i | P a g e METHODIST UNIVERSITY COLLEGE GHANA (DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY) FACTORS INFLUENCING THE CAREER CHOICE OF UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS IN THE HUMANITIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA BY: FINA AKU WOASEY 10513119 THIS THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF M.PHIL GUIDANCE AND COUNSELLING DEGREE JULY, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ii | P a g e DECLARATION STUDENT’S DECLARATION I, FINA AKU WOASEY hereby, declare that this Thesis, with the exception of quotations and references contained in published works which have all been identified and duly acknowledged, is entirely my own original work, and it has not been submitted, either in part or whole for another degree elsewhere. SIGNATURE: …………………………………………………………………………………… DATE: …………………………………………………………………………………………… SUPERVISOR’S DECLARATION I hereby certify that this thesis has been supervised and assessed with the laid down guidelines by the Methodist University College, Dansoman. NAME OF PRINCIPAL SUPERVISOR: PROF N.K. PECKU SIGNATURE: .................................................................................................................................. DATE: .............................................................................................................................................. NAME OF SUPERVISOR: REV DR. DANIEL BRUCE SIGNATURE: ................................................................................................................................ DATE: .............................................................................................................................................. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iii | P a g e DEDICATION I dedicate this work first and foremost to the Almighty God for giving me the grace and the strength to successfully complete this work. I also dedicate this to my supportive husband and my family for their encouragement and prayers. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh iv | P a g e ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My sincere and endless thanks go to the Almighty God for his guidance and providence. My next thanks go to my supervisors Prof N.K. Pecku and Rev Dr. Daniel Bruce who have assisted me throughout my research. Many thanks to my family and all my friends who encouraged and motivated me. I cannot forget my lovely husband Mr. Seyram Agbegnegah for his tireless support and my son Kekeli Agbenyegah. I also thank the research assistants and all who have been part of this work in one way or the other. May the good Lord graciously reward you. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh v | P a g e ABSTRACT The study investigated factors that influenced the career choice of students in the Humanities at the University of Ghana, Legon. The main objective was to find out factors that influenced undergraduate students’ career choice. The research design used was the survey design. Research questionnaire and unstructured interviews was the main research instrument used. To achieve the objectives, simple random sampling technique was used to select three hundred and sixty (360) respondents and questionnaire and convenient sampling technique was used to select two guidance and counselling coordinators. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyzing data. The reliability was established using Cronbach’s alpha. The results of the hypothesis for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice signifying that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are overlooked. It was recommended that Government as a matter of urgency has to enter into partnership with non-governmental agencies and other donor agencies to raise adequate fund to create job opportunities in the country to solve the problem of under paying jobs. This will enable undergraduate students to make informed decisions about their intended career choices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vi | P a g e TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Declaration i Dedication ii Acknowledgement iii Abstract iv List of tables’ viii List of figures ix CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Background to the Study 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem 5 1.3 Research objectives 6 1.4 Research questions 6 1.5 The Significance of the Study 6 1.6 Scope of the study 7 1.7 Organization of the study 7 CHAPTER TWO REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.0 Introduction 8 2.1.1Difference between Job, Career and Calling 8 Career Decision Making 9 Emotional Intelligence 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh vii | P a g e Employability Satisfaction 14 Connection between College Course and Career 15 Spirituality and Career 15 Career Path and Career Development 16 2.2 Theoretical Framework of the Study 20 2.3 Related Studies 39 2.4 Challenges that Influence Career Choice by Undergraduate Students 54 2.5Chapter Summary 56 2.6Statement of Hypotheses 57 2.7 Operational Definitions 57 CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 58 3.2 Research Design 58 3.3 Population 58 3.4 Sample and sampling technique 59 3.5 Research Instrument 61 3.6 Procedure 63 3.7 Pilot study 63 3.8 Scoring 64 3.8 Data Analysis 65 3.9 Ethical consideration 65 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh viii | P a g e CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS Introduction 66 Preliminary analysis 66 Test of stated hypotheses 74 CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Introduction 77 Discussion 77 Summary of the Findings 90 Conclusion s 90 Recommendations 91 Implication of findings 92 Limitations of the study 93 Suggestion for further studies 94 REFERENCES 95 APPENDIX ‘A’ 109 APPENDIX ‘B’ 114 APPENDIX ‘C’ 115 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ix | P a g e LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE Table 2.0: Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks 28 Table 4.1: demographic characteristics of undergraduate students 67 Table 4.2 Undergraduate Students Career Decision 70 Table 4.3 Chi Square Analysis of Relationship between Intrinsic Factors and Career Choice 74 Table 4.4 Chi Square Analysis of Relationship between Extrinsic Factors and Career Choice 75 Table 4.5 Chi Square of the Relationship between Interpersonal Factors and Career Choice 76 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh x | P a g e LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page Figure 2.0: Holland’s 6 basic types of personal orientation toward work— RIASEC 32 Figure 2.1 Theoretical framework 56 Figure 4.1: Unavailability of well-paying jobs 71 Figure 4.2: Influx of unemployed BA graduates 72 Figure 4.3 Lack of skills for job acquisition 73 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 | P a g e CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of Study Career choice is one of many important choices students will make in determining future plans but this has become a complex science with the dawn of information technology, the emergence of post industrial revolution and job competition. Wattles (2009) contended that industrialization and post industrialization have made it possible for a common person to be rich as long as she or he has due skills and knowledge and such decisions will impact them throughout their lives. In today‘s competitive world of knowledge and the continuous economic hardship, one has not only to make due career planning but also exhaustive career research before making a career choice so as to adjust to the evolving socioeconomic conditions (Wattles, 2009). The essence of who a student is will revolve around what a student wants to do with his or her lifelong work. Interestingly, the choice of careers, subjects, and courses of study and the subsequent career paths to follow are a nightmare for undergraduate students (Issa and Nwalo 2008). Most often, choosing the right subject combination leading to the right profession can make the difference between enjoying and detesting the career in future. According to Kerka (2000), career choice is influenced by multiple factors including personality, interests, self-concept, cultural identity, globalization, socialization, role model, social support and available resources such as information and finance. Bandura et al (2001) state that each individual undertaking the process is influenced by several factors including the context in which they live, their personal aptitudes, social contacts and educational attainment. According to Hewitt (2010), most people are influenced by careers that their parents favor, others follow the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 | P a g e careers that their educational choices have opened for them, some choose to follow their passion regardless of how much or little it will make them while others choose the careers that give high income. Globally, researchers have investigated factors influencing students‘ career choice in various fields of specialization. To mention a few, there is literature on the views of students in teaching career (Kyriacou and Coulthard, 2000). These studies revealed that the main reasons for student choosing teaching career fall into three main areas, namely extrinsic factors, intrinsic factors and altruistic factors. Extrinsic reasons cover aspects of jobs which are not inherent in work itself, such aspects include long holidays, level of pay and status. Intrinsic motives may be understood as entering the career for job related factors like the nature of the job, for example, the activity of teaching children, chance for lifelong learning and many opportunities that are associated with the job. The third category is altruistic factors. These often go beyond tangible benefits that the career has to offer. Individuals who are motivated by altruistic reasons see teaching as a socially worthwhile and important job. They have a desire and passion to teach, a great love for children and desire to help society improve and make a difference to the lives of their students (Kyriacou and Coulthard, 2000). In other careers, such as entrepreneurship, studies have shown that students‘ intentions to become entrepreneurs are partly influenced by attitude, self-efficacy, prior experiences and family exposure to business (Pihie, 2009; Haase and Lautenschlager, 2011). However, social demographic characteristics such as age and gender were insignificant with the intentions to become entrepreneurs. For engineers, perceptions of a person, job fit and financial rewards were found to be the key motives for university students‘ career choice intentions (Suan, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 | P a g e Mat and Lin Im, 2012). The assumption that one could make based on these findings is that, motivation behind one‘s career choice intentions varies across professions and culture. Students perception of being suitable for particular jobs also has been found to be influenced by a number of factors including ethnic background, year in school, level of achievement, choice of subjects, attitudes and differences in job characteristics (McQuaid and Bond, 2003). It is worth noting that studies have shown that the majority of students in Tanzania finish their secondary school education without adequate knowledge on career choice due to lack of proper career guidance and counselling (Puja, 2001; Mvungi, 2009). Consequently, they are directly or indirectly ―affected‖ when they start university education because the majority of them lack the knowledge necessary to choose fields that best suit their personalities from variety of programmes offered in universities. Further, a study by Avugla (2011) proved that most students in Ghana complete their senior high school without adequate knowledge on career choice. This Avugla (2011) attributed to lack of proper career guidance and counselling. He concludes that these students are influenced by extrinsic, intrinsic and interpersonal factors in choosing the ―right‖ career from a variety of programmes when they gain admission to further their education in universities. The role of spirituality and religion in career development relate positively to desirable career development outcome. Similarly, faith plays an important role in the career decision making process for students with spiritual or religious commitment (Duffy and Dick 2009). Stebleton, (2007) posited that students have external locus of control and believe that there are numerous external factors which influence their career choices. These external factors include political and economic considerations, previous work experience and the influence of key University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 | P a g e individuals in a person‘s life. Pummel, Harwood and Lavallee, (2008) reported that external influences that help to shape an individual‘s career choice are also influenced by significant others through social support from peers. O‘Brien (1996) asserted that everyone should have an honest occupation since work is one of our greatest blessings. However, most people often make wrong career decisions due to lack of information, ignorance, peer pressure, wrong modeling or as a result of prestige attached to certain careers without adequate career guidance and career counselling (Salami, 1999; Ndambuki and Mutie, 1999). As observed by Kidd (2006), when people are provided with adequate information at the right time, it can make a big difference in career planning. There are tools for students in college to help them choose a career. These tools include career tests, career counseling, job fairs, and job shadowing (Trusty et al., 2005). Career tests usually offer a wide range of questions that pool all of a student‘s interests and group them into possible job fields and majors. Career tests can show where students need development in skills or experience (Trusty et al., 2005). Students can also take advantage of many college prep courses to help them to sharpen skills that are needed to be successful in college. Some courses involve taking tests that will identify activities and interests that can help students decide what path to follow. Guidance counselors can also help students by trying to match the personalities of students to careers that would fit them best (Alfred-Davidson, 2009). Counselors also help students to enhance skills such as communication, leadership, teamwork, and information gathering. When students graduate from college, counselors can help students into appropriate career field. Counselors help students put resumes together, practice interviewing techniques, and find job openings in related fields (Alfred-Davidson, 2009). Most tertiary students, however, do not have accurate information about occupational opportunities to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 | P a g e help them make appropriate career choice regardless of the numerous career tools at their disposal. Unfortunately some of these career counseling tests are not readily available in many of our Senior High Schools in Ghana although it is mandatory for them to have counselling centers. The few schools that have counselling centers are also plagued with many challenges, such as finances, rendering the functions of these centers very difficult. Moreover, even though some of the tertiary institutions have one counselling center, sensitization on their relevance is low and thus not many students patronize them. More so, due to the busy schedule of academic counsellors who most often double lecturers, some of the students who would like to seek counselling services are unable to have access to them. 1.2 Statement of the Problem Career choice is important and perhaps a very difficult process which one must undergo at some time in life. O‘Brien (1996) asserted that everyone should have an honest occupation since work is one of our greatest blessings. Nonetheless, most undergraduates are likely to make wrong career decisions due to lack of information, ignorance, peer pressure, wrong modeling or as a result of prestige attached to certain careers without adequate career guidance and career counselling (Salami, 1999; Ndambuki and Mutie, 1999). Consequently, they are directly or indirectly affected when they graduate from the university as the majority of them lack skills necessary to make a sound career decision, choose fields of specialization for post graduate studies among others. Therefore, there is a need to explore a more refined understanding of the factors that prompt the career choices in Humanities among undergraduate students at the University of Ghana. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 | P a g e 1.3 Research Objectives The main objective was to determine factors that influence the career choice (in the humanities) by undergraduate students at the University of Ghana The specific objectives of the study were to: 1. Determine the extent to which extrinsic factors affect the career choice of students 2. Evaluate the extent to which intrinsic factors affect the career decision of undergraduates students 3. Explore the extent to which interpersonal factors affect the career choice of students 4. Identify the challenges of career choice among undergraduate students 1.4 Research Questions 1. To what extent do extrinsic factors affect the career choice of undergraduates? 2. To what extent do intrinsic factors affect the career choice of undergraduates? 3. To what extent do interpersonal factors affect the career choice of undergraduates? 4. What challenges do undergraduates face in making career choices? 1.5 Significance of the Study This research study was significant in creating awareness of the factors that influence undergraduate students‘ (career choice) in the humanities. It will help in appreciating the peculiar challenges undergraduates in the Humanities face in making a career choice and will also help school and career counselors provide specific counseling to undergraduates deciding on a career when pursuing a programme in the Humanities. It will also help industry examine where, why and when it could be beneficial for them to invest resources to train and educate students. For students, making the right choice will result in productivity and personal satisfaction on the job. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 | P a g e 1.6 Scope of the Study This study would be carried out at the University of Ghana in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana on the factors that influence undergraduates‘ career choice in the humanities. 1.7 Organization of the Study The main body of the research was laid out in five chapters as follows: Chapter one contained the background to the study, statement of the problem and objectives of the study (main and specific). It also stated the study‘s significance, research questions, scope as well as organization of the study. Chapter two reviewed literature by concentrating on theoretical framework, review of related studies, statement of hypotheses and operational definitions. Chapter three focused on the methodology by discussing the research design, target population, sample size and sampling techniques, research instrument, procedure, pilot study, scoring, data analyses and ethical consideration. Chapter four concentrated on the results by explaining the results obtained and chapter five being the concluding chapter contained the, discussion of results, summary of the findings, conclusions, recommendations, limitations and suggestions for further research. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 | P a g e CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.0 Introduction The word ‗choice‘ means ‗selecting or separating from two or more things which are preferred‘ (Webster‘s Dictionary, 1998). ‗Career choice‘ involves choosing one occupation over others. In furtherance, Zunker, (1990:3) defined career as ―the activities and positions involved in vocations, occupations and jobs as well as related activities associated with an individual‘s lifetime of work‖. Similarly, Avugla, (2011) stated that career refers to a job or profession that you have been trained for, and which you undertake for a long period of your life. Likewise, the Oxford Dictionary of Current English (2006) defined career as an occupation that a person undertakes for a substantial period of their life. The progress and actions taken by a person throughout a lifetime, especially those related to that person's occupations is referred to as a career (business dictionary.com). Difference between Job, Career and Calling Job, career and calling are used interchangeably to designate the work a person does, or in other words, a person‘s career. In actual sense however, they have different meanings. In terms of job, the driving force has to do with the interest in the material benefits that one can possibly derive from the work. In that case, one does not seek or expect any other type of reward from it. In other words, the work is not an end in itself, but a means that allows individuals to acquire the possessions needed to enjoy their time away from the job. Borow (1964) defined job as all the takes performed by a worker. More so, the Oxford Dictionary (2006) defines job as a paid University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 | P a g e position of regular employment. In effect, the major securities and motivations of Job holders are not expressed through their work. Talking about Career on the other hand, people who have Careers have a deeper personal investment in their work. Such people measure their achievements not only through monetary gain, but through progression within the occupational structure. ―This promotion is usually associated with higher social standing, increased power within the scope of one‘s occupation, and higher self-esteem for the worker‖ (Bellah et al., 1985: 66). Furthermore, a person with a ‗Calling‘ works not with the expectation of financial gain or Career advancement, but instead for the fulfillment derived by the person, from doing the work. People with ‗Calling‘ get to realize that their work cannot be separated from their life; it is part and parcel of them. In the modern sense, ‗‗calling‘‘ may have lost its religious connection (Davidson and Caddell, 1994), the work that people feel called to do is usually seen as socially valuable, involving activities that may, but need not be, pleasurable. Although this multilateral set of relations to work has limited empirical evidence, they (job, career and calling) are related to some aspects of work. Career Decision Making Career decision making according to Attieku, Dorkey, Marfo-Yiadom and Tekyi, (2006) can be defined as an act of choice by which an individual selects one particular course of action from among possible alternatives for the attainment of a desired end or as a solution to a specific problem. Attieku, Dorkey, Marfo-Yiadom and Tekyi, (2006) continued that it involves conscious or unconscious attempt at making a choice out of competing alternatives, thus, selecting from alternative policies, procedures, and programmes. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 0 | P a g e Gibson and Mitchell, (1995) theorized five key areas that will help students to make better decisions about the choice of career. Gibson and Mitchell asserted that students should be helped in areas such as: Self-awareness, Educational awareness, Career awareness, Career exploration and Career planning and decision making. Self-awareness: Every student must be aware of and respect their rareness at an early age. Awareness about one‘s ability, interests, values, personality traits, abilities and others is very indispensable in the development of concepts related to self and the use of these concepts in career exploration. Puplampu (1998) theorized that to make good choices as students, they must utilize career guidance or career counselling, be aware of their aptitude, and must be knowledgeable of professions and options available. Educational awareness: It is very indispensable in career planning for one to be cognizant of the association between self, educational opportunities and the realm of work. Career awareness: A continuous growth of knowledge and responsiveness about the realm of work must be central to students at all levels. Similarly, students‘ should be assisted to develop recognition of the associations between values, life styles and careers via films on career awareness, career days, interest inventory at each level. Career exploration: This epitomizes a well-designed, planned inquiry and analysis of career that are of interest. Comparisons, reality testing, and standardized testing, and computerized programmes may be useful in exploring career decisions for students at all levels. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 1 | P a g e Career planning and decision making: At this stage, students must be helped to take control of their lives and become a dynamic proxy for shaping their own future. Similarly, students need to zero down on their career options and examine and test these options as critically as possible. Steps in career decision making Making a career decision, can be very easy or very difficult depending on the amount of information an individual has about their choices. In choosing a career path it is imperative to think about many factors. The steps below, as theorized by UMass (2015) can guide an individual to make a good career decision. Step One: Identify the Decision to be made Before an individual begins gathering information, it is important that he/she have a clear understanding of what it is he/she is trying to decide. Individuals can ask questions such as: Should I have pursued a college or university education? What should my major be? Do I want to be a full-time or part-time student? and What do I want to do when I finish my education? Step Two: Know Yourself (Raise Consciousness) To make an informed career decision and prior to any exploration of the world of work, it is important to have a good understanding of his/her own personal attributes. Questions such as what kinds of people would I like to work with? What kind of job settings would I most enjoy? What are my strengths and weaknesses? And what are my strongest skills and abilities? Will they help me make informed decisions? Step Three: Identifying Options and Gathering Information (Explore Options) University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 2 | P a g e To continue gathering information and researching careers, an individual will need to start identifying his/her options. Some things to think about are: Do I have a strong interest in specific careers? What other types of careers should I be considering? What information do I already have about my career preferences? And how can I get more information and access more resources about the career(s) I am interested in? Step Four: Evaluate Options that will solve the Problem After completing your research, the individual is now ready to evaluate each of the options he/she has been exploring. Step five: Select one of the Options Based on the information gathered and analyzed, the individual should now be able to choose one of the career options and start creating a plan of action. Emotional Intelligence Puffer (2011) opined that emotional intelligence certainly relates to less dysfunctional career thinking, greater career decision-making, self-efficacy and a higher level of willingness to explore a variety of career preferences and to commit to attractive career options. According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), emotional intelligence incorporates Gardner‘s (1983) interpersonal intelligence, which posits as the ability to understand other people and what motivates them, and intrapersonal intelligence (the capacity to form an accurate model and understanding of oneself and to use the model to operate effectively in life). Based on the hypothesis that emotional intelligence is a sub-aspect of social intelligence, Salovey and Mayer‘s (1990) model suggested that emotional intelligence consists of four sets of conceptually related mental processes: University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 3 | P a g e 1. Efficiently handling psychological and social problems 2. Accurately appraising and expressing emotion in the self and others 3. Regulating emotion in the self and others 4. Using emotions adaptively in order to solve problems and achieve one‘s goals. The capability to monitor one‘s own emotional aptitude is assumed to lead to greater awareness and self-knowledge (Goleman 1998). Consequently, it leads to individuals‘ rational and actions in the career examination and decision making process (Brown et al., 2003). According to Salovey and Mayer (1990), individuals who appraise, perceive and respond to their emotions precisely are likely to be better understood by the people with whom they interact. Again, individuals who assess, perceive and respond to their emotions precisely have the potential to better impact people when they are able to perceive the emotions of the people with whom they interact, as well as to develop the ability to comprehend another‘s feelings and re- experience them oneself. Emotional intelligence is usually observed as a factor with the prospective to contribute to more positive attitudes, behaviours and outcomes and has been related to career success (Carmeli 2003; Cooper 1997; Goleman 1998). Career counsellors according to Kidd (2008); Pool and Sewell (2007); Sinclair (2009) recognized the importance of emotional intelligence in career success, career satisfaction and well-being. Similarly, Jaeger (2003) and Pool and Sewell (2007) esteemed the development of emotional intelligence as necessary for enhancing individuals‘ employability. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 4 | P a g e Employability Satisfaction The concept of employability according to Coetzee and Beukes (2010) has appeared as a significant contributor to career success and satisfaction in a progressive and universally insecure and disordered occupational environment. Furthermore, Tomlinson (2007) considered individuals‘ employability to be tenets- and identity-driven, linking to their own personalities and biographies. Again, McArdle, Waters, Briscoe and Hall (2007) asserted that career identity and adaptability are crucial aspects of individuals‘ employability. Employability satisfaction is defined as the self-perceived level of satisfaction that individuals have in terms of their beliefs that they have the attributes, skills, knowledge, experience and occupational expertise to create or attract employment with ease (Schreuder and Coetzee 2011). Furthermore, employability satisfaction signifies individuals‘ self-worthwhile beliefs about their competences of securing employment. Bandura (1997) and Van der Velde and Van den Berg (2003) posited that employability is chiefly reliant on self-efficacy, which is in turn shown to be absolutely related to job search behaviour and positive employment outcomes (Kanfer, Wanberg and Kantrowitz 2001). Coetzee and Beukes (2010) established that individuals who are able to manage and utilize their own emotions are more likely to have greater confidence in their ability to realize their career goals and succeed in the occupational environment. Connection between College Course and Career It is very necessary to clarify issues over the degree to which enrolling on a particular course meant that a student was committing himself to a particular career. None was ignorant of the high wastage rate in some sectors of further education. The suspicion was that, for many students, coming to a university for further education at all represented a poor second choice. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 5 | P a g e However, it could be established that the evidence of the suspicion was generally baseless. The majority of the students were clear in their minds about their career aims and had little doubt that the course they were on was the best way of achieving them, and entertained few regrets about not having followed some other route, such as not going to a university. Furthermore, among those who had been admitted to the university, many are not completely happy for the reason that this was the best way of preparing for the future, many had achieved a sense of single-mindedness in following a course leading to a career in which they were finding more to attract them than they had imagined. It was so obvious that the course any one student chose was geared towards the career he/she had in mind. In other words, the librarian students expected to be librarians, the accounting students, accountants and so on. Spirituality and Career There have been various researches that have sought to establish a relationship between career and spirituality. For instance, according to Duffy and Blustein (2005), though spirituality did not seem to have a direct influence on career choice commitment, it does play an imperative role in career decision self-efficacy, described as ―the degree to which individuals believe that they can successfully complete tasks that are necessary in making career decisions‖ (Duffy and Blustein 2005:430). In another study conducted among 31 Christian congregations, 15% of parishioners believed they had a spiritual calling instilled with special meaning and purpose from God (Davidson and Caddell, 1994). Research conducted by Prater and McEwen (2006) in surveying nursing students enrolled at a private Christian college with similar results, also showed that 11% of students viewed divine ―calling‖ as the main driving force behind their choosing nursing and two thirds responded that they considered themselves ―called,‖ even if it was not their primary or only University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 6 | P a g e motivation. A study of members of a state student nursing organization also revealed that 3 out of the 69 students surveyed reported that God was influential in their career choice through a ―calling,‖ or ―what I was supposed to do‖ (Shattell, Moody, Hawkins, and Creasia, 2001). Bigham (2008) also interviewed 9 education students at a private Christian college and found that they felt their spiritual beliefs and experiences directly influenced their career choice and gave their work a sense of deeper meaning. Conceptualizing the different views on occupation as either a ―job‖ (driven by interest in its financial benefits), a ―career‖ (motivated by promotions and recognition), or ―calling‖ (holding intrinsic meaning and functioning as part of one‘s identity), Wrzesniewski, McCauley, Rozin, and Schwartz (1997) studied 196 employees of a state college and a small liberal arts college and found that one third viewed their occupation primarily as a calling. Career Path and Career Development Choosing a career path or course of action essentially boils down to a career decision-making process. The effectiveness of an individual‘s career decision-making relies heavily on the available information at the decision making point. Information is power and the more it is at one‘s disposal, the easier it is to make well-informed decisions. Often times, inability to choose a career path over another tend to indicate that one is lacking in sufficient information. Although work has different meanings for human beings, essentially, it is the ‗backbone of an individual‘s life‖ (Paulter, 1995). Work, according to Paulter, (1995) was the mainstay of an individual‘s life despite the varied meanings associated with it. In other words, the presence or absence of work is perhaps the most important pivotal point in a human‘s life. The general trend is such that individuals spend their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 7 | P a g e early years preparing for work, the major section of life doing chosen work, and the last part of life retired from work (Powlette, 2006). On the other hand, Hoyt (1977) defined career development as a developmental process, extending over almost the entire life span, through which persons develop the capacity for and engage in work as part of their total life style. Career education therefore aims at helping students to examine the vocational, domestic and civic outlets for developed interests and abilities (Super, 1976). Apparently, there is the need for career readiness on the part of the students; the place of which is indispensable in any meaningful educational system. Although academic concern has been found to be a significant requirement in attaining career readiness, issues of personal unhappiness and vocational identity tend to superimpose it. In a study conducted by Bojuwoye (1985), the essence of career development was underscored when in a survey of second year college students, the results revealed that Nigerian students experienced difficulties with issues relating to career development more than they do with any other problem. In another instance, Wollman (1975)‘s work showed that 63% of his respondents were either not at all satisfied with the way they had planned their career choice or were only fairly satisfied. They confirmed the need for some form of more planning than they initially had. Consequently, majority of them were found to be willing to participate in a career guidance programme, if made available to them. The fundamental aim of this would be to assist them become aware of a decision making process, which applies directly to their career-related concerns. Sound vocational planning requires that a student makes cautious vocational commitments to provide for a sense of direction and purpose through the periods of school. At the same time, appropriate dexterity must be sustained; thereby providing for appropriate shifts in plans as maturity occurs, interest stabilizes and knowledge expands. To realize these goals, career University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 8 | P a g e guidance programme must first provide a clear picture of true occupational needs of a given country, as well as how these needs relate to actual educational opening with the present job market. On the other hand, students‘ career readiness also needs to be assessed so as to help them in learning how to make career decisions. Hence, the objectives of career guidance as listed by Mba (1992) include: 1. To make young people aware of the need to give more deliberate thoughts to the problem of their occupational choice. 2. Keeping young people from committing themselves to curricular or courses that will prevent them from changing or raising their occupational sights later in their educational career. 3. To help young persons‘ discover the range of occupation goals they can reasonably expect to attain and the opportunities available to them for education and training. 4. Helping youngster to learn the value of getting as much as they can before they are out of their secondary school education. Similarly, the objectives of the University of Ghana counselling and placement center include: 5. To equip students with general employability skills to help undergraduate students make a smooth and rapid transition from the university into entry positions. 6. To help students develop entrepreneurial spirit, creative flair and professional skills that deepen their breadth of knowledge and to propel them to pursue entrepreneurial endeavours if they wish to. Making a career decision is, thus, a complex process. Though there are people who make such decisions quite easily, majority others do so with some difficulties. The situation is such that the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 9 | P a g e growing rate of change in the world of work has increased the number of career transitions, which individuals make during their lifetime. Apparently, both the individual and the society at large, stand to gain immensely from the quality of the career decisions made during the transitions. Consequently, many sought the assistance of professionals; especially that of the guidance counsellor in this regard. The career counsellor sets out primarily to facilitate the career decision making process of such individuals and helping them overcome the difficulties they encounter during the process. To provide them with the help they need, an essential step is to identify the peculiar nature of the difficulties preventing the individuals from reaching a decision. Whereas, some of such discussions have been purely theoretical, devoid of any empirical testing as typified by Miller (1997), others have had mainly an empirical focus devoted to developing various measures of career indecision. Gati, Krausz and Osipow (1997) submited that both lines of research: namely the theoretical and the empirical, have been conducted independently of one another and by different groups of researchers. To understand what career decisions are, it is required that certain features peculiar to them are identified. First, there should be an individual who has to make decision. Secondly, a number of alternatives from which selection would be made must exist. Thirdly, there should be different attributes or aspects that are to be considered in the comparison and evaluation of the various existing alternatives. Apart from these, there are other unique features associated with career decisions. Thus, it is expected that: 1. The number of potential alternatives is often fairly large (e.g. the number of occupations, colleges, majors, or potential employers). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 0 | P a g e 2. There is an extensive amount of information available on each alternative. 3. A large number of aspects (e.g. length of training, degree of independence, and type of relationship with people) are required to adequately characterize the occupational and the individual‘s preferences in a detailed and meaningful way. 4. Uncertainty plays a major role with respect to both the individual‘s characteristic (e.g. present and future preferences) and the nature of future career alternatives (Gati et al., 1997). 2.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY In furtherance the following theories will also help the individual to be equipped with personality factors, environmental factors and other factors that influences choice of career. 1. Trait-and-factor theory 2. Social Cognitive theory 3. The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman theory 4. Donald Super‘s developmental/self-concept theory 5. John Holland‘s Vocational Personality 2.2.1 Trait and Factor Theory of Career Development Miller, Klein and Wiener (1977) Trait and factor theory also referred to as matching or actuarial approach is the oldest theoretical approach to career development with Parsons as its originator (Kankam and Onivehu, 2000). It is grounded on the measurement of specific personality features represented as traits and factors. Characteristics typical of the individual over time, relatively stable, consistent in situations and which provide a basis for measuring, describing and University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 1 | P a g e predicting behavior is referred to as trait. A construct which represents a group of traits that correlate with each other is referred to as factor. Williamson (1939, 1949) cited in Zunker (1990) was one of the conspicuous activists of trait and factor counselling. Application of Williamson‘s counselling techniques sustained the early spur of trait and factor approach sprouting from the works of Parsons. When incorporated into other theories of career guidance, the trait and factor theory plays a very significant role. Some of the rudimentary conventions that inspire the trait and factor theory are: A unique pattern of traits made up of interests, values, abilities and personality characteristics are akin to every individual. Thus, these traits can be tangibly acknowledged and summarized to represent an individual‘s potential; each profession is made up of factors mandated for the prosperous performance of that profession. Hence, these factors can be tangibly acknowledged and summarized as an occupational profile; it is probable to recognize a fit or match between individual traits and occupation factors using a direct problem-solving or decision making process and the greater the likelihood for successful job performance and satisfaction, the closer the match between personal traits and job factors. Some assumptions of this theory by Miller, and Klein and Wiener are listed below: Each individual has a unique set of traits that can be measured reliably and validly; occupation requires that workers possess certain traits for success; choice of occupation is straight forward process and matching is possible; the closer the match between personal characteristics and job requirements, the greater the likelihood for success-productivity and satisfaction; vocational development is a cognitive process and occupation is a single event; choice is greatly stressed over development; there is a single ―right‖ occupation for everyone; there is no recognition that a worker might fit well into a number of occupations; single person works in each job; one person one job relationship and everyone has an occupational choice. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 2 | P a g e This theory is used by many career practitioners in myriad forms. Lots of the aptitude, interest or personal desire and interest tests as well as the information materials that emanated from this theory have involved and remain in use up to now. Thus, General Aptitude Test Battery, occupational profiles and computer-based career guidance programmes are prove of its usefulness. Trait and factor theory is condemned by Walsh, (1990) as not able to produce a perfect match between people and jobs and became progressively ostracized in the 1970s; it is described by Crites, (1981) as going into ―incipient decline‖. Thus, the trait and factor approach is too constricted in range to be reflected as a key theory of career development. On the other hand, Zunker, (1990) asserted that the standardized assessment and occupational analysis techniques stressed in trait and factor theories are expedient in career counselling. Conversely, trait and factor theory centers on interest or personal desire factors only without bearing in mind the influence of environmental factors like accessibility of jobs and interpersonal factors in career choice. Hence the trait and factor theory cannot offer sufficient bases for the present studies. However, according to Akinade, Sokan and Oserenren (1996) personality or need theory appreciates one‘s need as the central determinant of the nature of a person‘s interests which include vocational interest. She contends that career choice is based on childhood orientation or experience at home to satisfy needs; thus people choose professions that satisfy important needs. Her theory endeavors to understand, make meaning of, and utilize individual motives, purposes and drives to support career development. She classified occupation into eight groups on the premise that work can satisfy needs in different ways. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 3 | P a g e Roe (1956) continued that the first five groups; service (something for another person); business contact, (selling and supplying services); organization, (management in business, industry and government); technology, (product maintenance, transportation of commodities) and utilities and outdoors, (cultivating, preserving and gathering natural resources) can be classified as person oriented and the last three groups; science, (scientific theory and its application); general culture, (preserving and transmitting cultural heritage) and arts and entertainment, (creative art and entertainment) can be classified as non-person oriented. Roe‘s theory was ‗based on‘ Abraham Maslow‘s hierarchy of needs, stated in the following order: Physiological needs, Safety needs, Need for belongingness and love, Need for importance, respect, self-esteem and independence, Need for information, Need for understanding, Need for beauty and aesthetic and Need for self-actualization respectively. Roe‘s theory continued that each person is born with certain psychological tendencies and physiological and physical dynamics that interact with the home environmental conditions like child rearing practices. The child rearing practices are associated with emotional climate. The home emotional climates are categorized as: Over-protecting or over-demanding parents, the avoidance type of parents- rejecting or neglecting parents and Accepting type of parents- very loving or casually loving (casual acceptance) These parenting styles have peculiar characteristics and diverse influence on the career ‗attraction‘ of the child later in life. According to Roe (1957), the over-protecting parent tries to attend to all the needs of the child, may over pamper him/her and build up a "fence" round him/her. Again, the over-demanding University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 4 | P a g e parent makes a lot of demands on the child, places a lot of challenges on her and has high expectations from him/her. Furthermore, the loving-acceptance parenting style is characterized by loving-care, concern, mutual understanding and acceptance of the child's worth and level of maturity. Besides, the casual-accepting parent shows concern for the child ‗wildly‘ when deemed necessary and affordable (Roe 1957). However, the neglecting parent neglects the child and does not show love or concern, the rejecting parent is characterized by abandonment and outright rejection. That is, the child is often viewed as a burden and consequently influences children's gravitation towards person centred occupations. The second block of parenting styles (casual acceptance, neglect and rejection) are characterized by parental cold and consequently produce children who incline towards non- person centered occupations (Roe, 1957). 2.2.2 The Ginzberg, Ginsburg, Axelrad and Herman’s (1951) Occupational Choice Theory Ginzberg et al (1951), a group comprising an economist, a psychiatrist, a sociologist, and a psychologist, composed a theory of occupational choice (Zunker, 1990). Their theory posits occupational development as a progressive narrowing of choices that reflect only fantasy but with time come to be centered on reality. They contended earlier that individuals went through the same order and that the process is generally irremediable. That is, the reality factor, the influence of educational process, emotional factor and individual values are recognized as factors that influence occupational choice (Zunker, 1990). Their theory states a developmental path University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 5 | P a g e leads to career choice. They theorize that individuals go through three career stages: fantasy, tentative and realistic. The fantasy stage persists through childhood. Throughout the period, the future appears to hold almost infinite prospects. Individuals fancy themselves in roles of those whom they recognize. When asked what profession they want to pursue when they grow, they normally respond ―an engineer‖, ―a pilot‖, ―a lawyer‖, ―a nurse‖, etc. They argue that, until about the age eleven, children are in the fantasy stage of career choice. In the tentative stage, which starts from about eleven to seventeen years of age. In this stage, individual‘s graduate from the fantasy stage to the realistic decision making stage of young adulthood. Career considerations begin to echo individual trait such as interests, abilities and values. They argue that from eleven to twelve years of age, individuals‘ progress from evaluating their interest, to evaluating their capabilities from thirteen to fourteen years of age, to evaluating their values when they are fifteen to sixteen years of age. They contemplate how important it is to make lots of money and whether their work will benefit society, or how much they value free time, independence or security. At this period, they drop certain choices in favor of others that better suit their values and abilities. The period from seventeen to the early twenties is referred to as realistic stage of career choice. In this period, the individual comprehensively searches the uncertain career choices they have been fantasying, then focus on specific careers and finally select a specific job within the career. Critics of the theory, observed that data was collected on middle and upper class people whose educational level were high and because of the highly selective nature of the sample, the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 6 | P a g e conclusions of the research have partial application (Osipow, 1983 cited in Zunker, 1990). It also fails to take into account individual differences. Although the theory has insightful information that complements the present study, it has contrasting information the present requires and thus, this theory does not apply to the present study. 2.2.3 Donald Super’s (1957) Developmental or Self-Concept Theory Cobb, (2001) asserted that Super‘s self-concept theory thinks of vocation in terms of self- perception. He continued that the individual‘s self-concept plays a central role in their career choice. Super opined that individuals first construct a career self-concept during adolescence (Santrock, 2001). Thus, individuals decide on professions that are unswerving with the way they understand themselves, that reflect their interests, values, and strengths. Self-concept shifts with age and people linger to find out things about themselves well into adulthood. He accentuates that career development entails five different phases. These five phases constitute Super‘s (1957) developmental theory. Growth stage: it is the first stage of Super‘s developmental theory. At this stage, the individual discovers more about his/herself than about an occupation. It is at this stage that the individual develops a realistic self-concept. The stage lasts until four or thirteen years of age. This second phase is called exploration stage: Choosing programmes in school is part of this process. Super identified three sub-stages in the exploration period. Individual‘s shift from ideas that imitate only their concern, to those that demonstrates an increasing cognizance of their aptitudes, to a realistic assessment that embraces the accessibility and convenience of certain University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 7 | P a g e jobs. Between the ages of eighteen to twenty-two years of age or even to mid-twenties, they constrict their career choices and start behaviours that enable them go into their preferred career types. Establishment stage: in this stage, individuals complete their education or training and delve into the world of work. Young adulthood tends to be a time for stabilizing, consolidating, building momentum and moving up. Obtaining certifications, credentials, and advanced degrees may be the norm. However, if they change jobs, they are likely to find the same form of work in another setting or office. It typically lasts between mid-twenties to mid-forties. Maintenance stage: The resolution on a precise, appropriate career choice is made between mid- forties to mid-sixties according to Santrock, (2001) and to Cobb (2001). Super asserts that the developmental task is the years of ―holding one‘s self against competition‖ whether in the form of others who are involved in the same type of work or maintaining the same level and quality of work as in the part. Continuity, stress, safety and stability tend to be the standard. Sometimes individuals fear the risk associated with various career options which may lead to frustration and/or even depression. For men, state of health or career accomplishment may predominate. Women sometimes perceive this period as an opportunity to pursue new personal or professional goals now that their nurturing role has peaked. Lastly, the declining stage is the stage where individuals seek to progress their careers and to reach higher-status positions which include the need to find other roles through which to express one‘s self. Super believed that career exploration in adolescence is a key ingredient of adolescents‘ career self-concept. It typically starts in the mid-sixties. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 8 | P a g e Super constructed career development inventory to assist counsellors in promoting an individual‘s career exploration. These stages of vocational development provide the bases for vocational behavior and attitudes, which are shown through five activities called vocational developmental tasks (Zunker, 1990). This is shown on Table 2.1 Table 2.0: Super’s Vocational Developmental Tasks Vocational Development Task Ages General characteristics Crystallization 14- 18 A cognitive-process period of formulating a general vocational goal through awareness of resources, contingencies, interests, values, and planning for the preferred occupation Specification 18-21 A period of moving from tentative vocational preferences towards specific vocational preference Implementation 21-24 A period of completing training of vocational preference and entering employment Stabilization 24-35 A period of confirming a preferred career by actual work experience and use of talents to demonstrate career choice as an appropriate one Consolidation 35+ A period of establishment in a career by advancement, status, and seniority Source: (Zunker, 1990). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2 9 | P a g e There is minute support for the ideas of adolescent mayhem, anxiety and identity crises (Coleman, 1992). Even though the career development theory offers the bases for the professional work force, it does not consider women, people of color and the poor and thus, does not apply to the present study. 2.2.4 John Holland’s (1985) Vocational Personality Holland‘s theory illustrates that there is a match between an individual‘s career choice and his/her personality and the copious variables that form his/her background (Zunker, 1990). According to Holland, individuals are more probable to enjoy a career that suits their personality and stays in that particular career for a longer period of time than individuals whose work does not ensemble their personality. However, Holland‘s theory is grounded on these four assumptions: 1. Individuals can be classified as one of the following: Realistic, Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional. 2. Realistic, investigative, artistic, social, enterprising and conventional are the six modal environments. 3. Persons search for environments that allow them use their skills and abilities, thus, to express their attitudes and values, and take on agreeable problems and roles. Consequently, Bedu-Addo, (2000) asserted that behavior is determined by an interaction between personality and environment. Holland (1985) posited that realistic personality types are practical, stable, self-controlled, independent and down to earth. He continued that they enjoy working with their hands, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 0 | P a g e especially in projects which allow one to be physically active. These personalities are physically strong and have very little social know-how. They are concerned with practical professions such as laborer, farmer, truck driver, mechanic, construction work, engineer or surveyor, landscape architect, aircraft mechanic, dental technician, electrician, athletic trainer, carpenter, licensed practical nurse, archaeologist, hairdresser, physical therapist, dressmaker, fire fighter, caterer, plumber, x-ray technician, among other similar profession. Again, Holland asserts that investigative personality types are abstractly and academically oriented. He continues that they are attentive and inquisitive about things around them. They are typically intrusive, academically self-confident and quite logical. They glee in circumstance that call for inventive or analytical approach. Thus, they are thinkers rather than doers. More so, they enjoy working on their own. Careers that offer well defined techniques, research and the chance to discover a wide range of ideas such as practical nursing, medical lab assistant, pharmacist, ecologist, math teacher, medical technologist, research analyst, surgeon, dietician, physician, police detective, veterinarian, meteorologist, horticulturist, dentist, computer analyst, science teacher, technical writer, science lab technician, computer system analyst, military analyst, college professor, lawyer, consumer researcher, astronomer, computer security specialist, horticulture, emergency medical technology, respiratory therapy, surgical technology, dental assistant, water and waste technology, computer languages, computer sciences, economics, biochemistry, geology among others are the best career choices best suited for investigating personalities. Holland (1985) argued that artistic personality types are original, innovative, imaginative, and creative. Relatively unstructured situations that interact with their world through artistic University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 1 | P a g e expression, shunning unadventurous and interactive situations in many instances are the preferred career situations of artistic personalities. They excel as painters, writers, or musicians, artists, English teachers, drama coaches, music teachers, graphic designers, advertising managers, fashion illustrators, interior decorators, photographers, journalists, reporters, cosmetologists, librarians, museum curators, cartographers, dance instructors, entertainers, performers, architects, among others. Holland (1985) contended that social personality types are understandable, friendly and people oriented. Consequently, social personality types have good verbal skills and interpersonal relations. They are helpers and enjoy professions such as teaching, social workers, counsellors, youth services workers, recreation directors, physical therapists, occupational therapists, extension agents, therapists, personnel directors, funeral directors, ministers, chamber of commerce executives, athletic coaches, claims adjusters, parole officers, attorneys, sales representatives, fitness instructors, cosmetologists, paramedics, mental health specialists, nurses, dieticians, information clerks, child care workers, travel agents, airline personnel, receptionists, waiters or waitresses, office workers, home health aides among others that let them interact with people. According to Holland (1985), enterprising personality types are gregarious, dominant and adventurous. They are normally extroverts and often start projects involving many people and are good at convincing people to do things their way. More so, they have strong interpersonal skills and enjoy professions such as real estate appraiser, florist, lawyer, TV or radio announcer, branch manager, lobbyist, insurance manager, personnel recruiter, office manager, travel agent, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 2 | P a g e advertising agent, advertising executive, politician, business manager that bring them into contact with people. In furtherance, Holland (1985) opined that conventional personality types are those persons who show a dislike for unstructured activities. He continued that they enjoy collecting and organizing information in effective and practical way. They often like being part of large companies though not necessarily in leadership positions. They enjoy steady routines and follows clearly defined procedures. They are best suited for professions as subordinates, bankers, file clerks, accountants, Business teachers, bookkeepers, actuary, librarians, proof readers, administrative assistants, credit managers, estimators, cad operators, reservations agents, bank managers, cartographer cost analysts, court reporters, medical secretaries, auditor statisticians, financial analysts, safety inspectors, tax consultants, insurance underwriters, computer operators, medical laboratory technologists, cashiers, hotel clerks. Fig. 2.0: Holland‘s 6 basic types of personal orientation toward work— RIASEC University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 3 | P a g e Holland‘s topology is based on the following key concepts: Congruence: It is defined as the degree of fit between an individual‘s personality orientations and actual or contemplated work environment. A person is believed to be more fulfilled with his career and can perform better if he is in a congruent work environment. Consistency: It is defined as the degree of relationship between the various classifications of personalities. Thus, the conventional type might be more realistic and enterprising than the artistic types. Differentiation: It is defined as the establishment of differences among two or more things. It also refers to the degree to which a person or his environment is clearly defined. Vocational identity: It is the extent to which a person has a clear self-perception of his or her characteristics and goals, and to the degree of stability which an occupational environment provides. However, Holland‘s theory is condemned by Zunker, (1990) as principally expressive with focus on explanation of casual basis of time period in development of hierarchies of the personal model styles. Zunker, (1990) continued that Holland‘s theory was bothered with factors that influence career choice rather than development process that leads to career choice. Although Holland‘s theory provides a lot insight to the present work, it is limited as far as the present research is concerned because Holland‘s theory focuses mainly on how personality can be matched with a career rather than how other factors like environmental and or interpersonal factors influence the individual‘s choice. Moreover, the present study focuses more on an individual‘s interest and or desires in aligning with a particular career choice. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 4 | P a g e 2.2.5 Social Cognitive Theory The theoretical consideration of factors affecting career choice is grounded in Social Cognitive Career Theory (Lent, Brown, and Hackett, 1994), which was developed from Bandura‘s general social cognitive theory. Bandura‘s Social cognitive theory (SCT) emphasizes the bidirectional interactions between three elements, namely person, environment and behavior. All the three operate interactively as determinants of one another. Bandura‘s SCT theorized that a person‘s self-efficacy, or confidence that they can successfully perform a task, has a mutual relation with outcome expectations, or the consequences people anticipate resulting from a particular behavior. These two constructs (self-efficiency and outcome expectations) then influence a person‘s level and type of interests. Many different activities are attempted through a person‘s educational career, but generally a persistent interest is only developed in activities in which the person expects to be successful and in which a positive outcome is anticipated (Lent et al., 1994). Interests are thought to predict the goals a person has and therefore often behaviors that are pursued. Consequently individuals do not solely react to environmental events; they construct their own environments and do well to alter them. Cognitive events define which environmental measures will be observed and how they will be inferred, structured, and acted on. Ryckman, (1997) asserted that either positive or negative feedback from behavior, impacts people‘s thinking and the ways in which they act to change the environment. Subsequently, self-efficacy has been defined as ―people‘s judgments of their capabilities to organize and execute courses of action required to attain designated types of performances‖ (Bandura, 1986:391). Self-efficacy beliefs are about what one can do with the abilities they have, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 5 | P a g e and are beliefs about specific tasks. For example, an individual may have high self-efficacy beliefs about his or her ability to lead a team to accomplish a task but have very low self-efficacy beliefs about his or her ability to create a piece of art. Unlike relatively stable traits such as self- esteem, a person‘s self-efficacy beliefs may vary significantly depending upon the task (Lent and Brown, 2006). That is to say those individuals perceive themselves and note how well their abilities, welfares and standards equal the desires of the situation. These opinions have concerns for the type of work they might be good at. More so, individuals relate more to what they are interested in and what they value. People attempt to understand the consequences of their actions and use this understanding in ways that change their environments to better meet their needs (Avugla, 2011). One‘s beliefs about their efficacy in a particular realm may or may not be accurate (Bandura, 1986). Bandura theorized four sources of self-efficacy: mastery, modeling, social persuasion, and anxiety. The first three sources are listed in expected strength of influence; anxiety was theorized to be independent of the other sources. Mastery: is defined as a person‘s actual successes and failures, and is expected to have the strongest impact on a person‘s self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1986). When a person is successful at a task, their confidence to perform another similar task is thought to increase. Additionally, if the person fails, their self-efficacy is thought to decrease. In effect, failures are considered to be particularly influential if they are repeated, occur early in the individual‘s experience with a task, and cannot be attributed to external circumstances, because all these would decrease the likelihood of the individual trying the behavior again (Bandura, 1986). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 6 | P a g e On the other hand, once a person has a strong belief in their efficacy at a particular task, they will be influenced less by a failure. Additional effort (leading to success) can substantially strengthen a person‘s efficacy for a particular task, as the individual sees they can overcome a very challenging obstacle. Once a strong self-efficacy is developed in a particular domain, an individual‘s efficacy beliefs in other similar domains may also increase (Bandura, 1986). for example, earning an A in a challenging English class may lead to increased efficacy for success in a challenging psychology class. Modeling: is defined as an individual watching a peer (someone the individual feels similar to in this particular task) succeed or fail. This contributor to self-efficacy is theorized to be quite strong, but assumed to be weaker than actual mastery experiences. Bandura posits that when an individual watches a peer succeed, she/he is likely to believe that she/he, too, can accomplish this task. Conversely, if the individual watches a peer fail, especially after investing a substantial amount of effort, the individual‘s beliefs about their own efficacy is theorized to decrease (Bandura, 1986). Bandura discussed several situations in which one‘s self-efficacy beliefs are especially influenced by modeling. When one has less experience in a particular task and therefore less stable beliefs about their self-efficacy, Bandura theorizes that modeling can have a larger effect. Additionally, an individual who has had much mixed experience with a task will likely have more self-doubt and therefore place a higher value on modeling (Bandura, 1986). Learning from peers new ways of performing tasks is also theorized to increase the self-efficacy of struggling, as well as successful, individuals. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 7 | P a g e Another use of modeling is social comparison to gauge success and failure (Bandura, 1986). While modeling is expected to influence self-efficacy less than personal mastery experiences, this construct can influence a person to avoid tasks that would provide information about personal performance. If this avoidance happens, the individual will likely maintain low self- efficacy for a particular task without having actually tried it (Bandura, 1986). When a peer or superior expresses an opinion to the person about his or her ability to perform a specific task this is referred to as social persuasion, the third source of self-efficacy. As discussed above regarding modeling, social persuasion has greatest impact when it can encourage or discourage an individual from attempting a particular task (Bandura, 1986). While someone‘s self-efficacy is in an early stage of development, it can be easily influenced. Social persuasion can move someone towards attempting a task and obtaining personal mastery evidence for their efficacy. Additionally, when someone is unsure of his or her efficacy, for example, because they have had both successes and failures at a task, verbal encouragement can serve as a motivator (Bandura, 1986). Once someone has an established level of self-efficacy for a task, however, Bandura posited that social persuasion has much less influence. It is theorized that social persuasion has more strength to decrease one‘s self-efficacy than to increase it. Additionally, if an individual has been motivated through social persuasion to attempt a task and then fails, the ‗persuader‘ may be discredited. In this way, it is clear that one‘s own mastery experiences should be a much stronger source of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1986). Physiological state: is defined as the amount of anxiety an individual experiences while performing a specific task. People read their anxiety in difficult situations as signs of their ability University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 8 | P a g e or lack of ability to succeed (Bandura, 1986). Specifically, people interpret their arousal in new or stressful situations as a sign that they are struggling. This agitation can lead to more anxiety and spiral upwards in a distracting way. This anxiety caused by the individual‘s physical state can easily become a self-fulfilling prophesy, as their preoccupation with worry makes them unable to perform the task as successfully as if they had not been distracted. If an individual is able to attribute their anxiety to an external source, the agitation is less likely to influence their self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1986). The degree to which an individual processes and thinks about these four sources affects the strength of the individual‘s self-efficacy beliefs (Bandura, 1986). When a person has a well- established efficacy belief (whether it is for success or failure) the following constructs in the model will remain more stable. However, Bandura posited that the effects of one‘s self-efficacy will influence a person‘s behavior even when their efficacy beliefs are developmentally young and unsteady. Even as these four sources influence the creation of a person‘s self-efficacy, this self-efficacy influences their expectations and behaviors (Bandura, 1986). However, SCT fails to recognize emotion as an essential constituent of personality, and has little to say about the developmental origins of adult interest or personal desire (Zimbardo and Weber, 1994). In spite of its weakness, it will best serve as the purpose for this research since it centers on behavior, thinking, environment and the relations between these factors. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3 9 | P a g e 2.3 Review of Related Studies Bergen (2006) conducted a research on family influences on young adult career development and aspirations in the University of North Texas with the purpose to examine family influences on career development and aspirations of young adults. Bergen (2006) continued that research have examined the influence parents have on children's career development, but because of the multiple factors that influence career choices, understanding the family‘s influence is complex. Bergen (2006) study utilized ideas from self-determination, attachment, and career development theories to develop a framework for understanding how families influence young adult career development and aspirations. Rather than directly influencing career decisions, the family was proposed to influence processes within individuals that directly influence successful career development. His study used hierarchical regression analyses to test whether different aspects of family relationships and the family environment affect processes within young people, which in turn influence career development. A sample of 99 females and 34 males undergraduate students between 18 and 20 (mean age 18.67) completed questionnaire. Results support the idea that different aspects of the family influence diverse factors of career development and future aspirations. The achievement orientation of the family was predictive of career salience and extrinsic aspirations. Conflict with mothers was predictive of career salience, yet support and depth in the relationship with mothers and low amounts of conflict in the relationship with fathers were predictive of career maturity. High career salience was also predictive of career maturity. These findings suggest future research should assess multiple aspects of the family and multiple facets regarding career development to more fully understand this process. In addition, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 0 | P a g e findings support the idea that career counselors should assess family functioning when helping young people in their career development journey. In 2013, Vickneswaran and Balasundaram conducted a study in the University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka on factors influencing in career choice of second year undergraduate students. The purpose of this study was to examine factors influencing career choice among the second year undergraduate students in Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka. The factors investigated included: personal or self, associate with family and relations, within the university and others, associate with current market and geographical area, occupational and others. Actually the students are facing problems when they have to choose their specialization field because several factors are influencing in the selection of specialization. This selection of specialization is very essential to everyone to recognize them in the world. Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce has four disciplines of specialization which are Accounting, Marketing, Human Recourse Management and Financial Management. The students are following first two years as commonly after the second year they have to choice their specialization. The study was conducted using survey design with a population of 100 second year undergraduate students. The data for this study has been collected using structured questionnaire. The findings of this study revealed that personal factors have the most influential role with career choices among the second year undergraduate students, Faculty of Management Studies and Commerce, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 1 | P a g e Again, Jaquiline, (2013) conducted a research on social influence and occupational knowledge as predictors of Career Choice Intentions among undergraduate students in Tanzania. The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which occupational knowledge and social influence from significant others predict intentions of undergraduate students to join their careers upon completion of their studies in Tanzania. Based on its quantitative character, a cross-sectional survey design was opted. A convenient sample of 100 first and finalist undergraduate students (63 males, 37 females; age range 19 to 40 years) participated in this study. The structured questionnaire was used to assess the demographic characteristics, level of occupational knowledge, social influence, and career choice intentions. The study found that undergraduate students‘ intentions to join their careers were highly determined by their level of occupational knowledge and social influence from significant individuals such as parents, friends, and lecturers. Overall, the study found that majority of students intends to join their careers upon their graduation based on the social influence from significant individuals. Similarly, Otta and Njoku in 2012 conducted a study that examined self-concept and vocational interest among secondary school Students (adolescents) in Ohafia Education zone of Abia State. Through purposive random sampling technique, a total of seven hundred and ninety nine (799) secondary school 2 students participated in the study. Instruments used in the study were Adolescent Personal Data Inventory (APDI) Akinboye (1985) and Vocational Interest Inventory (VII) Bakare (1977). Regression Analysis, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), Z-test statistics and Pearson Product Moment were used as statistical tools for data analysis. Moreso, frequency counts, percentages and rank were also used to analyze data. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 2 | P a g e The findings revealed that there is a significant relationship between self-concept and vocational interest. Those adolescents with high vocational interest turned towards scientific, literary, persuasive, and computational and social services interest areas; whereas low vocational interest turned towards outdoor activities, mechanical, musical and artistic areas of interest. There was no significant difference between the male in their vocational interest. Furthermore, in a research conducted by Salami, and Salami (2013), 100 students were randomly selected from five secondary schools in Ogun state, in Nigeria, to assess the factors that determine the choice of career among Secondary School Students. The sample consists of 37 males and 63 females. A questionnaire designed on the basis of likert-type scale on the factors determining the choice of career based on environment, influence and opportunity of the students was administered. Their responses were analyzed using percentage, mean, standard deviation and T-test at p.05. Significant difference was found on the environmental factor (tcal at p.05=220.25, tcrit=1.960), Significant difference was also found on the interest or personal desire (tcal at p.05=673.48; tcrit1.960) and the significant difference of the opportunity the students see (tcal at p.05=148.69; tcrit1.960). The percentage on male and female was also carried out. Fifty two percent (52%) of male and 46% of female agreed that opportunity do affect career while 42% disagreed for both male & female, 51% of male and 51% of female agreed that interest or personal desire do affect career choice while 42% and 45% of both male and female disagreed, 50% of male and 54% of female agreed that environment do affect career choice but 41% and 49% of male and female does not agree. Conclusively, all the factors affect the students in determining their career. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 3 | P a g e Adebo and Sekumade (2013) also conducted a study aimed at identifying the factors determining the choice of Agriculture professional career among the students of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences in Ekiti State University, Nigeria. A total of 160 randomly selected respondents were utilized for the study, while a structured interview schedule was used to elicit information from them. Frequency counts and percentages, Likert scale, as well as, Probit model were used in data analysis. The respondent‘s ages ranged from 16 to 32 years with an average of 19.5 years. They belonged to all the religion in the country. Majority of the males were from farming families and had childhood homes in rural areas. Previous educational performance (mean= 2.53), career flexibility (mean= 2.37), contacts/peer groups (mean= 2.35), work experience (mean= 2.28), personal interest and by chance (mean= 2.11 respectively) and self-employment influence the choice of agriculture profession. Most of the respondents perceived agriculture as a stepping stone to other professions, a poor man‘s job and laborious. Barriers to continuing in the profession include, access to financial resources and land, fear of crop/livestock failure, unpredictable future and psychological problems. Probit model confirmed the significant relationship between previous educational performance, work experience, contacts and economy in the choice of agriculture as a course and profession among youths in the University. The study recommends early stimulation of students‘ interest in agriculture, award of scholarship to agriculture students and provision of grants to graduates in agriculture who desire to embark on enterprises and tailoring school practical experiences towards commercial agriculture. Avugla (2011) conducted a research to investigate factors that influence career choice among the senior high school students in the South Tongu District of Volta Region, Ghana, and the extent to University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 4 | P a g e which those factors influence students‘ choice. Survey design was used. The main instrument used for data collection was questionnaire. Simple random sample techniques was used to select 200 students, and convenient sampling techniques used to select three administrators and three guidance and counselling coordinators for the study from the three public second cycle institutions in the District. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analysing data. The construct validity was established using factor analysis and reliability using Cronbach‘s alpha. The results of the main hypothesis and the research questions postulated for the study revealed that Intrinsic factors reliably predicted career choice suggesting that Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are not significant predictors when the effects of Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors are controlled. This helps students learn about and explore careers that ultimately lead to career choice. This played a critical role in shaping students career choice. It was recommended that Career Education and Guidance should be introduced in the primary school to enable children to explore the world of work as young people need to make a smooth transition from primary school to the initial years of senior high school and the Ministry of Education should allocate fund for a Guidance and Counselling activities in all basic and second cycle schools. This will enable the guidance coordinators to function effectively at their various levels of work. 2.3.1 Extrinsic factors: Environment factors in career choice While some undergraduate students will wait as long as it takes to secure their desired jobs, there are others that go in for jobs that come their way or due to circumstances. The study of Edwards and Quinter (2011) indicated that availability of advancement opportunities and learning experiences are the most influential factors affecting career choices among students. While males reported learning experiences and career flexibility as the most University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 5 | P a g e influential factors, females however reported availability of advancement opportunity and opportunity to apply skills as the most influential factors. Though the initial salaries attached to those jobs may not be attractive, some may go in for them due to promotion opportunities attached to them. Financial rewards as usually said, motivate the youth to make their choices, that is, they go in for jobs that go with attractive salaries. Each individual would like to work at a place where there is effective machinery for negotiating pay increases or conditions for employment, where selection of most appropriate methods of calculating the wages or salaries which are important for cooperation and high morale, and department for the setting of wages and salary scales and the procedure to be followed are clearly defined. For the worker to be satisfied with his job or to achieve target set the following conditions are to be present: health and safety measures, ventilation, motivation, precaution against fire, office equipment and recreational facilities and everything that an employer puts in place to ensure a congenial working environment. There are others that consider the work environment before making their choice and those that are influenced by the success story of friends or/and family members. Again, others go in for jobs they feel may offer them further opportunity for education or training. While there are jobs that offer little or no opportunity for further training and education, jobs in Health and Education sector offer ample opportunity for further training and education. Education or training enables the worker to acquire skills, knowledge, attitudes and abilities that help him to do his present work effectively and also prepare him for higher level (Attieku et al, 2005). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 6 | P a g e The school the individual attends goes a long way to influence one‘s occupation. The level of the individual's educational attainment also counts. It is true that one who enrolls and studies in a medical school will become a medical doctor and one who attends school of journalism is likely to be a journalist. Again, education or training is considered when it comes to promotion in most areas of work. There are those that look for jobs that can assure them regular income to cater for not just their present needs but also for the future as seasonal jobs cannot ensure regular pay and temporal jobs may be disturbing as one is faced with the problem of looking for another job. Also jobs that are of permanent nature provides one with a regular income which enables him plan his life well hereby improving his status in the society. This situation means more than the regular provision of job and wage. It includes situation where workers are not unjustly dismissed or suspended. Environment plays a significant role in the career position the student attains in many ways. The environment that is spoken about here is a factor that is used to nurture decisions in career choice. Gender, for example, has played a significant role in this environment. In a statement released to the press on the thirtieth anniversary of the Title IX barring of the sex discrimination, Marcia Greenberger (2002) of the National Women‘s Law Center stated that boys are still being steered toward the traditional ‗male‘ jobs, which are higher paying. Girls are still expected to cluster into the traditional fields of cosmetology, childcare, and other similar jobs. In Florida, for example, ―99% of the students in cosmetology are female, while 100% of the students taking plumbing are male‖ (Greenberger, 2002). While it should be noted that lawsuits were filed in these cases, not all states were guilty of gross failure on the part of technical schools to desegregate the jobs to both of the genders. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 7 | P a g e Schools in some states have been able to do a better job in creating a better environment for students who want to cross gender lines while choosing a career. Skills present in males and females alike have been indicative of their vocational interests. Grace Laleger, in her Ph.D. dissertation, set out to ascertain the skill levels of girls as they applied to interests that the girls had. The conclusion showed that there was a disappointingly low correlation of skills to interest (Laleger, 1942). These types of studies have shown how difficult it is to break the code of motivation that students may possess. The fact that Laleger‘s study was done in 1942 shows that gender bias, and the study of it, is nothing new, and may continue to be an always present part of the career choice process. In the past, gender roles in the work force have been uneven and unfair (Bronstein and Farnsworth, 1998). Women usually had lower paying jobs than men (Bronstein and Farnsworth, 1998). Currently the playing field between the two is more even. However, when looking at the workforce you can still find men and women in stereotypical job fields (Greenwood, 1999). Studies have shown that young men and women have different styles when it comes to choosing a career (Mihyeon, 2009). Men have a more liberal and progressive style of thinking while women prefer a hierarchical style of thinking (Mihyeon, 2009). Many students believe that to live a comfortable lifestyle they need to be economically stable. When these students look into a major or a career path, they seek out the higher salary jobs or they look for majors that involve the most job security (Wildman and Torres, 2002). The financial aspects that students consider include high earning potential, benefits, and opportunities for advancement (Beggs et al., 2008). Given the current economy, and comparing University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 8 | P a g e it to the American culture, many students think they need a high paying job to make it in society these days. Along with stability during their career, some students may even look ahead to retirement. Students want to make sure they are secure for the rest of their lives, and may look into careers that have benefits to help them in the long run (Wildman and Torres, 2002). 2.3.2 Intrinsic factors: Interest or personal desire in career choice Intrinsic factors include interest in the job or personal desire that satisfies work. Similarly, intrinsic factors are basic and essential characteristics which form part of someone rather than because of his or her association (Encarta, 2009). Interest or personal desire is another important factor in career choice. Studies have shown that students will choose a major that they think will fit their interest or personal desire (Mihyeon, 2009).The confidence that a student has can determine how far a student will go with their education. Students who believe in themselves have more confidence and are more likely to go for what they want instead of settling for something that is comfortable. Moreso, the result of the study of Adjin (2004) showed that interest was the most motivating factor that influenced career choice among students in Sogakope Senior Secondary and Dabala Secondary Technical Schools considering: ability, interest, monetary reward, and prestige. Work is expected to improve upon the individuals‟ quality of life, and bring honour and respect, so one needs to pay attention to his aptitude, and attitude towards work. It is true that certain families are noted for a particular job because they value that particular job and assume it may give them the respect they need in the society. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4 9 | P a g e Another research by Amedzor (2003) showed that, prestige was the most important factor that influences career choice of students in Ho Township considering prestige, personal interest, and parental influence. Values and aspirations need to be considered as the individual makes a choice since the importance or usefulness one attached to his job and individual‘s desire or ambition to achieve inspires him to excel in his job. The individual‘s scale of values is based on his/her attitudes and beliefs about what is important in life. If one‘s values match closely those of his work or colleagues he/she is likely to feel a sense of pride in what you are doing and be happy to devote time and energy to your job. Value systems do change over time - so what is right for you now may not be so appropriate in 5 or 10 years‘ time. Values do become more important as we get older. Examples of values include autonomy (making your own decisions, independence of action), authority (having influence over others), variety (change and diversity in tasks, places, people), service (helping or caring for others), economic reward (high salary, property), prestige (having achievements recognized), social interaction (having pleasant, friendly contacts), creativity (being original, developing new concepts). This, however, cannot bring the expected satisfaction without other required intrinsic factors. Inborn talents need to be developed. These talents when developed will influence the individual‘s choice of career, and for one to be fully developed and attain self-actualisation, he has to pay the needed attention to inborn talents. The abilities and skills- either innate or acquired needs to be suitable for the job one intends to do or is doing. The individual‘s aptitude or special ability has great influence on the vocational level and performance at work. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 0 | P a g e Individuals‘ aptitude has a powerful influence on the vocational level they are likely to attain or the training they are likely to be enrolled in. People with special abilities are better trained. The individual‘s intellectual ability is very important in education and occupational choice. This is an important factor since individuals may enter into occupations that require considerable educational preparation as compared with occupations that might not require so much educational preparation. Also the study of Annan (2006) revealed that interest or personal desire was most influential factor that influenced career choice among senior secondary students in Ahanta East Metropolis taking into consideration (ability, personality, material benefit, home background, gender factors, and significant others). Career choices motivated by intrinsic factors are also intellectually stimulating. A choice is intrinsically motivated if one is free in making career decision based on innate tendency rather than environmental or interpersonal factors. 2.3.3 Interpersonal factors: Family and relations in career choice Relationship constitute an important dimension of human functioning, yet the interest in understanding how relationships and careers are intertwined has increased only in recent years (Blustein et al., 2004; Schultheiss, 2003; Philips et al., 2001, Schultheiss et al., 2001). Much evidence exist that parents influence their children‘s career development and that the family provide resources that are significant concerning young people‘s idea about their future. Families provide financial and emotional support and also transmit values, goals and expectations to their children, which can impact the career development process. Theories University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 1 | P a g e suggest that parents assist in shaping children's self-concept and can serve as role models (Crites 1962; Super 1957). Studies have separately examined the influences of each parent on the career choices of their sons or daughters and have found that mothers tend to have more influence on the career decisions or aspirations of their children than fathers. For example, in their study of 70 young adults, Mickelson and Velasco (1998) found that mothers were the most influential and that daughters‘ occupational aspirations were often similar to their mothers‘ chosen professions. In similar studies, students were asked items such as, ―What do you want to do with your life?‖ and to indicate if they agree or disagree with statements such as ―My mother (father) encouraged me to make my own decisions.‖ The students‘ responses were similar to those of their parents (Mickelson and Velasco 1998; Wims 1994). These studies also found that students wanted to discuss career planning primarily with their mothers. Similarly, in their study of factors that influence children‘s career choices, Muthukrishna and Sokoya (2008) found the mother as the most influential person adolescents talk to concerning their career choice. Mothers were cited as particularly influential because they provide support that eases children‘s apprehensions about careers (Hairston 2000). For example, in their study of career choice among a sample of South African students, Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa (2006) reported that their parents had a significant influence on their career decisions but mothers were more influential. This implies that mothers play a major role in career choice of their children. Research studies show that families, parents and guardians in particular, play a significant role in the occupational aspirations and career goal development of their children. Without parental approval or support, students and young adults are often reluctant to pursue or even explore University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 2 | P a g e diverse career possibilities. Several studies (Knowles 1998; Mau and Bikos 2000; Wilson and Wilson 1992) have found that college students and young adults cite parents as an important influence on their choice of career. In a similar vein, some studies have found that the family plays a critical role in a child‘s career development (Guerra and Braungart-Rieker 1999; Mickelson and Valasco 1998; Otto 2000). Some of the variables that influence students‘ occupational goals include the family, level of parental education, school, peers, personality, and socioeconomic status (Crockett and Binghham 2000; Wilson and Wilson 1992). There are varying opinions and findings, however, as to which specific family characteristics influence career aspirations. For instance, conflicting data exist regarding the influence of socioeconomic variables. Other studies (Mau and Bikos, 2000) suggested that both parent education and income influence career aspirations, whilst other studies (Hossler and Stage 1992; Wilson and Wilson 1992) showed that only parent education is an influence. Other family variables that have been shown to influence career aspirations include the parents‘ occupation (Trice 1991) and family size (Downey 1995; Marjoribanks 1997; Singh et al., 1995). The father‘s occupational status is highly correlated with his son‘s occupation (Blau 1992; Conroy 1997). Family size also appears to influence adolescent career aspirations because parents with large families tend to have less money to aid the older children in attending college, while younger children may receive more financial assistance since the financial strain is less once the older children leave home. On the contrary, other studies (Boatwright et al., 1992), found each of these family variables to be insignificant in influencing aspirations. Nevertheless, most studies have been consistent and suggest that adolescents‘ own aspirations are influenced by their parents‘ aspirations or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 3 | P a g e expectations for them. This implies that when adolescents perceive their parents to have high educational expectations for them, adolescents are more likely to have higher aspirations for themselves. A 1998 Sylvan Learning Center report indicates that parents‘ and children‘s views about career aspirations are more compatible than incompatible. Parents are influential figures with whom, whether intentionally or unintentionally, children become aware of and get exposed to occupations or career opportunities and implied expectations. In a similar vein, some studies suggest that children are influenced in their career choice by socio-demographic factors and these factors include family, school and peers (Kniveton 2004; Mathombela 1997; Salami 2006). In his study, Salami (2006) found family involvement as the most significant predictor of career choice in gender-dominated occupations. Similarly, Kniveton (2004) found that the family provides information and guidance directly or indirectly and influences young people‘s career choice. For example, parents offer appropriate support for certain occupational choices which tend to follow their own (Small and McClean 2002). According to Adenubi (2007) undergraduate students have regard for highly monetary rewarding vocations. As a result, most of the ―emergent contractors‘ whose fathers and godfathers are in political positions, with the type of money they earn, lure these undergraduate students away from the academic and vocational interest. In effect, undergraduate students with low self- concept turn towards interest areas like artistic, musical, outdoor activities and mechanical interest areas. This situation could be as a result of what Idaron (2002) called ―accidental factor‖; a situation where university graduates will become taxi drivers and motor cyclists because there is no job. It could be as a result of this and also create low self-concept. Some school leavers may form music gangsters to see that life is moving. Others, Idaron said, may become political touts and bodyguards. Many parents and guardians, when they see the level of monetary reward University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 4 | P a g e from such politicians would insist that their undergraduate children read or enter into such courses without minding their self-concept and vocational interest areas. Many, after study drop and leave the course and jump into what will give them job satisfaction. Others would engage in vocations, not based on rational choice, but on the basis of wind of fate (Orhungu, 2007). More so, Sababa (2010) was of the opinion that school environment influences self-concept and vocational interest. To them, improved school library, better and equipped laboratories and counsellors who may assist the student to increase the awareness to answer the basic questions of life of whom they are, why they are there, where they go from there. The counsellor will give them the adequate information on the available world of works. Sababa (2010) maintained that most parents are illiterate and do not know anything about vocational interest or the vocations available. These create problems to most undergraduates who are counselled by such parents. This must have informed American Network (2010) to state that the counsellors and teachers should help to improve students‘ self-concept and vocational interest by helping them see how education is connected to vocation during counseling, teaching, workshop or practical work at school. 2.4 Challenges that Influence Career Choice by Undergraduate Students The school where one is educated plays an important influence on one‘s career choice (Weishew and Penk 1993). In his study, Garrahy (2001) noted that schools are social institutions that reinforce gender-appropriate behavior, interests and occupations. Such constructs including curricular subjects, quality of teaching, student participation in school activities, school practices and policies and learning materials for the student were found to impact career choice among learners (Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa 2006). University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 5 | P a g e In his study, Spade (2001) found that gender difference in the learners‘ experiences starts at pre- school and continues throughout their educational careers. Teachers, like parents, are viewed as key players in the career paths that young people eventually pursue especially girls (Barnett 2007). In her study in Nigeria, Denga (2004) found that sex-role stereotypes exist among boys and girls in primary schools as they aspire to traditional occupations. This implies that parents‘ and teachers‘ beliefs influence their children‘s self-perceptions of ability and consequently career choice. In fact, studies show that some teachers encourage students to take certain subject options that are congruent with aptitudes and abilities that they identify (Falaye and Adams 2008). Similarly, Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa (2006) found that career choices of tertiary students from previously disadvantaged schools are negatively impacted by lack of finance, lack of career information, poor academic performance and unsatisfactory career counseling services. Another study by Maree and Beck (2004) indicated that in disadvantaged communities, schools with career counselling programme were under-utilizing the facility which was also viewed as too expensive. In his most recent study, Maree (2009) found that many learners passed Grade 12 without having received career counselling in any form and consequently denied the opportunity to apply for acceptance into sought after fields of study at tertiary training institutions. Other studies show that peers play a major role in career choice of students (Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa 2006; Stuart 2000). For example, Stuart (2000) found that peers‘ attitudes toward gender and ethnicity may increase or decrease a person‘s confidence in pursuing a career. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 6 | P a g e Adolescents are easily influenced by their peers because they rely on their friends to provide validation of the choices that they make including career decisions. On the contrary, Bojuwoye and Mbanjwa (2006) found that peers were reported not to be marginally influential in career decision making among university students. In effect, the theoretical framework is summarized in Figure 2.2 Fig. 2.1 Theoretical Framework 2.5 Chapter Summary The chapter presented the review of related literature. It covered topical issues such as factors influencing career choice. It also dealt with career decision making tools such as self-awareness, educational awareness, career awareness, career exploration, career planning and decision making, and some theories of vocational choice and development, and types of career. It dealt with career anchors, career path and development, employability satisfaction, spirituality and career and the role of career guidance and counsellors in career decision making process. More so, it presented the challenges that confront undergraduate students in making career choice decisions. CAREER CHOICE EXTRINSIC FACTORS INTRINSIC FACTORS INTERPERSONAL FACTORS University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 7 | P a g e 2.6 Statement of Hypotheses 1. Intrinsic factors will have a strong influence on career choice 2. Extrinsic factors will have a strong influence on career choice 3. Interpersonal factors will have a strong influence on career choice. 2.7 Operational Definitions Intrinsic factors: Include interest in the job and personal desire that brings satisfaction or fulfillment on the job. Extrinsic factors: Include availability of jobs and how well an occupation pays, prestige and other on the job benefits. Interpersonal factors: Include the influence of family, role models and significant others. For this study, it is concerned or involved with relationship between people including parents and significant others. Career choice: It is the selection of a particular path or vocation in terms of career. This is usually influenced by parental guidance, vocational counseling, and training opportunities. It is also affected by personal preference and identification with figures and role models. Personality: A characteristic way of thinking, feeling and behaving (Britannica, 2002). One‘s personality may embrace attitudes, interest, personal desire and opinions that affect the way we deal with interactions of people and, in particular to this study, the situations of choosing a career. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 8 | P a g e CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.0 Introduction This chapter presents the methodology used for the research. It presents the research design, population, sample and sampling procedure, the study area, instrumentation and data analysis. 3.1 Research Design A survey research design was used, employing both the quantitative and qualitative approach. Survey research design is the use pooled studies using questionnaire or structured interviews for data collection with the intent of generalizing from sample to a population (Agyedu, Donkor and Obeng 1998). According to Cobb (2001), survey allows one to study large numbers of people through self-report measures supplied by interviews or questionnaires. It is a technique of descriptive research that seeks to determine present opinions of a specified population. This design enabled the researcher to reach large number of respondents to obtain the desired representative sample of the target population to deduce the perception of the entire population. 3.2 Target Population The third and final year undergraduate students in the Humanities were the target group from whom the information was sought. The target population was 3522 in all. This population consisted of only third and final year undergraduate students from only five (5) Departments from the Humanities. These five departments (sociology, psychology, social works, school of business and political science) were chosen because they had the most students. More so, the final year students would University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5 9 | P a g e soon complete school and end up making their career choices whiles the third year students had made a career choice by ‗branching‘ into the course major of their desired career programmes. The targeted students were in better position to respond adequately to the questionnaire. 3.3 Sample size and Sampling Procedure In selecting the sample for the study, simple random sampling technique was adopted for selecting students. This is based on the quota of questionnaire allocated to each department in the Humanities. Simple random sampling means that each member of the sampling population has an equal chance of being selected. It called for a sufficiently large sample to ensure that the sample reflected the population (Clarke and Cooke, 1992 and Pittenger, 2003). Conceptually, simple random sampling is the simplest of the probability sampling techniques. It requires a complete sampling frame. Advantages are that it is free of classification error, and it requires minimum advance knowledge of the population other than the frame. Its simplicity also makes it relatively easy to interpret data collected via simple random sampling. Convenience sampling was used in selecting the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators. This technique was used as it was convenient and helped to get the gross estimate of the result without incurring cost or time required to select a random sample. A total of three hundred and sixty (360) undergraduate students and two Guidance and Counselling Coordinators were selected from the Humanities (see appendix B for derivation of sample size). Students‘ questionnaire were administered in each of the selected departments based on their programmes offered. The number of students in the 5 Departments under the Humanities was deduced as follows. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 0 | P a g e The department of sociology as of the 2014/2015 academic year had a total student population of eight hundred and fifty (850). Out of the 850 students, third year students were four hundred and fifty (450) and final year students were comprised (400) undergraduate students. In order to avoid bias and ensure uniformity, the administration of the questionnaire was carried out mostly at residence (hostels and halls) of the students. This was so because only a small fraction of the total student population in the department was deduced to undertake in the survey. At the end of the survey, eighty seven (87) of the undergraduate students who took part of the survey were from the department of sociology. Similarly, the department of psychology comprised nine hundred and ninety eight (998) undergraduate students for the 2014/2015 academic year. Out of the nine hundred and ninety eight undergraduate students, six hundred (600) were in their third year (level 300) and the remaining three hundred and ninety eight (398) were in their final year (level 400). Because of the lack of time and financial constraints, not all the 998 students could be served with questionnaire to help with the survey. For this reason, most of the survey was carried out in the halls and hostels. At the end of the survey, it was deduced that seventy two (72) of the undergraduate students were from the department of psychology Again, in the political science department, the total student population comprised four hundred and fifty (450) third year (level 300) undergraduate students and four hundred (400) final year (level 400) undergraduate students. That is, in the 2014/2015 academic year, there were eight hundred and fifty undergraduate students admitted to the department of political science. To ensure uniformity and avoid bias, the survey was conducted at the halls and hostels of the undergraduate students instead of the lecture halls. At the end of the survey, a total of sixty two (62) students were from the department of political science University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 1 | P a g e Moreso, at the end of the survey, a total of seventy seven (77) undergraduate students were from the department of social works. This was arrived at after questionnaire was administered to third and final year undergraduate students in their halls and hostels of residence. In the 2014/2015 academic year, the University of Ghana admitted three hundred and twenty two (322) undergraduate students into the department of social works. For the lack of time and finances, not all the students were involved in the survey. Finally, five hundred and fifty two (552) undergraduate students were admitted in the school of business for the 2014/2015 academic year. Considering the large number of undergraduate students in the school of business, and time and financial constraints, not all of the students were directly involved in the survey. In effect, the researcher conducted the survey in the halls and hostels of residence of undergraduate students. At the end of the survey, a total of sixty two (62) undergraduate students were from the school of business 3.5 Research Instrument Questionnaire and interviews were the research instruments employed for the study. The Questionnaire was personally administered with the help of three volunteers in order to reduce errors and to ensure high response rate. Both open-ended and closed-ended questions were used. Factors that influenced students‘ choice of career questionnaire were used for collecting data from undergraduate students. It consisted of three sections. Section A dealt with bio data of respondents and section B dealt with students reasons for their career choice in Humanities. It also dealt with the three main factors that influence students‘ choice of career namely Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal with the options of ―Yes‖, ―No‖, and ―Not exactly‖. Section C dealt with other factors that influenced the career choice of students as well as the problems that University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 2 | P a g e affected students‘ choice of career. The options for section C were ―Yes‖, ―No‖, and ―Not exactly‖. Furthermore, unstructured interview technique was used to solicit information from two Guidance and Counselling Coordinators. The interview questions were aimed at bridging any gap that may exist in students‘ data. The unstructured interview consisted of two sections; the first section dealt with personal data of Guidance and Counselling Coordinators and the second part presented the interview questions. For both questionnaire and interviews, specific areas from which questions were asked included educational background, reasons for choosing programme of study and challenges undergraduate students frequently encounter on the job market, among others. Four (4) questions were on personal data, nine (9) questions were about undergraduates‘ reasons for choosing courses in humanities. Also, two (2) questions were on the career decision of undergraduates. Furthermore, six (6), nine (9) and six (6) questions were on extrinsic, intrinsic and interpersonal factors that influenced undergraduates‘ career choice respectively. These were in addition to the six (6) questions designed to test undergraduates‘ level of knowledge on their career path. Two (2) questions each on the factors influencing undergraduates‘ students‘ choice of their degree major and whether they have regrets or not with their career decisions were also solicited respectively. Finally, three (3) questions on the challenges on career choice in humanities were as well asked. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 3 | P a g e 3.6 Procedure The questionnaire was personally administered to undergraduate students with the help of three volunteers to ensure maximum response rate. The instructions and the various items on the questionnaire were explained to the students. This helped to obtain desired responses. A maximum of forty-five minutes was used by students who responded to the questionnaire. Answered questionnaire were retrieved on the same day. The administration of questionnaire was completed in 6 weeks. The interview for the guidance and counselling coordinators was conducted within two weeks. 3.7 Pilot Study A pilot study was undertaken in order to ensure very effective revision and vital corrections to the research instruments before actual administration to respondents. The face validity of the instrument was established by making sure it contained items which were appropriate for measuring the attribute to be measured. The content validity was established by two research assistants in statistics at the Methodist University College, Dansoman and University of Ghana, Legon respectively. Thus, pre-testing of the questionnaire helped check validity of the research instrument. It also revealed and solved problems such as phrasing, sequence and ambiguity. Above all the pilot study enhanced accuracy and understandability of respondents. Finally, for easier accessibility and effective time management, undergraduate students at Accra City Campus were subjected to the pre-testing exercise. The reliability of the pilot study was ensured by using the Cronbach‘s alpha, which is a technique commonly used in measuring the internal consistency for items in a questionnaire. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 4 | P a g e The reliability of a scale is considered to be good if it has a Cronbach‘s alpha above .70 (Pallant, 2003). The Cronbach alpha produced were Extrinsic (alpha= .883), Intrinsic (alpha=.958), Interpersonal (alph =.932), Students level of knowledge on career path (alpha= .913), students‘ choice of their degree major (alpha=.619), Reasons for choosing a course in humanities (alpha=.631) and Challenges (alpha=.935). However, the construct validity was not established for the interview for the Guidance and Counselling Coordinators as data collected could not be measured. 3.8 Scoring On the extrinsic factors, six (6) items were used to assess with Likert scale response options of 5 (YES), 1 (NO) and 3 (NOT EXACTLY). An individual total on this was computed by adding the scores attached to the ticked responses. Those who scored below eighteen (18) were labelled as Low extrinsic factors and those who scored eighteen (18) or above were labeled as High extrinsic factors. On the intrinsic factors, nine (9) items were used to assess with Likert scale response options of 5 (YES), 1 (NO) and 3 (NOT EXACTLY). An individual total on this was computed by adding the scores attached to the ticked responses. Those who scored below twenty seven (27) were labelled as Low intrinsic factors and those who scored twenty seven (27) or above were labeled as High intrinsic factors. On the interpersonal factors, six (6) items were used to assess with Likert scale response options of 5 (YES), 1 (NO) and 3 (NOT EXACTLY). An individual total on this was computed by adding the scores attached to the ticked responses. Those who scored below eighteen (18) were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 5 | P a g e labelled as Low interpersonal factors and those who scored eighteen (18) or above were labeled as High interpersonal factors. Career choice was categorized into health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts. The frequencies of respondents who chose each one of these were counted. 3.9 Data Analysis Data collected were summarized using descriptive and inferential statistics. The conceptual model was assessed using Chi square and contingency coefficient. 4.0 Ethical Considerations Consent was sought from all the participants. Participants were assured that data collected by responding to the questionnaire would be kept confidential and used only for purposes of this study. Participation was voluntary and participants were free to withdraw from the study at any time. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 6 | P a g e CHAPTER FOUR DATA ANALYSIS AND RESULTS 4.0 Introduction This chapter discussed the results of the study. 4.1 Preliminary Analysis The demographic characteristics of the undergraduate students, in terms of their gender, age, level of education, and department of study, are presented in the figures below. Furthermore the challenges undergraduate students face in making their career choice is presented as well. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 7 | P a g e Table 4.1: Demographic Characteristics of Undergraduate students Characteristic N Frequency Percent Gender 360 Male 168 46.7 Female 192 53.3 Age 360 20 – 30 172 47.8 31 – 40 140 38.9 41 – 50 42 11.7 51 and above 6 1.7 Educational Level 360 Level 300 200 55.6 Level 400 160 44.4 Department of study 360 Political science 62 17.2 Sociology 87 24.2 Business school 62 17.2 Social works 77 21.4 Psychology 72 20.0 Source: Field survey, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 8 | P a g e 4.1.1 Sex of respondents The demographics of the students indicated that, the females were overly more than the males. Out of a total of 360 students sampled for the study, the females numbered 192 representing 53.3 per cent while the male, constituted 46.7 per cent. The results indicate a dominance of females in the humanities. 4.1.2 Age of respondents For the age bracket, it was realized that, those in the category 20-30 were seen to outnumber all the other ages. In fact, those who were 51 years and above were very few, just about 1.7 per cent. The age bracket proposes that the respondents were generally young and fell within the age for tertiary education pursuit. 4.1.3 Educational level With regards to students‘ level of study, level 300 undergraduate students outnumbered level 400s. Level 300s numbered 200 representing 55.6 per cent while level 400s constituted 44.4 percent. The result revealed that more students were admitted into the humanities year after year. In other words, the percentage of admission increases by the academic year. Again, third years were expected to provide plausible factors that compelled them to select their respective degree programme majors while final year students were vital in assessing whether or not they had any intentions to join the careers corresponding to their degree programmes upon graduation . University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 6 9 | P a g e 4.1.4 Department of study Majority of the students (24.2% of target population as shown in table 4.1) pursued humanities major in sociology with political science and business course (17.4%) respectively being the least pursued programmes of study. The results depicted that undergraduate students in the humanities were offered programmes under the department more than any other department. 4.1.5 Bio data of career and guidance counsellors Considering the lack of ―qualified or trained‘ career and guidance experts in the University of Ghana, some lecturers have been assigned career and guidance positions, however, their busy schedules did not permit them to be stationed frequently in their offices. The busy schedule of the departmental career and guidance counsellors restricted the researcher from interviewing as many of them as possible. However, two career and guidance counsellors from the counselling and placement center of the University of Ghana made time out of their busy schedule to provide answers needed to augment the responses from undergraduate students with regards to the research topic. One female career and guidance counsellor, who worked in the counselling and placement center for ten years and one male who doubled as the assistant registrar and counsellor accepted to be interviewed. The data collected from the career and guidance counsellors enabled the researcher to evaluate the extent to which Intrinsic factors, Extrinsic factors and Interpersonal factors influence undergraduate students‘ choice of career and the problems students face in making their career choices. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 0 | P a g e 4.2: Career Decision Table 4.2: Undergraduate Students Career Decision Frequency Percentage (%) Office work Non office work Health 46 32.0 46 - Media 42 24.1 42 - Legal 33 17.3 33 - Education 26 13.6 26 - Banking and Finance 17 8.9 17 - Religion 15 7.9 - 15 Arts 12 6.3 - 12 Total 191 100 164 27 (Source: Field survey (2015). N=191 because the remaining 161 undergraduate students were undecided on their intended career paths) The responses of undergraduate students intended career decision were grouped as presented in Table 4.1. Thirty three (33) of the undergraduate students representing 17.3 percent had intention to work in the Legal sector, 46 of them representing 32.0 percent intended to serve in the Health Care Sector, 42 of them representing 24.1 percent had the intention of working in the Media, 12 undergraduate students representing 6.3 percent, intended to work in the Arts Sector, 15 of them representing 7.9 percent intended to work in the Religion Sector, 26 of the undergraduate students representing 13.6 percent intended to work in the education sector and 17 of the undergraduate students representing 8.9 percent intended to work in the banking and finance University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 1 | P a g e sector. Moreover, the seven categories of career choice undergraduate students intended to pursue were further reduced to two categories (office and non-office work). 4.5: Challenges Undergraduate Students Face in Making their Career Choice 4.5.1 Unavailability of well -paying jobs Majority of the undergraduate students (44.4%) acknowledged that the unavailability of well- paying jobs was challenge in their career choice. More so, an appreciable percentage of the undergraduate students (42.8%) were in disagreement to the assertion that the unavailability of well-paying jobs was a challenge in their career decision in contrast to the 12.8 percent who were nonaligned to the assertion. This could be attributed to the fact that the career decisions of most undergraduate students are influenced by what they will earn. This result is a rehash of findings from Jaquiline, (2013) which stated that undergraduate students‘ decisions to choose a career are partly determined by what a particular career offers in terms of economic benefits on one hand, and financial support on the other side. Fig. 4.1: Unavailability of well-paying jobs (Source: field survey, 2015) 44.4% 42.8% 12.8% Yes No N o t exactly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 2 | P a g e 4.5.2 Difficulty in getting jobs because of the number of Bachelor of Arts students in the system Surprisingly, most of the undergraduate students (45.1%) responded that the influx of unemployed Bachelor of Arts (BA) students in the job market was not a threat to their career decisions as opposed to the 42.3 percent who felt their career decision was threaten by high unemployed BA students. However, 12.5 percent of undergraduate students were not sure whether the high unemployed graduates who had similar degrees were a threat to their career decisions. This could be attributed to high unemployment rate in Ghana and so they would rather follow their ―heart‖ and remain unemployed than pursuing a career with the intention of getting employed immediately after school and get disappointed. This result implied that there are limited job opportunities in Ghana and thus the National Youth Employment Programme was established as part of the short-term solution to youth unemployment in the country (Daily Graphic; 17th March, 2011). Fig 4.2: Influx of unemployed BA graduates (Source: field survey, 2015) 42.3% 45.1% 12.5% Yes No N o t exactly University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 3 | P a g e 4.5.3 Difficulty in securing jobs because of lack specific skills the job market requires It was again surprising to note that majority (43.1%) of the undergraduate students felt that the lack of specific skills for job requirements was not a threat to their career decisions. On the other hand, however, 28.6 percent of them felt the lack of specific on the job skills was a challenge to their career decisions in contrast to the 28.3percent who were not sure how the lack of specific job skills was a threat to their career decisions. This could be attributed to the fact that most undergraduate students were unaware of the requisite skills needed for specific careers. The results resonates with Lawer‘s (2007) findings which state that majority of students were not aware of major occupation groups in Ghana, knowledge of training and qualification necessary for employment in the various occupations. Fig. 4.3 Lack of skills for job acquisition (Source: field survey, 2015) Yes 28.6% No 43.1% Not exactly 28.3% University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 4 | P a g e 4.3: TESTING OF STATED HYPOTHESES Table 4.3 Chi Square Analysis of Relationship between Intrinsic Factors and Career Choice Intrinsic factors Health Media Legal Education Banking and finance Religion Arts df χ2 Sig High 36 28 26 9 12 8 3 Low 10 14 7 17 5 7 9 Total 46 42 33 26 17 15 12 6 26.004 0.038 Results in Table 4.2 revealed that 36, 28, 26, 9, 12, 8 and 3 undergraduate students reported high intrinsic factors for careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively and 10, 14, 7, 17, 5, 7 and 9 undergraduate students reported low intrinsic factors to pursue careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively. Since the calculated chi-square (χ2) value is greater than tabulated chi-square value (10.643) at 6 degrees of freedom under 0.05 probability level, we accept that intrinsic factors influence career choice, moreso, contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .883 which implies that the correlation between extrinsic factors and career choice is strong. Thus, the first hypothesis is supported University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 5 | P a g e Table 4.4 Chi Square Analysis of Relationship between Extrinsic Factors and Career Choice Extrinsic factors Health Media Legal Education Banking and finance Religion Arts df χ2 Sig High 38 30 22 17 11 9 9 Low 8 12 11 9 4 6 3 Total 46 42 33 26 15 15 12 6 15.186 0.008 Results in Table 4.3 revealed that 38, 30, 22, 17, 11, 9 and 9 undergraduate students reported high extrinsic factors for careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively and 8, 12, 11, 9, 4, 6 and 3 undergraduate students reported low extrinsic factors to pursue careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively. Since the calculated chi-square (χ2) value is greater than tabulated chi-square value (10.643) at 6 degrees of freedom under 0.05 probability level, we accept that extrinsic factors influence career choice, moreso, contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .547 which implies that the correlation between extrinsic factors and career choice is moderately strong. Thus, the second hypothesis is supported. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 6 | P a g e Table 4.5 Chi Square of the Relationship between Interpersonal Factors and Career Choice Interpersonal factors Health Media Legal Education Banking and finance Religion Arts df χ2 Sig High 28 25 20 10 13 6 5 Low 18 17 13 16 4 9 7 Total 46 42 33 26 17 15 12 6 20.050 0.024 Results in Table 4.4 revealed that 28, 25, 20, 10, 13, 6 and 5 undergraduate students reported high interpersonal factors for careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively and 18, 17, 13, 16, 4, 9 and 7 undergraduate students also reported low interpersonal factors to pursue careers in health, media, legal, education, banking and finance, religion and arts respectively. Since the calculated chi-square (χ2) value is greater than Chi-critical value (10.643) at 6 degrees of freedom under 0.05 probability level, we accept that interpersonal factors influence career choice; therefore, contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .768 which implies that the correlation between interpersonal factors and career choice is strong. Thus, the third hypothesis is supported. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 7 | P a g e CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS 5.0 INTRODUCTION This chapter deals with discussion, summary of the findings, conclusions, and recommendations. It also suggests areas of further research on the study carried out to find out factors that influence undergraduate students‘ career choice in Humanities. 5.1 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS Grounded on a wide-ranging review of literature, the following were hypothesized to realize the main objective of the research: there was a moderately strong relationship between extrinsic factors and career choice; there was a strong relationship between intrinsic factors and career choice and there was a strong relationship between interpersonal factors and career choice. The study tested the Chi square model, in which Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Interpersonal factors were hypothesized to influence undergraduate students‘ career choice (office and non-office work) in the Humanities. HYPOTHESIS ONE The first hypothesis states that ―intrinsic factors (interest or personal desire) will have a strong influence on career choice.‖ Comparison of frequencies (Table 4.3) through Chi square showed that a significant difference exists between intrinsic factors and career choice. Contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .883 which implies that the correlation between intrinsic factors and career choice is strong. Thus, the first hypothesis is supported University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 8 | P a g e The present study submits that since interest significantly affects the career choices of undergraduate students, the university must devise sustainable means of restoring confidence in students as the confidence that students have can determine how far students will go in choosing a career major that fits their personal desires. In other words, undergraduate students who believe in themselves have more confidence and are more likely to go for what they want instead of settling for something that is comfortable. Again, the result suggest that sometimes undergraduate students decisions to choose a career or not are partly determined by what a particular career offers in terms of economic benefits in one hand, and financial support on the other side. Perhaps, the possible attributes could be what prevails in the labour market and one‘s economic strengths which together may lead to change of career choice motives among undergraduate students. According to Cobb, (2001), Super‘s self-concept theory considered vocation in terms of self- perception. The individuals‘ self-concept plays a central role in their career choice. Super (1957) proposed that it is during adolescent period that individuals first construct a career self-concept. Consequently, undergraduate students are likely to choose or settle on occupations or careers that are reliable with the way they perceive themselves, that replicate their wellbeing, ideals, and strong point. Self-concept alters with age and people continue to discover things themselves well into adulthood. Moreover, the ability to manage one‘s learning conduit is even more significant than specialized training. In other words, to set career goals and to make the right career decisions, numerous individual characteristics become influential, particularly motivation and attitudes. One of the many reasons why undergraduate students are not enthusiastically partaking in planning their University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7 9 | P a g e educational route is that ‗most‘ lack adequate knowledge, skills, and confidence. That is, there is time and again a lack of information about choices that would guarantee a defined idea about the hypothetically wide range options before making a decision. Through one‘s life, a person ‗gets‘ new thoughts and obtains insights both about oneself and about possibilities. Life, and the chaotic experiences it offers, changes human‘s understanding about oneself and one‘s possibilities, but it is the ‗responsibility‘ of career counsellors to ensure that students and/or learners are aware of the fact that they will acquire certain information and experiences automatically through time when moving from one life event to another. The finding could help and guide the management of the academic institutions to formulate policies that could motivate undergraduate students to undergo counselling at least four times before graduation. To the undergraduate students, it could encourage them to put their interest first when making career choice decisions to merit the opportunity of becoming entrepreneurs after school when they are not gainfully employed. The findings implied it is important for students to have a good understanding of themselves (personality), if they are to make intelligent career plans (Splaver 1977; Mihyeon, 2009; Harris and Jones 1997) HYPOTHESIS TWO Furthermore, the second hypothesis states that ―extrinsic factors (salary, prestige, job environment) will have a strong influence on career choice.‖ Comparison of frequencies (Table 4.4) through Chi square showed that a significant difference exists between extrinsic factors and career choice. Contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .547 which implies University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 0 | P a g e that the correlation between extrinsic factors and career choice is moderately strong. Thus, the second hypothesis is supported. The present study submits that since extrinsic factors significantly affects the career choices of undergraduate students, employers must endeavor to create a better job environment for students who wants to work and can work best when the conditions are favorable to them and meets their needs. For a change in the motivational level behind an undergraduate student career choice is likely to affect a graduate‘s commitment at work and future career development since most undergraduate students will be driven mostly by extrinsic motives which are likely to be threats to a stable working force of the nation at large. For example, teaching unlike other careers needs intrinsic motivation such that a shift in motivational factors can have implications both at individual in particular and national level in general. Furthermore, unless undergraduate students are choosing their professions for sound reasons, universities will continue to produce graduates who dislike their training programmes (Conners, 2000) and who hastily decide to leave their profession out of disillusionment (Jones, Glatthorn, and Bullock, 2006). Nwamuo (2001) and Agbe (2007) continued that healthy and conducive environment at home and in school promote self-concept and vocational interest. Such environment, according to Kagu and Mohammed (2007) and Agbe (2007) create room for good self-image and self-confidence, congruency and positive self-concept and vocational interest. Similarly, according to Miller, Klein and Wiener‘s (1977) trait and factor theory, each individual has a unique set of traits that can be measured reliably and validly in chosen ―occupations‖ that requires workers to possess certain traits for success. The choice of occupation is a straight forward process if personal characteristics are identified as early as possible. That is, the closer University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 1 | P a g e the match between personal characteristics and job requirements, the greater the likelihood for success-productivity and satisfaction. In addition, according to Akinade, Sokan and Oserenren (1996), Ann Roe‘s personality or need theory appreciates one‘s need as the central determinant of the nature of a person‘s interests which include vocational interest. She contends that career choice is based on childhood orientation or experience at home to satisfy needs; thus people choose professions that satisfy important needs. Her theory endeavors to understand, make meaning of, and utilize individual motives, purposes and drives to support career development. She classified occupation into eight groups on the premise that work can satisfy needs in different ways. Many students believe that to live a comfortable lifestyle they need to be economically stable. When these students look into a major or a career path, they seek out the higher salary jobs or they look for majors that involve the most job security (Wildman and Torres, 2002). For the reason that these same students want to live the lavish lifestyle, it is imperative for undergraduate students to identify their true identity to realize such dreams other than dreaming or hopping from one salaried work to the next with the aim of making it to their dream lifestyles. The financial aspects that students consider include high earning potential, benefits, and opportunities for advancement (Beggs et al., 2008). Given the current economy, and comparing it to the American culture, many students think they need a high paying job to make it in society these days. However, it is nigh impossible to make it in society relying on a high paying job considering the principle that the higher you earn, the more tax you pay. In other words, University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 2 | P a g e undergraduate students need personal interest aside good and feasible business ideas that match with their environment to make enough money to realize the lavish lifestyle. Along with stability during their career, some students may even look ahead to retirement. Students want to make sure they are secure for the rest of their lives, and may look into careers that have benefits to help them in the long run (Wildman and Torres, 2002). The finding is significant as it would help and guide the Humanities in instituting more counselling programmes for their students in order to encourage them to realize the importance of making a career choice that suits their personalities in becoming better individuals after their university education. More so, it would inform career guidance and counsellors that it was imperative to counsel undergraduate students on their personal interest so they appreciate the importance they could derive from choosing careers that suited them best. Further, the results implied that if management wished to increase the employability skills of undergraduate students in Humanities and to help mitigate the lack of employment after graduation, they must provide students with career testing opportunities through internships and attachments. The findings implied that the job environment plays a significant role in the career progress the student attains in his/her future endeavours (Marcia 2002) HYPOTHESIS THREE Moreover, the third hypothesis states that ―interpersonal factors (influence of parents, role models and significant others) will have a strong influence on career choice.‖ Comparison of frequencies (Table 4.5) through Chi square showed that a significant difference exists between University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 3 | P a g e extrinsic factors and career choice. Contingency coefficient following this reveals a coefficient of .768 which implies that the correlation between interpersonal factors and career choice is strong. Thus, the third hypothesis is supported. Surprisingly, the results revealed that the decisions whether to join a career or not was partially determined by the social influence from significant others whose thoughts are valuable to undergraduate students. Significant others include parents, role models peers, lecturers, and relatives. These findings could be attributed to the fact that family as the main socializing agent plays a significant role in providing information to undergraduate students about different occupations. Correspondingly, families, parents and guardians in particular, play a significant role in the occupational aspirations and career goal development of their children. Without parental approval or support, students and young adults are often reluctant to pursue or even explore diverse career possibilities. Furthermore, Mau and Bikos (2000) have found that college students and young adults cite parents as an important influence on their choice of career. In a similar vein, some studies have found that the family plays a critical role in a child‘s career development (Otto 2000). Some of the variables that influence students‘ occupational goals include the family, level of parental education, school, peers, personality, and socioeconomic status (Crockett and Binghham 2000). The results is a rehash of findings from Agarwala (2008), and Lugumila (2010) who found that parents especially father and other male relatives play the most significant role in influencing their children‘s career choice intentions. Likewise, lecturers to a very large extent have influence on undergraduate student‘s career choice intentions as they act as a role model to their students. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 4 | P a g e Again, Akinjide and Sehinde (2011) established that lecturer‘ characteristics such as mode of communication were one of the key factors influencing student teachers‘ intentions to become teachers upon graduation. However, it was noted that the influence from counsellors was very low compared to other individuals with the implication that career counseling services are not highly sought by university students. Furthermore, more insightful implications could be deduced from the findings as regards the relationship between interpersonal factors and career choice. The finding of the study will inform management of tertiary institutions about the importance of lecturers, teaching assistants and administrators depositions through effective communication as undergraduates are likely to be influenced by such individuals in making career choice decisions. Consequently, lecturers, administrators, counsellors among some significant others should provide emotional support and also transmit values, goals and expectations to undergraduate students, which can impact the career development process. The findings implied that relationship constitute an important dimension of human functioning and thus lecturers‘ attitude can, to a large extent, influence the career choice of undergraduate students (Blustein et al., 2004; Schultheiss, 2003; Philips et al., 2001, Schultheiss et al., 2001). The results as a whole proposed that a positive relationship exists between extrinsic, intrinsic and interpersonal factors and career choice. This overall result is significant in creating awareness of the factors that influence undergraduate students‘ in Humanities‘ career choice. As such, it could help in appreciating the peculiar challenges undergraduate students in the Humanities face in making a career choice and would also help school and career counselors provide specific counselling to undergraduate students deciding on a career when pursuing a programme in the University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 5 | P a g e Humanities. It could also help industry players examine where, why and when it will be beneficial for them to invest resources to train and educate students. For students, making the right choice would result in productivity and personal satisfaction in their career pursuit. The overall result of the proposed hypothesis for the research established that Intrinsic factors significantly and strongly predicted career choice proposing that Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are not strong predictors when the influences of Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors are overlooked. This proposes that Intrinsic factors are more significant than Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in influencing undergraduate students‘ career choices. This result is a rehash with the theories of Super and Holland. According to Cobb, (2001), Super‘s self-concept theory considered vocation in terms of self- perception. The individuals‘ self-concept plays a central role in their career choice. Super (1957) proposed that it is during adolescent period that individuals first construct a career self-concept. Consequently, undergraduate students are likely to choose or settle on occupations or careers that are reliable with the way they perceive themselves, that replicate their wellbeing, ideals, and strong point. Self-concept alters with age and people continue to discover things themselves well into adulthood. Similarly, Holland‘s (1987) theory displayed that there is a correlation between an individual‘s career choice and his or her personality (which is a predictor of interest and personal desire) and numerous variables that form their background. According to Holland‘s theory, once undergraduate students find a career that fits their personality (motivated by the undergraduate students‘ interest and desires), they are more likely to enjoy that particular career and to stay in a job for a longer period of time than individuals whose work do not suit their personality. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 6 | P a g e What Career and Guidance Counsellors think inform students‘ decision to seek counselling Data gathered from the two career and guidance counsellors acknowledged that the university offers programmes to students depending on the aggregate score of the students. The counsellors however, stated that no programme under the humanities is useless. Consequently, the majority of students who do not seek counselling are those who have no idea about the prospects of the career paths associated with their ―given‖ programmes. Again, students who are undecided on the prospects of their chosen programmes seek counselling as well. They further indicated that undergraduate students who are underperforming seldom seek counselling. Considering the low patronage of students for counselling, the counselling and placement center instituted ―career week workshop.‖ The objective of the workshop was to bridge the gap between undergraduate students who abhor counselling and sensitize the large student population to the importance of career counselling. From the data gathered, it implied that undergraduate students sparingly sought career and guidance counselling throughout their four years stay on campus. Counsellors‘ views about students‘ awareness of the various occupational groups and job requirements in the country According to both counsellors, ―majority of undergraduate students who sought counselling had very limited ideas about the various occupational opportunities and the job requirements employers sought‖. Surprisingly, most of the students were only aware of the occupational groups that remunerate their employees very well. In other words, most of the students were University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 7 | P a g e concerned about job security but did not know what their desired jobs required of them to realize such career paths. For instance, the Registrar cum counsellor said, ―some students dream of working with non- governmental organization (NGOs) but do not like travelling and others dream of becoming diplomats but cannot speak any second UN language.‖ After counselling, however, students became equipped and ‗armed‘ with the prerequisite job requirements. The former counsellor of the counselling and placement center, supported the importance of counselling by stating that, ―after organizing a career workshop for twenty seven (27) undergraduate students, the impact it made on their career path incited a whooping five hundred (500) undergraduate students‘ to participate in the workshop the following year‖. The data gathered showed that though some undergraduate students had some knowledge about the various occupational groups, the majority of them had insufficient knowledge about the various occupational requirements because they did not have any fair guidance on job requirement. Career and guidance counsellors‘ views on the importance of career counselling and guidance On the issue of the importance of career guidance and counselling, both counsellors intimated that counselling is indispensable for the success of undergraduate students in their present and future endeavors alike. They both opined that ―counselling draws students‘ attention to the acquisition of soft skills owing to the fact that the undergraduate degree programmes does not teach such skills in the lecture theatres‖. Students who have undergone counselling are enlighten on the importance of good writing abilities, good speaking abilities, good personal branding (soft skills) and with the right training they can harness these abilities. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 8 | P a g e The former counsellor indicated that ―students who have participated in career and guidance programmes have higher chance of being employed in contrast to their colleagues who trust in their abilities alone‖. Consequently, with the right direction and coaching from counselors, undergraduate students will realize the careers that suit their personalities. Career and guidance counselors view on the factors that influence the career choice of undergraduate students in Humanities According to the counsellors, majority of undergraduate students in the Humanities before counselling were mostly influenced by money, dress code of companies, the prestige attached to some occupations, parents‘ careers and peers. When the counsellors were probed further to find out why undergraduate students cited such factors, they opined that most of them lack information about career choice in their fields of study. They continued that majority of them are also misguided about their programmes of study. After counselling, however, majority of them came to the realization that their preconceived ideas about career choice did not suit their interest or personal desire. Consequently, interest, ability to a very significant extent influenced the career choice of most undergraduate students in the humanities. Therefore, it was concluded according to both career and guidance counsellors that intrinsic factors had a greater influence on the career choice of undergraduate students in the Humanities as indicated by the students as well. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 8 9 | P a g e Career and guidance counsellors‘ views on the problems students encounter in making their career choices The following were what the career and guidance counsellors indicated as difficulties faced by undergraduate students in making their career choice: Peer influence, Lack of career guidance services, and unawareness of the requirements relating to their choices of career and unavailability of jobs. For example, the female counsellor said ―the challenges of not knowing into details the requirements relating to their choices. Lack of proper guidance, counselling and mentoring‖ were problems students faced in making a choice. The following problems were identified by both career and guidance counsellors as barriers to undergraduate students‘ choice of career: the problem of identifying and knowing themselves, unawareness of the various job requirements, lack of marketable skills, and unavailability of jobs. The male counsellor for example said ―the problem of expecting to be taught everything in the lecture theatres, problem of identifying various jobs factors or requirements, and not knowing the importance of the programmes offered undergraduate students‖ are also a challenge. In conclusion, the following were identified by the counsellors as problems encountered by undergraduate students in making a sound career choice: lack of career guidance services, unawareness of the importance of their programme of study relating to their choices of career and passive attitude towards internship opportunities, problem of identifying and knowing themselves, and lack of marketable skills. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 0 | P a g e 5.2 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS The research explored the factors that influenced undergraduate students‘ career choice in Humanities at the University of Ghana. Three hundred and sixty (360) questionnaire were administered to third and final year students, and two Guidance and Counselling Coordinators at the University of Ghana counselling and placement center were interviewed. The data collected were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. The main findings are summarized below: 1. The result of the main research questions formulated for the research revealed that Intrinsic factors are more important than Extrinsic and Interpersonal factors in influencing undergraduate student career choices in Humanities. 2. Majority of the undergraduate students agreed that the unavailability of well-paying jobs was a challenge in their career choice. Conversely, the influx of unemployed BA undergraduate students as well as the lack of specific on the job skills requirement was not acknowledged as a major threat to their career choice 3. According to the data gathered, most of the undergraduate students intended to pursue office work careers. 5.3 CONCLUSIONS The present study clearly shows that: 1. The factor that influenced undergraduate students‘ career choice was mostly Intrinsic factors. This proposes that choice of career for undergraduate students in Humanities will be effective if their internal values are well shaped. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 1 | P a g e 2. The fact that the unavailability of well-paying jobs was a major challenge to the career choice of undergraduate students in Humanities (suggests undergraduates) implies that undergraduate students need to be more informed about their careers for them to understand the outlook of the labour market in relation to their chosen field of study. 5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the findings and the conclusions drawn, the following recommendations were made: 1. Government as a matter of urgency has to enter into partnership with non-governmental agencies and other donor agencies to raise adequate fund to solve the problem of under paying jobs and create job opportunities in the country. 2. Career guidance specialists and counselors should provide advice and counseling to arm students with relevant practical experiences. They should also make available the country‘s and current world‘s job requirements so that students can explore widely before selecting their career choices. 3. This study further recommends that, the Humanities considers student‘s personal or self- factors and occupational factors in the design of course or study programmes, to attract more students to their faculty. 4. Undergraduate students must also have confidence in themselves and in their future. Thus, after basic and initial career decision had been made, counselors and guidance coordinators must continue to motivate and encourage further career/job exploration and development by identifying sources of psychosocial support available to students. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 2 | P a g e 5. Career counselling and guidance coordinators should ensure that they are well informed about new trends so as to provide accurate and specific and relevant information that would lead undergraduate students to modify or change career choices if necessary 5.5 IMPLICATIONS OF FINDINGS The research had the objective to investigate the factors that influence undergraduate choice of career, the theories underlying them and the processes that lead to decision making. The results obtained on the factors that influence the career choice of undergraduate students have certain implications for the counsellor in counselling clients with career development or adjustment needs. 1. A good comprehension of the process and features of human development, periods at which the undergraduate student is ready to make certain decisions on their careers and or programme majors are essential to the counsellor. 2. The counselor has to appreciate rudimentary human needs as well as exceptional needs of the undergraduate student and their correlation to career development and career decision making. 3. The career and guidance counselors must be able to evaluate and understand individual traits and features and apply these to a variety of counselee‘s career-related needs. 4. The career and guidance counsellor must make out and help undergraduate students to be mindful that unanticipated factors may on occasion bring about change in career decisions. 5. Finally, the career and guidance counselor must be abreast with the swift modifications continuously taking place in the way people work and live in the current technological University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 3 | P a g e period which mandate a constant evaluation of the counselling theories to effectively assist the undergraduate students. 5.6 LIMITATIONS A limitation to the current study was due to its limited generalizability. Characteristics of the sample limit its generalizabilty to other populations. First, the sample was made up of a majority of third and final year undergraduate students, limiting its extrapolation to other levels of study. Second, the sample was over 50% female thus prohibiting the findings to be understood fully in terms of male development. The findings, which suggested some gender differences, should be interpreted with caution given the low numbers of male respondents. The differences in the correlations when males and females were examined separately limit the generalizability of the findings. The results of this study cannot then be generalized to other populations who are not college bound and may be studying a trade or getting on the job training. Internal consistency was also an issue for some of the scales. The reliability of a scale is considered to be good if it has a Cronbach‘s alpha above .7 (Pallant, 2003). Undergraduate students‘ choice of their degree major had an alpha coefficient of .619. Reasons for choosing a course in the Humanities also had a lower than ideal Cronbach‘s alpha coefficient of .631. These lower values may indicate that the meaning of these scales is broader than one single construct and thus the scales‘ meanings were less clear. Another issue that came up during collection of data and subsequently analyzing it is that some respondents left parts of the questionnaire blank, which caused missing data. In other cases, there was no explanation for why the information was missing, and it was not possible to speculate University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 4 | P a g e what their responses would have been. In cases where one item was left blank on a scale, an appropriate response was estimated based on the other questions that loaded into that scale. As suggested by Cohen, Cohen, West, and Aiken (2003) the cases where data were missing from an entire variable, these respondents were dropped from that analysis. The missing data could still have had an effect on the results, because those respondents‘ data could not be analyzed. 5.7 SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDIES The present study was carried out at some selected departments under the Humanities at the University of Ghana. It is being suggested that a similar study be carried out in all the departments under the Humanities as well as other universities so that a comprehensive research document would be presented. Again, a follow up survey should be conducted bi-annually to check the changes in the factors that influenced undergraduate students‘ career choices. Also this research was concluded with the help of the Chi square study; further studies can be conducted with help of the other statistical tools for more clear explanations. Furthermore, a study can be conducted to investigate the causes of strike actions in the health sector for the reason that the study revealed that most undergraduate students were intrinsically motivated to pursue careers in the health sector. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 9 5 | P a g e REFERENCES Adebo G. M. and Sekumade A. B., (2013). Determinants of career choice of Agricultural profession among the Students of the Faculty of Agricultural Sciences in Ekiti State University, Nigeria: Journal of Agricultural Extension and Rural Development, 5 (11), pp 249-255 Adenubi, M. (2007). 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California: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company. University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 09 | P a g e APPENDIX A FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE CAREER CHOICE OF STUDENTS IN THE HUMANITIES FACULTY AT THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA Research questionnaire Dear Respondent, I am an M Phil student from the Methodist University College undertaking a study on the factors that influence the Career Choice of Undergraduate Students in the Humanities at the University of Ghana. This study is for educational purpose and your assistance in filling this questionnaire will also be beneficial to students in their career choice. I want to assure you that information provided will be used solely for research work and you are guaranteed of secrecy and privacy of information provided. Demographic information Please answer the questions by choosing the best option that applies SECTION A 1. Age of respondent? [ ] 20-30 [ ] 31-40 [ ] 41-50 [ ] 51and above 2. Gender of respondent? [ ] Female [ ] Male 3. Level of education? [ ] level 300 [ ] level 400 4. Department of study? [ ] Political Science [ ] Sociology [ ] Business School [ ] Social Works [ ] Psychology University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 10 | P a g e SECTION B Please rate the following questions by ticking once for the most appropriate answer Reasons for choosing a course (s) in Humanities Yes No Not exactly 1 I had excellent grades in related courses in High School 2 The university offered me the courses in the humanities 3 I thought programmes under the Humanities would be stress free (if you choose “Not Exactly” kindly explain in the space below) 4 I anticipated easy courses under the Faculty of Humanities 5 That is the only Faculty my grades qualified me to undertake 6 Career guidance teacher or counselor at High School influenced my decision to be in the Humanities 7 Advice from teachers who pursued similar career choice from High School 8 I knew I will excel in a course in the Humanities 9 A course in humanities will enable me get good grades for further studies at Masters‘ level. CAREER DECISION 10 Have you decided on your life time career? (if you choose “Not Exactly” kindly explain in the space below) 11 What career would you like to pursue after graduation? state your choice below University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 11 | P a g e EXTRINSIC FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE YOUR CAREER CHOICE AFTER GRADUATION 12 Good job with prestige will influence my career choice 13 Having a stable and secure future will influence my choice 14 An attractive working condition will influence my choice 15 Good salary will influence my choice 16 An opportunity for further education will influence my choice 17 I will opt for any available work that will bring in some income INTRINSIC FACTORS THAT WILL INFLUENCE YOUR CAREER CHOICE 18 My values and aspirations will influence my career choice 19 I want to pursue a career that I love or have interest in 20 My career choice will be driven by my intellectual ability and skills 21 I want to feel a sense of accomplishment in my choice 22 I don‘t mind pursuing a career in any field as long as I feel competent at it 23 I will only make a choice that will make me fulfilled 24 I choose a career based on the call of God upon my life (what God says I should do) 25 I know my interest or personal desiretype 26 My career will be based on my interest or personal desiretype. ( if you choose “Not Exactly” kindly explain in the space below) INTERPERSONAL AND SIGNIFICANT OTHERS THAT INFLUENCED MY CAREER CHOICE 27 My father‘s advice will be key in my career choice 28 My mother‘s career interest will influence my choice 29 My Pastor or religious leader‘s advice will influence my choice 30 The success of my relatives in similar career path will influence my choice University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 12 | P a g e 31 My choice will be influenced by my friends and peers who are doing well in their career 32 Most of my family relations are very successful in their careers in Humanities STUDENTS’ LEVEL OF KNOWLEDGE ON CAREER PATH 33 I am fully aware of what my career will contribute to the world of work 34 I know all about the requirements and restrictions of my prospective career 35 I know about campus counselling centre and their work 36 I have consulted a career counselor about my career choice 37 The accurate information I had about the occupational opportunities will help me to make a sound career choice 38 I am well informed about what people in a precise occupation do FACTORS INFLUENCING UNDERGRADUATE STUDENTS’ CHOICE OF THEIR DEGREE MAJOR 39 Personal interest prompted my decision to take my degree major (s) 40 My excellent academic performance influenced my choice of degree major (s) REGRETS OR SATISFIED? 41 I am very satisfied and has no regrets in my chosen study programme 42 I have lots of regrets for choosing such a study programme SECTION C Read carefully and choose the extent to which the following represent the challenges you face in making a career decision. Tick the most appropriate answer Other influencing factors of career choice. Yes No Not Exactly 43 My career choice will be solely based on what my Pastor or University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 13 | P a g e Prophet says. 44 My choice will be based on my religious belief (I will only opt for a career I feel God wants me to) 45 My career choice will be strategically based on money and power Challenges of career choice in Humanities 46 Difficulty in getting jobs because of the number of Bachelor of Arts students in the system 47 Unavailability of well -paying jobs 48 Difficulty in securing jobs because of lack specific skills the job market requires. Thank you very much for answering this survey. Your time and assistance is very much appreciated. Cheers!!!!!!!! University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 14 | P a g e APPENDIX B Challenges undergraduate students encounter in making career decisions Characteristic N Frequency Percent The number of unemployed BA students in the system 360 Yes 150 41.7 No Not exactly 162 48 45.0 13.3 Unavailability of well- paying jobs 360 Yes 157 43.6 No 154 42.8 Not exactly 49 13.6 Lack of specific skills for job requirements 360 Yes 103 28.6 No Not exactly 155 102 43.1 28.3 Source: Field survey, 2015 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1 15 | P a g e APPENDIX C SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION n= N/1+N (e) 2. Where n is the sample size from the total population N is the total population e is the 5% error term (95% confidence interval) n=? N=3522 e= 0.05 n= 3522/1+3522 (0.05) 2 n=360 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh