University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ASSESSMENT OF THE ROLE OF PUBLIC RELATIONS PRACTITIONERS IN CORPORATE ORGANISATIONS IN GHANA BY CHRISTIAN SACKEY-ACQUAH 10400148 THIS DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED TO THE UNIVERSITY OF GHANA, LEGON IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MA COMMUNICATION STUDIES DEGREE JULY, 2020 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DECLARATION I Christian Sackey-Acquah, do hereby declare that the work presented in this dissertation is a result of my own research and findings. All references to other people’s work that were used have been duly acknowledged. This work was supervised by Prof. Margaret Ivy Amoakohene. i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my dear sister Keziah Aku Shika Sackey-Acquah. ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First of all I am grateful to God for giving me the strength and wisdom to complete this work. My sincerest gratitude goes to Prof. Margaret Ivy Amoakohene whose guidance and assistance made it possible for me to complete this study. To my parents Mr. Edward Sackey-Acquah and Mrs. Ellen Wilson Sackey-Acquah I say a big thank you for your support throughout this journey. And to my siblings Michael, Julius, Allan and Keziah, thank you all for being there for me. I will also thank my good friends: Porcia Wilson, Fidel Tetteh, Philipa Arthur, Matilda Offei Akoto, Kweku Sakyi Appiah, Benjamin Tetteh, Papa Kojo Amakye Acquah, Nelly Atia, Nana Ama Otuahene, Emmanuel Bawah and Ekow Boakye for their support and help. Finally, I will like to say a big thank you to all the lecturers at the Department of Communication Studies, University of Ghana. ii i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh TABLE OF CONTENT DECLARATION……………………………………………………………………….................i DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………………………ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………………...……...iii TABLE OF CONTENTS…….…………………………………………………….…...………...iv LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………………………………….vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS…................................................................………………….......viii ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………………...ix CHAPTER ONE………………………………………………………………………..……......1 INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................1 1.1 Background of the Study.........................................................................................................1 1.2 Public Relations Practice in Ghana.........................................................................................4 1.3 Problem Statement..................................................................................................................6 1.4 Objectives of the Study………………………………………………………………….......7 1.5 Research Questions….............................................................................................................8 1.6 Significance of the Study…..………………………………………………………….………8 CHAPTER TWO………………………………………………………………………….........9 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND RELATED LITERATURE …..…………………….......9 2.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................9 2.2 The Role Theory.......................................................................................................................9 2.2.1 The functionalist perspective.................................................................................................10 2.2.2 The symbolic interactionist perspective.................................................................................11 2.2.3 The structural role theory.......................................................................................................11 2.2.4 The organizational role theory...............................................................................................12 2.2.5 The cognitive role theory.......................................................................................................12 2.2.6 Critique of the role theory………………..…………………………….……………..........13 2.2.7 Relevance of the Role theory to the study ………………………………………………….14 2.3 Literature Review …………………………………………...……………………………….15 2.3.1 Public relations roles……………………………………………………………….…........15 2.3.2 Measuring role activities …………………………………………………………………...19 iv University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 2.3.3 Factors influencing public relations role enactment……………………………….…..........21 CHAPTER THREE…………………………………………………………………………….23 METHODOLOGY........................................................................................................................23 3.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................23 3.2 Research Design.....................................................................................................................23 3.3 Population..............................................................................................................................24 3.4 Sampling................................................................................................................................24 3.4.1 Sample Size ..........................................................................................................................25 3.5 Data Collection ......................................................................................................................25 3.5.1 Data Collection Instruments..................................................................................................26 3.5.2 Instruments Administration...................................................................................................26 3.6 Data Analysis ........................................................................................................................27 CHAPTER FOUR…………………......………………………………………………………..28 FINDINGS………………………………………………………………………………….........28 4.1 Introduction ...........................................................................................................................28 4.2 Public Relations Roles…………………………………..........................................................28 4.2.1 Practitioners’ Role Enactment in Organizations …….……………………………………..29 4.3 Specific activities performed by public relations practitioners.................................................31 4.3.1 Activities performed by public relations managers................................................................32 4.3.2 Activities performed by public relations technicians.............................................................34 4.4 Factors that Influence Role Enactment.....................................................................................36 4.4.1 Educational background and academic qualification.............................................................36 4.4.2 Years of work experience ……………………………………………………………..........37 4.4.3 Performance and competence ……………………………………………………………...39 4.4.4 Other factors………………………………………………………………………………..39 4.5 Summary …………………………………………………………………………………….42 CHAPTER FIVE………………………………………………………………………………..43 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION............................................................................................43 5.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................................43 5.2 Role enactment among Ghanaian Practitioners........................................................................43 v University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.3 Specific activities and functions performed by managers and technicians................................44 5.4 Factors that influence role enactment …………………..…………………………………….46 5.5 Limitations of the study ……………………………………………………………………...49 5.6 Recommendations and suggestions for future research….………………………………...…49 5.7 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………............50 REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................52 Appendix A- Question Guide…………………….........................................................................57 v i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF TABLES Table 1 – Activities performed by public relations managers………………………......32 Table 2 – Activities performed by public relations technicians ………………………...34 vi i University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS GIJ: Ghana Institute of Journalism IPR: Institute of Public Relations PR: Public Relations PRAG: Public Relations Association of Ghana PRP: Public Relations Practitioner PRSA: Public Relations Society of America vi ii University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh ABSTRACT The study examined the roles of public relations practitioners in Ghanaian organizations. It further explored the specific activities performed by public relations managers and technicians as well as factors that influenced role enactment among practitioners in organizations. The study was conducted within the framework of the role theory. Thirteen Ghanaian public relations practitioners and members of the Institute of Public Relations (IPR) were purposively sampled to take part in the study. Using a qualitative methodology and in-depth interviews as the method for data gathering, the study found that more public relations practitioners played managerial roles than technician roles in organizations. However, it was also observed that all practitioners performed elements of both managerial and technician functions. Findings from the study suggested that factors such as academic qualification, years of work experience, performance or competence, size of public relations department and organizational policy and strategy influenced the roles that public relations practitioners played in organizations. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that the overlap in the activities performed by managers and technicians should encourage Ghanaian practitioners to improve on their skill sets to help them fit into work environments that require that public relations practitioners perform activities that are characteristic of both roles. ix University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study Public relations scholars have over the past decades made conscious attempts at exploring what really constitutes public relations roles and functions. Broom & Smith’s (1979) landmark study of the Public Relations Society of America stands as one of the earliest studies that provided a clear insight into what public relations professionals do. This landmark study laid the foundation for subsequent studies in public relations practitioners’ roles in organizations (Jeong & Park, 2017). Grunig, Grunig and Dozier (2002) defined roles as “abstractions about the patterned behaviours of individuals in organizations, a way of classifying and summarizing the myriad activities that an individual might perform as a member of an organization” (p. 196). This suggests that within the organizational setting, it is expected that the public relations practitioner must consistently fulfil some sets of actions, behaviours or tasks to warrant their placement in a particular role category or description. A careful scrutiny of literature available on public relations roles has revealed that the classification of roles has been approached differently by different communication scholars (Vieira & Grantham, 2013). For instance, Moss, Newman and Desanto (2005) identified five public relations roles namely: the monitor and evaluator, issues management expert, key policy and strategy advisor, trouble-shooter or problem solver and communication technician. In another attempt by Beurer-Zullig, Fieseler & Meckel (2009), they identified five main roles: negotiator, brand officer, policy advisor, internal communicator and press agent. Tindall and Holtzhausen (2011) also discovered four roles namely: the strategist, media specialist, liaison and cultural interpreter. 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In the face of these diverse perspectives from which public relations roles have been classified, the four-pronged model of public relations roles earlier developed by Broom and Smith (1979) remains one of the widely adopted role models by communication researchers (Moss, Newman & Desanto, 2005, Jeong & Park, 2017). This model identifies four major public relations roles: expert prescriber, communication facilitator, problem-solving process facilitator and communication technician. The expert prescriber role is characterized by problem definition and the implementation of solutions. The expert prescriber is viewed as the organization’s expert on all issues relating to public relations (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002). The communication facilitator, on the other hand, acts as a boundary spanner and serves as a liaison charged with maintaining a two-way flow of information between the organization and its stakeholders (Beurer-Zullig et. al, 2009), whereas the problem-solving process facilitator collaborates with other managers within the organization to define and solve problems (Guth, 1995). In the case of the communication technician, the practitioner serves as a technical service provider who implements communication programs and plans developed by others in the organization (Grunig, Grunig & Dozier, 2002). Technicians are not part of management but have specialized skills that are mobilized towards the execution of public relations plans and programs. On the field of work, practitioners generally may play all four roles depending on the structure of the organization they find themselves in. However, practitioners are mostly classified based on their dominant role (Neill & Lee, 2016). Dozier (1984) collapsed the four roles into two broad role categories, namely, the manager and technician roles. He argued that such a classification is necessary because the expert prescriber, communication facilitator and the problem solving process facilitator roles all reflect the tenets of a public relations managerial role. Mukhtar and Shahzad (2018), highlighted the distinction between the two broad roles in these words; “The main 2 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh difference between manager and technician roles is determined by involvement of the practitioner in management decision making” (p. 531). The broad categorization helps in the operationalization of public relations roles on the basis of who takes part in management decision making and who does not. This clear-cut delineation between the roles enable us to recognize and appreciate the two extremes that practitioners may find themselves in the organizational setting. However, this attempt at reclassifying these roles into two distinct groups does not suggest that all the work and functions of public relations managers are the same or similar and that of technicians are also the same or similar (Toth, Serini, Wright & Emig, 1998). Most public relations role studies have focused on developing role classification systems that take into account the different functions and activities that public relations practitioners perform in organizations. However, these classification systems have paid little attention to how public relations roles are shaped and most particularly how practitioners develop their professional status in organizations (Berkowitz & Hristodoulakis, 1999). Public relations roles are shaped or influenced by several factors that vary from one organization to the other and are usually reflective of an organization’s view of the public relations function (Sesen, 2015). Recent studies have established that factors such as organizational size or structure, environmental conditions, academic qualification and years of professional experience of public relations practitioners have significant relationships with public relations roles (Vieira & Grantham, 2015, Neill & Lee, 2016). Druck and Hiebert (1979) made one of the earliest connections between public relations roles and years of professional experience. They identified four career levels in public relations namely: the senior professional, the professional managers, the staff professionals and the beginning professional. Senior professionals were practitioners with over 17 years of professional experience 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and usually held top management positions, professional managers had about seven years of work experience, staff professionals had about two years of professional experience and beginning professionals had less than two years of professional experience. Though this classification deviates from the popular manager-technician role typology, it is still consistent with the claims of Viera & Grantham (2015) that there is a relationship between years of work experience and roles played by practitioners. Other studies have gone on to explore gender as a determining factor in public relations role enactment among practitioners (Fitch & Third, 2014, Neill & Lee, 2016). Interestingly, the body of literature on gender and roles reveals a close association of the managerial role to male practitioners and the technician role to female practitioners (Broom & Dozier, 1986, Lauzen & Dozier, 1992, Toth et al., 1998, Choi & Hon, 2002, Vanc & White, 2011, Golombisky, 2015). With the given background, the study hopes to examine the roles played by Ghanaian public relations practitioners in organizations. The study will further explore the specific duties or functions that make up public relations roles as well the factors that influence public relations role enactment among Ghanaian practitioners. 1.2 Public Relations Practice in Ghana It is almost impossible to trace with precision when the practice of public relations started in Ghana (Aggrey, 2009). However, Gyan (1991) asserts that the history of public relations practice in Ghana is closely linked to the colonial history of Ghana. According to Gyan (1991), public relations in the colonial era was mostly practiced by expatriates who served as information officers in governmental institutions and big companies. The profession began to attract the indigenes after 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Ghana’s political independence where the vacuum created in the civil service after the departure of colonial officials had to be filled. Bigger companies that run PR departments prior to independence also needed the services of local practitioners as liaisons between them and governmental departments after independence. Most of the early Ghanaian practitioners were trained journalists with little or no formal education in public relations. These practitioners were mostly products of the Ghana Institute of Journalism (GIJ) thereby creating the impression at the time that public relations was the same as journalism (Aggrey, 2009). Over the years, some changes have occurred in the practice of public relations in Ghana and this transformation is evident in the pace at which the discipline is growing. Today, there are many institutions that train public relations professionals. In fact, as at 2015, Amoakohene (2015) reported that there were about 13 tertiary institutions that run programs in public relations and other communication related courses. This certainly has had an impact on the growth of the profession as more practitioners over the years have acquired the necessary training and skills to lead the public relations efforts of organizations in Ghana (Asante, 2016). The most important part of this transformation is the growing recognition of public relations as an integral part of the organizational management structure thereby prompting a new wave that has seen many practitioners occupy strategic positions in organizations (Wu & Baah-Boakye, 2008). Adjei (2013) asserted that “The historical account brings into sharp relief the fact that PR has long moved beyond being a mere appendage of the corporate governance structure and has become, increasingly the fulcrum around which organizational image building and public goodwill revolves” (p.5). 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh According to Asante (2016), the establishment of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR), the only professional body for public relations practitioners in Ghana has also contributed to the growth of the profession. The Institute was founded in 1972 to improve the public relations profession in Ghana (Gyan, 1991). It started as Public Relations Association of Ghana (PRAG) before adopting the name Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR) in 1991 (Asante, 2016). The transformation from PRAG to IPR was necessitated by a review of the association’s constitution which led to the adoption of a new code of ethics, code of professional standards and bye-laws. According to the Institute’s website, it has six (6) membership categories namely, fellows, accredited members, associate members, affiliates, student members and corporate members. 1.3 Problem Statement Public relations role research in other jurisdictions indicate a growing recognition of public relations as a management function, meaning more practitioners are gradually shifting from playing predominantly technician roles to managerial roles in organizations (Mukhtar & Shahzad, 2018). This has helped satisfy one of the key requirements of the Excellence theory, a normative theory in public relations practice that advocates for the placement of the public relations function within management (Kriyantono, 2017). However, in analyzing the roles played by practitioners in organizations, many public relations role studies have relied on a quantitative approach to role classifications by assessing an array of activities performed by public relations practitioners. Such classification systems have neglected or paid little attention to the nuances in the roles that practitioners play in organizations. Using Dozier’s (1984) manager-technician role typology as a 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh guide, this study will not only focus on the dominant roles that Ghanaian practitioners play currently in their organizations but also explore the diversities that lie within these roles. The study also acknowledged that public relations practitioners work in different organizations that have different expectations of what the public relations function should be. This implies that what constitutes the work of the public relations practitioner in an organizations to a great extent is shaped or influenced by some organizational and environmental factors (Sesen, 2015). It is therefore necessary to explore these factors or variables as well as the extent to which they influence and shape the roles of Ghanaian public relations practitioners in organizations. 1.4 Objectives of the Study The aim of the study was to examine the roles that Ghanaian public relations practitioners play in organizations as well as explore the factors that influence role enactment. The study was therefore guided by the following specific objectives: 1. To find out what roles Ghanaian public relations practitioners perform in their organizations. 2. To find out the specific activities and functions performed by Ghanaian public relations managers and technicians. 3. To explore the factors that influence the kind of roles that practitioners play in organizations. 7 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 1.5 Research Questions The study was guided by the following research questions: RQ1: What roles do Ghanaian public relations practitioners perform in their organizations? RQ2: What are the specific activities and functions performed by Ghanaian public relations managers and technicians? RQ3: What factors influence the kind of role that Ghanaian practitioners perform in organizations? 1.6 Significance of the Study The purpose of this study was to examine the dominant roles of Ghanaian public relations practitioners in organizations as well the specific activities or duties that characterized such roles. The study went on to explore some factors that influenced role enactment among practitioners. As indicated in the problem statement, the study identified a gap in literature i.e. the lack of understanding of the qualitative aspects of public relations roles and the factors that shape their being. The study therefore hopes to investigate and contribute some understanding to these aspects of public relations roles. Findings from the study will go on to inform public relations practitioners on the transformations that have occurred in the public relations manager and technician roles and how they can adjust to meet the demands of these roles at the workplace. 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER TWO THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Introduction The first part of this chapter examines the theory that underpins this study. The study was conducted within the framework of the role theory. The chapter includes a discussion of the key tenets of the role theory and its relevance to the study. The second part focuses on a review of related works or studies. 2.2 The Role Theory The role theory is rooted in social psychology and was popularized through the works of Ralph Linton, George Hebert Mead, Jacob Morena and B.J Biddle in the field of sociology. The primary assumption of the theory is that people behave differently and predictably in social situations depending on their social identities (Biddle, 1986). Using a theatrical metaphor, the role theory likens life to a theatrical performance where actors are constrained to acting out specific parts of a script. This suggests that people behave based on the expectations that society attach to the social positions they find themselves in. Socially defined categories or positions such as journalist, public relations officer and marketer are differentiated based on the behaviours, duties, norms and expectations that are associated with actors of these positions (Sesen, 2015). According to Guirguis and Chewning (2005), three main constructs make up the role theory namely: social positions, roles and expectations. 9 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Social positions refer to the parts to be played within a social structure or system (Guirguis & Chewning, 2005). Social positions are therefore socially defined categories that are characterized by unique sets of functions or duties. The concept of role in the role theory represents the actual duties, norms and behaviours associated with social positions. They represent scripts for social conduct that guide actors of specific social positions. Also, expectations as a concept in the role theory are the perceived obligations that holders of social positions should fulfill. According to Biddle (1986), expectations are learned through experience and holders of social positions are aware of these expectations from society. In an attempt to further explain the role theory and its usefulness in research, five main perspectives emerged namely: the functionalist, the symbolic interactionist, the structural, the organizational and the cognitive schools of thought. Below is an overview of each of the perspectives and how they can be linked to public relations role research. 2.2.1 The functionalist perspective The functionalist perspective views roles as sets of behaviours and expectations that society places on occupants of positions within a stable social system (Sesen, 2015). This approach to explaining the role theory is prescriptive and suggests that social positions come with some specific behaviour characteristics and expectations. Actors of such positions are therefore socialized into these roles and exposed to the norms that govern the conduct of occupants of such positions. By placing this perspective in the context of public relations role enactment, functionalist role theorists will view the public relations role as one that encompasses a defined set of norms, duties and behaviours and as such, practitioners are trained and socialized into this role as public relations professionals. 10 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Narrowing this down to the communication manager-technician role typology, each public relations role category is characterized by different and specific sets of functions or activities. For this reason the role expectations of the communication manager will be different from that of the technician within the organizational setting. 2.2.2. The symbolic interactionist perspective Interactionist role theorists consider roles as evolving and co-created between individuals during social interactions (Guirguis & Chewning, 2005). According to the interactionists, roles are not predetermined or fixed but are constantly negotiated between actors based on situations and contextual demands. For instance the roles played by public relations practitioners in organizations should be driven by specific situations and the communication demands of the organization. The interactionist role theorist may not view the public relations function in organizations as encompassing a specific set of norms, behaviours and expectations but as a role that is dynamic and responsive to environmental and cultural changes as well as contextual demands. 2.2.3 The structural role theory Structural role theorists are more concerned about the social environment than on individual role actors. Here, the basic assumption is that role actors are part of social structures that are constantly interacting with one another in the social environment. This is to say, the structural role theorist will be more interested in describing public relations practitioners’ environment and its possible influences on their roles as practitioners than merely assessing the expectations associated with such roles. Another important approach by the structuralists in explaining roles is the use of 11 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh mathematical symbols and concepts to describe relationships among social structures or actors in the social environment (Biddle, 1986). 2.2.4 The organizational role theory The organizational role theory examines roles in formal organizations that are task-oriented and hierarchical (Guirguis & Chewning, 2005). Within every organizational set up, a number of distinct roles and functions exist. These roles and functions are further broken down into work- roles which are assigned to individual role actors within the organization. The work roles are determined by the organization and are usually reflective of the organization’s role expectations and norms of behaviour. According to Biddle (1986), the process of role assignment by the organization and role acceptance by the employee or the role actor is hinged on consensus and a mutual understanding of the key demands of the role assigned. Effective communication between the organization and its employees on role expectations help to prevent common organizational problems such as role conflict, role overload and role ambiguity. Linking this to public relations roles, a practitioner’s daily routine in the organization is determined by the tasks assigned and must generally reflect the expectations of the organization as far as the role is concerned. 2.2.5 The cognitive role theory The cognitive perspective focuses on the connection or relationship between role expectations and behaviour. Generally, roles arise from the expectations that society attach to social positions. Cognitive role theorists are therefore concerned about how occupants of social positions perceive these expectations from society, internalize them and act out the expected behaviours, norms or 12 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh conduct. Applying this perspective to public relations role research, cognitive role theorists will be more interested in how public relations practitioners are able to negotiate a balance between their role expectations and what they actually do on the job. 2.2.6 Critique of the role theory Jackson (2011) argues that the role theory places too much emphasis on social conformity. The basic assumption of the role theory is that roles arise from social expectations. This assertion clearly rules out the possible influence that holders of social positions have on their own roles. The disregard for human agency by the role theory creates a false impression that roles are exclusively shaped by social expectations. This implies that in reality, role actors have the capacity to influence their own roles. For instance, a public relations manager may engage in technician functions out of personal preference or because they have the skills to execute such functions. Another critique of the role theory by Guirguis and Chewning (2005) which provides a supporting premise to Jackson’s (2011) argument is that society is not stable and individuals may differ in their normative expectations of a particular role. Contrary to the claim of the role theory, society is not static and role expectations are not universal. Rather, society is made up of diverse groups of people with different views of social positions and the role expectations associated with them. For instance, based on the goals of an organization, the Chief Executive Officer or the organization’s top hierarchy may have their own expectations of what the public relations manager or technician roles should be. Aside this, one of the long standing challenges of the role theory is the controversy surrounding the conceptualization of the term ‘role’ in role theory. Biddle (1986) asserts that the lack of 13 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh consensus among role theorists on the definition of the role concept has resulted in varying perspectives that are incoherent in their assumptions and explanations of the role concept. Consequently, this has made it difficult for scholars to have a holistic view of the role theory and its application in role research. 2.2.7 Relevance of the role theory to the study The role theory can be applied to public relations role research in two broad ways. First, in examining the role of public relations in organizations (Sesen, 2015) and more narrowly in examining the role of the public relations practitioner in an organization. As role actors in organizations, public relations practitioners are expected to perform or fulfil some sets of activities, duties and actions that are typical or characteristic of their positions. Dozier’s (1984) public relations role typology places practitioners under two broad role categories namely: the communication manager and the communication technician. Each role category is made up of distinct sets of functions or duties, for instance the public relations manager role is characterized by decision making, problem definition and problem solving whereas the technician role focuses on the technical dimension of the public relations function such as communication content development or production, writing and editing. The role theory therefore helps us to understand how these public relations roles are shaped and driven by the normative expectations from society. The role theory also helps to understand how the role of organizations in social systems influence the roles of public relations practitioners. Organizations just like individuals have unique identities and play different roles in social systems. According to Sesen (2015) the role of the organization in the social system goes a long way to influence the role of public relations in the organization. 14 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh For instance, a business oriented organization will rely more on the economic role of public relations which focuses more on shaping the identity of the organization to keep it in business whereas a charity organization may rely on the social role of public relations which may focus on building mutual trust between the organization and its donors. Now, the public relations practitioner’s primary tasks or activities within the organization is as well driven by the general role of public relations in the organization. The theory therefore helps to establish and explain a causal chain between the role of the organization in the social system, the role of public relations in the organization and the role of the public relations practitioner in the organization. 2.3 Literature Review Related and relevant studies will be organized and discussed under three themes: public relations roles, measuring role activities of managers and technicians in organizations and factors influencing role enactment among practitioners. 2.3.1 Public relations roles Though the variations in public relations role classifications are apparent, they have generally reflected the basic elements of Dozier’s (1984) manager-technician role dichotomy. This broad categorization has generated some interest around the functional differences between the communications manager and technician roles and what role category accommodates the majority of practitioners. This section therefore examines a number of studies that have explored public relations roles across different jurisdictions, cultures and time periods. 15 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh In a study by Beurer-Zullig, Fieseler & Meckel (2009) that investigated the major job profiles of public relations practitioners in Europe, they discovered five (5) public relations roles: negotiators, brand officers, policy advisors, internal communicators and press agents. They made this discovery through a cluster analysis of responses gathered from 1,410 European communication professionals through an online survey. Per their description of the roles, negotiators served as boundary spanners who managed the relationship between organizations and their external publics or constituents. The brand officers on the other hand functioned as marketing communicators. They ensured that the organization’s brand was well positioned in the market. The third role identified by Beurer-Zullig et al. (2009) was the policy advisor role. Policy advisors developed communication plans and policies with the organization’s top management and also served as advisors on all issues related to communication. Internal communicators managed communication between the organization’s management and employees. They maintained the flow of information within the organization and ensured that good relationships were forged at all levels of the organization’s structure. The fifth role to be identified was the press agent role. Press agents functioned as ‘journalists in residence’. They managed the organization’s relationship with the press and performed other specialist functions such as speech writing. Out of the five roles that emerged from the cluster analysis, Beurer-Zullig et al. (2009) identified the negotiator and policy advisor roles as public relations manager roles and the brand officer, internal communicator and the press agent roles as specialist or technician roles. Numerically, findings from the study indicated that 38% of the respondents performed managerial roles whereas 62% of the respondents played specialist or technical roles leading to the conclusion that more of the European communication professionals played technician roles in their organizations. 16 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Four years later, Vieira and Grantham (2013) tested the role classifications developed by Beurer- Zullig et al. (2009) on a sample of American public relations professionals. After running a factor analysis on the responses gathered from 256 members of the Public Relations Society of America through a survey, the same five role categories earlier developed by Beurer-Zullig et al. (2009) emerged (i.e. negotiator, brand officer, policy advisor, internal communicator and press agent). The most significant difference between the findings of the two studies was the number of practitioners that performed each of the roles discovered. As reported by Vieira and Grantham (2013), 38 respondents played the brand officer role, 30 played the press agent role, 43 played the internal communication role, 58 played the negotiator role and 84 played the policy advisor role. In total, 142 practitioners played the manager role (negotiator and policy advisor) and 111 practitioners played the technician role (brand officer, press agent and internal communicator). Contrary to the findings of Beurer-Zullig et al’s (2009) study of European communication professionals, Vieira and Grantham’s (2013) findings suggested that more American practitioners played manager roles than technician roles. Unlike the previous studies, Jeong and Park (2017) adopted a qualitative approach to public relations role classification. The primary purpose of their study was to assess Korean public relations practitioners’ perception of their job roles. Through in-depth interviews with 20 Korean public relations professionals, they discovered three (3) public relations role profiles: strategic counselor/ manager role, non-strategic technician role and business manager role. On a face value, one may assume that Jeong and Park (2017) only introduced a third role category to the popular manager-technician role categories. However, they argued that their role classification was empirically and conceptually distinct from the manager- technician role classification by Dozier (1984). For instance, the strategic counselor or manager role covered a wide range of functions 17 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh such as research, creative thinking, budgeting, program development and other traditionally technical functions such as writing and editing. Jeong and Park (2017) defined the non-strategic technician role as any role that does not involve strategic work and could be performed by non- practitioners. The Business manager role deals with the business aspect of public relations work. It includes functions such as proposal development, pitching, contracts designing and reaching new clients. In another qualitative study, Mukhtar and Shahzad (2018) examined the professional roles of public relations practitioners in Pakistan. Their main interest was to compare the roles played by practitioners in the public and private sectors. Guided by Broom and Smith’s (1979) review of role classification that identified four public relations roles (manager, technician, media relations and communication liaison), Muhktar and Shahzad (2018) explored the dominant roles performed by Pakistani practitioners. By analyzing practitioners’ responses on their interaction and relationship with management, the study concluded that more practitioners performed manager roles than technician roles. In exploring public relations roles in Ghana, the same setting of this study, Wu and Baah-Boakye (2008) made a similar discovery to that of Muhktar and Shahzad (2018). In their survey of 64 practitioners from various organizations and public relations agencies in Ghana, they concluded that more practitioners played managerial roles than technician roles in organizations. This conclusion was arrived at through an analysis of responses gathered through questionnaires. Out of a total of 64 respondents, 54 participants reported that they had decision-making power in their various organizations. This implied that a significant majority of the public relations practitioners examined in this study played the manager role in their organizations or agencies. 1 8 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Wu and Baah-Boakye’s (2008) findings compared to the findings of Gyan (1991), one of the landmark studies on public relations practice in Ghana showed an improvement in the status of public relations practitioners in organizations. The difference in the findings of the two studies which were conducted 17 years apart however has proven significant as it paints a clear picture of the transformation of public relations practice in Ghana. Gyan’s (1991) study revealed that public relations practitioners kept a relatively low profile within the functional structures of organizations. In what seemed to be a confirmation of Wu and Baah-Boakye’s (2008) study, findings from Asante’s (2016) study on the transformation of public relations in Ghana revealed that practitioners were performing more managerial functions such as issues and crisis management in Ghanaian organizations. However, both studies paid little attention to what really constituted the public relations managerial and technician roles among Ghanaian practitioners and that is what this study hopes to explore further using the qualitative approach. 2.3.2 Measuring role activities Generally, the roles of public relations practitioners in organizations are determined and measured by the tasks they perform in their day to day work. Over the years, the attempt to operationalize the two broad role categories i.e. manager and technician roles has led to the development of role measures that have been used to gauge the activities of practitioners in organizations. This section examines some studies that have explored the specific activities, tasks or duties that public relations managers and technicians perform in organizations. Broom (1982) developed one of the earliest role measures in public relations. The 24-item role measure was developed from a list of self-reported public relations activities gathered from Broom 19 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh and Smith’s (1979) study of the Public Relations Society of America. Using Broom and Smith’s (1979) four role typology (expert prescriber, communication facilitator, problem-solving process facilitator and communication technician), Broom (1982) identified six activities or behavioural measures for each role category. Though Broom’s (1982) 24- item role set was widely adopted in subsequent role studies, it was constantly modified by role researchers over time to reflect the changes in the tasks that practitioners performed in organizations. Guth (1995) for instance developed a more extensive list of role activities in his study on organizational crisis experience and public relations roles. He developed a 30-item list of public relations role activities which he termed as role indicators. The inventory list of activities included 20 managerial role activities and 10 technical role activities. In another study by Toth, Serini, Wright and Emig (1998) to assess the extent to which the relationship between various activities within the manager and technician role categories had changed over time, they utilized an even shorter 17-item public relations role measure. The list of 17 role activities was adopted from a 1986 unpublished study of professional women in public relations. The 17-item role measure combined a number of activities performed by managers and technicians in organizations and was considered valid by researchers at the University of Boston. The role measures used by Broom (1982) and Toth et al. (1998) were both developed and interpreted using quantitative methods therefore lacking an appreciation of the diversities that lie within the public relations manager and technician roles. Usually, the quantitative approach to developing public relations role measures identify sets of activities or functions as exclusive to either the public relations manager role or the technician role which may not necessarily be the case in the field of work. Given this limitation, analyzing role activities using qualitative methods helps to bring out the nuances and the actual characteristics of the public relations manager and 20 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh technician roles. For instance, in a study by Desanto and Moss (2005), they examined the work patterns of senior public relations practitioners in the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Using a qualitative approach, a total of 31 senior practitioners were purposively sampled from organizations in the US and the UK. By analyzing responses gathered from the 31 respondents through in-depth interviews, six (6) key role activities emerged: attending internal and external meetings, attending external events, administrative work, troubleshooting, planning and technical or craft activities. Findings from the study indicated that public relations managers in the US and UK spent most of their time attending external meetings as well as internal meetings with members of top management on key communication issues. Participants from both countries also indicated that they spent some time attending external events as representatives of their organizations. The public relations practitioners also reported spending 20% of their time on administrative work such as dealing with emails and correspondence. The fourth role activity reported was troubleshooting. Though the participants reported spending less time on troubleshooting, it formed a significant part of their work as public relations managers in their organizations. It involved handling a range of unexpected communication related problems (minor to major) that arose from the daily operations of the organization. Practitioners from both US and UK also indicated that they spent less time on planning and other technical activities such as writing and drafting press releases. 2.3.3 Factors influencing public relations role enactment In a study by Vieira and Grantham (2015), they explored the relationship between public relations roles and other factors such as practitioners’ years of experience, gender and college coursework. 21 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Their findings revealed that there was a significant relationship between practitioners’ professional experience and public relations roles. Per their findings, public relations managers were 5.1% more likely to have more years of professional experience whereas technicians were 12% less likely to have the same years of work experience. The study also discovered a subtle relationship between age of practitioners and public relations roles. They reported that on the average, the ages of PR managers tended to be above 40 years whereas the ages of technicians tended to be 40 years or younger. Other studies have also examined the relationship between gender and public relations role enactment. For instance, in a study by Gyan (2014) she discovered that male and female public relations managers performed similar duties whereas male and female technicians differed in the activities they performed in their various public relations departments. Gyan (2014) arrived at this conclusion by assessing the activities performed by public relations managers and technicians in three Ghanaian public institutions, Ghana Commercial Bank, the University of Ghana and the Electoral Commission. Sha and Dozier (2012) also identified another organizational variable i.e. the size of the public relations department as a factor that influences role enactment. They asserted that some organizations run relatively smaller public relations departments where in some instances a single public relations practitioner may be required to perform both managerial and technical functions. Neill (2015) also indicated that beyond departmental size, how management perceives the public relations function in the organization also determines the role that practitioners may play. Neill (2015) argued that it is within the power of management to determine whether public relations will be regarded as a management function or not. Such a decision determines the role that practitioners will play in an organization. 22 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER THREE METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the processes, techniques and procedures that were followed in carrying out the study. It provides a detailed description and explanation of the research design, sampling procedures, data collection and data analysis techniques or methods that were employed in the study. 3.2 Research Design The study used a qualitative approach in gathering and analyzing data. According to Puri, Newig, Eagle and Watson (2011), “qualitative methods are less precise but more flexible and are better at exploring issues that cannot be clearly defined at the start, and at providing in-depth description and understanding” (p. 52). The qualitative approach to research focuses on the depth of an issue under investigation and is often characterized by a subjective assessment of a particular phenomenon. The study utilized the qualitative approach because it enabled the researcher to access detailed information which provided a deeper understanding of the issue under study. Data was gathered through in-depth interviews. This method enabled the researcher to gain a better understanding of the topic through one on one engagements with respondents. Generally, in-depth interviews are flexible and give room for further questioning or probing. 2 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.3 Population Wimmer and Dominick (2011) defined population as “a group or class of subjects, variables, concepts, or phenomena” (p. 87). It is simply the totality of entities under study from which a sample is drawn. The target population for this study was all Ghanaian public relations practitioners who worked in organizations and were members of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR). 3.4 Sampling Matthews and Ross (2010) define the sampling process as “the selection of some cases from a larger group of potential cases” (p. 153). A sample therefore is a section of the population that is representative of the elements within that population (Wimmer & Dominick, 2011). This study employed the non-probability sampling technique implying that participants were not randomly chosen and as such members of the population did not have equal chance of being selected to take part in the study. And so, the sample was not representative of the elements in the population. Specifically, the purposive sampling method was used to recruit participants for the study. As defined by Babbie (2014), purposive sampling is a technique “in which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative” (p. 200). This suggests that respondents are recruited based on their knowledge, experience or expertise on the issue being investigated. 24 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.4.1 Sample Size Thirteen (13) members of the Institute of Public Relations (IPR) were sampled for this study. Participation was limited to practitioners with more than five years of professional experience and were at the time of the interview employed as public relations practitioners in Ghanaian organizations. This ensured that respondents had the necessary experience and expertise to speak to the issue under study. Generally, the different membership categories at the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR) correspond with different public relations roles. In view of this, practitioners across the different membership categories were selected to take part in the study. 3.5 Data Collection The main objectives of this study were to find out the roles public relations practitioners play in organizations, the activities performed by public relations managers and technicians and the factors that influenced public relations role enactment. Data was collected through in-depth interviews. The interviews were conducted to tap into the expertise and experience of the respondents as public relations practitioners. Participants were questioned on the specific functions they played in their organizations as well as their positions within their organizations’ management structure. These questions helped in identifying practitioners as public relations managers or technicians. Participants also answered questions on the factors that influenced role enactment among practitioners. All interviews were conducted at the participants’ offices mostly during their lunch breaks or free periods to ensure that there were no interferences while the interviews were on going. The duration of the interviews varied depending on the volume of information provided by respondents. 25 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Approximately, each interview lasted between 20 to 40 minutes. All responses were recorded with a voice recorder and transcribed after each interview session. The transcripts were then organized under themes and analyzed. 3.5.1 Data Collection Instrument A semi-structured interview guide was developed to guide the data gathering process. Generally, semi-structured interviews are based on interview guides that are prepared in advance and may have predominantly open-ended questions that give room for follow up questions (Newig et al, 2011). The questions on the guide were not followed strictly as the direction of the conversation was mostly determined by the responses provided by the respondents. The same interview guide was used for all respondents. 3.5.2 Instrument Administration The interviews were conducted over a period of three weeks. First, a letter was sent to the Institute of Public Relations (IPR) to request for the list of IPR members in good standing. Out of the list provided, the researcher identified 13 practitioners based on their years of work experience. The practitioners were then contacted via email to request their participation. All 13 agreed to take part in the study hence a separate date, time and venue were fixed for each respondent. The interview was conducted in English and all responses were recorded with a voice recorder. The researcher also took notes to capture salient points and other non-verbal cues. 2 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 3.6 Data Analysis Responses gathered from respondents were transcribed and analyzed thematically. Grbich (2007) defined thematic analysis as “the process of segmentation, categorization and relinking of aspects of the data prior to final interpretation” (p. 16). The study utilized the inductive approach of data analysis where themes were derived from the content of the data. The study followed Braun and Clarke’s (2012) approach to thematic analysis. The process started with familiarization with the data gathered from the interviews with all the public relations practitioners. This involved taking notes of salient quotes or points that were relevant to the research questions of the study. Codes were then generated based on recurring patterns in the data set. The codes helped to bring meaning to the data and were further synthesized into themes. Broadly, the data was organized under three themes: public relations roles, duties performed by public relations managers and technicians and factors influencing role enactment among practitioners. Findings were then discussed with reference to the research questions, the theory that underpins the study (the role theory) and other related or relevant studies. 27 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS 4.1 Introduction This chapter presents findings from data gathered through in-depth interviews with Ghanaian public relations practitioners. The interviews centered on the role of practitioners in organizations, the specific activities performed by public relations managers and technicians and the factors that influenced practitioners’ role enactment. A total of thirteen (13) public relations practitioners were interviewed of which eight (8) were females and five (5) were males. Out of the thirteen participants, eight (8) worked in private organizations and five (5) worked in public or governmental organizations. All thirteen practitioners interviewed were members of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR). Findings from the study have been organized under themes and practitioners are identified as PRP (public relations practitioner) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 and 13. 4.2 Public Relations Roles One of the key objectives of this study was to explore the roles that Ghanaian public relations practitioners performed in their organizations i.e. whether practitioners are playing managerial or technician roles in organizations. Participants were therefore asked questions about their positions within their organizations’ management structure or hierarchy as well as the functions they performed as public relations managers or technicians. 28 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.2.1 Practitioners’ Role Enactment in Organization Practitioners interviewed were classified as managers and technicians based on their involvement in management decision making in their organizations. Out of the 13 participants, eight (8) reported that they took part in management decision making, hence classified as public relations managers whereas the five (5) remaining participants indicated otherwise, hence classified as technicians. The eight managers (PRP 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 9, 12 and 13) headed their respective public relations departments and were members of their organizations’ management. In the case of the technicians, PRP 4 and PRP 5 as deputy heads of department indicated that though their respective public relations departments were represented in management, they as deputies were not personally and directly involved in the decision making process. However, they sometimes stood in for their immediate bosses at management meetings. Three (3) other technicians (PRP 7, PRP 10 and PRP 11) were not involved in decision making at all but reported that the heads of their respective public relations departments took part in management decision making. The findings therefore suggested that majority of the public relations practitioners engaged in the study were playing managerial roles in their organizations. In describing his role as a public relations manager, PRP 9 stressed on the advisory role he played in his organization. He said I give strategic management advice on issues that are happening so every now and then I have to be touching base with the Managing Director and other senior executives to advice on the impact and implications of various policies that we are implementing and how we can improve on them. 29 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PRP 1, another participant who played the public relations manager role in her organization emphasized the supervisory role she played in her department. She stated that: I lead teams to develop strategic communication plans and implement them. When there is a communication related task I analyze it, make sense of it and then decide on which team to do what based on their strengths and skills. In the end every communication related work comes back to me for discussion and for approval. PRP 2, also a public relations manager described his role as a liaison or an intermediary between the public relations department and his organization’s top hierarchy. He explained further saying: So essentially, I assist the head, the director. What this means is that every other thing passes through me, both corporate and consumer protection, media relations, everything else. Our structure is such that there are different people doing different things, some handling media relations some handling publications some handling consumer complaints and others handling front desk roles and all of these things feed into me through to the boss at the top. All five (5) technicians (PR4, PRP5, PRP7, PRP 10 and PRP 11) indicated that they were not directly involved in their organizations’ decision making process. Also, most of the technicians reported that their daily routines were usually dependent on tasks assigned to them by their superiors in the public relations department or in the organization. PRP 5 for instance described his role as: 3 0 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Whatever I do is derived from what my boss does and whatever she does is derived from the strategic objectives that constitute the communication plan of the organization. He further explained that though he was not directly involved in the decision making process in his organization, he was actively involved in the development of communication strategies and plans at the departmental level before those plans were forwarded to management by his superiors. PRP 11, who also played a technical role in her organization expressed the same sentiments. She said: I contribute solutions to problems and I make a case for why they should include my ideas in the final plan and if they agree with whatever solutions I have suggested they take them. 4.3 Specific Activities Performed by Public Relations Practitioners Another key objective of this study was to explore the specific activities and functions performed by public relations managers and technicians in organizations. Participants identified a number of activities as forming their most regular or primary functions or duties within their respective organizations. A 12-item checklist of public relations related functions and activities was developed from a list of self-reported activities by all public relations practitioners interviewed. 3 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.3.1 Activities performed by public relations managers The table below outlines the specific activities and functions performed by public relations managers in their organizations. Although respondents who played managerial roles in their organizations admitted to performing a wide range of activities as public relations professionals, the following activities or duties represent the primary functions and responsibilities of the participants in their respective organizations as public relations managers. Table 1: Activities performed by public relations managers Activities and Functions PRP PRP PRP PRP PRP PRP PRP PRP 1 2 3 6 8 9 12 13 Develop PR plans and strategies     Research   Events planning    Writing and editing    Supervise others      Develop communication content     Media monitoring/ scanning   Make communication decisions     Counsel management      Attend executive meetings       Meet with clients/ customers     Disseminate information  From the table above, the most cited activity by public relations managers was attending executive meetings. Majority of the participants who played managerial roles in their organizations indicated that their daily routines usually revolved around attending management and executive meetings. PRP 2 for instance stated that: 32 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh There are times when we spend all the time in meetings. You can sit in a meeting from 9 am to about 2 or 3 pm, these are management meetings and typically this is where you have to do presentations on projects you are working on as well as strategies on how to handle certain things. A significant majority of public relations managers also cited counselling management and supervising others as part of their primary functions in their organizations. PRP 13 for instance stated that: So basically I sit within management to be able to advice or provide that counsel to management. You see the work is such that you are an in house person so once it gets to that point where they need PR support you are the one they call on. Also, a fair number of public relations managers indicated that they were involved in activities or functions such as making communication decisions, developing public relations plans and strategies, developing communication content and meeting clients and customers. The least cited activities by public relations managers were research, writing and editing, media monitoring, events planning and information dissemination. However, PRP 1 named writing as one of her core functions as a public relations manager in her organization. This is because though the public relations managers interviewed shared some similarities in the primary activities they performed, the requirements of their job roles in their respective organizations differed slightly. She explained further saying: 3 3 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh I write a lot, that in fact is one of the main things I do here and writing means writing everything, writing for the website, writing articles for papers, writing features, writing for social media, writing documentary and video scripts, scripts for banners, everything writing yes I do that a lot… 4.3.2 Activities performed by public relations technicians The table below presents a breakdown of specific activities and functions performed by public relations technicians in their organizations. The ticked boxes represent the activities and functions performed by each participant. Table 2: Activities performed by public relations technicians Activities and Functions PRP PRP PRP PRP PRP 4 5 7 10 11 Develop public relations plans and strategies Research  Events planning   Writing and editing    Supervise others  Develop communication content  Media monitoring/ scanning    Make communication decisions Counsel management Attend executive meetings Meet with clients/ customers     Disseminate information     3 4 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Most of the public relations technicians interviewed listed meeting with clients, disseminating information, writing and editing and media monitoring as the most regular activities they performed in their organizations. In describing her regular work routine, PRP 11, a public relations technician stated that: Almost every time you are writing a press release or a feature article or you are writing a speech. The environment can be a little bit volatile so you may have to do a lot of social listening as well. I do environmental scanning all the time because we are always putting out stuff so you are always looking for good feedback so environmental scanning, writing of press articles, feature articles yeah PRP 5 also said: I handle all the internal communication needs of the organization. It involves sharing information that builds the knowledge base of the staff on developments in the company and I do that through different channels, it could be bulletins, meetings, staff durbars, strategic sessions and all of those things you know there are varied forms of it. Very few technicians listed research, event planning, supervising others and communication content development as part of their primary functions as public relations practitioners in their organizations. Also from Table 3 no technician was involved in the making of communication decisions, development of public relations plans and strategies, counselling management and attending executive meetings as part of their primary duties in their organizations. 3 5 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4 Factors that Influence Role Enactment The public relations practitioners interviewed were asked questions about the factors that influenced practitioners’ roles in organizations. Participants named and explained several factors that influenced their roles as public relations managers or technicians in their organizations. This section presents an analysis of the cited factors by participants. 4.4.1 Educational background and academic qualification Most participants mentioned academic qualification as one of the key factors that influenced the kind of role they played in their respective organizations as public relations professionals. Majority of the participants indicated that it was a basic requirement in their various organizations for public relations practitioners to have some level of education or training in public relations or communications. PRP 9 for instance stated that the requirement for the communications manager role in his organization was a master’s degree in public relations, communication studies or marketing. PRP 11 also explained that though academic qualification was considered in placing a practitioner in a managerial or technical role, other indicators were considered as well. She explained further saying: Your background in terms of your education is considered together with your level of experience and your ability to consistently show that you are capable of carrying out certain tasks so you must have been successful at doing certain things for them to move you up to a managerial position. 3 6 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh A few other participants argued that one’s educational background or academic qualification was not a major factor in determining the role a practitioner played in their organizations. PRP 4 explained saying: Educational background doesn’t really count here in my department, so because you have masters we have to give you the head of department or because you have masters so we have to give you the director position? No! It depends on your experience and your performance because someone can have a masters but will not have the experience, what can that person do? PRP 3 expressed the same thought but more concisely. He said: Here we work with experience, what you bring to the table, forget about school. In analyzing the academic qualifications of participants, the findings indicated all participants had at least a degree in public relations, communication studies, journalism or marketing. Also, majority of the participants who reported playing the managerial roles in their organizations had postgraduate degrees in public relations, communication studies or marketing. However, it also emerged that out of a total of five (5) participants who played the technician role in their organizations, three (3) had post graduate degrees in communication studies. 4.4.2 Years of work experience With the exception of one participant, all practitioners interviewed mentioned years of work experience as one of the most important factors that determined the role a practitioner played in his or her organization. Most of the participants agreed that inexperienced practitioners or new 37 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh entrants in the field of public relations started off as technicians and progress through the ranks after acquiring the necessary experience to take on more challenging roles. PRP 1 explained saying: First of all it is work experience, experience gained over the years. In fact somebody started as a national service person where you don’t have a rank and moved into a senior position and is now at the management level but of course it comes with adding value to yourself. PRP 8, a public relations manager in a governmental organization explained that in the public service so much importance was attached to people’s years of work experience or length of service especially in determining one’s movement from a lower position to a higher position. You see in the public service institutions there’s say about 90% chance of everybody progressing so you move according to rank and length of service and all that so once you get into the system you have a minimum number of years you spend at a particular level then you are due for promotion and then you move on. Findings from the study also revealed that public relations managers reported having more years of work experience (an average of 10 years work experience) than technicians who reported an average of seven (7) years of work experience. 38 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 4.4.3 Performance and competence A significant majority of the participants interviewed reported that the performance of practitioners on the job was an important factor in determining the roles they played. PRP 2 explained that practitioners’ success on the job and chances of moving from lower technical positions to managerial roles depended heavily on performance and living up to expectations. He explained saying: Like every company there are appraisals that we do twice a year so before that goals and targets are set, we know what we are supposed to be doing within the first six months of the year or last six months, so once those are met then fine. So naturally speaking your performance should affect your promotion. You can’t be performing below expectation and expect that you get promoted, once you live up to that expectation that’s it. PRP 9 for also stressed on one’s contribution to the overall goals of the organization: I think it’s more based on competency and what you bring to the table. If you look at our company it is a commercial entity, we are driven by profitability, we are driven by value so it’s more of your addition to…I mean your ability to positively contribute to the profitability equation. 4.4.4 Other factors Aside the three most cited factors by participants that influenced public relations role enactment i.e. education or academic qualification, years of work experience and performance or competence, 39 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh some participants mentioned other factors such as gender, size of the public relations department and organizational policy and strategy. These other factors were mostly mentioned by very few participants and were the least reported by the public relations practitioners interviewed. On the size of the public relations department, PRP 11 stated that it had a great influence on the kind of role that public relations practitioners played. She explained that in smaller public relations departments, there is a higher chance of practitioners performing functions that are characteristic of both the public relations manager and technician roles. It determines the amount of work that you have on your table all the time. If you have a larger team it means that people can stick to their main roles but if you have a team like ours it means that you are doing a bit of everything from writing to developing PR plans. On gender, PRP 10, one of the two participants who identified gender as a factor that influenced role enactment indicated that his gender as a male accounted for the technician role he played in his organization. He explained his view by comparing the role he played in his department to that of his immediate boss who was a female and the head of public relations. I do more of the technical work, more of the hardcore work compared to her, she does more of the policies on an abstract basis then I have to come sit down and then do it. Some of the hard core jobs that I do I am not sure she can do them as a female. Contrary to this claim, eleven out of the thirteen participants interviewed did not regard a practitioner’s gender as a factor that influenced the kind of role he or she played in an organization. 40 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh PRP 8 indicated that there was no clear difference in the functions that male and female practitioners performed in her organization and as such gender was not considered as an important factor in role assignments. She explained further saying: There’s no real difference in the activities the male does and the activities the female does. The main thing is that we have an end result so we all work towards it. It’s not so much labor intense that you will say this one the female cannot do. It’s a balanced something so we all work together because I also go on road inspections like the men, I also go down there so there is no such difference. PRP 9 expressed similar thoughts. He said: It’s not about being male or female, it’s more about capacity and who is in the better state to deliver a particular task. I know the various strengths and weaknesses of my team members so I don’t assign based on the fact that this is a ladies thing, you are a lady so go handle this or this is a guy’s thing. We have had programs where I had to usher myself, I had to usher though people tend to look at ushering as a feminine thing. PRP 12 also intimated that generally, an organization’s strategic goals and policies have some influence on the work of every unit or department within that organization. Such policies go on to determine the roles and functions that members within those units or departments may play. She explained further saying: I also think that it depends on every organization at a point in time in terms of the organization’s strategies and other things, all of these influence a particular 41 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh unit at a point in time because it determines the direction they should go and what people working in those units should do 4.5 Summary This chapter presented findings of data gathered from in-depth interviews with thirteen Ghanaian public relations practitioners. Findings were organized under themes arising from the objectives of the study. 42 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction This chapter interprets and discusses findings from data gathered. The findings are analyzed in relation to the general objectives of the study, the role theory and reviewed literature. The second part of the chapter highlights recommendations for future research and conclusion. 5.2 Role enactment among Ghanaian Practitioners The study adopted Dozier’s (1984) manager-technician role typology to classify practitioners based on their involvement in management decision making as well as their positions within their respective public relations departments. This is to say, within the context of this study, practitioners who were directly involved in management decision making in their organizations were classified as managers and those who were not involved in management decision making in their organizations were classified as technicians. Per the findings of the study, a significant majority of practitioners played the public relations manager role in their organizations. This result is consistent with findings from Wu and Baah-Boakye’s (2008) study on the practice of public relations in Ghana which also reported that more Ghanaian practitioners played managerial roles in their organizations. All the participants in the study reported that public relations was regarded as a management function in their organizations and as such, the heads of their respective public relations departments were included in management decision making. The implication is that public relations in Ghana is transforming and gradually gaining recognition as a management function. This is supported by the claim of Asante (2016) that “now there are a wide range of 43 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh organizations which have accepted public relations as a management function and therefore public relations officers are performing actual roles of management which have impacted greatly on the performance of their organizations” (p. 64). Findings of this study indicated that managers were primarily playing advisory and supervisory roles in organizations thereby exerting some level of influence the communication strategies and plans of their respective organizations. Public relations technicians on the other hand performed primarily auxiliary functions that were mostly derived from tasks assigned to them by their superiors in their organizations. 5.3 Specific activities and functions performed by managers and technicians Beyond categorizing practitioners into public relations managers and technicians, the study also explored the specific activities associated with the roles played by practitioners by assessing an array of self-reported activities and functions they performed in their organizations. As suggested by the role theory, roles should be characterized or defined by unique sets of functions and duties. In terms of the public relations manager role, the findings revealed some similarities in the activities reported by managers. Most public relations managers reported performing three key functions or activities i.e. attending management meetings, counselling management, and supervising others. All of the three activities have been cited by other studies as duties that are closely associated with the public relations manager role. For instance, in a study by Desanto and Moss (2005) they discovered that public relations managers in the United States of America and the United Kingdom spent most of their time attending meetings with top management. Other activities cited by the public relations managers interviewed including counselling management, supervising others, meeting clients and making communication policy decisions have previously been listed in Toth et al’s (1998) inventory list of public relations managerial activities. The 44 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh activities reported by public relations managers indicate that Ghanaian public relations managers are finding seats in management thereby granting them access to the dominant coalition in organizations to provide the needed counsel and support on the communication efforts of these organizations. The findings on the activities performed by public relations managers also show that practitioners are continuously growing their influence on the decision making table in organizations. Also, there were some similarities in the activities performed by the public relations technicians interviewed. The most common activities reported by technician were disseminating information, writing and editing, media monitoring and meeting with clients. With the exception of meeting with clients which is regarded as a managerial function by Toth et al. (1998), most of the other activities cited are generally regarded as technician functions. Activities such as research, event planning, and communication content development which are also regarded as purely technician functions were less reported by the public relations technicians interviewed. Though there was a clear difference in the dominant activities reported by public relations managers and technicians, there is also an obvious overlap in the activities performed by managers and technicians. By assessing the activities reported by the two groups of practitioners, it revealed that a number of activities were reported by both managers and technicians, for example some managers were highly involved in traditionally technician functions such as writing and editing, and communication content development. Some technicians also reported performing managerial functions such as meeting clients and supervising others. This implied that not all activities reported were exclusively performed by managers or technicians. This discovery supports the assertion by Jeong and Park (2017) that all public relations practitioners perform elements of both 45 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh managerial and technical functions. Moss et al. (2005) also argued that managers may as well choose to perform some technical functions or activities out of personal choice or preference. The overlap in the activities performed by public relations managers and technicians has some theoretical basis or connection with the role theory. The symbolic interactionist perspective of the role theory suggest that roles are not static but are constantly evolving to suit situations and contextual demands (Guirguis & Chewning, 2005). From the findings we realize that practitioners were not constrained to performing activities that were exclusive to the public relations manager and technician roles. The implications of this is that the key elements or what constitutes the work of the public relations practitioners may have been redefined to suit the communication demands of their respective organizations. 5.4 Factors that influence role enactment One of the main objectives of this study was to explore the factors that influenced public relations practitioners’ role enactment in organizations. By analyzing responses gathered from respondents, three main factors emerged i.e. education or academic qualification, years of work experience and performance or competence. Other factors mentioned by participants were gender, size of the public relations department and organizational policy and strategy. On education, a significant majority of practitioners interviewed mentioned academic qualification as one of the key factors that influenced role enactment. An assessment of the demographic information of participants also revealed that majority of practitioners who reported playing managerial roles in their organizations had post graduate degrees in public relations, communication studies or marketing. A participant for instance stated that the basic requirement 46 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh for playing a managerial role in his organization was a post graduate degree in communications or marketing. The finding is consistent with findings from a study by Berkowitz and Hristodoulakis (1999) which also revealed a close association between formal education in public relations and the public relations manager role. This basically demonstrates the importance of formal education in the advancement of one’s career as a public relations professional. The general assumption is that, as architects of communication strategies and plans and also as key members of management, public relations managers should have the necessary training, skills and knowledge in public relations to be able to lead the communication efforts of organizations. Some participants also mentioned practitioner’ work experience as one of the factors that influenced role enactment. In all, twelve out of the thirteen public relations practitioners interviewed indicated that one of the factors that influenced the movement of practitioners from lower technical positions to higher managerial roles was their years of work experience. This implied that majority of the participants held the view that public relations managers were more likely to have more years of work experience than technicians. This assertion was supported by findings from this study which also revealed that on the average public relations managers had more years of work experience than technicians. The findings is consistent with the results from a similar study by Vieira & Grantham (2015) which reported that on the average public relations managers had more years of work experience than technicians. The third most cited factor by practitioners interviewed was performance and competence. With the exception of three participants, all other practitioners interviewed mentioned performance and competence as one of the key factors that determined the role practitioners played in organizations. Competence is one’s ability to execute the duties or functions associated with a specific role. This implies that before a public relations practitioner is assigned a managerial role in an organization, 47 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh he or she must have exhibited some level of competence in other roles to warrant their placement in such a vital position. It is important to note that, the factors identified are not mutually exclusive in determining the roles that public relations practitioners play. Though in the minority, some participants also mentioned factors such as size of public relations department and organizational policy and strategy as having some level of influence on practitioners’ role enactment. As indicated by Sha and Dozier (2012), practitioners in smaller public relations departments or ‘one-man’ public relations departments may be required to take up both managerial and technician responsibilities. This is because such departments may not have the required workforce to perform functions or activities that are exclusive to the public relations manager and technician roles. Also, the role practitioners play in organizations is largely dependent on the policies, strategies and priorities of the organization. This goes a long way to influence the public relations function as a whole and consequently what the primary responsibilities of practitioners in the organization will be. Neill (2015) for instance intimated that it is within the power of management to determine whether the public relations function will be regarded as a management function or not in an organization. The findings from the study suggested that gender was not regarded as a factor that influenced the roles that public relations practitioners played in organization. Majority of the participants mentioned other factors such as academic qualification, years of work experience and competence as having greater influences on role enactment than practitioners’ gender. This differs from findings from landmark studies by Broom and Dozier (1986) and Toth et al (1998) which reported a close association of the public relations managerial role to male practitioners and the technician role to female practitioners. 48 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 5.5 Limitations of the study One major limitation of the study was the sample size. The findings of the study cannot be generalized due to the small sample size of thirteen (13) public relations practitioners interviewed in the study. Also, the time frame for the study was too short for the researcher to explore the state or nature of public relations roles in as many organizations as possible. This would have enabled the researcher to draw his sample from a wider range of corporate organizations in Ghana. 5.6 Recommendations and suggestions for future research It is important for Ghanaian public relations practitioners to know and understand the transformation of public relations as a professional field. As demonstrated by the findings from this study, public relations is gradually gaining recognition as a strategic management function and as such practitioners are playing vital roles in organizations. As intimated by Wu and Baah- Boakye (2008) practitioners are moving from the low positions they occupied in the organizational chart to wielding decision making powers in organizations. Practitioners are therefore urged to embrace this transformation in public relations and prepare themselves to take up the challenge to impact the success of organizations by providing strategic counsel to management on the communication needs of their organizations. Findings from this study also suggest that the public relations manager and technician roles are changing and as such public relations managers and technicians are performing elements of both roles in organizations. The overlap in the activities performed by managers and technicians should encourage Ghanaian practitioners to improve on their skill sets to help them fit into work 49 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh environments that require that public relations practitioners perform activities that are characteristic of both roles. On the suggestions for future scholarship, future studies should use larger sample sizes to find out how widespread the trend observed in this study is in the Ghanaian public relations industry. It is also recommended that future studies will ease the criteria for inclusion for participants to include public relations practitioners who are not members of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana (IPR). This is because during the data gathering phase of the study, it was observed that quite a significant number of practitioners working in various public relations departments in organizations were not member of the Institute of Public Relations, Ghana. 5.7 Conclusion The purpose of this study was to examine the roles that Ghanaian public relations practitioners are playing in organizations as well as the factors that influence the enactment of these roles. Prior studies on public relations roles have indicated a global trend that suggests that most public relations practitioners unlike in the past are playing managerial roles in organizations. Such findings have been corroborated by this study which also discovered that a significant majority of practitioners interviewed played the public relations manager role in their organizations. Beyond that, the most essential feature of most role studies has been on exploring the myriad activities performed by practitioners which has formed the basis for classifying practitioners as managers or technicians. This study employed a qualitative approach to exploring these role activities through a self-report method. Essentially, this method allowed participants to report their daily routines and regular work duties as public relations practitioners without being restricted to inventory lists 50 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh of activities like most quantitative role studies have done. This enabled the study to discover the nuances in the role activities performed by public relations managers and technicians which subsequently led to the conclusion that practitioners performed elements of both managerial and technician roles. Generally, most practitioners aspire to play managerial roles in organizations than technician roles. Findings from this study has demonstrated that the movement from lower technician positions to higher public relations managerial roles is hinged on certain variables. As reported by participants in the study, it is important for practitioners to have the requisite education and training in public relations and the necessary work experience to make them better placed for management positions. Certain organizational variables such as the size of the public relations department and organizational policy and strategy may as well go beyond the credentials and competencies of practitioners in determining the kind of roles practitioners may play in organizations. 5 1 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh REFERENCES Adjei, M. K. (2015). An assessment of public relations contribution in an ICT company: A case study of RLG. Accra: Unpublished MA Dissertation, University of Ghana. Aggrey, K. (2009). Do public relations in Africa use research? 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Accra: Unpublished thesis presented to the University of Ghana in partial fulfilment of requirements for a Master of Philosophy degree in Communication Studies. 54 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh Jeong, J., & Park, N. (2017). Core Elements for Organizational Sustainability in Global Markets: Korean Public Relations Practitioners’ Perceptions of Their Job Roles. Sustainability, 9(9), 1646. Lauzen, M. M., & Dozier, D. M. (1992). The missing link: The public relations manager role as mediator of organizational environments and power consequences for the function. Journal of Public Relations Research, 4(4), 205-220. Littlejohn, S. W., & Foss, K. A. (2009). Encyclopedia of communication theory (Vol. 1). Sage. Matthews, B. and Ross, L. (2010). Research Methods. A Practical Guide for the Social Sciences. Pearson Education Limited. Edinburg Moss, D., Newman, A., & DeSanto, B. (2005). What do communication managers do? 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Şeşen, E. (2015). Role theory and its usefulness in public relations. European Journal of Business and Social Sciences, 4(1), 136-143. Sha, B. L. & Dozier, D. M. (2012). Social media usage and classic practitioner roles. Paper presented at the International Public Relations Conference, Miami, FL. Toth, E. L., Serini, S. A., Wright, D. K., & Emig, A. G. (1998). Trends in public relations roles: 1990–1995. Public relations review, 24(2), 145-163. Vanc, A., & White, C. (2011). Cultural perceptions of public relations gender roles in Romania. Public Relations Review, 37(1), 103-105. Vieira Jr, E. T., & Grantham, S. (2014). Defining public relations roles in the USA using cluster analysis. Public Relations Review, 40(1), 60-68. Vieira Jr, E. T., & Grantham, S. (2015). Determining factors leading to strategic management PR practitioner roles. Public Relations Review, 41(4), 544-550. Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2011). Mass media research: An introduction, International Edition. United Kingdom: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.\ Wu, M. Y., & Baah-Boakye, K. (2007). A profile of public relations practice in Ghana: Practitioners’ roles, most important skills for practitioners, relationship to marketing, and gender equality. Public Relations Quarterly, 52(1), 30-36. 56 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh APPENDIX A QUESTION GUIDE Thank you for agreeing to participate in this study. My name is Christian Sackey-Acquah, an M.A. Communication Studies student at the University of Ghana, Legon. The purpose of this study is to examine the role of public relations practitioners in Ghanaian organizations. Please help me by answering the following questions. There are no right or wrong answers to these questions. Your thoughts and experiences are important to me. This interview is confidential therefore your name will not be identified in the final report. Thank You. PERSONAL DATA 1. How long have you been working for your organization? 2. How long have you been practicing as a public relations professional? 3. Do you have any formal education in communication or public relations? If yes, at what level? 4. What is your membership status within the Institute of Public Relations (IPR)? PUBLIC RELATIONS ROLES 1. Can you take me through what a typical day is like at work? 2. What is your position within your department’s hierarchy? 3. How is the public relations function perceived in your organization? 4. Is public relations regarded as a management function in your organization? 5. Do you take part in management decision making? 6. What regular activities do you perform as a public relations practitioner in your organization? 57 University of Ghana http://ugspace.ug.edu.gh 7. Considering the various tasks you perform, which tasks do you perform more (or less)? 8. Is there anything about your work as a public relations professional in your organization that you feel I should understand? FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE ROLES 1. How is communication policy decision arrived at in your organization? 2. How has the size of your department influenced the functions or tasks you perform in your department? How? 3. What factors do your superiors consider before assigning roles or tasks in your department? 4. Do you think your gender has in any way influenced the kind of functions you perform in your department/organization? If yes how? 5. What are some of the factors that have hindered your progress through the ranks in your department? 58