative for themselves and for their organisations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 27 2.3.2 Religiosity as a Moderator between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Interest in the sacred and its relationship with organisations and organisational research has impressively increased over the last decade (King & Williamson, 2005). Though there is a stronger yearning by workers to express their religious beliefs at work (Atkinson, 2000), there is still much work to be done on how religiosity affects employees attitudes (Day, 2004). Though the terms “spirituality” and “religiosity” have been used interchangeably in some studies, the distinctions between the two constructs are more apparent and researchers are beginning to differentiate between the two (Hill, Pargament, Hood, McCullough, Swyers, Larson & Zinnbauer, 2000; Day, 2004; Brotheridge & Lee, 2007). Conceptualisations of spirituality and religiosity show that while spirituality focuses on the search for and meaning of a higher purpose and the knowledge of right and wrong (Hill et al., 2000; Brown 2003), religiosity is concerned with the strength of an individual’s connection to his or her religion, with emphasis on feelings, beliefs, experiences, and behaviours that receive endorsement and support from within a specific group of people (Hill et al., 2000). Day (2004) also pointed out that many scholars had focused attention on spirituality and questioned whether religiosity was an “ignored step-sister” (pp. 108) due to little research being conducted on it. Looking at previous studies, there have been inconsistent results on the influence of religiosity on employee attitudes and behaviour. For instance, there were inconsistencies in the impact of religiosity on job satisfaction. While some studies (Parasuraman, Zammuto & Outcalt, 1984; York, 1981; as cited in Brotheridge & Lee, 2007) found that religiosity was associated with increased job satisfaction and high levels of role involvement, other studies (Grabhorn, 1980; Chusmir & Koberg, 1988; as cited in Brotheridge & Lee, 2007) found that religiosity was not significantly connected to job satisfaction, organisational commitment, and job involvement. These studies were criticised for failing to consider the two types of religiosity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 28 The dimensions of religiosity are considerably different and have different influences on the ideology, value orientations and perceptions of people (Allport & Ross, 1967; Clark & Dawson, 1996; Brotheridge & Lee, 2007). Some of the initial conjectures of religion for psychological research hypothesised that religious beliefs could be either intrinsic or extrinsic (Allport & Ross, 1967; Clark & Dawson, 1996). Attitudes of people who are intrinsically religious are based belief systems of their various religions (Clark & Dawson, 1996; King & Williamson). The basic assumption is that religion and religious expression are not means to an end, but the end in themselves (Clark & Dawson, 1996; Brotheridge & Lee, 2007). In contrast, individuals who are extrinsically religious are motivated by the external and personal gains that they may receive from religious affiliations and expressions (Clark & Dawson, 1996). Examples of such gains include meeting new people, prestige attached to a particular religious sect or employment opportunities that come with worshiping with powerful and influential people (Brotheridge & Lee, 2007). For extrinsically religious people, religion and religious expression are means to a mostly favourable end. Clark and Dawson’s (1996) conceptualisation of religiosity is presented in the table below: Table 2.2 Conceptualisation of the Two Dimensions of Religiosity Extrinsic Low High Low Intrinsic High Non-religious Extrinsic Intrinsic Pro-religious From the typology presented, individuals who report low levels of intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity are described as non-religious. These individuals are strikingly different from University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 29 intrinsics who have high levels intrinsic religiosity and low levels of extrinsic religiosity. Extrinsics have been classified as individuals who have reported low levels of intrinsic religiosity and high levels of extrinsic religiosity. Finally individuals who have high levels of both intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity are identified as pro-religious. Based on the above typology, Brotheridge and Lee (2007) created a model of religiosity and work attitudes and behaviour. They argued that previous research findings suggest that the work place behaviours most likely to be associated with an individual’s level of religiosity are OCB and Deviant Work Behaviours (DWB), which they described as the “shadow” of OCB. They postulated that intrinsics perceive work as a calling and are more likely to display higher OCB and lower DWB. Similarly, pro-religious people view work as a calling but are likely to moderately engage in OCB and DWB. Extrinsics, on the other hand, view work as a career and have the propensity to engage in moderate OCB, while non-religious people view work as a career and possess the tendency to exhibit low OCB and high DWB. While the model downplays other work-related variables, it emphasises the value of religiosity instead of religious affiliation in explaining individual differences in the relationship between religiosity and work attitudes and behaviour. This model, therefore, could be used with participants from various religious affiliations without fear of bias. A study conducted by King and Williamson (2005) to examine the relationship between religiosity and job satisfaction produced interestingly mixed results. The hypothesis that religiosity will positively and significantly influence job satisfaction was tested using 128 respondents who were all graduates of a particular university. Results showed no direct link between religiosity and job satisfaction. However, there was a significant relationship between religiosity when the concept of organisational stance on religious expression was introduced. Results also revealed the tendency of highly religious employees to favour freedom of religious expressions at work. The interaction between organisational stance on religious expressions University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 30 and the desire of freedom of religious expression resulted in a significantly stronger and more positive relationship between religiosity and job satisfaction. This study however relied on a sample drawn from a predominantly Christian university, thereby ignoring people of other religions. Also, the study focused mainly on the intrinsic dimension of religiosity instead of the two dimensions of religiosity. In a meta-analysis of religion in the work place and its correlating variables, Day (2004) pointed out the lack of consensus among researchers in the conceptualisation of religion. Conceptualisations of religion included behaviours (worship attendance and frequency of prayer), as a means to an end (extrinsic) or an end in itself (intrinsic), integrated or otherwise into various aspects of life, and the degree to which the individual takes on a religious social identity. Day (2004) also echoed the relevance of religion to workplace relationships and employee attitudes and behaviour. For example, religious workers may be physically and psychologically healthier, more satisfied with their jobs, better performers, able to deal with stress more efficiently, better problem solvers and better team players. On the other hand, they may also be predisposed to conflict due to religious differences, less intelligent and more bigoted against their co-workers. It is obvious from this review of literature that religiosity is mainly studied as predictor of positively employee attitudes and behaviour. Hence, this study seeks to bridge that gap in literature by studying religiosity as a moderator. 2.3.3 Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour One of the most researched constructs in management is Psychological Contract Breach (PCB). PCB is not only a dysfunctional behaviour, it may influence and result in other dysfunctional behaviours (Robinson & Brown, 2004). This explains why research into employee attitudes and behaviour usually focus on PCB. PCB that refers to an individual’s perception has failed University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 31 in fulfilling promises and obligations (Rousseau, 1989; Robinson & Morrison, 2000). Relating this definition to the employment relationship, PCB occurs when employees believe that employers or organisations have failed in fulfilling their obligations. Due to the changing nature of the employment relationship which is now geared towards organisational change, downsizing and restructuring, the nature of psychological contracts keep changing and the likelihood of PCB occurring keeps rising (Robinson & Brown, 2004; Turnley et al., 2003). It is therefore important to keep studying these variables. Though the terms “breach” and “violation” have been used interchangeably in literature on psychological contracts, researchers are beginning to draw a fine line between the two concepts (Robinson & Brown, 2004). For instance, Morrison and Robinson (1997) defined breach as the mental awareness or perception of failure in fulfilling promises made by others. Violation on the other hand was defined as the emotional experience stemming from the interpretation of a breach of the psychological contract (Morrison & Robinson, 1997). This suggests that perceptions of breach precede experiences of violation. Consequently, an individual could observe a breach of the psychological contract but not experience a violation of the same contract (Robinson & Brown, 2004). PCB is prevalent as other dysfunctional behaviour in organisations, and its consequences are often severe (Robinson & Brown, 2004; Robinson & Morrison, 2000). Consequences of PCB can be categorised into attitudinal consequences and behavioural consequences. Attitudinal consequences deal with feelings, ideas, values and systems while a behavioural consequences relates to the actual expression of feelings either through action or inaction and orally or through body language. Numerous studies have showed that PCB leads to negative attitudinal consequences. Bunderson (2001) found a negative relationship between PCB and organisational commitment University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 32 and job satisfaction. His findings were corroborated by Lester et al. (2002) who also reported a negative relationship between PCB and organisational commitment. Knoppe (2012) found that PCB was negatively related with job satisfaction but positively related to turnover intensions. Likewise Raja, Johns and Ntalianis (2004) reported a negative a negative relationship between PCB and organisational commitment and job satisfaction and positively related to turnover intentions. Relationships between PCB and perceptions of justice have also been reported (Cropanzano et al., 2001; Rosen, Chang, Johnson & Levy, 2009). Other attitudinal consequences of PCB include reduced trust (Robinson, 1996; Bal et al., 2008; Hornsey et al., 2008), revenge cognitions (Bordia et al., 2008), lower professional commitment (Suazo et al., 2005), and affective commitment (Restubog et al., 2006). Furthermore, empirical studies have consistently demonstrated the influences of PCB on actual employee behaviour. For example, employees who perceive a breach of their psychological contracts are likely to quit their jobs (Robinson, 1996; Turnley & Feldman, 1999a). Studies also show that PCB results in lower engagement in OCB (Hornsey et al., 2008; Restubog et al., 2008) and work performance (Robinson, 1996; Lester et al., 2002; Restubog et al., 2006). Robinson and Brown (2004) argued that declines in OCB and performance may ironically become a justification for employers to breach the psychological contracts of employees. PCB has also been found to be a precursor to deviant behaviour (Turnley & Feldman, 1999b), revengeful behaviour (Bies & Tripp, 1996; Bordia et al., 2008) and employee retaliatory behaviour (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997). These findings have prompted Robinson and Brown (2004) to argue that PCB is not only a type of dysfunctional and antisocial behaviour but also an antecedent to such behaviour. Given the literature reviewed in this section, it is obvious that PCB leads to a host of negative attitudes and behaviours which affect both employer and employees. The question, however, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 33 is how long it takes for those negative effects to manifest. Danquah (2011), after conducting a case study with a sample of fifteen (15) managers and one hundred and nine (109) employees in oil marketing retail outlets in the Ga West Municipality of the Greater Accra Region of Ghana, found that a majority of employees reported that their psychological contracts had not been fulfilled, whilst the expectations of managers were being fulfilled. Interestingly, though the contracts of employees were not fulfilled, turnover was very low. Similarly, Robinson (1996) discovered that it took a period of eighteen months for perceptions of breach to result in turnover and lower engagement in OCB while Bunderson (2001) reported that PCB’s impact on turnover manifested after several years. In the face of uncertainties in the time frame of manifestations of the negative impacts of PCB, another question that arises is how long it takes for negative effects to last when they eventually begin to manifest. A possible answer to the question of the time frame in exhibiting outcomes of PCB is the organisational retaliatory behaviour theory. The theory posits that people who engage in retaliatory behaviour do so with one aim: to restore justice (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; 2004). This could mean that once an employee perceives the restoration of justice in the employment relationship, exhibition of retaliatory behaviour will cease. Research however needs to be conducted to establish this as an answer to the question of timeframe in breach-outcome relationships. This study therefore seeks to explore the relationship between PCB and ERB due to the limited literature available on the subject. 2.3.4 Perceived Psychological Contract as a Moderator between Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour The concept of Psychological Contracts (PC) was initially introduced by Argyris (1960) who conceptualised it as reciprocal expectations in the employment relationship. Rousseau’s (1989) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 34 redefinition of the concept in relation to employers and employees has sparked a lot of interest in it. One important feature of PC is that it is perceptive and subjective in nature (Rousseau, 1989). Since there is no such thing as “objective reality” when it comes to perceptions of PC, a fulfilment or breach of the contract resides in the eyes of the one who has the contract (Robinson & Brown, 2004). Most prior research on PC has concentrated on examining the consequences of PC. Studies have consistently showed that PC is related to undesirable employee attitudes such as turnover intentions (Suazo et al., 2005), reduced professional commitment (Suazo et al., 2005; Bal et al., 2008), reduced trust (Suazo et al., 2005; Restubog et al., 2008; Bal et al., 2008), poor in- role performance (Turnley et al., 2003; Suazo et al., 2005; Restubog et al., 2006) and deviant behaviour (Bordia et al., 2008). With consistent results on outcomes of PCB, researchers are beginning to explore moderators of breach-outcome relationships. Commenting on this new line of research, Robinson and Brown (2004) listed the following as questions underlying interest in moderators of breach- outcome relationships: 1. Under what conditions is breach more likely to have an impact and when is it less likely? 2. When does breach lead to violation? 3. Which employees are most likely to be hurt by transgressions and which employees will overlook them? This emerging research has important practical implications in that, with the difficulty in managing psychological contracts to avoid perceptions of breach, managers may focus University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 35 attention on when, how and why breach occurs and the circumstance under which it is likely to result in negative work outcomes (Robinson & Brown, 2004; Bordia et al., 2008). Individual characteristics of employees are a crucial moderator in breach-outcome relationships. Individual differences affect how PCB is identified, labelled and resolved (Robinson & Brown, 2004). Raja et al. (2004) reported that personality characteristics such extraversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism, self-esteem, equity sensitivity, and locus of control influenced perceptions of breach and also moderated the relationship between breach and violation of the psychological contract. Similarly, Bordia et al. (2008) found self-control to be a moderator of the relationship between revenge cognitions stemming from PCB and employee deviance. The model realised after analysis of data showed that perceptions of breach lead to revenge cognitions, however, individuals with high levels of self-control were less likely to engage in organisational and personal deviant acts. Likewise, Knoppe (2012) found that conscientiousness moderated the relationship between PCB and employee work attitudes of job satisfaction, intension to stay and organisational commitment. A critical look at results showed that the relationships between the predictor variable (PCB) and the criterion variables (job satisfaction, intension to stay and organisational commitment) were weaker for employees with high conscientiousness. Due to the subjectivity of PC and PCB, it is not surprising that there are individual differences in relation to both paradigms. Situational factors have also been explored as moderators of breach-outcome relationships. Research has proven that characteristics of the situation, event, or process involved in experiences of PCB have the ability to modify how it is interpreted and its effects (Robinson & Brown, 2004). Turnley et al. (2003) discovered that fulfilment of relational aspects of the psychological contract had more impact on employee attitudes than transactional aspects. Ballou (2013), on University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 36 the other hand, found that even though the types of PC moderated the relationship between PCB and OCB, transactional contracts were more influential. Analysis showed that employees with relational PC were less likely to engage OCB following a perception of a breach of contract while employees with transactional contract were more likely to engage in OCB following perceptions of breach. The study was, however, skewed in terms of the large number of participants (71%) with relational contracts. The researcher admitted using extra measures to make the distribution more even. These measures may have influenced the results obtained. A developing explanation for variations in breach-outcome relationships is the validations an individual makes for PCB. Due to the subjective nature of PC, it is natural for individuals to have different attributions for breach of contract thus influencing impact on outcomes. Studies on this view have, however, been inconclusive. Knoppe (2012) found that employees’ justification for violations influenced the relationship between PCB and job satisfaction, intension to stay and organisational commitment such that, all three relationships were weaker for individuals who provided justifications for experiencing violations of contract. Turnley et al. (2003) on the other hand found that perceptions regarding reasons did not matter, prompting the researchers to conclude that regardless of justifications provided, a breach of contract was enough to result in violation of contract. Further research need to be conducted on this model to establish concrete findings. Knoppe (2012) also investigated the influence of non-availability of attractive employment opportunities on the relationship between PCB and job satisfaction, intention to stay and organisational commitment. Results showed that non-availability of attractive employment alternatives moderated the relationships between PCB and all three employee work attitudes being investigated such that those relationships were weaker for individuals who scored high on having no other alternative employment opportunities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 37 Perceptions of justice have also been found by researchers to moderate breach-outcome relationships. Specifically, distributive justice and procedural justice have consistently proven to be moderators of breach outcome relationships (Robinson & Brown, 1997; 2004; Knoppe, 2012). Taking into account results from studies conducted and their limitation this research focuses on the strength of PC as a moderator of the relationship between PCB and ERB. 2.4 Rationale for the Present Study Research on psychological contracts and organisational justice has been conducted in many countries around the world. However, studies on ‘organisational misbehaviour’ have mostly been limited to counterproductive work behaviour (Fox, Spector & Miles, 2001; Gruys & Sackett, 2003), employee aggression (Pederson, Gonzales & Miller, 2000; Berkowitz, 2001) and employee deviance (Robinson & Greenberg, 1998; Bennet & Robinson, 2003). Much work remains to be done on retaliation. This study will therefore explore retaliation within the Ghanaian socio-cultural context, while investigating influence of psychological contract breach and perceived justice on its occurrence. Furthermore, studies on psychological contracts and breach of contracts have been limited to formal organisational settings (Bordia et al., 2008; Giese & Thiel, 2012). Even in Ghana, the informal sector remains largely ignored in studies on organisational behaviour. This is rather unfortunate as this sector is the bedrock of the country’s economy and a majority of the citizens are work in this sector. This study will therefore focus on employees in the urban informal sector. This sample was chosen to draw the attention of researchers to the behaviour patterns of employees in this sector and also to enable future researchers make a holistic generalisation based on both sectors since Ghana’s economy is controlled by both the formal and informal sectors University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 38 2.5 Statement of Hypotheses 1. There will be a significant but negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that low scores on justice will be correlated with high scores on employee retaliatory behaviour. 2. There will be a significant positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that high scores on psychological contract breach will be correlated with high scores on employee retaliatory behaviour. 3. Religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, specifically when religiosity is low, there will be a negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. 4. Perceived psychological contract will moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour, specifically when perceived psychological contract is high, there will be a positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 39 2.6 Conceptual Framework IV MV DV Figure 2.1 Summary of hypothesised relationships between independent, moderating and dependent variables The figure above summarises the relationship between the variables examined in the present study. It is expected that a significant negative relationship will exist between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. In addition, it is expected that psychological contract breach be will positively related to employee retaliatory behaviour. Furthermore, it is expected that an employee’s level of religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that lower levels of religiosity will account for more Perceived justice Psychological contract breach Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Religiosity Perceived psychological contract University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 40 variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. Finally, it is expected that the strength of psychological contract perceived by an employee will moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. Specifically, higher levels of perceived psychological contract will account for more variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. 2.7 Operational Definition of Terms For the present study, the following terms have been defined as follows:  Perceived psychological contract: the beliefs, perceptions and expectations of obligations between employers and employees (Rousseau, 1989).  Transactional psychological contract: a type of psychological contract where the focus is more economic and lasts for a short period of time.  Relational psychological contract: a form of psychological contract: a type of psychological contract which is more focused on loyalty and long-term commitment.  Psychological contract breach: the belief of an employee that his or her employer has failed to fulfil promises and obligations.  Perceived justice: an individual’s judgement and sense of fairness.  Distributive justice: an individual’s sense of fairness in outcomes received from employers.  Interactional justice: an individual’s sense of fairness in the allocation of outcomes at the workplace.  Procedural justice: an individual’s sense of fairness in the interpersonal treatment received from his or her employers.  Religiosity: the strength of an individual’s connection to his or her religion. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 41  Employee retaliatory behaviour: acts of revenge taken by workers who have sensed injustice at the workplace.  Informal sector: unregulated economic activities which may or may not follow legal procedure. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 42 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction In this chapter, a description of the research methodology is presented. It provides a summary of the research design, population, the sample, and the sampling procedure. The instruments that were used for data collection and their psychometric properties are also discussed. The chapter also provides outlines of the pilot study, the data collection procedure and the scoring of data. 3.2 Population The population for this study was employees in the informal sector. Employees from the age of 16 in the informal sector of Ghana were chosen as the population for a number of reasons. First of all, there is no significant amount of research on psychological contracts using this population. Second, this population forms the core of the Ghanaian economy and working class, thus, there is the need to study them. Third, the age group was selected because the working age in Ghana is fifteen (15) to sixty-four (64) (GSS, 2007). Seven out of every ten of the working population is economically active though males are slightly more active (54.9%) than females (53.4%) (GSS, 2008). 3.3 Sample Size and Sampling Technique Non-probability sampling techniques were used to select participants for this study. These techniques were the convenience, purposive, and quota methods. Convenience sampling was used because it is cheaper, quicker and easier to recruit participants when used for research. In view of the fact that not everyone in the population would be willing to participate in the study, only people who gave their consent were included. Purposive sampling was used to enable University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 43 people suitable for the study to participate. Though the study focused on informal sector employees, there were other inclusion criteria. These included tenure (only employees who have held their current jobs for a minimum of one year) and the number of working days of part-time employees (a minimum of three days). Some of the items in the selected measures address relationships with co-workers, thus only people with co-workers were selected to participate. The targeted sample for the study was one hundred and fifty (150) participants (80 males and 70 females). This sample size was chosen because it is higher than the sample estimation for correlational and multiple regression analysis which Cohen (1992) states should be more than 85 and 116 respectively. The quota sampling technique was used because of the need for a specific number of males and females. A total number of 150 questionnaires were distributed among participants. However, 138 were returned. Out of the number returned, 127 questionnaires were analysed. Eleven questionnaires were rejected because respondents left major portions blank, thereby making them not useful in the analysis of data. Tabachnick and Fidell (2001) also suggest that for regression analysis, the sample size (N) should be N>50+8M, where M is the number of predictors. There are two predictors in this study, therefore the recommended sample size should be a minimum of 66 [50 + 8(2) = 66]. The total number of analysed questionnaires (127) is appropriate per the recommendation of Tabachnick and Fidell (2001). A descriptive analysis of the demographic variables of the participants are presented in the table below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 44 Table 3.1: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Demographics N Percentage (%) Gender Male 62 48.8 Female 65 51.2 Age 16-25 years 56 44.1 26-35 years 39 30.7 36-45 years 18 14.2 Above 45 years 14 11.0 Profession Caterer 9 7.1 Dressmaker 18 14.2 Driver 9 7.1 Electrician 6 4.7 Food vendor 15 11.8 Hair dresser 10 7.9 Mechanic 10 7.9 Shop attendant 24 18.9 Waiter/Waitress 19 15.0 Welder 7 5.5 Wage per month (GH¢) Below 100 27 21.3 100-200 49 38.6 201-400 40 31.5 401-500 9 7.1 Above 500 2 1.6 Tenure 1 year 46 36.2 1-4 years 52 40.9 5-10 years 21 16.5 Above 10 years 8 6.3 Employee Status Permanent 91 71.7 Part-timer 36 28.3 Religion Muslim 26 20.5 Christian 74 58.3 Tradition/African Religion 12 9.4 Atheism 5 3.9 Buddhism 3 2.4 Eckankar 4 3.1 Deism 3 2.4 Total number of respondents (N = 127) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 45 3.4 Research Design A non-experimental research design, specifically a cross-sectional survey, was used to collect data for the study. This method was chosen because the study is being carried mainly to investigate associations between the variables of interest and the strengths of those associations with a sample drawn from various backgrounds. Questionnaires were the main data collection instruments in the study. The instruments were used to gather data for the following variables: psychological contract breach (independent variable), perceived justice (independent variable), strength of psychological contract (moderating variable), religiosity (moderating variable), and employee retaliatory behaviour (dependent variable). 3.5 Measures A questionnaire consisting of six sections (A to F) was used to collect data for this study. The measures used in the study were standardised instruments which had demonstrated acceptable reliabilities which surpassed a minimum of .70 levels of alpha (George & Mallery, 2003). The use of standardised questionnaires in surveys also makes measurement more precise and reduces researcher bias. Section A examined strength and type of psychological contract, Section B measured breach of psychological contracts, while Section C measured perceived justice. Section D and E measured employee retaliatory behaviour and religiosity respectively. Finally, Section F included items on demographic data such as age, gender, and wages. The various sections and instruments are described below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 46 Section A: Psychological Contract Psychological contracts were assessed using an instrument, Psychological Contract Scale (PCS), developed by Millward and Brewerton (1999). PCS is a 17-item scale assessing the strength and type of psychological contract perceived by an individual and its strength. This instrument focuses on the two subscales of contracts proposed (MacNeil, 1985): the transactional psychological contract subscale has ten items, while the relational psychological contract subscale has seven items. Respondents were asked to indicate the extent to which they agreed to the items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). The scores on PCS range from a minimum of 17 to a maximum of 85, with a mean score of 51. Therefore, scores below 51 indicate low perceived psychological contract while scores above 51 indicate high perceived psychological contract. The psychological contract is considered to be more relational when the score for relational psychological contract is higher than the score for transactional psychological contract, and vice versa. Examples of the items include I do this job just for the money, I expect to grow in this job, and I expect to be paid for any overtime I do. PCS has demonstrated sufficient reliability for both subscales in previous studies. Teo, O’Donehue and Grimmer (2009) reported Cronbach’s alphas of .84 and .82 for the relational and transactional subscales respectively. Section B: Psychological Contract Breach The Psychological Contract Breach Instrument (PCBI) was used to investigate employees’ perception of a breach of the psychological contract. This 5-item instrument was developed by Robison and Morrison (2000). The scale is largely based on Rousseau’s (1990) instrument which was developed after a survey conducted using a sample HR managers and recruits who were asked what they believed they owed the other party and vice versa. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 47 The items, which measure the extent to which an employer has fulfilled or broken promises, are scored on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). Examples of items are I feel that my employer has come through in fulfilling the promises made to me when I was hired, My employer has broken many of its promises to me even though I’ve upheld my side of the deal, and Almost all the promises made by my employer during my recruitment have been kept so far. Items 1, 2, and 3 which are positively worded are reverse scored while scoring remains normal for items 4 and 5 which are negatively worded. The scores on the scale range from a minimum of 5 to a maximum of 25, with a mean score of 15. Scores below 15 indicate low breach while scores above 15 indicate high breach. Robinson and Morrison (2000) reported an acceptable reliability with a Cronbach’s alpha of .89 using this instrument. The reliability of this measure has been confirmed with a Cronbach’s alpha of .82 reported by Ugwu and Oji (2013). Section D: Perceived Justice Perceptions on the three dimensions of justice were measured with 20-item amalgamation of scales developed by Neihoff and Moorman (1993). Perceptions of distributive justice were measured with a 5-item scale. Examples of items on this scale are My work schedule is fair and Overall the rewards I receive here are quite fair. Moorman, Blakely and Neihoff (1998) reported a Cronbach's alpha of .89 while Al-Zu’bi (2010) reported a reliability coefficient of 0.79. Perceptions of procedural justice were measured with a 6-item scale. All job decisions are applied consistently and To make job decisions, my employer collects accurate and complete information are examples of items on the scale. High reliability coefficients of .90 (Neihoff & Moorman, 1993) and 0.82 (Al-Zu’bi, 2010) have been reported for this dimension. Perceptions of interactional justice were measured with a 9-item scale. Sample items on the scale include When decisions are made about my job, the manager treats me with respect and dignity and The manager offers adequate justification for decisions made about the job. Alpha University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 48 coefficients for this scale have been reported as .90 (Neihoff & Moorman, 1993), and .80 (Al- Zu’bi, 2010). All three instruments are anchored on a 5 point Likert scale ranging from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). The scores for the scale are 20 (minimum), 100 (maximum), and 60 (mean). Scores above 60 indicate high perceived justice while scores below 60 indicate low perceived justice. Item 4 on the distributive justice scale, originally worded “Job decisions are made by the manager in a biased manner”, was reworded to “My boss uses partiality in making decisions about the job”. Also, the word “manager” in the original scale was changed to “Boss”. This was to enable the respondents to easily understand the items in the questionnaire. Section E: Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Employee retaliatory behavior was measured with a behavioural observation scale created by Skarlicki and Folger, (1997). This measure, the Organisational Retaliatory Behaviour Scale (ORBS), has 17 items which measure the retaliatory behaviours of employees. The frequency to engage in retaliatory acts were scored on a Likert-type scale ranging from “Never” (1) to “Very often” (5). The scores on this scale range from a minimum of 17, a mean of 51, and a maximum of 85. Scores below 51 indicate low employee retaliation while scores above 51 indicate high employee retaliation. Examples of items on the scale include I damaged equipment on purpose, I intentionally worked slower, I spoke poorly about my job to others. “Employer” in the original scale was changed to “Boss” to make understanding easier for respondents. Bordia et al. (2008) reported a Cronbach’s alpha of .84, indicating acceptable reliability. Section F: Religiosity Religiosity was assessed using an instrument developed by Huber (2003). Originally developed to measure the religiosity of Christians, Jews and Muslims, the Centrality of Religiosity Scale University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 49 (CRS) has been modified to include items for all other religions, thus making it suitable for interreligious research (Huber & Huber, 2012). This measure of the significance of religious meanings in personalities has been used in many studies in fields such as sociology, psychology, and religious studies with thousands of participants (Huber & Huber, 2012). The CRS measures five expressions or dimensions of religiosity: intellect, ideology, public practice, private practice and experience which are both social and personal (Huber & Huber, 2012). The intellectual dimension, on the personal level, refers to interest, thoughts, and knowledge about religion and religious issues. This dimension also refers to a social expectation that religious people have some knowledge of their religions and can express their views on religion and religiosity as well (Huber & Huber, 2012). An example of an item covering this dimension is How often do you think about religious issues?. The dimension of ideology refers to the social expectation that religious people have beliefs regarding the existence, reality, and essence of a Supreme Being. On the personal level, however, this dimension refers to strong beliefs and undisputed views on the existence of a higher power and Supreme Being. This is considered a basic belief as it is the foundation of many religions and is one thing most religions have in common (Huber & Huber, 2012). An item covering this dimension is To what extent do you believe that God or something divine exists?. The dimension of public practice refers to the social expectation that religious individuals belong to religious groups and participate in public religious rites and activities. On the personal level, this dimension refers to the sense of belonging to a religious society and the intensity and frequency of attending religious gatherings and participating in religious activities (Huber & Huber, 2012). How important is it to take part in religious services? is an item which covers this dimension. The dimension of private practice refers to the social expectation that religious individuals dedicate themselves to Supreme Beings through religious rituals in their own private space, outside of religious gatherings. On the private level, it is willingness and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 50 frequency a religious person applies in addressing and communicating with their Supreme Beings (Huber & Huber, 2012). How often do you pray or meditate? is an item which covers this dimension. The final dimension, religious experience, refers to the social expectation that religious people have some direct contact to their objects of worship and the supernatural. On the personal level, this dimension represents the religious experiences and feelings which result from one-on-one interactions with the supernatural (Huber & Huber, 2012). An item which covers this dimension is How often do you experience situations in which you have the feeling that God or something divine wants to communicate or reveal something to you?. The scale is provided in three versions with regard to length: CRS – 15 (15 items), CRS - 10 (10 items), and CRS -5 (5 items). CRS – 10 was used to collect data for this study. Some items on the basic version were modified to cater for people of diverse religions. Item 4 on the basic CRS version How often do you pray? was reworded to How often do you pray or meditate? while item 8 How important is personal prayer to you? was reworded to “How important is personal prayer and meditation to you?”. Responses were scored from “never” or “not at all” (1) to “very often” or “very much” (5) on a Likert-type scale. The minimum, maximum, and mean score of the scale are 10, 50 and 30 respectively. Scores above 30 indicate high levels of religiosity while scores below 30 indicate low levels of religiosity. With regard to reliability, there is empirical evidence that CRS is satisfactory. Reported Cronbach’s alphas include .83 (Huber, 2003) and .78 (Huber & Kreech, 2008). Section F: Personal Data The following general demographics were included in the questionnaire: age, gender, profession, wages, tenure, employee status (part-time or full-time), and religion. These variables were added to enable the researcher describe the participants. The demographics also University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 51 served as control variables which helped to ensure that results of the research could not be influenced by these variables. 3.6 Procedure Two major stages were involved in the study. The first procedure was a pilot study and the second was the main study. Details of both the pilot and main study are described below: 3.6.1 Pilot Study The questionnaire was piloted before actual data collection began. Even though standardised scales with highly acceptable reliability and validity were used to collect data, it was important to pilot the instruments for a variety of reasons. First, the scales were used with samples from different work environments and countries. Thus, to examine how suitable the scales were for the sample involved in this study, a pilot study was needed. The pilot study therefore helped the researcher determine reliabilities and ecological validity of the selected instruments. It also helped the researcher compare the Cronbach’s alphas obtained on the various scales to the reliabilities obtained by the developers of the scales and subsequent users in an effort to determine if they were appropriate for this study. Furthermore, the pilot study was done to check for clarity of items on the scales. There is a possibility that some expressions may be unfamiliar, vague, or ambiguous in the Ghanaian setting, resulting in difficulty in understanding and interpretation. This could affect the results, hence the need to pilot the questionnaire. A sample of twenty eight (28) urban informal sector employees took part in the pilot study. The sample included twelve (12) males and thirteen (13) females who were conveniently sampled. Generally, respondents to whom the researcher read and interpreted the items did not complain. Some respondents who read and answered the questionnaire by themselves, on the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 52 other hand, expressed difficulty in understanding a few words. Those words were noted and clarified or changed. Reliability analysis produced acceptable values for all the scales. The results of the reliability analysis are presented in the table below: Table 3.2 Summary of Reliability Statistics Obtained for the Measures Scale Number of Items Cronbach’s Alpha Psychological Contract Scale 17 .86 Transactional 10 .80 Relational 7 .84 Psychological Contract Breach Instrument 5 .90 Perceived Justice 20 .91 Distributive 5 .76 Procedural 6 .82 Interactional 9 .94 Employee Retaliatory Behaviour 17 .85 Religiosity 10 .94 A Cronbach’s alpha value of .86 was observed for psychological contract as a whole construct, while the subscales of transactional psychological contract and relational yielded Cronbach’s alpha values of .80 and .84 respectively. The scale on psychological contract breach recorded a Cronbach’s alpha value of .90. Perceived justice on the whole produced a Cronbach’s alpha value of .91 with the following observed on the three dimensions: .76 (distributive), .82 (procedural), and .94 (interactional). A Cronbach’s alpha of .94 was recorded for religiosity while .85 was recorded for employee retaliatory behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 53 3.6.2 Main Study Ethical clearance was sought from the Ethical Committee for Humanities (ECH) of the Institute of Statistical, Social and Economic Research (ISSER), University of Ghana, Legon. A consent form which introduced the researcher to the respondents and sought their consent was also obtained from ECH. The researcher then began the process of data collection. This was carried out in three towns, Ho, Kpando, and Peki, all located in the Volta Region of Ghana. These locations were chosen because most of the population for the study are illiterates who cannot speak, read, or write English or do so at a minimal level. With Ewe, the mother tongue of the researcher, being the main local language spoken in the three locations, it was easier to interpret the items on the questionnaire to respondents. Data collection began two (2) weeks after the request for ethical clearance was approved. The study started in Ho and ended in Peki. The researcher mainly approached the respondents at their places of work and explained the purpose of the study to them. All participants were made to know that participation was voluntary and were assured that the information they give would be treated confidentially. The researcher’s student ID card was also presented to the respondents to assure them of the authenticity of the study. At places where the employer was present, the researcher explained the purpose of the study and sought permission to talk to the employees. The researcher then administered the questionnaire to the respondents. Some respondents who could speak, read and write English were allowed to keep the questionnaires (in envelopes for confidentiality). The researcher returned after five days to collect them. Also, at places where employees who expressed willingness and consent to participate in the study were busy or scared of their employers, the researcher took their contact numbers and went to their homes to administer the questionnaire. At places where there were many employees, the researcher administered the questionnaire to them one by one, taking time to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 54 explain items to one respondent before moving to the next. In all, it took the researcher approximately seven weeks to gather data for this study. Out of 150 questionnaires administered to participants, 138 were returned. Eleven out of number returned were rejected because major portions were not filled. Therefore a total number of 127 questionnaires were analysed. The response rate for the study was 84.6%. 3.7 Ethical Considerations It is important to use the American Psychological Association’s (APA, 2002) Ethical Code when doing research. The core purpose of the Ethical Code is the well-being and protection of individuals and groups with whom psychologists work. Hence, all the principles specified in the APA’s Ethical Code were considered and followed in this study. First of all, the purpose of the research was explained both in writing and verbally to the participants. Secondly, permission and consent were sought from all participants and employers who were available. It was clearly stated in the questionnaire that participation was voluntary and this was reiterated verbally to respondents. Participants were also assured of confidentiality, which is, all the information they give out will be guarded and not identified as theirs. This was clearly written on the questionnaire and read to all participants. To ensure confidentiality, respondents (especially those who answered the questions on their own) were instructed not to write their names on the questionnaire. The participants were given envelopes in which the questionnaires were placed before being returned to the researcher to protect the information given. Moreover, it was explained to the participants that there was no foreseen risk, uneasiness or negative effect in participating or declining to participate in the research. Additionally, nobody was induced to participate in the study. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 55 Finally, the phone number of the researcher was written on the questionnaire to enable participants who wanted more information about, or clarification on, issues concerning the study to do so easily. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 56 CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents the results of the calculation of means, standard deviation, reliability test, normality test, and tests of the hypotheses for the study. The purpose of data analysis in this chapter is to establish valid and reliable results which explain the relationship between psychological contract breach and perceived justice as predictors and employee retaliatory behaviour as a criterion. Results for the influences of religiosity and perceived psychological contract on the two relationships are also presented. 4.2 Data Analyses The IBM Statistical Package of Social Sciences (SPSS) Statistics 20 was used to analyse the data collected in this study. Analyses were in two parts: preliminary analysis and test of hypotheses. The results obtained are presented below: 4.2.1 Preliminary Analyses A series of preliminary analyses comprising factor analysis of the scales; checking the reliability of the scales; assessment of the normality of the variables; descriptive statistics of the variables; and Pearson correlation between the variables, was done before the tests of hypotheses. Results are presented in the sections below: 4.2.1.1 Factor Analysis of Scales To check the strength of the instruments, factor analysis was conducted to determine if the items are part of a single construct. The purpose of the factor analysis is to show construct validity. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was therefore conducted on all the instruments. The numerical value of a factor loading indicates the strength of its influence on the marked University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 57 variable. Factor loadings are considered to make significant contributions when they are greater than .3. The results of the factor analysis are summarised and presented in the sections below: 4.2.1.1.1 Psychological Contract Breach Instrument (PCBI) Table 4.1 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for PCBI Items Promises made during recruitment have been kept .873 Promises made when I was hired have been fulfilled .837 My employer has excellently fulfilled promises .406 I have not received everything promised me .669 My employer has broken many promises .798 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis The 5-item scale was subjected to PCA after the suitability of data for factor analysis was evaluated. Assessment of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of coefficients of .3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .844, meeting the recommended value of .6 and above. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (X2 (10) = 88.661, p = .000). The communalities ranged from .406 to .873, confirming that each value shared some common variance with the other items. PCA revealed the presence of one component with eigenvalue exceeding 1, explaining 71.67% of the variance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 58 4.2.1.1.2 Psychological Contract Scale (PCS) Table 4.2 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for PCS Item F1 (Transactional) F2 (Relational) Job for the money .750 Working hours .496 Involved in job .734 Overtime .656 Get the job done .765 Loyalty .741 Whatever is necessary .707 Future employment .806 Career path .750 Short term goals .821 Length of service .861 Grow .578 Part of the team .827 Reciprocate efforts .821 Promotion .833 Work indefinitely .667 Heavily involved .715 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis All 17 items of PCS were subjected to PCA after the suitability of data for factor analysis was evaluated. Assessment of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of many coefficients of .3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .605, meeting the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 59 recommended value of .6 and above. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (X2 (136) = 337.513, p = .000), supporting the favourability of the correlation matrix. Given these indicators, factor analysis was deemed to be suitable with all the items. Consistent with the subscales of the scale, PCA revealed the presence of two components with eigenvalues above 1, explaining 44.50% and 11.01% of the variance. . The communalities for the first component (transactional) ranged from .496 to .821, while those for the second component (relational) ranged from .578 to .861. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 60 4.2.1.1.3 Organisational Justice Scale (OJS) Table 4.3 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for OJS Items F1 (Dis) F2 (Pro) F3 (Inter) Work schedule .606 Level of pay .823 Work load .869 Rewards .794 Job responsibilities .649 Partiality in decision making .830 Employee concerns .662 Accurate and complete information .906 Clarifies decisions .896 Jobs decisions applied consistently .816 Challenge job decisions .673 Kindness and consideration .779 Respect and dignity .820 Sensitive to personal needs .786 Truthful manner .833 Concern for my right as employee .900 Implications of the decisions .666 Justification for job decisions .639 Reasonable explanations .819 Clear decisions .864 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis The 20 item scale was subjected to PCA after the suitability of data for factor analysis was evaluated. Assessment of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of several coefficients of .3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure verified the sampling adequacy for the analysis, KMO = .672, meeting the recommended value of .6 and above. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity X2 (190) = 435.374, p = .000, indicated the correlations between items were sufficiently large for PCA. PCA showed the presence of three components, in line with the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 61 three subscales of the scale: distributive, procedural, and interactional. The factor loadings for the distributive component ranged from .606 to .869, while the factor loadings for the procedural component ranged from .673 to 906. For the interactional component, the factor loadings ranged from .639 to .900. All three components had eigenvalues over 1 and in combination explained 65.79% of the variance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 62 4.2.1.1.4 Organisational Retaliatory Behaviour Scale (ORBS) Table 4.4 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for ORBS Items I purposely damaged equipment or work process .875 I took supplies home without permission .777 I wasted company materials .837 I called in sick when not ill .765 I spoke poorly about the organisation to others .786 I refused to work weekends or overtime when asked .860 I left a mess unnecessarily (did not clean up) .582 I disobeyed my boss’ instructions .910 I argued with my boss .826 I gossiped about my boss .797 I spread rumours about my co-workers .809 I ignored a co-worker .869 I failed to give a co-worker required information .812 I tried to look busy while wasting time .719 I took an extended lunch break .882 I intentionally worked slower .722 I spent time on personal matters while at work .854 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis The 17 item scale was subjected to PCA after the suitability of data for factor analysis was examined. Assessment of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of a number of coefficients of .3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure of sampling adequacy was .688, meeting the recommended value of .6 and above. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (X2 (136) = 278.537, p = .000), indicating the favourability of the correlation matrix. The communalities also were all above .3, (ranging from .582 to .910) confirming that each value shared some common variance with the other items. Given these overall indicators, factor analysis was deemed suitable with all the 17 items. PCA also indicated University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 63 the presence of one component with eigenvalue greater than 1, explaining 34.32% of the variance. All factor were loaded onto one component. 4.2.1.1.5 Centrality of Religiosity Scale (CRS) Table 4.5 Summary of Factor Analysis Results for CRS Item Thoughts of religious issues .738 Belief in the existence of God .755 Participation in religious services .892 Prayer and meditation .772 God intervenes in your life .728 Interest in religious topics .921 Belief in the afterlife .862 Importance of religious services .457 Importance of personal prayer and meditation .843 God wants to reveal something to you .653 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis All ten items of the scale were subjected to PCA after the suitability of data for factor analysis was evaluated. Assessment of the correlation matrix revealed the presence of several coefficients of .3 and above. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin measure was .780, in consonance with the recommended value of .6 and above, showing the sampling adequacy for the analysis. The Bartlett's Test of Sphericity reached statistical significance (X2 (45) = 248.742, p = .000), indicating sufficient correlation between items. The communalities also ranged from .457 to .921, which is acceptable in showing that each value shared some common variance with the other items. PCA revealed the presence of one component with eigenvalue higher than 1, explaining 63.95% of the variance. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 64 4.2.1.2 Reliability of the Scales To measure the consistency of the scales used in the study and to be sure that they were suitable in Ghanaian organisational settings, a reliability analysis was performed. Cronbach’s α shows the reliability of a measure. Values above .70 are considered are considered acceptable. The results of the reliability analysis are summarised and presented in the table below: Table 4.6 Summary of Reliability Statistics Obtained for the Measures Scale Number of Items Cronbach’s Alpha Psychological Contract Breach 6 .81 Psychological Contract Scale 17 .73 Transactional 10 .79 Relational 7 .82 Perceived Justice Scale 20 .79 Distributive 5 .75 Procedural 6 .81 Interactional 9 .84 Organisational Retaliatory Behaviour (ORBS) 17 .83 Centrality of Religiosity 10 .97 From table 4.6, PCBI had high reliability, Cronbach’s α = .81. The relational and transactional subscales of PCS both obtained acceptable reliabilities, Cronbach’s α = .82 and .79 respectively. PCS as a whole also obtained an acceptable Cronbach’s α of .73. PJS as a whole obtained a Cronbach’s α of .79 while its distributive, procedural, and interactional subscales had acceptable reliabilities, Cronbach’s α = .75, .81, and .84 respectively. ORBS was found to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 65 have a reliable Cronbach’s α of .83. Finally, CRS was found to be highly reliable, Cronbach’s α = .97. 4.2.1.3 Normality of the Variables The normality of the study variables was assessed. The results show that all the skewness and kurtosis values were within the 2 and -2 range, indicating normal distributions for all the variables as recommended by Tabachnick and Fidell (2007). The results for the normality tests are presented in table 4.7. 4.2.1.4 Descriptive Statistics of the Variables An analysis involving computation of means, standard deviation and minimum and maximum values obtained on the various scales was done before the tests of hypotheses. Below is the summary of the results obtained: Table 4.7 Mean, Standard Deviation, and Normality Values of Study Variables Variable M SD Min Max Skewness Kurtosis PCB 18.80 4.323 8 25 -.761 -.097 PPC 54.28 6.505 41 69 .157 -.729 PJ 49.46 14.670 26 89 .537 -.447 ERB 40.74 12.688 19 71 .439 -.611 Religiosity 39.28 9.460 12 50 -1.024 .310 From table 4.7, PCB obtained a mean of 18.80 and a standard deviation of 4.323 with individual scores ranging from a minimum of 8 to a maximum of 25. Compared to the property mean (15) set by the developers of the scales, the mean score of 18.80 indicates high levels of perceived breach. PPC scores ranged from a minimum of 41 to a maximum of 69, with a mean score of University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 66 54.33 which indicates high levels of psychological contracts, Compared to the mean of 51 set by the developers of the scale. A standard deviation of 6.583 was as well recorded for PPC. Furthermore, a mean of 49.46 with a standard deviation of 14.670 was recorded for PJ. The mean score indicates low perceptions of justice compared to the mean of 60 set by the developers of the scale. Results for the variable showed a minimum score of 26 and a maximum score of 89. ERB also reported a mean of 40.74, indicating low levels of employee retaliation, compared to the mean of 51 set by the scale developers. A standard deviation of 12.688, a minimum score of 19, and a maximum score of 71 were also recorded. Finally, religiosity got a mean of 39.28 and standard deviation of 9.460 while recording a minimum of 12 and a maximum score of 50. The mean score obtained for religiosity is indicative of high levels of religiosity compared to the mean of 30 set by the developers of the scale. 4.2.1.5 Pearson Correlation between Variables In performing regression analysis, it is important to establish relationships between the variables of study, thus a Pearson Product moment (r) correlation analysis was conducted. From the results obtained, there is a significant relationship between psychological contract breach and perceived justice (r = -.361, p < .01). This means that higher perception of breach of psychological contract is associated with lower perception of justice and vice versa. Also, there is a significant positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour (r = .255, p < .01). On the contrary, there is a significant inverse relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour (r = -.319, p < .01). In addition, there is a significant relationship between perceived psychological contract and psychological contract breach (r = -.199, p < .05). This means that the greater the strength of the psychological contract, the lower the breach perceived and vice versa. Again, there is a significant relationship between religiosity and employee retaliatory behaviour (r = -.361, p < University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 67 .01). This means an increase in religiosity results in a decrease in employee retaliatory behaviour and vice versa. On the other hand, there are no significant relationships between the following: psychological contract breach and religiosity; perceived psychological contract and employee retaliatory behaviour; perceived psychological contract and religiosity; religiosity and psychological contract breach; and perceived justice and religiosity. The results are presented in the table below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 68 Table 4.8 Correlation Matrix Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 PCB _ 2 PPC -.199* 3 Trans. PPC -.068 .528** 4 Rel. PPC -.130 .457** -.514** 5 PJ -.361** .116 -.101 .223* 6 Dis. PJ -.266** .063 .018 .045 .578** 7 Pro. PJ -.184* .041 -.182* .233** .750** .245** 8 Inter. PJ -.347** .130 -.072 .206* .906** .317** .528** 9 ERB .255** -.078 -.097 .023 -.319** -.190* -.273** -.268** 10 Religiosity -.034 -.007 -.005 -.002 .016 .053 .068 -.035 -.361* _ **p < .01; *p < .05, N = 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 69 4.2.2 Hypotheses Testing Four hypotheses were proposed and tested in this study. The following are the hypotheses: 1. There will be a significant but negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that low scores on justice will be correlated with high scores on employee retaliatory behaviour. 2. There will be a significant positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that high scores on psychological contract breach will be correlated with high scores on employee retaliatory behaviour. 3. Religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, specifically when religiosity is low, there will be a negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. 4. Perceived psychological contract will moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour, specifically when perceived psychological contract is high, there will be a positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. Hypotheses 1 and 2 were analysed using Pearson correlation. This is because the two hypotheses sought to establish the relationship between two variables and to measure the direction and strength of those relationships. Hypotheses 3 and 4, sought to predict an outcome variable from two predictor variables. Hence, the two hypotheses were tested using multiple regression analysis. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 70 4.2.2.1 Hypothesis 1: Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Hypothesis one stated that there will be a significant but negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. Results from the Pearson correlation test are presented in the table below: Table 4.9 Summary of the Pearson Correlation between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour R P PJ -.319** .000 ERB ** Significant at 0.01 level Results showed a significant negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour (r (127) = -.319, p < .01). This means that higher levels of perceived justice are associated with lower levels of employee retaliatory behaviour and vice versa. In other words, employees who perceive high justice are less likely to retaliate and vice versa. Hypothesis 1 was therefore confirmed. Based on the above results, a simultaneous regression was conducted to find which dimension of perceived justice, namely distributive, procedural, and interactional, was more influential in predicting employee retaliatory behaviour. The results are presented in the table below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 71 Table 4.10 Simultaneous Regression on the Relationship between the Dimensions of Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour B SEB β t Sig (Constant) 55.404 4.167 13.295 .000 Distributive Justice -.299 .265 -.102 -1.130 .261 Procedural Justice -.427 .252 -.171 -1.692 .093 Interactional Justice -.200 .142 -.146 -1.413 .160 R2 =.105, ΔR2 = .83 p < .05 From the table above, distributive justice has a negative relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = -.102). However, the relationship is not significant (p = .261). Similarly, interactional justice has a negative but non-significant relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = -.146, p = .160. Also, procedural justice, has a non-significant negative relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = -.171, p = .093). This model accounts for 10.5% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. By implication, the three dimensions of justice as individual constructs do not predict employee retaliatory behaviour but when the three dimensions come together to form a unified construct, there is a significant relationship between perceptions of justice and retaliatory behaviour of employees. This model accounts for 10.5% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. 4.2.2.2 Hypothesis2: Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Hypothesis 2 stated that there will be a significant positive relationship between PCB and ERB. The results from the Pearson correlation test are summarised and presented below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 72 Table 4.11 Summary of the Pearson Correlation between Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour R P PCB .255** .004 ERB ** Significant at the 0.01 level The results displayed a weak but significant positive relationship between PCB and ERB (r (127) = .255, p < .01). Simply, the results show that increase in psychological contract breach is associated with increase in employee retaliatory behaviour. This means that the more employees perceive a breach of their psychological contracts, the higher their likelihood of retaliating. Thus, hypothesis 2 was confirmed. 4.2.2.3 Perceived Justice, Psychological Contract Breach, and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour A simultaneous regression was conducted to analyse the relationship between the two independent variables, namely perceived justice and psychological contract breach, and the dependent variable (employee retaliatory behaviour) to find which of the independent variables was more influential in predicting the dependent variable. The results are presented and interpreted below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 73 Table 4.12 Simultaneous Regression on the Relationship between Perceived Justice, Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour B SEB β T Sig (Constant) 43.005 7.384 5.824 .000 PCB .473 .264 .161 1.787 .076 PJ -.225 .078 -.261 -2.891 .005 R2 = .124, ΔR2 = .110, p < .05 From the model presented in table 4.9, psychological contract breach as a positive but non- significant relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = .161, p > .05), while perceived justice has a negative but significant relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = - .261, p < .01). This implies that even though psychological contract breach on its own predicts employee retaliatory behaviour, its predictive power is not significant when it is put in a model with perceived justice. Thus, perceived justice is more influential in predicting retaliatory behaviour of employees. This model explain 12.4% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. 4.2.2.4 Moderation Analysis Moderation analysis was used to test hypotheses 3 and 4. Moderation occurs when the relationship between two variables depends on a third variable called moderator variable (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Baron and Kenny (1986) suggested that, the following steps should be followed in test of moderation: • Step 1: Enter control variables in step one • Step 2: The independent and moderator variables should be entered in the second step in order. Precisely, the independent variable should be entered first before the moderator variable. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 74 • Step 3: The interaction term (i.e. independent variable x moderator variable) should be entered in the third step. The 4.1 below presents the steps suggested by Baron and Kenny (1986) and the relationship between predictor, moderator and criterion variables. Predictor Perceived Justice (PJ) Psychological Contract Breach (PCB) Moderator Criterion Religiosity Employee Perceived Psychological Contract (PPC) Retaliatory Behaviour (ERB) Predictor x Moderator PJ * Religiosity PCB * PPC Figure 4.1 Relationship between predictor, moderator, and criterion variables In order to reduce the effect of multicollinearity, all predictors were centred prior to being entered into the regression analysis. Summary of the hierarchical regression results are presented and interpreted in the following sections: 4.2.2.4.1 Perceived Justice, Religiosity and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour The fourth hypothesis states that religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, specifically, specifically when religiosity is low, there will be a negative relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 75 behaviour. Below is the summary and presentation of the results of the multiple regression analysis: Table 4.13 Multiple Regression of the Moderation of Religiosity on the Relationship between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Model B SEB Β T Sig Step 1: (Constant) 40.740 1.071 38.023 .000 Justice -.276 .073 -.319 -3.758 .000 Step 2: (Constant) 40.740 .997 40.864 .000 Justice -.271 .068 -.313 -3.967 .000 Religiosity -.478 .106 -.356 -4.514 .000 Step 3: (Constant) 40.710 .980 41.553 .000 Justice -.261 .067 -.301 -3.880 .000 Religiosity -.510 .105 -.380 -4.863 .000 Justice x Religiosity .014 .006 .183 2.331 .021 p < .05, R2 = .102, .228, and .261, ΔR2 = .094, .216, and .243 reported for Model 1, 2, and 3 respectively. As shown in the above table, the hypothesis that religiosity will moderate the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour was confirmed (β = .183, p < .05). In the first step, the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour was tested. Perceived justice significantly predicted employee retaliatory behaviour (β = -.319, p < .05). This model accounted for 9.4% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. This means that, when employees perceive less justice, retaliatory behaviour can be predicted to increase. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 76 In the second step, religiosity was added to the equation. This model accounted for 21.6% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. From the results obtained, religiosity significantly but negatively correlated with employee retaliatory behaviour (β = -.313, p < .05). This means that, as the religiosity of employees decreases, their likelihood of retaliating can be predicted to increase. In the third step, the interaction between religiosity and perceived justice was added to the equation. The interaction between perceived justice and religiosity was significant (p < .05), but together, they do not have the same level of predictive power as compared to when they were apart, leading to a decrease in the beta value (β = .183). This model accounted for 24.3% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. In order to further interpret the interaction, a simple slope analysis as recommended by Aiken and West (1991) was conducted. Tests of simple slope indicate that perceived justice has a significant negative influence on retaliatory behaviour for religious employees. A careful look at the results showed that though both high and low levels of religiosity significantly influenced the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, the effect of perceived justice on employee retaliatory behaviour was greater (p < .01) for individuals with low religiosity than for individuals with high religiosity (p < .05). Figure 4.2 below represents the interaction between perceived justice and religiosity. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 77 Figure 4.2 Religiosity as Moderator between Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Upon inspection of the graph, the interaction results indicate that the influence of PJ on employee retaliatory behaviour is moderated by the level of religiosity, such that when religiosity level is high, the degree of justice perceived has a small negative relationship with relation. Similarly, for low religiosity, a negative relationship exists between PJ and employee retaliatory. However, the relationship becomes more prominent as religiosity reduces, such that as justice reduces, retaliatory behaviour increases especially for individuals low on religiosity. Therefore, religiosity weakens the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour, such that low levels of religiosity have more influence in predicting the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 78 4.2.2.4.2 Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Psychological Contract and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour The fourth hypothesis states that PPC will moderate the relationship between PCB and ERB, specifically when perceived psychological contract is high, there will be a positive relationship between psychological contract breach and retaliatory acts of employees. Below is the summary and interpretation of the multiple regression results: Table 4.14 Multiple Regression of the Moderation of Perceived Psychological Contract on the Relationship between Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Model B SEB Β t Sig Step 1: (Constant) 40.740 1.093 37.273 .000 Breach .748 .254 .255 2.948 .004 Step 2: (Constant) 40.740 1.097 37.139 .000 Breach .732 .260 .249 2.816 .006 Contract -.055 .173 -.028 -.317 .752 Step 3: (Constant) 40.761 1.122 36.335 .000 Breach .726 .268 .247 2.712 .008 Contract -.054 .174 -.028 -.310 .757 Breach x Contract .004 .038 .009 .098 .922 p > .05, R2 = .065, .066, and .066, ΔR2 = .058, .051, and 0.43 reported for Model 1, 2 and 3 respectively. As shown in Table 4.6 above, the hypothesis that perceived psychological contract will moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour was not supported in this study (β = -.057, p > .05). Thus, perceived psychological University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 79 contract does not moderate the relation between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. This means that the strength of the psychological contracts perceived by employees does not strengthen or weaken their likelihood to retaliate after they perceive breach of the psychological contract between themselves and their employers. The third model accounted for 5.1% of the variance in employee retaliatory behaviour. 4.3 Summary of Findings Results obtained from the data analysis show that 1. Psychological contract breach has a significant positive relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour. 2. Perceived justice has significant negative relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour. 3. Religiosity moderates the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour 4. Perceived psychological contract does not moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 80 4.4 Observed Model Based on the results of the study, the proposed conceptual model was revised and is presented in the figure below: Figure 4.3 Summary of Observed Relationships between Variables Examined From the above model, perceived justice and psychological contract breach significantly predicted employee retaliatory behaviour. Also, there is a positive significant relationship between the predictor variables (perceived justice and psychological contract breach). Lastly, religiosity significantly moderated the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. Perceived justice Psychological contract breach Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Religiosity β = .183 r = -.319 r = .255 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 81 CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION 5.1 Introduction The study explored the relationship between psychological contract breach (PCB), perceived justice (PJ) and employee retaliatory behaviour (ERB) in the informal sector. The moderating roles of religiosity and perceived psychological contract (PPC) on those relationships were also explored. Results showed that both PCB and PJ significantly predicted ERB while religiosity moderated the relationship between PJ and ERB. In this chapter, the findings of the study are discussed in relation to previous research conducted on the study variables. Implications of the findings on theory and practice as well as limitations and recommendations for future research are addressed in order to find practical ways of applying the findings of the study. 5.2 Discussion of Main Findings The results and findings of the study are discussed in the sections below: 5.2.1 Perceived Justice and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour The hypothesis that perceived justice will have a significant negative relationship with employee retaliatory behaviour was supported. The finding suggests that the strength of justice perceived by employees accounts for why they engage or do not engage in retaliatory behaviour. When employees perceive their employers are being fair and just in the allocation of resources and in making decisions, there is a reduction in retaliatory behaviours. On the contrary, when unfairness is perceived at the work place, acts of retaliation increase. This finding is in line with several studies conducted both in and outside Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 82 Adams’ (1963) equity theory emphasises the importance employees attach to how they are treated by the employers. The theory posits that people appraise their relationships with organisations the same way they evaluate buying and selling, such that the value of goods or services received must be equal to what is paid for them (Owolabi & Babalola, 2011). In other words, outcomes must be equal to inputs. When there are differences in the perceived ratios of inputs and outputs, there is a sense of inequality. This then becomes an antecedent of negative work behaviours. For instance, when employees feel that they are not are being treated fairly at the place of work, such that the effort they put into the work is not being repaid accordingly, they are likely to engage in retaliatory acts such as stealing and sabotaging the work process. Results are also in line with the argument of Folger and Baron (1996) that when decisions and actions of management are perceived to be unfair, affected employees experience feelings of anger, antipathy, and frustration. These feelings induce a desire to retaliate and to punish the transgressor for engaging in unfair practices. That being so, it is not surprising that employees in the informal sector retaliate when they perceive injustice at work. The Organisational Justice Theory (OJT, Greenberg, 1984, 1987) also provides a framework for explaining the impact of perceptions of justice or injustice on employee retaliatory behaviour. The three dimensions of justice have been found to affect employee attitudes either independently or through interactions (Skarlicki & Folger, 1997; Al-Zu’bi, 2010; Badu & Asumeng, 2013). The results obtained in this study show an inverse relationship between PJ and ERB. This means that as one variable rises, the other reduces and vice versa. On that account, the results show that higher perceptions of justice lead to lower levels of employee retaliatory behaviour while lower perceptions lead to higher levels of employee retaliatory behaviour. These findings substantiate the findings of Badu and Asumeng (2013) who conducted a study among a sample University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 83 of permanent employees drawn from two cities in Ghana. Outcomes of data analysis showed that perceptions of justice positively and significantly influenced OCB, such that higher perceptions of justice produced more expressions of OCB. Findings were also in line with those found from a study conducted by Nyarko et al. (2014) to determine the influence of injustice on counterproductive work behaviour among a sample drawn from public and private corporate bodies in Accra, Ghana. Obtaining a significant and positive reliability coefficient (r = .22, p < .5), it was concluded that the higher the perceptions of injustice, the greater the engagement of employees in counterproductive work behaviour and vice versa. This study also provides support for a study conducted in Jordan by Al-Zu’bi (2010) with the main purpose of investigating the relationship between organisational justice and job satisfaction. The study was conducted using a sample of 229 electrical company employees selected through stratified random sampling. Analysis of the data obtained by the means of self-report questionnaires suggested that perceptions of justice were positively and significantly associated with job satisfaction, in the sense that higher perceptions of justice results in higher levels of job satisfaction while lower perceptions of justice result in lower levels of job satisfaction. In a survey conducted by Allameh and Rostami (2014) among a sample of agricultural employees in the Isfahan province of Iran, the outcomes of data analysis remained consistent with findings from previous research. Results indicated a strong relationship between perceptions of justice and OCB. The relationship was explained that higher perceptions of justice resulted in higher engagement in OCB while lower perceptions of justice resulted in lower levels of OCB. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 84 With these findings from previous research, it is not surprising that perceptions of justice among informal sector employees affect their work behaviour thereby influencing their propensity to engage in retaliatory acts. Taking into account the studies reviewed in this research, it can be said that there is consistency in the notion that that perceptions of justice greatly influence employee attitudes and behaviour. Regardless of the countries in which the studies were conducted and the professions of study participants, results have consistently showed that higher perceptions of justice produce positive work behaviours like OCB and higher levels of job satisfaction while lower perceptions of justice and perceptions of injustice produced negative work attitudes and behaviours like counter productive work behaviour, retaliatory behaviour and fraudulent intentions. 5.2.2 Psychological Contract Breach and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour The study hypothesised that there would be a significant relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. This hypothesis was supported by the results of the Pearson correlation test. These findings are consistent with studies which show that perceptions breach of the psychological contract are antecedents of behaviour which is detrimental to the organisation. Due to changing nature of the modern work environment, there is a great uncertainty about work relations (Rosen et al., 2009). This has resulted in problems in the employer-employee relation, such that employees perceived greater failure of their employers in fulfilling their obligations (Shore & Coyle-Shapiro, 2003). As research on psychological contract breach and its consequences are being conducted, more and more employees report that aspects of their psychological contracts have been breached (Robinson & Morrinson, 2000; Robinson & University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 85 Brown, 2004). Results on the effects of psychological contracts have consistently been negative, and this study is not different. Gouldner’s (1960) norm of reciprocity asserts that individuals respond in kind to the treatments they receive. That being so, people respond positively to positive treatment and negatively to negative treatment. The psychological contract is based on the notion of mutual obligations between two parties (Rousseau, 1989), thus when one party fails to respect the contract and honour their obligations, a breach is perceived by the other party (Rousseau, 1989; 1995; Morrison & Robinson, 1997). The situation is not different in the employment setting. Employers and employees have mutual obligations and expectations which form the psychological contract. When a breach of contract occurs, employees are freed from their obligations and they do as they please, even if it is to the detriment of the organisation. The Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964) explains the repercussions of PCB. Like other relations, the employer-employee relationship is governed by rules of exchange. Therefore when one party fails to adhere to the rules of the exchange, negative things happen. When an organisation fails to fulfil promises made to employees, they respond by exhibiting behaviours which harm the organisation. The results obtained in this study are in consonance with the findings obtained by Bordia et al. (2008). The trio studied the relationship between psychological contract breach and workplace deviance. Thy found there was a significant relationship between psychological breach, revenge and deviant behaviour. Specifically, breach of the psychological contract initiated revenge seeking. Motivated by revenge, employees then engaged in deviant behaviour. This suggests that when promises made to employees are broken, employees are likely to consider settling the scores, which they do by engaging in workplace deviance. Likewise, Chui and Peng University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 86 (2008) found that psychological contract breach related positively to both personal deviance and organisational deviance. This study also corroborates findings by Lo and Aryee (2003) who explored the antecedents and outcomes of psychological contract breach. Results showed that psychological contract breach predicted turnover intentions, psychological withdrawal behaviour, and civic behaviour. It is not surprising that employees in the informal sector retaliate when breach is perceived. For this sector, formal employment contracts are virtually non-existent, making the psychological contract an important component of the employer-employee relationship. In other words, reciprocal obligations guide employer-employee relations in the informal sector. It is no wonder that a perceptions of discrepancies in fulfilment of personal obligations influences employee attitudes and behaviour. 5.2.3 Perceived Justice, Religiosity and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Consistent with prediction, religiosity moderated the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. Specifically, religiosity weakened the relationship between perceived justice and breach. Though studies have proven that perceptions of injustice lead to retaliatory acts aimed at restoring equity, other factors, such as religiosity, may influence this relationship. Some criticisms of Gouldner’s (1960) norm of reciprocity, may be useful in explaining the moderation of religiosity on the relationship between PJ and ERB. Even though Gouldner (1960) theorised reciprocity as a norm, studies have shown that there are differences in individual’s perceptions reciprocity (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Cropanzano and Mitchell (2005) pointed out that reciprocity could be viewed as a belief, such that people got what they deserved. In that case, employees who are victims of unfair practices at work could rationalise injustice by saying they got what they deserved. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 87 The just world phenomenon, based on the pioneering research of Lerner (1980), suggests that individuals have a strong conviction in universal justice even when there is lack of evidence to that effect (Hafer & Bègue , 2005). Because of this belief, people look for ways to justify or rationalise injustice, thereby reducing the negative effects associated with injustice. Strategies of justification include denial and reinterpretation of the unfair acts. Religiosity has been found by research to be related to perceptions of a just world (Bègue, 2002). Bègue (2002) was of the view that religiosity, perceptions of a just world and perceptions of justice were correlated. In the Ghanaian context, the just world phenomenon has been described in a number of ways using local dialects. These words have become anglicised and become part of the national diction. The descriptions include fama Nyame syndrome, the Nyame wɔ hɔ idea, Nyame bɛ yɛ philosophy, and the ideology of ɛnyɛ hwee. These notions simply explain the beliefs of Ghanaians in leaving everything in the hands of God or destiny. This will explain why religiosity influences the relationship between PJ and EMP. Hence, when employees perceive injustice at the work, their inclination to react is influenced by their beliefs that God will handle the situation so there is no need to retaliate. An interesting observation made by the researcher during data collection is that respondents including atheists (people who do not believe in the existence of God) and deists (people who believe in the existence of God but are not religious) scored either 4 (quite a bit) or 5 (very much) on the 7th item on the Centrality of Religiosity Scale (To what extent do you believe in the afterlife, immortality of the soul, reincarnation or resurrection of the dead?). This shows how important the afterlife is to Ghanaians. The belief therefore significantly influences the behaviour of employees. It is common to hear Ghanaian employees saying “my reward is in heaven”. This ideology may have influenced their decision not to retaliate even though they perceived the injustice at the work place. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 88 5.2.4 Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Psychological Contract and Employee Retaliatory Behaviour Contrary to the expectations, perceived psychological contract did not moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. The findings are in line with the argument of Turnely et al. (2003) that regardless of the perceptions and aspects of PC, a breach of contract leads to negative employee attitudes. Analysis also showed that there was a relationship between PCB, PJ and ERB. This could explain the failure of the strength of PC to moderate the relationship between PCB and ERB. The notion that characteristics of the situation or process of breach experience alters the interpretation and impact of breach is another explanation for the result obtained. Indeed studies show that there are variations in employees’ perceptions of psychological contracts and the value they place on obligations and these variations influenced the impact of breach of contract on employee attitudes and behaviour. This result goes against the findings of Conway and Briner (2002) who reported that the more important the psychological contract which is breached, the greater the negative outcomes. This result could be due to the fact that unlike previous studies which have concentrated on the types of psychological contracts as a moderator between PCB and employee attitudes and behaviour, this study focused on PPC as a unified construct. 5.3 Contributions of the Study The findings of the study imply that psychological contract breach and perceived justice are significant constructs connected to employee retaliatory behaviour. The theoretical and practical contributions of the study are discussed in the sections below: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 89 5.3.1 Theoretical Contributions The study contributes to the understanding of the antecedents of employee retaliatory behaviour. Theoretically, outcomes of this study add to the literature on psychological contracts, perceived justice and organisational behaviour in Ghana. Since there is a dearth of literature on employee retaliatory behaviour and informal sector employees in Ghana, results of the study provide a point of reference which can be used for future studies. Due to interest in formal industrial and organisational settings, there appears to be little literature on informal organisational settings. This study therefore highlights some of the issues in informal organisational settings. The study also serves as wakeup call for government and other stakeholders who seem to have ‘forgotten’ and ‘ignored’ the informal sector in policy formulations and in ensuring that the labour act is adhered to by all employers and managers. Besides, this study highlights the role that religiosity plays in the lives of employees and how it influences their behaviour at work. For employees who are mostly left at the whims of their employers, it is not surprising that they look to God. 5.3.2 Practical Implications Given the changing nature of today’s working environment, it is important for employers to know what motivates the attitudes and behaviour, either good or bad, of their employees. The outcomes of the study suggest that perceptions of fairness and unfairness at the workplace significantly influences employees to retaliate against their employers. This means that employers and managers must have a written code by which they conduct the affairs of the work place. It will also be in the best interest of the manager and organisation to treat employees equally and fairly. It will also benefit the employer to listen to the concerns of employees University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 90 regardless of the levels in which they are and also take those concerns into considerations when making decisions which affect the employees and the organisation as a whole. The fact that perceptions of justice are more influential than psychological contract breach in eliciting acts of retaliation implies that Ghanaian urban informal sector workers place more emphasis on fairness in sharing and allocating rewards and in interpersonal treatment. Even though these employees often earn below the National Daily Minimum Wage, they are more concerned about fairness in work processes. It is therefore vital for employers and managers to make sure that their decisions are free from biases and consistently applied to all employees. Managers must also collect accurate information and take into account the concerns of employees when making job decisions. Again, managers must be willing to clarify decisions, provide additional information when requested by employees and leave room for employees to challenge or appeal decisions. It is equally important for employers to show respect to their employees and treat them with dignity. Also, research shows that perceptions of breach of psychological contracts are very common. No matter how hard managers try to satisfy employees, some degree of breach may occur. This however does not warrant mangers giving up on efforts to manage perceptions of breach due to the adverse effects it has for both employees and organisations. It is important to note that perceptions of breach are results of perceptions of psychological contracts. Employment contracts should not be limited to the formal sector only. Managers and employers in the informal sector can also introduce employment contracts detailing the obligations and expectations of both parties involved. There should also be unambiguous communications about the obligations and expectations of both parties from the commencement of the employment relationship. Communication between employers and employees should be periodical in order to avoid misunderstandings and misinterpretation of obligations and expectations. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 91 Managers and employers should work towards building trust and rapport between themselves and their employees. This will enable employees to freely voice their concerns and report breaches of their psychological contracts as soon as they are perceived. This way, the situation can quickly be resolved to avoid negative work behaviours. The Government of Ghana should also focus more on the informal sector. Though the Labour Act is meant to serve as a guide for all workers in the country, only the formal sector benefits from the measures and policies stated. The Ministry of Employment and Labour Relations should sensitise and educate informal sector employees on their rights and also make employment contracts in the sector mandatory. The workers in the informal sector will be best served if an act or policy which focuses on that sector alone is created, taking into account all the challenges faced in that sector and providing practical measure to overcome those challenges. 5.4 Limitations of the Study Like any other research, this study was not without limitations. The major limitation in this study is the use of self-report measures to examine the variables of study. Though this method was the most appropriate given the size of the sample and the time involved, sensitive questions, especially those regarding perceptions of justice, retaliatory acts and religiosity may boost social desirability bias. This bias refers to the affinity of survey respondents to answer questions in a way that will be viewed positively by others. Some of the respondents expressed fear that their employers may see the answers they provided to the questions. The researcher, however, assured them of confidentiality in order to reduce their likelihood of answering questions to increase their social desirability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 92 Regardless of this limitation, this study extends our understanding of the factors which predict employee retaliatory behaviour and opens our eyes to the work behaviour of employees in the informal sector. 5.5 Recommendations for Future Research It is recommended that this study is replicated using a sample from other informal industrial settings such as farming and fishing. This study can also be replicated with focus on the three dimensions of justice and the two types of psychological contracts. Future studies can also make comparisons between the formal and informal sector by using samples from both sectors. Given the limitations of the study, future researchers may examine the employee retaliatory behaviour construct using a mixed method design, in order to fully understand retaliatory behaviour in the Ghanaian sociocultural context. Future researchers should also consider a larger sample when studying these constructs. Another exciting area for future research would be the reactions of both employers and co-employees to retaliatory acts by employees. More focus should also be turned to studying psychological contracts and religiosity as a moderator variables. Future researchers can consider studying the influence of demographic variables such as age, gender, and tenure on hypotheses tested in this study. Measurement strategies for addressing potential response bias should also be considered by future researchers. 5.6 Conclusion The main purpose of this cross-sectional survey was to explore the relationship between psychological contract breach, perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour in the informal sector. The moderating roles of religiosity and perceived psychological contract on the relationships between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour and psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour respectively were explored University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 93 as well. The study variables were tested using self-report measures among a sample of 127 urban informal sector employees drawn from Ho, Hohoe, and Peki in the Volta Region. Four hypothesis served as guides for this study. As hypothesised, there was a significant relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. The results showed an inverse relationship among the two variables, such that as one rose, the other fell. In other words, employees who perceived higher levels of justice engaged in less acts of retaliation. Employees, on the other hand, who perceived low levels of justice and fairness engaged in more acts of retaliation. Results also showed a positive relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. In other words, high levels of perceived breach led to high engagement in retaliatory behaviour. Furthermore, findings from the study revealed that religiosity moderates the relationship between perceived justice and employee retaliatory behaviour. This indicates that employees’ level of religiosity influences their likelihood of retaliating when they perceive justice or lack of it at the work place. Finally, findings from the study show that perceived psychological contract did not moderate the relationship between psychological contract breach and employee retaliatory behaviour. This means that employees who perceived a breach of their psychological contract engaged in retaliatory behaviour regardless of the strengths of the psychological contracts they shared with their employers. It is the expectation of the researcher that these findings will not only be valuable for literature on organisational behaviour but will also stir up interest in the informal sector and aid government in formulating policies which will benefit employees in the sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 94 REFERENCES Adams, J. S. (1963). Towards an understanding of inequity. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67(5), 422-450. Aiken, L. S., & West, S. G. (1991). Multiple regression: Testing and interpreting interactions. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Allport, G. W. & Ross, J. M. (1967). 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University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 106 APPENDICES APPENDIX A CONSENT FORM Section A: Background Information Title: Psychological Contract Breach, Perceived Justice and Retaliation in the Informal Sector. Principal Investigator: Juliet Enam Dogbatse Principal Supervisor: Dr Maxwell Asumeng Address: Department of Psychology, University of Ghana, Legon Section B: Consent to Participate in Research You are being asked to participate in a research titled ‘Psychological contract breach, perceived justice and retaliation in the informal sector’. This study is being conducted to examine how the perception of broken promises influences workers in the informal sector to retaliate. You will be given a questionnaire to fill out if you agree to participate in the study. The questionnaire will include questions about your job, attitude, and religious beliefs. The questionnaire will take about 20 minutes to complete. You must be at least 16 years to complete this questionnaire. There are no anticipated physical risks involved in participating in this study. Unfortunately, you may experience some psychological stress while participating in the study. The researcher will counsel you if this occurs. There are also no known benefits that you will get from your participating in this study. However, the informal sector has largely been ignored in studies on psychological contracts and their effects on job attitudes and behaviour, therefore your University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 107 participation will help researchers make a holistic generalization of Ghanaian workers and also promote interest in the informal sector. Any information you give out will be kept confidential and any report made public will not include any information that will make it possible to identify you. Your participation in this research study is voluntary. You may choose not to participate and you may withdraw your consent to participate at any time. You will not be penalised in any way should you decide not to participate or to withdraw from this study. Please ask any questions you have now. If you have questions later, you may contact me at julietdogbatse@ymail.com or on 026-152-1621. Section C: Volunteer Agreement The above document describing the benefits, risks and procedures for the research titled ‘Psychological Contract breach, perceived justice and retaliation in the informal sector’ has been read and explained to me. I have been given the chance to ask questions regarding my participation in this study and those questions have been answered to my satisfaction. I hereby agree to participate as a volunteer and append my signature or mark to that effect. ________________________________________________ Name of Volunteer ___________________________________ _______________________ Signature or mark of volunteer Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 108 If volunteers cannot read the form themselves, a witness must sign here: I was present while the benefits, risks and procedures were read to the volunteer. All questions were answered and the volunteer has agreed to take part in the research. _________________________________________________ Name of witness ___________________________________ _______________________ Signature of witness Date I certify that the nature and purpose, the potential benefits, and possible risks associated with participating in this research have been explained to the above individual. __________________________________________________ Name of Person who Obtained Consent _____________________________ ______________________ Signature of Person Who Obtained Consent Date University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 109 APPENDIX B DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT The researcher is a student of the University of Ghana conducting a study on psychological contract breach, perceived justice, and retaliation in the informal sector. The questionnaire will include questions about your job and religious practices. In the case where you do not speak, read or write English, the researcher will explain the questions to you in Ewe and record your answers. The questionnaire will take about 20 minutes to complete. There are no anticipated risks in participating in this study. Any information you give out will be kept confidential. If you agree to participate in this study, please read the instructions and continue to fill out the questionnaire. For further information or questions about this research please contact Juliet Enam Dogbatse on 0508455455. Instructions The questionnaire is in six sections: section A to section F and should be completed by you. Please be as truthful and accurate as possible in your responses to ensure true results of the study. Thank you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 110 Section A: Psychological Contract Scale Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements which measure the extent to which you perceive psychological contract between you and your employer. Answer by ticking (√) only one answer in each case. 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 =neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree Statement Strongly Disagree (1) Disagree (2) Neutral (3) Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5) 1 I do this job just for the money 2 I prefer to work in a strictly defined set of working hours 3 I expect to gain promotion in this company with length of service and effort to achieve goals 4 It is important not to get too involved in your job 5 I expect to grow in this organisation 6 I expect to be paid for any overtime I do 7 I come to work purely to get the job done 8 I feel part of a team in this organisation 9 My loyalty to the organisation is defined by the terms of my contract 10 I feel this company reciprocates the effort put in by its employees 11 I only do whatever is necessary to get the job done 12 I am motivated to contribute 100% to this organisation in return for future employment benefits 13 I have a reasonable chance of promotion if I work hard 14 My career path in the organisation is clearly mapped out 15 I work to achieve the purely short term goals of my job 16 I will work for this company indefinitely 17 I am heavily involved in my place of work University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 111 Section B: Psychological Contract Breach Instrument This instrument evaluates the extent to which you perceive a breach of the psychological contract between you and your employee. Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements. Answer by ticking (√) only one answer in each case. 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 =neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree Statement Strongly Disagree (1) Disagree (2) Neutral (3) Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5) 1 Almost all of the promises made by my employer during recruitment have been kept so far 2 I feel that my employer has come through in fulfilling the promises made to me when I was hired 3 So far my employer has done an excellent job of fulfilling its promises to me 4 I have not received everything promised to me in exchange for my contributions 5 My employer has broken many of its promises to me even though I've upheld my side of the deal University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 112 Section C: Perceived Justice Measure Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements which measure perception of justice at work. Answer by ticking (√) only one answer in each case. 1 = strongly disagree 2 = disagree 3 =neutral 4 = agree 5 = strongly agree Statement Strongly Disagree (1) Disagree (2) Neutral (3) Agree (4) Strongly Agree (5) 1 My work schedule is fair. 2 I think that my level of pay is fair 3 I consider my work load to be quite fair 4 Overall the rewards I receive here quite fair. 5 I feel that my job responsibilities here are quite fair 6 My boss uses partiality in making decisions about the job 7 My boss makes sure that all employee concerns are heard before job decisions are made 8 To make job decisions, my boss collects accurate and complete information 9 My boss clarifies decisions and provides additional information when requested by employees. 10 All jobs decisions are applied consistently to all affected employees. 11 Employees here are allowed to challenge or appeal job decisions made by the boss 12 When decisions are made about my job, the boss treats me with kindness and consideration 13 When decisions are made about my job, the boss treats me with respect and dignity 14 When decisions are made about my job, the boss is sensitive to my personal needs 15 When decisions are made about my job, the boss deals with me in a truthful manner 16 When decisions are made about my job, the boss shows concern for my right as employee 17 Concerning decisions made about my job, the boss discusses with me the implications of the decisions 18 The boss offers adequate justification for decisions made about my job 19 When making decisions about my job, the boss offers explanations that make sense to me 20 My boss explains very clearly any decisions made about my job University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 113 Section D: Retaliation Scale This instrument contains a list of retaliatory behaviour exhibited by employees. Please indicate how often you engage in the behaviour listed. Answer by ticking (√) only one answer in each case. 1 = Never 2 = Rarely 3 =Occasionally 4 = Often 5 = Very often Statement Never (1) Rarely (2) Occasionall y (3) Often (4) Very often (5) 1 I purposely damaged equipment or work process 2 I took supplies home without permission 3 I wasted company materials 4 I called in sick when not ill 5 I spoke poorly about the organisation to others 6 I refused to work weekends or overtime when asked 7 I left a mess unnecessarily (did not clean up) 8 I disobeyed my boss’ instructions 9 I argued with my boss 10 I gossiped about my boss 11 I spread rumours about my co-workers 12 I ignored a co-worker 13 I failed to give a co-worker required information 14 I tried to look busy while wasting time 15 I took an extended lunch break 16 I intentionally worked slower 17 I spent time on personal matters while at work University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 114 Section E: Centrality of Religiosity Scale Please indicate the extent to which you agree or disagree with the following statements which evaluate your level of religiosity. Answer by (√) only one answer in each case. 1 How often do you think about religious issues?  Very often  Often  Occasionally  Rarely  Never 2 To what extent do you believe that God or something divine exists?  Very much  Quite a bit  Moderately  Not very much  Not at all 3 How often do you take part in religious services?  More than once a week  Once a week  Once or three times a month  A few times a year  Never 4 How often do you pray or meditate?  Several times a day  More than once a week  Once or three times a month  A few times a year  Never 5 How often do you experience situations in which you have the feeling that God or something divine intervenes in your life?  Very often  Often  Occasionally  Rarely  Never 6 How interested are you in learning about religious topics?  Very much  Quite a bit  Moderately  Not very much  Not at all 7 To what extent do you believe in the afterlife (immortality of the soul, reincarnation, or resurrection of the dead)?  Very much  Quite a bit  Moderately  Not very much  Not at all 8 How important is it to take part in religious service?  Very much  Quite a bit  Moderately  Not very much  Not at all 9 How important is personal prayer or meditation for you?  Very much  Quite a bit  Moderately  Not very much  Not at all 10 How often do you experience situations in which you have the feeling that God or something divine wants to communicate or reveal something to you?  Very often  Often  Occasionally  Rarely  Never University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 115 Section F: Demographic Data 1. Age  16-25  26-35  36-45  Above 45 2. Gender  Male  Female 3. Please state your profession ……………………………………….. 4. Wages per month  Below ¢ 100  GH¢ 100 - GH¢ 200  GH¢ 200 - GH¢ 400  GH¢ 400 - GH¢ 500  Above ¢ 500 5. How long have you held your current job?  1 year  1-4 years  5-10 years  Above 10 years 6. What type of employee are you?  Permanent employee  Part-timer 7. Religion  Muslim  Christian  Traditional/African Religion  Other. Please state ………………………………………………. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 116 APPENDIX C RELIABILITY ANALYSIS PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT BREACH Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .814 .816 5 PERCEIVED PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alphaa Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Itemsa N of Items .725 .694 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 117 TRANSACTIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .820 .827 10 RELATIONAL PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTRACT Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .793 .799 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 118 PERCEIVED JUSTICE Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .791 .805 20 DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .753 .764 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 119 PROCEDURAL JUSTICE Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .810 .826 6 INTERACTIONAL JUSTICE Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .839 .865 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 120 EMPLOYEE RETALIATORY BEHAVIOUR Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .832 .818 17 RELIGIOSITY Case Processing Summary N % Cases Valid 127 100.0 Excludeda 0 .0 Total 127 100.0 a. Listwise deletion based on all variables in the procedure. Reliability Statistics Cronbach's Alpha Cronbach's Alpha Based on Standardized Items N of Items .971 .975 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 121 APPENDIX D DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Descriptive Statistics N Minimum Maximu m Mean Std. Deviation Skewness Kurtosis Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error Statistic Std. Error Psychological Contract Breach 127 8 25 18.80 4.323 -.761 .215 -.097 .427 Perceived Psychological Contract 127 41 69 54.28 6.505 .157 .215 -.729 .427 Perceived justice 127 26 89 49.46 14.670 .537 .215 -.447 .427 Employee Retaliatory Behaviour 127 19 71 40.74 12.688 .439 .215 -.611 .427 Religiosity 127 12 50 39.28 9.460 -1.024 .215 .310 .427 Valid N (listwise) 127 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 122 APPENDIX E CORRELATION MATRIX Correlations Psychological Contract Breach Perceived Psychological Contract Transactional Psychological Contract Relational Psychological Contract Perceived justice Distributive Justice Procedural Justice Interactional Justice Retaliation Religiosity Psychological Contract Breach Pearson Correlation 1 -.199* -.068 -.130 -.361** -.266** -.184* -.347** .255** -.034 Sig. (2-tailed) .025 .449 .145 .000 .002 .038 .000 .004 .702 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Perceived Psychological Contract Pearson Correlation -.199* 1 .528** .457** .116 .063 .041 .130 -.078 -.007 Sig. (2-tailed) .025 .000 .000 .196 .478 .647 .147 .385 .937 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Transactional Psychological Contract Pearson Correlation -.068 .528** 1 -.514** -.101 .018 -.182* -.072 -.097 -.005 Sig. (2-tailed) .449 .000 .000 .257 .842 .040 .423 .279 .955 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Relational Psychological Contract Pearson Correlation -.130 .457** -.514** 1 .223* .045 .233** .206* .023 -.002 Sig. (2-tailed) .145 .000 .000 .012 .612 .008 .020 .798 .983 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Perceived justice Pearson Correlation -.361** .116 -.101 .223* 1 .578** .750** .906** -.319** .016 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .196 .257 .012 .000 .000 .000 .000 .859 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Distributive Justice Pearson Correlation -.266** .063 .018 .045 .578** 1 .245** .317** -.190* .053 Sig. (2-tailed) .002 .478 .842 .612 .000 .005 .000 .032 .553 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Procedural Justice Pearson Correlation -.184* .041 -.182* .233** .750** .245** 1 .528** -.273** .068 Sig. (2-tailed) .038 .647 .040 .008 .000 .005 .000 .002 .448 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Interactional Justice Pearson Correlation -.347** .130 -.072 .206* .906** .317** .528** 1 -.268** -.035 Sig. (2-tailed) .000 .147 .423 .020 .000 .000 .000 .002 .700 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Retaliatory behaviour Pearson Correlation .255** -.078 -.097 .023 -.319** -.190* -.273** -.268** 1 -.361** Sig. (2-tailed) .004 .385 .279 .798 .000 .032 .002 .002 .000 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 Religiosity Pearson Correlation -.034 -.007 -.005 -.002 .016 .053 .068 -.035 -.361** 1 Sig. (2-tailed) .702 .937 .955 .983 .859 .553 .448 .700 .000 N 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 127 *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 123 APPENDIX F REGRESSION TABLES HYPOTHESIS 3 Variables Entered/Removeda Model Variables Entered Variables Removed Method 1 PJ_Centb . Enter 2 Religiosity_Centb . Enter 3 PJ_Religiosity_C enteredb . Enter a. Dependent Variable: Retaliatory Behaviour b. All requested variables entered. Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .319a .102 .094 12.075 .102 14.125 1 125 .000 2 .478b .228 .216 11.235 .127 20.380 1 124 .000 3 .511c .261 .243 11.040 .033 5.432 1 123 .021 a. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent b. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent, Religiosity_Cent c. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent, Religiosity_Cent, PJ_Religiosity_Centered University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 124 ANOVAa Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 2059.361 1 2059.361 14.125 .000b Residual 18225.064 125 145.801 Total 20284.425 126 2 Regression 4631.923 2 2315.962 18.347 .000c Residual 15652.502 124 126.230 Total 20284.425 126 3 Regression 5293.884 3 1764.628 14.479 .000d Residual 14990.541 123 121.874 Total 20284.425 126 a. Dependent Variable: Retaliatory Behaviour b. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent c. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent, Religiosity_Cent d. Predictors: (Constant), PJ_Cent, Religiosity_Cent, PJ_Religiosity_Centered HYPOTHESIS 4 Variables Entered/Removeda Model Variables Entered Variables Removed Method 1 PCB_Centb . Enter 2 PPC_Centb . Enter 3 PCB_PPC_Cente redb . Enter a. Dependent Variable: Retaliatory Behaviour b. All requested variables entered. Model Summary Model R R Square Adjusted R Square Std. Error of the Estimate Change Statistics R Square Change F Change df1 df2 Sig. F Change 1 .255a .065 .058 12.318 .065 8.693 1 125 .004 2 .256b .066 .051 12.362 .001 .100 1 124 .752 3 .257c .066 .043 12.412 .000 .010 1 123 .922 a. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent b. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent, PPC_Cent c. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent, PPC_Cent, PCB_PPC_Centered University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 125 ANOVAa Model Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. 1 Regression 1318.866 1 1318.866 8.693 .004b Residual 18965.559 125 151.724 Total 20284.425 126 2 Regression 1334.209 2 667.104 4.365 .015c Residual 18950.216 124 152.824 Total 20284.425 126 3 Regression 1335.687 3 445.229 2.890 .038d Residual 18948.739 123 154.055 Total 20284.425 126 a. Dependent Variable: Retaliatory Behaviour b. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent c. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent, PPC_Cent d. Predictors: (Constant), PCB_Cent, PPC_Cent, PCB_PPC_Centered University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh