Inheritance Patterns, Land Tenure Arrangements and the Gendered Adaptation of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Variability Impacts: A Case of Two Ecological Zones of Ghana

Abstract

Effects of climate variability continue to grow globally with extreme impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa where a combination of atmospheric, geographic features, poorly developed infrastructure and lack of appropriate technologies heighten the sensitivities and exposures of individuals and groups. The impacts of climate variability are not limited to living conditions but also the production of food by the largely agrarian population of the sub-continent. Scholars have noted that the largely rainfall dependent agriculture in the region will be mostly affected. Significant reduction in outputs of important staple crops such as maize are noted as evidence. The burdens of yield reduction and the attendant decrease in income for the provision of household needs are especially felt by smallholder farmers who are at greater risk of exposure due to the limited and constrained access to productive resources and adaptive options. It is noteworthy that, the risk of exposure and actual exposure tend to be gendered, resources for adaptation are therefore explored not only to address general household need but also specific gendered needs. The limitations and unequal access to both productive and adaptive resources are founded within contextual architecture of entitlements. The rules and norms on entitlement define the limits of access and control of resources such as land and other common use resources. Combining qualitative and quantitative research approaches, this thesis examined how norms on inheritance and land use arrangements influence adaptation to climate variability/change impacts of smallholder households. Also, the thesis investigated how the differences in adaptive options affect vulnerabilities to climate variability impacts. The study was conducted in two ecological zones of Ghana, the Bawku West district in the Savanna zone and the Nkoranza municipal in the Transitional zone. Four (4) communities were selected from each district making a total of eight (8) communities through a three-stage sampling approach. Primary and secondary data were relied upon for the study. Rainfall data from1983-2018 was collected from the Ghana Meteorological Agency (GMet) to analyze the nature and extend of variability over time. Primary sources of data include household survey, focus group discussions, key informants and in-depth interviews. The household survey was conducted in a total of 798 households across the eight study communities. In each community, focus group discussions were held separately for men and women to facilitate an unencumbered expression of views and opinions on the dynamics of inheritance and its application. Additionally, in-depth and key informant interviews were conducted with family heads, community leaders and district assembly officials. The study found that there exists significant variability in rainfall data analysed over the past 30 years with impacts on the amount of average monthly rainfall during peak farming periods. Rainfall amounts have consistently reduced over the years and have become erratic and unpredictable. The changes have resulted in the disruption of planning and planting leading to losses and increased production cost. The poor rains have resulted in long dry spells and droughts facilitating pest growth and infestations. The fall armyworm was identified as a key challenge to the production of maize. Again, the gendered differentiated access to land and other resources due to inheritance practices especially patrilineal inheritance in Bawku West deepens the exposure and sensitivity of female-headed households to climate variability impacts. The need to enhance adaptive capacities was therefore highlighted by the study. This was found to influence the high intensities and severity of multi-dimensional livelihood vulnerability across all households surveyed. Based on the findings, it is important for education to be enhanced on the collective disadvantages of unequal inheritance and land use practices at community levels to improve access to and control of adaptive resources for effective adaptation to climate variability impacts.